General Biology 2-136-200

6.
Now that you have an idea of how a dichotomous is constructed, let us try making one based
on real organisms. Let’s try something quite challenging.
Practical example/ work with actual groupings

7. Say, ”Many plants in the Philippines are often confused because they share characteristics and
look similar….among these are plants belonging to the Citrus family (Family Rutaceae). We are
quite familiar with this group but often one identity is interchanged with the other or all
examples are treated as the same…”
8. Ask learners to work in groups. Show to class actual fruit samples with few leaves and flowers or
if not, colored pictures of these plants belonging to calamansi family (Rutaceae). Generally, family
Rutaceae is composed of trees or shrubs that are often spiny and rarely herbal. The leaves can
be simple or compound, alternately or oppositely arranged, with few to numerous pellucid
glands, and without stipules. In the Philippines, there are 20 genera and 83 species.
9. Using these fruits below from family Rutaceae, tell your learners to observe the features or
characteristics of each fruit. Place all these characters in a table. Suggest to them possible
characters that they can use like presence/absence of a feature or trait, shape, color etc. Use
common names at the end of each choice.
I. citron
II. key lime
III. pomelo
IV. makrut lime or Mauritius papeda
V. calamondin or calamansi
VI. bitter orange
VII. mandarin orange
VIII.Cochin China
Atalantia
10. Ask for group volunteers to show their dichotomous key in class. Comment on how they
constructed their key. After the group has presented their key, show the correct dichotomous key
to your learners.
11. Below is the dichotomous key you will show the learners after they have constructed their own key.
Dichotomous key to the different fruits of family Rutaceae 1b. Foliage constricted; berries exceeding 2 c
1a. Foliage not constricted; berries less than 2 cm in diameter Cochin China Atalantia
2a. Leaves not constricted; petioles not or narrowly winged; fruits Citron Teacher Tip
ellipsoid Glossary of terms
1. axillary –relating to or located in
2b. Leaves constricted, petioles winged; fruits globose Go to 3 an axil: an axillary bud
2. basal- located at or near the base of
3a. Flowers in axillary racemes Go to 4 a plant stem, or at the base of any
other plant part
3b. Flowers solitary or fascicled in leaf axils Go to 5 3. berry –fleshy fruit with many seeds
derived from a single flower
4a. Basal leaf portion narrowly winged; fruits small key lime containing one ovary
4. foliage- collectively, a cluster of leaves
4b. Basal leaf portion broadly winged; fruits very large pomelo 5. fascicled- in bundles or clusters; can
be appied to stems, flowers or
5a. Basal leaf portion broadly winged makrut lime leaves
6. globose-rounded
5b. Basal leaf portion narrowly winged Go to 6 7. petiole-the stalk that attaches the leaf
blade to the stem;
6a. Fruits 2-3 cm in diameter Calamansi
8. raceme- an inflorescence in which the
pedicellate flowers are borne along
6b. Fruits much larger Go to 7
the main stem, with the oldest flowers
at the base
7a. Fruits tight-skinned bitter orange
9. solitary-growing singly
7b. Fruits loose-skinned mandarin orange
12. Ask your learners to compare their key with the one you showed them. After comparing, let
them answer the questions below:
I. What trait(s) or character(s) did you use to separate the fruits into groups? Give an example
to illustrate this.
II. Notice differences among fruits. These differences set them distinct from the others. Can
you give an example to show this?
13. Stress that the presence of similarities among organisms will place them in a group.
Differences among organisms would set them distinct from each other.
126
PRACTICE (45 MINS) endangered. The olive Ridley is

Learners will still work as a group. plentiful in some seas. The Philippines
is a rich haven for these marine
1. Present to each group photos of 4 unknown turtles. Assign a letter or number for each
creatures owing that we are part of
photo. Provide a dichotomous key for each group.
the Coral Triangle. Now NAME that
2. Say, “The world has six species of marine turtles with the green sea turtle having two subspecies. TURTLE to save it!”
The loggerhead, flatback, hawksbill, leatherback and green sea turtle are considered
3. Ask learners to use the provided dichotomous key to determine the identity of the unknown
Teacher Tip
turtles. Check if the group got each species correct. Rank each group based on who accomplished Glossary of terms
the task first. Then, ask each group the difficulties they encountered and how they overcame 1. axillary –relating to or located in
these difficulties. an axil: an axillary bud
2. basal- located at or near the base of
KEY TO COMMON SPECIES OF TURTLES a plant stem, or at the base of any
other plant part
3. berry –fleshy fruit with many seeds
1a.Has scutes arranged in a distinct patterns forming medial, lateral, Go to 2 derived from a single flower
and marginal positions on the carapace containing one ovary
4. foliage- collectively, a cluster of leaves
1b.Has no scutes on the carapace but has longitudinal ridges on the Leatherback turtle 5. fascicled- in bundles or clusters; can
carapace be appied to stems, flowers or
leaves
2a. Medial scutes 5 Go to 3 6. globose-rounded
7. petiole-the stalk that attaches the leaf
2b. Medial scutes more than 5 Olive Ridley turtle blade to the stem;
8. raceme- an inflorescence in which the
3a. Lateral scutes 4 Go to 4 pedicellate flowers are borne along
the main stem, with the oldest flowers
3b. Lateral scutes more than four Go to 5 at the base
9. solitary-growing singly
4a. Medial scutes imbricated and the beak is ‘hooked’ Hawksbill turtle
5b. Without terminal scute at the centerline along the posterior Loggerhead turtle D Hawksbill Turtle
4b. Medial
margin scutes
of the are not imbricated and the beak is not
plastron Go to 6
noticeably hooked
6a. Posterior margin of the carapace pointed Black Turtle ENRICHMENT (15 MINS)
5a. With terminal scute at the centerline along the posterior margin of Kemp’s Ridley turtle 1. Ask the learners to submit an assignment
6b. Posterior margin of the carapace rounded Go to 7
the plastron on other practical uses of biological
7a. Lateral scutes of the carapace are noticeably larger than the Flatback turtle classification.
medial scutes
EVALUATION (10 MINS)
7b. Lateral scutes of the carapace are nearly the same size as the Green turtle
medial scutes Group Work
2. Divide the class into groups. Learners
will still work as a group composed of
Take note of the assigned letter for each picture. four (4) members. Ask learners to make
their own dichotomous key in order to
A Black Turtle E Kemp’s Ridley Turtle identify their favorite plants/
B Flatback Turtle F Leatherback Turtle vegetables found in a school garden or
for instance, in the market. Give them
C Green Turtle G Loggerhead Turtle time to think and write down the plants
or in their own spare time they can also visit an actual garden. Ask learners to submit their work Teacher Tip
the following meeting. Ask for difficulties they encountered and strategies they used to make the Practice more on using dichotomous keys
task easy. Practice makes Perfect!
Note:
Write down the following in the board.
Dermochelys coriacea (Leatherback turtle)
Lepidochelys olivacea (Olive Ridley turtle)
Eretmochelys imbricata (Hawksbill turtle)
Lepidochelys kempii (Kemp’s Ridley turtle)
Caretta caretta (Loggerhead turtle)
Chelonia mydas agassizii (Black Turtle)-
subspecies of the Eastern Pacific green
turtle
Chelonia mydas mydas (Green turtle)
- subspecies of the Eastern Pacific green
turtle
Natator depressus (Flatback turtle)
Glossary of terms
1. Carapace-a bony or chitinous covering
on the dorsal part of the turtle
2. Imbricated- overlapping or layered as
scales and shingles
3. Lateral-relating to the side or sides
4. Medial- relating to or situated
toward the middle
5. Plastron-the ventral part of the shell of
the turtle
6. Posterior-located behind a part or
toward the rear of a structure; on
or near the hind end
7. Scutes-a chitinous bony external
plate, as on the shell of a turtle
8. Terminal-situated at, pertaining to or
forming the end; towards the end
128
General Biology 2
Evolu
Lesson 16: Systematics Based on
tionar
y Relationships: Cladistics and 180 MINS
Phylogeny LESSON OUTLINE

Introduction Communicating Learning Objectives 30
Content Standard Motivation Café Conversation 20
The learners demonstrate an understanding of Basic Taxonomic Concepts and
Principles, Description, Nomenclature, Identification and Classification Instruction Works in Pairs 50
Performance Standard Practice Constructing Cladograms 40

The learners shall be able to: Enrichment Test your Skill 30
• make simple cladograms Evaluation After Class: Peer Evaluation 10
Learning Competency Materials
The learners should be able to describe species diversity and cladistics, Writing materials, sheets of paper, photos of animals ( may be provided
including types of evidence and procedures that can be used to as worksheet)
establish evolutionary relationships STEM_BIO11/12IIIh-j-16 Resources
(1) Reece JB, Urry LA, Cain ML, Wasserman SA, Minorsky PV, Jackson RB.
Specific Learning Outcomes
Campbell Biology.10th edition. San Francisco, California, USA: Pearson
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to: Education Inc.; 2014. 551-558 pp.
• demonstrate how shared derived characters can be used to reveal (2) Taxonomic Classification and Phylogenetics Trees.trees.http://
degrees of relationship; and www.mhhe.com/biosci/pae/zoology/cladogram/index.mhtml. 17
August 2015
• build cladograms to infer evolutionary relatedness (3) Cladogram and Phylogenetic Trees:Evoution
Classifications.http:// study.com/academy/lesson/cladograms-
and-phylogenic-trees- evolution-classifications.html. 17 August
2015.
(4) Constructing a Phylogenetic tree. http://evolution.berkeley.edu/
evolibrary/article/0_0_0/phylogenetics_11. 17 August 2015.
INTRODUCTION (30 MINS) Review

1. Say, “Look around you, and see the
Communicating Learning Objectives
enormous diversity the natural world
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the suggested protocols (Verbatim,
has to offer. However, amidst such
Own words, Read-aloud)
diversity is also an amount of
I. I can demonstrate how shared derived characters can be used to reveal degrees of similarity which you can observe. This
relationship. gives us the idea that somehow,
II. I can build cladograms to infer evolutionary relatedness. organisms are indeed related. Life is
somehow interconnected to each other.”
Teacher Tip:
Systematics is the study of the diversity of organisms in the evolutionary context. It intends to Here are some definition of terms:
use phylogeny in classifying organisms. Phylogeny is the study of the evolutionary history and
Phylogeny- the evolutionary
relationships among organisms. Evidences from a wide variety of sources including paleontology,
relationships among organisms
embryology, morphology, anatomy and molecular biology can be used to establish phylogeny.
Over the last few centuries systematists have developed different approaches to show Cladogram- a phylogenetic tree that shows
relationships among organisms. The most commonly used is cladistics. relationship of taxa based on shared
derived characters
2. Discuss briefly:
Cladistics studies relationships between taxa using shared derived characters. The basic Character- any trait of an organism
that can be described or measured
assumption behind cladistics is that members of a group share a common recent ancestor and are
thus more "closely related" to one another than they are to other groups of organisms. Related Character state- describes the
groups of organisms are recognized because they share a set of derived characters. These character. A particular character can
derived characters were inherited from a recent ancestor. have several character states.
3. Ask your learner to define the following terms in their own words: Example: Corolla is a character. Character
I. analogous character states can be: shape of the corolla, color
of corolla, number of petals comprising
II. character the corolla.
III. character state
Homologous characters - characters having
IV. clade similar structures because these were
V. cladogram derived from a common ancestor
VI. homologous character Analogous characters-characters that

VII.phylogeny have separate evolutionary origins, but are
superficially similar because they perform
the same function. Analogous characters
are the result of convergent evolution.
Example: Bird and bat wings are analogous

since both are used for flying.
Clade- a group of taxa consisting of an

ancestor and all of its descendant taxa
130
4. Stress that similarities among existing organisms (including morphological, developmental,
and molecular similarities) reflect common ancestry and provide evidence for evolution.
MOTIVATION (20 MINS)
I. Outline:
Café Conversation
A. shared derived characters can be used to reveal degrees of relationship 1. Ask learners: “Do you remember the
B. constructing and interpreting a phylogenetic tree last time you had a family reunion? A
summer vacation or a family barbecue and the latest family picture taken together? Can you
describe your family members? What makes you similar to them and what makes you unique?”
2. Ask learners to list characters or features that served as evidences (e.g. morphological, genetic, etc.)
that indeed they belong to the same family. Ask learners to note as many as they can think of.
Sample responses:
• Color of the eyes (e.g. brown, black)
• Texture and color of the hair (e.g. curly black hair)
• Color of the skin (e.g. fair complexion)
• Blood type (e.g. A, AB, O, B)
• Height Teacher Tip:
Suggestion: Include a website or video that
• Shape of the nose learners can view to understand how to
construct a cladogram. Explain the
3. Explain, “Basically, a family picture represents a family tree. Family trees show how people are rationale of the activity.
related to each other. Similarly, scientists use phylogenetic trees like cladograms to study the
relationships among organisms. Sometimes, family trees are used to show relationships between
individuals. Those who are closely related are located closer together than those who are only
distantly related. For instance, in a family tree, we can see that the siblings are close together,
indicating a close genetic relationship. But the siblings are far from their great aunt, indicating a
more distant genetic relationship. Family trees can also be used to see ancestral connections.
That is, we can see that all the people in the last generation have the same great-great-
grandparents in common.
This same idea of relationships can be used in science. Biologists use phylogenetic trees Work in Pairs and Build that Tree
to illustrate evolutionary relationships among organisms. 1. Ask learners to choose a partner and
work in pairs.
4. Stress that for the succeeding activities, focus will be on constructing and interpreting a 2. For this activity, present to learners a
simple phylogenetic tree. diverse group of vertebrates and ask
them to make a phylogenetic tree
showing their evolutionary
INSTRUCTION (50 MINS) relationships. This tree should be
Discussion: primarily based on physical
A. shared derived characters can be used to reveal degrees of relationship characteristics, such as:
B. constructing and interpreting a phylogenetic tree I. Presence or absence of a backbone
II. Ability to breathe in air or water
III. Cold or warm blooded Teacher Tip:
IV. Carnivore, herbivore, or omnivore Constructing a phylogenetic tree is one
way to visualize evolutionary relatedness. In
V. Presence or absence of hair/fur this activity, guide learners on how to
VI. Any other external structures such as horns construct their own tree from a set of
animals provided, using only observable
physical features.
This activity gives learners an opportunity
to classify organisms on their own, and they
can visualize the types of evidence used to
show evolutionary relationships.
Due to the open-ended nature of this

activity, learners will come up with many
different combinations and layouts.
However, the end result should be an
evolutionary tree that shows the basic
relationship among animals. Arthropods
such as the spider and moth should be far
apart from an aquatic mammal such as
the walrus.
This is also a good opportunity to gauge
how well learners understand the basis
of different classifications, such as reptile,
amphibian, and mammal.
Phylogenetic systematics emphasize

descent and common ancestry in order to
determine the evolutionary history of
groups of organisms as a determining factor
in classification
132
Note: The following outline drawings of animals are provided for the activity. These can be printed and cut out for learners to work with.
3. Ask learners to work in pairs and individually cut out each animal, including the name.
4. Ask them to lay all the animals on their desks and separate them into two groups using the presence or absence of a backbone as the
first character.
5. On a separate sheet of paper, start constructing the phylogenetic tree like the one shown below.
6. Ask learners to continue separating the animals into smaller groups using the characters in number two.
7. When an animal reaches the tip of the branch, glue it. Repeat for all other animals in
the collection.
8. Ask volunteers to present their phylogenetic tree in class.
PRACTICE (40 MINS)
1. Learners will still work in pairs.
2. Ask each pair to construct a cladogram based on the data provided.
Homalozoa
Echinoid Asteroid Crinoid Holothuroid Opthiuriod
(Outgroup)
Water vascular system YES YES YES YES YES YES
Number of ambulacral grooves 3 5 5 5 5 5
Madreporita Aboral Aboral Aboral None Internal Oral
Suckers Non on podia On podia On podia Absent On podia On podia
Closed ambulacral grooves No Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Aboral surface reduced No Yes No No Yes Yes
Ambulacral grooves extended from oral No Yes No No Yes No

to aboral
Endoskeleton Highly flexible Not flexible Flexible Highly flexible Highly flexible Highly flexible
Constructing a Cladogram
1. Ask learners to use the data below to arrange the groups of organisms based on their
shared derived traits. This time you will be using distantly related organisms or a taxon
termed an outgroup.
2. For each group, the traits or characters are already listed. For each character, determine which
state is ancestral or primitive and which is derived. This is usually done by comparing with the
outgroup. Traits found in the outgroup are likely to be ancestral or primitive. Similarly, traits not
found in the outgroup are considered as derived. In cladistics, it is the derived trait shared
among taxa that should be placed in the cladogram.
3. Group taxa according to their shared derived character(s).
4. Once you have evaluated all the characters, you may start constructing your cladogram. Where
do you place the outgroup?... (Correct, an outgroup is always placed at the base of the
cladogram.)
5. Choose a learner to present the cladogram. After this, show them the correct cladogram below.
134
ENRICHMENT (30 MINUTES)
1. Now you're getting the hang of this! Once again, use the data below to arrange organisms based on their shared derived characters.
This time work again with your partner and test your skill in building a cladogram.
Of course, this was just an example of the tree-building process. Phylogenetic trees are generally based on many more characters and
often involve more lineages. For example, biologists reconstructing relationships between 499 lineages of seed plants began with more
than 1,400 molecular characters.
EVALUATION (10 MINUTES)

1. Go online. Choose a group of organisms you are interested to work with (e.g. invertebrates);
2. Download pictures of different species.
3. Print the pictures. In tabular form, list all the characters. Evaluate the characters (whether primitive or derived).
4. Remember that in building your cladogram, use only shared derived characters.
5. Construct your own cladogram.
6. Share this with your seat mate and discuss your cladogram.
7. The outputs may be submitted as soon as it is discussed.
8. Learners can compare their work and provide each other with feedback (peer assessment). Remind learners to make specific
suggestions and recommendations and what could be improved. Ask for difficulties they encountered and strategies used to make the
task easy.
General Biology 2
17.1: Introduction to Reproduction 60 MINS
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of Asexual and Sexual Modes of
Reproduction
Performance Standard
The learners shall be able to:
• discuss the advantages and disadvantages of sexual and asexual
reproduction
Learning Competency
The learners should be able to compare various modes of asexual and
sexual reproduction (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)
Motivation Pictures of Different Types of 10
Materials Reproduction
LESSON OUTLINE
Instruction Discussion on Two Forms of 45
Specific Learning Outcomes Pictures of different examples of reproduction, materials for
Reproduction
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to: reporting (i.e. LCD projector and computer or illustrations
• differentiate asexual from sexual reproduction; and on Manila paper)Reporting on Specific Examples of
Enrichment
Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
• describe different modes of sexual and asexual Resources
reproduction (1) Hickman, C.P. Jr., Roberts, L.S., Larson, A. and l’Anson, H.
2004. Integrated Principles of Zoology, (12th ed).
McGraw- Hill Education.
(2) Reece, J.B., Urry, L.A., Cain, M.L., Wasserman, S.A.,
Minorsky, P.V., and Jackson, R.B. (2012). Campbell
Biology, (9th ed). The Benjamin Cummings Publishing Co.,
Inc.
136
INTRODUCTION (5 MINS) 6. Sporulation - Type of asexual

reproduction where a new individual
Communicate Learning Objectives
forms from an aggregation of cells
Introduce the following learning objectives:
surrounded by a resistant capsule or
1. I can differentiate asexual and sexual modes of reproduction. spore, which later on germinates
2. I can describe different modes of sexual and asexual reproduction. 7. Isogamy - Fusion of similar gametes
which are usually motile
Relevant vocabulary
1. Asexual reproduction - Mode of reproduction that does not involve the use of gametes or sex cells 8. Heterogamy - Fusion of dissimilar
2. Sexual reproduction - Mode of reproduction that involves the use of gametes or sex cells gametes. In oogamy, a large
immotile gamete, the egg is
3. Fission - Type of asexual reproduction involving the division of body into two or more equal parts
fertilized by a small motile
4. Fragmentation - Type of asexual reproduction where the body breaks into two or more parts, gamete, the sperm.
with each fragment capable of becoming a complete individual; in animals, fragmentation is
9. Bisexual reproduction - Type of
usually followed by regeneration where the missing parts are produced. For example, a lost arm
sexual reproduction involving the
of the starfish may be regenerated by mitotic cell divisions.
union of gametes from two
5. Budding - Type of asexual reproduction where a new individual arises as an outgrowth (bud) genetically different parents
from its parent, develops organs like those of the parent, and then detaches itself.
10. Hermaphrodite - An individual with
both male and female reproductive tissues. In animals “self fertilization” is not common. In
Teacher Tip:
worms, a hermaphrodite needs a male to donate sperms in order to fertilize the oocytes in its Tell the learners that the list of defined
body. terms need not be memorized. They are to
be mentioned during the course of the
discussions.
1. Show pictures of the following:
A. Paramecium undergoing fission (see figure 1)
B. Hydra undergoing budding (see figure 2)
Figure 1. Paramecium undergoing

asexual reproduction through
fission
Figure 2. Asexual
reproduction through budding
in Hydra
C. A filamentous alga, i.e. Spirogyra, or a starfish arm undergoing fragmentation (see figure 3) D. A fungus, i.e. Rhizopus, producing
conidia/spores (see figure 4)
E. Two frogs in amplexus (see figure 5)
Provide this narrative to the class:

The following pictures depict reproduction across different organisms. As animals, we are only
familiar with one form of reproduction, particularly the form depicted by the frogs in amplexus.
However, there are other forms of reproduction that exist in nature. Can you spot differences Figure 3. Asexual
among the depicted forms of reproduction? reproduction through
fragmentation
INSTRUCTION (45 MINS)
Discussion
1. Differentiate asexual and sexual reproduction.
2. Types of asexual reproduction and give examples
I. Fission- Paramecium as example
II. Budding- Hydra as example
III. Fragmentation- filamentous alga, i.e. Spirogyra or Oedogonium, and a detached starfish
arm growing lost parts as example
IV. Sporulation- fungus, i.e. Rhizopus, as example
3. Describe types of union of gametes and give examples
I. Isogamy- Chlamydomonas producing gametes or Spirogyra undergoing conjugation as Figure 4. Fungi undergoing asexual
example reproduction through sporulation
II. Heterogamy- animal sperm and egg as examples
4. Special terms for sexual reproduction
I. Bisexual reproduction. Examples are in humans, and papaya among others.
II. Hermaphrodites- barnacles; worms
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Number of parents involved one two

138
Gametes No need for gamete union Present; sperm has to fertilize Figure 5. Frogs mating
the egg (in amplexus)
5. Summarize differences between asexual and sexual reproduction
Genetic composition of offspring Genetically identical to parent Generally are hybrids of parents
(Clone)
Teacher Tips:
Emphasize that in asexual reproduction, an
offspring is genetically identical to the
parent, which means the offspring is a
CLONE of the parent. Sexual reproduction,
on the other hand, generally produces
variation in the offspring because this
results in the recombination of genomes
from the parents’ gametes.
Note that sporulation is very rare in

ENRICHMENT animals and are only exhibited in some
organism like sponges.
1. Ask the learners to research on the advantages and disadvantages of asexual and
sexual reproduction. They will then submit their assignment during the next meeting. Note that isogamy may involve either
2. If microscopes are available, slides of the organisms mentioned above may be observed. The flagellated gametes (as in the case of
Chlamydomonas) or non-flagellated cells
teacher may ask the learners to draw the specimens under low power and high power objectives
or structures (as in the case of Spirogyra)
of the microscope.
General Biology 2 235 MINS
Lesson 17.2: Compare and Contrast

Process in Plants and Animals: Reproduction
and Development
LESSON OUTLINE
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of Animal Reproductive Organs Motivation Start of Drosophila Life Cycle of 30
and Their Functions; Processes in development Experiment
Performance Standard Instruction Discussion of Different Stages of Animal 145
The learners shall be able to: Development
• illustrate the life cycle of the common fruit fly, Drosophila/ Debate on when
Enrichment Illustration of the Life Cycle of 30
human life begins
Drosophila
The learners should be able to describe processes in the life cycle of animals and explain the process of human development
STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1 Wide-mouthed clean and empty bottles, potatoes or sweet potatoes or
bananas, fruit flies, shallow basin, pen and paper, pictures of humans
Specific Learning Outcomes at different stages of development
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
Resources
• describe the different stages of animal development;
(1) Hickman, C.P. Jr., Roberts, L.S., Larson, A. and l’Anson, H.
• differentiate the developmental process in monozygotic and 2004. Integrated Principles of Zoology, (12th ed).
dizygotic twins; McGraw- Hill Education.
• describe human reproductive organ systems; (2) Reece, J.B., Urry, L.A., Cain, M.L., Wasserman, S.A.,
• illustrate the human female menstrual cycle; Minorsky, P.V., and Jackson, R.B. 2012. Campbell
• explain processes in human development; and Biology, (9th ed). The Benjamin Cummings Publishing
Co., Inc.
• differentiate various forms of contraception in humans
(3) Sheridan, M. 1999. Instructor’s guide for Biology, 5th ed.
By Campbell, Reece, Mitchell. Addison Wesley Longman,
Inc.
140
INTRODUCTION (30 MINS) 6. Fertilization- Stage of development that

results in a unicellular diploid zygote
7. Cleavage- Stage of development
involving a series of mitotic divisions
Own words, Read-aloud)
to produce a multicellular blastula
I. I can describe the different stages in animal development. from a unicellular zygote
II. I can differentiate the developmental process in monozygotic and dizygotic twins. 8. Gastrulation- Stage of development
III. I can describe the human reproductive organ systems. involving morphogenetic movements of
IV. I can illustrate the human female menstrual cycle. the cells to produce a gastrula with
V. I can explain processes in human development. distinct germ cell layers; in vertebrates,
this will result in three layers: the
VI. I can differentiate various forms of human contraception.
outermost ectoderm; the inner
Relevant Vocabulary endoderm, and the middle layer, the
1. Development- involves formation of sex cells, zygote formation, subsequent stages in one’s mesoderm
life span. Development is terminated by death. 9. Organogenesis- Stage of development
2. Haploid (n) condition- When a cell has only half the chromosome number or only one set where the different germ layers
of chromosomes differentiate into specific organ
3. Diploid (2n) condition- When a cell has the full chromosome number or two sets of chromosomes systems
4. Totipotent cell- A cell that is capable of differentiating to become any kind of cell 10. Growth- Stage of development
characterized by an increase in size of
5. Gametogenesis- Stage of development that yields haploid gametes
an individual
Teacher Tip:
11. Monozygotic twins- Also known as identical twins; result from the union of a sperm and egg Note that even unicellular forms
to form a single zygote that splits up during the first cleavage stage. like bacteria and fungi also undergo
development
Figure 1. Different stages of

human development
12. Dizygotic twins - Also known as fraternal twins; results from the development of two or simultaneously
more separate fertilization events where the resulting zygotes develop almost 13. Testis- Where sperms are produced
14. Epididymis- Where sperms are temporarily stored
15. Scrotal sac/scrotum - Supports the testis and epididymis
16. Vas deferens - Where the sperm passes through from the testis before it joins the urethra
17. Urethra - Connected to the urethra and the urinary bladder; serves as passageway of both
sperm and urine and terminates in the external urinary meatus of the penis
18. Seminal vesicle - Secretes fluid that forms part of the semen; secretion gives the semen its
alkaline characteristic to counteract the acidity of the vaginal tract and therefore protect the
sperm; the fluid also contains sugars like fructose
19. Prostate gland - Secretes fluid that also provides alkalinity to the semen; it also
contains proteolytic enzymes, citric acid, phosphatases, and lipids
20. Bulbourethral glands- Paired glands that produce clear, viscous secretion known as pre-
ejaculate that helps to lubricate the urethra for sperm to pass through, neutralizing traces of acidic
urine in the urethra, and helps flush out any residual urine or foreign matter
21. Clitoris- The homologue (equivalent) of the penis in females
22. Vagina- Main entrance to the female reproductive tract; receives the penis during
sexual intercourse
Figure 2. Human male
23. Cervix- Where the vagina ends; projection of the uterus into the vagina; leads to the uterus reproductive system. (See
24. Uterus- Also known as the womb; where the embryo develops; with thick muscular walls, vocabulary for definition of terms.)
blood vessels; and the endometrial lining (Wikipedia- Blausen.com staff.
25. Endometrial lining/endometrium- Innermost lining of the uterus where the embryo implants "Blausen gallery 2014". Wikiversity )
and develop
26. Fallopian tubes- Also known as oviducts; paired tubes that are connected to the uterus
and terminate near the ovaries; this is where fertilization takes place
27. Ovaries- Female gonads that release the oocytes during ovulation, which are then caught by
the fimbrae of the fallopian tubes in order for the oocytes to pass on to the fallopian tubes
28. Morula- A human blastula made up of a solid ball of cells
29. Blastocyst- A human blastula composed of the inner cell mass, which becomes the embryo, and
the trophoectoderm, which becomes the placenta
142
30. Implantation- Process where the blastocyst implants itself in the endometrium; this signals the start 33. Human fetus- Corresponds to the
of pregnancy months 3-9 of human gestation
31. Gestation- Carrying of the embryo inside the female reproductive tract, specifically the uterus; can 34. Follicular phase- Part of the
last up to 9 months in humans menstrual cycle of the ovary in
32. Human embryo- Corresponds to the first two months of gestation humans where the follicles begin to
mature; it is marked by secretions of the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and the leutinizing
hormone (LH) by the anterior pituitary gland and the estrogen by the ovaries; both FSH and
LH stimulate the maturation of the oocytes while estrogen stimulates uterine lining growth in
preparation for implantation of the embryo
35. Luteal phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the ovary after the oocytes are released from the
follicles; the remains of the follicle become the corpus luteum, which then secretes progesterone,
which stimulates the uterus to undergo final maturational changes that prepare it for gestation to
house and nourish an embryo
36. Menstrual phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the uterus; also known as the “period”;
corresponds to the early part of the follicular phase of the ovaries (days 1-5) when
endometrium degenerates and sloughs off, producing the menstrual discharge Figure 3. Human female
37. Proliferative phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the uterus; corresponds to the latter part of the reproductive system. (See
follicular phase of the ovaries (days 8-14) when the endometrium heals and begins to thicken as vocabulary for definition of terms.)
a consequence of estrogen secretion (Wikipedia)
38. Secretory phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the uterus; corresponds to the luteal phase of
the ovaries; the endometrium undergoes final changes before it receives the embryo during
implantation
39. Contraception- Process that blocks any one of the following stages of reproduction in humans:
(1) release and transport of gametes; (2) fertilization; (3) implantation; (4) actual completion of
development of the embryo/fetus
40. Ovulation-suppressing methods- Type of contraception that prevents the oocyte to mature
41. Oral contraceptives- Type of contraception taken in by women to prevent them from ovulating
42. Barrier methods- Type of contraception that prevents fertilization
43. Condom- Type of barrier method that is inserted on the male penis to prevent release of 50. Implantation-suppressing
sperm into the female reproductive tract methods- Type of contraception
44. Diaphragm- Type of barrier method that blocks the cervix, thereby preventing the passage of that prevents the blastocyst from
the sperm into the uterus being implanted in the
45. Cervical cap- Type of barrier method that covers the cervix and blocks passage of the sperm endometrium
into the uterus 51. Intra-uterine devise (IUD)- Type of
46. Spermicidal jelly or foam- Type of barrier method that kills the sperm on contact; they are placed implantation-suppressing method that
inside the vaginal canal physically blocks the blastocyst form
implanting into the endometrium
47. Surgical methods- A special type of contraception preventing fertilization that involves surgery
52. Morning-after pill- Type of
48. Vasectomy- Type of surgical method for men; entails cutting the vas deferens
implantation-suppressing method that
49. Tubal ligation- Type of surgical method for women; entails cutting the fallopian tubes blocks the action of hormones that
prepare the uterus to receive the embryo
53. Abortion- Type of contraception that involves the deliberate removal of the embryo/fetus before it
completes gestation
54. Coitus interruptus- Type of contraception that requires the man to remove the penis
before ejaculation
55. Abstinence- Type of contraception where the man and the woman do not engage in
sexual intercourse
Figure 4. Different types

of contraceptives
144
MOTIVATION (30 MINS) 2. Then, provide this narrative to the class:

1. Show a picture of the fruit fly, Drosophila. (see Figure 5) This is the fruit fly, Drosophila. Like all
organisms, it goes through development as
manifested by its life cycle. Let us characterize its development by making observations of its life
cycle.
3. Divide the class into groups of four, after which he/she explains how to conduct the Drosophila
life cycle experiment (see details of the experiment at the end of this document). The learners will
carry out the experiment for the next two weeks.

1. Define development and life cycle Figure 5. Drosophila melanogaster
(Wikipedia)
I. Stages of Animal Development
A. Gametogenesis
Teacher Tips:
i. Recall meiosis from Grade 11 Explain that development starts with
ii. Differentiate diploid and haploid cells within the context of meiosis formation of sex cells and ends only by
death. Until the old age of a person, for
B. Fertilization example, some cells still develop or
C. Cleavage divide.
i. Define totipotent cells within the context of cleavage in vertebrate animals The teacher should note that during
D. Gastrulation - formation of three germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. gastrulation, the fates of the cells are
Each will give rise to specific tissues and organs. beginning to be determined. The cells
started out as totipotent in cleavage, but
E. Organogenesis as the cells are moved around through
i. Show fates of each germ layer in a typical vertebrate animal (see table 1 at the end of morphogenetic movements, they become
more specialized in terms of their fates as
this document) they get assigned to specific germ layers.
F. Differentiation and Growth
The teacher should note that identical
2. Differentiate monozygotic and dizygotic twins. twins result from an accident during
cleavage when totipotent cells, whose
fates have not yet been determined, are
separated and continue with their
development independently of each group
of cells.
Identical twins should have identical
gender, whereas fraternal twins may have
different biological sex.
3. Differentiate human male and female reproductive organs part

I. Human male reproductive system II. Human female reproductive system
A. Show illustration of human male reproductive system and give the function of each A. Show illustration of human female
reproductive system Teacher Tips:
Emphasize that pregnancy officially
commences only when the embryo
4. Describe human development (blastocyst) has successfully implanted into
I. Fertilization - Occurs in the fallopian tube; results in a unicellular zygote the endometrium.
II. Cleavage- Also takes place in the fallopian tube after fertilization Discuss the topic of contraception with as
III. Describe Morula and Blastocyst much objectivity as possible. If the teacher
cannot teach the topic on the ground of
IV. Implantation- Attachment of blastocyst to endometrium of uterus; start of his/ her religious convictions, then the
pregnancy teacher should refer the task to another
V.Gestation- Differentiate embryonic development from fetal development in terms of teacher who may be willing to teach this
sensitive topic.
period covered during gestation
Emphasize that abortion should never be
done.
5. Describe the events in the Menstrual Cycle
I. Ovarian cycle: Follicular phase; Ovulation; Luteal Phase Emphasize that elective abortion (when
the life of the mother is not threatened by
II. Uterine cycle: Menstrual phase; Proliferative phase; Secretory phase the pregnancy) is illegal in the Philippines.
Emphasize that abstinence is the only

6. Contraception and its Types form of contraception that is guaranteed
I. Ovulation-suppressing methods- Oral contraceptives 100% effective
II. Barrier methods- Physical (Condom, Diaphragm, Cervical cap) It is the your discretion whether you
III. Chemical- Spermicidal jelly and foam will show pictures of contraceptives or
not.
IV. Surgical methods- Vasectomy and Tubal ligation
V.Implantation-suppressing methods- IUD and Morning-after pill
VI. Others: Abstinence
146
ENRICHMENT (30 MINS)
1. The learners carry out the Drosophila life cycle experiment, then submit the life cycle illustration to
the teacher after two weeks.
2. Show the following pictures (see figure 8 as sample):
I. Sperm and egg
II. Blastula (morula or blastocyst)
III. An embryo (less than two month) implanted in the uterus
IV.A fetus inside the uterus (3-9 months)
V. A baby
VI. An adult human
3. Provide this narrative to the class:
The following pictures show humans at various stage of development. Question: when do you
think human life begins? How about an embryo? How about a baby? Would you consider a single
cell like a sperm or egg human? If so, should a single cell from our body, like a red blood cell or
liver cell, be likewise considered human?
4. Group the learners into four and encourages them to discuss among themselves how their answer
is correlated to which type of contraception they may use, if any.
Materials
• Wide-mouthed glass bottles
• Potatoes or sweet potatoes or bananas
• Paper
• Rubber bands
• Shallow basin
Procedure
I. Collecting wild fruit flies
A. Prepare a clean glass bottle with a wide mouth (i.e. Gatorade).
B. Place banana peels inside the bottle.
C. Leave the bottle open and set aside for a day in a cool, dry place. rubber band.
D. When there are enough flies, cover the bottle with a piece of paper secured by a
II. Culturing fruit flies
Table 1. Fates of the cells of each
A.Boil sweet potatoes or potatoes. Remove the skin, and mash. (Alternatively, bananas may germ layer in vertebrate animals
be used, but do not boil them.) This will serve as the medium/ food for the fruit flies.
B. Add a small amount of the food medium into a bottle. (The bottle should only be
approximately 1/10 full.) Use the same type of bottle as that used to catch fruit flies so that the
mouth openings will be the same. Be sure to flatten the medium at the bottom of the bottle
so that the medium will not fall off if the bottle is placed upside down.
C. Transfer the fruit flies from the catch bottle to the culture bottle. Do this by placing the
culture bottle on top of the catch bottle with their mouths touching each other. Remove the
paper cover of the catch bottle and let the flies move to the medium bottle. When there are
at least 10 flies in the culture bottle, immediately cover the bottle with paper secured with
rubber bands.
D. Store the culture bottles in a cool, dry place in the class room or laboratory. Place the
bottles on a shallow basin with water to prevent ants from going into the medium.
III. Observing the life cycle of the fruit flies

A. Take note of the date when the flies were cultured. This is indicative of the approximate time
the eggs will be laid.
B. Record the date when the larvae first emerged. These will appear as small maggots
crawling on the medium or at the inner side of the bottle. Draw or take pictures of the
larvae.
C. Record the date when the pupae first emerged. These will appear as small cocoons
sticking at the inner side of the bottle. Draw or take pictures of the pupae.
D. Record the date when the adult flies first emerged. Draw or take pictures of the adult flies.
E. Draw the life cycle of the fruit fly. Include the approximate number of days it takes for each
stage to emerge based on observations.
GERM LAYER FATES
Ectoderm Nervous system

(brain and
spinal cord),
epidermis,
sense organs
Mesoderm muscles, bones,

cartilage,
circulatory,
excretory, and
reproductive
organs
Endoderm digestive and
respiratory
organs,
endocrine
glands, germ
cells and
gametes
148

Process in Plants and Animals: Reproduction
and Development
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of Plant Reproductive Organs and LESSON OUTLINE
their Functions.
Instruction Discussion of General Life Cycle of 115
Plants, and the Parts of the Flower
• identify the parts of the flower, classify flowers, and explain plant
development Enrichment Classification of Flowers

The learners should be able to compare and contrast different types of Gumamela flower, other flowers, scalpel blade, pencil and
plant life cycles, and explain processes in flowering plant reproduction and paper
development (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)
Resources
Specific Learning Outcomes • enumerate the different types of reproductive cycles;

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to: • illustrate the life cycles of moss, fern, and flowering plant;
• describe double fertilization in flowering plants; and (1) Hickman, C.P. Jr., Roberts, L.S., Larson, A. and l’Anson, H.
• explain processes in plant development. 2004. Integrated Principles of Zoology, (12th ed).
McGraw- Hill Education.
(2) Reece, J.B., Urry, L.A., Cain, M.L., Wasserman, S.A.,
Minorsky, P.V., and Jackson, R.B. 2012. Campbell
Biology, (9th ed). The Benjamin Cummings Publishing
Co., Inc.
(3) Sheridan, M. 1999. Instructor’s guide for Biology, 5th ed.
By Campbell, Reece, Mitchell. Addison Wesley Longman,
Inc.
INTRODUCTION (5 MINS) 7. Flower - Reproductive structure in

flowering plants; made up of four major
Communicating Learning Objectives whorls
8. Sepals - The outermost whorls of a flower;
Own words, Read-aloud) collectively called the calyx
I. I can enumerate the different types of reproductive cycles. 9. Petals - Whorl inner to the sepals;
II. I can illustrate the life cycles of algae, moss, fern, and flowering plant. may be brightly colored in some;
III. I can describe double fertilization in flowering plants. collectively called the corolla
IV. I can explain processes in plant development 10. Stamen - Whorl inner to the petals; the
male reproductive structure of the
flower; bears the male sporangia (also
Relevant Vocabulary known as microsporangia)
1. Gametophyte - Stage of the life cycle of a plant that is haploid; stage that produces
11. Anther - Part of the stamen that contains
gametes via mitosis; these gametes fuse to form a zygote that develops into a sporophyte
the microsporangia that develops into
2. Sporophyte - Stage of the life cycle of a plant that is diploid; it is the most recognizable pollen grains
structure in most flowering plants; it produces haploid spores by meiosis in structures 150
called sporangia
3. Haplontic life cycle - Life cycle where the haploid stage (gametophyte) is multicellular and the
only diploid stage is the fertilized egg cell
4. Haplodiplontic life cycle - Life cycle that includes multicellular diploid (sporophyte) and haploid
(gametophyte) generations
5. Diplontic life cycle - Life cycle where the diploid stage (sporophyte)is multicellular and the
haploid stage (gametophyte) is represented by the single-celled gametes
6. Angiosperms - Also known as flowering plants; group of plants that produce reproductive
structures called flowers in their sporophyte stages
Teacher Tip:
The glossary of terms need not be memorized. They are to be mentioned as the teacher explains the
different aspects of reproduction which are interconnected with processes of development. For instance,
reproduction requires that sex cells be developed.
Ask the learner to recall the differences between mitosis and meiosis from Biology 1.
PARTS OF A GENERALIZED FLOWER.
12. Filament - Part of the stamen that serves as the stalk of the anther cell; two synergids that flank the egg;
13. Pistil or carpels - Innermost whorl of the flower; the female reproductive structure of the flower; two polar cells that are often fused; and
bears the female sporangia (also known as the megasporangia) three antipodals opposite the synergids
and egg.
14. Stigma - Part of the pistil where the pollen grain derived from the microsporangium
attaches during pollination 27. Micropyle - The opening through the
15. Style - Part of the pistil that serves as the stalk of the stigma; leads to the ovary
16. Ovary - Found at the base of the pistil; contains one or more ovules; eventually becomes
the fruit
17. Ovule - Contains the female sporangia or megasporangia; eventually becomes the seed
18. Complete flower - A flower with sepals, petals, stamens and carpels
19. Incomplete flower - A flower that lacks one or more of the floral whorls
20. Perfect flower - A flower that has both stamens and carpels; a bisexual structure
21. Imperfect flower - A flower that has only either the stamens (staminate flower) or the carpels
(carpellate flower); also known as a unisexual flower
22. Monoecious plant - A plant having perfect flowers or both staminate and carpellate flowers
on the same individual
23. Dioecious plant - A plant having only either the staminate or carpellate flower
integuments of the ovule that surrounds
24. Pollination - The placement of the pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of a carpel the embryo sac; this is where the pollen
25. Pollen grain - The immature male gametophyte that develops within the anthers of stamens; tube enters in order to reach the
derived from the microsporocytes inside the microsporangia of anthers. Inside the mature embryo sac
pollen grain, there is a tube cell and a generative cell. The tube cell develops into the pollen
tube as it enters the style and eventually enters the micropyle of the ovule. The generative cell
divides into two sperm nuclei and traverses the pollen tube
26. Embryo sac - The female gametophyte found inside the ovule; derived from the
megasporocyte inside the megasporangia; a mature embryo sac contains 8 nuclei. Eventually,
these nuclei become enveloped by membranes to become real cells. These are the one egg
PARTS OF A GUMAMELA
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
28. Endosperm - Part of the mature seed that is derived from the fusion of the sperm nucleus the lesson.
and the two polar nuclei of the embryo sac. This becomes a nutritive tissue with triploid 2. Describe the general life cycle of plants:
cells that serves to store food for the developing embryo The mature, multicellular organism is a
29. Zygote - Part of the mature seed that forms as a result of the fusion of the egg and one of diploid sporophyte. Later, some cells
the sperm nuclei undergo meiosis to produce haploid
30. Cotyledon - Embryonic leaf that forms inside the seed gametes which are then released.
Gametes fuse and form the zygote
31. Monocot - A plant with only one cotyledon inside its seed (monocotyledonous)
which develops by mitosis to become
32. Dicot - A plant with two cotyledons inside its seed (dicotyledonous) the multicellular diploid sporophyte.
33. Seed germination - Process that transforms a seed into a seedling 3. In some plants, the dominant part of the
34. Imbibition - The first step in seed germination; absorption of water life cycle is a multicellular, haploid
35. Radicle - Embryonic root that emerges from the seed gametophyte ( all cells have a haploid
36. Plumule - Embryonic shoot that emerges from the seed and breaks through the soil surface chromosome number). Mitosis releases
individual cells that can act like gametes
37. Epicotyl - Part of the plumule above the cotyledon
(gamete are produced by mitosis). The
38. Hypocotyl - Part of the plumule below the cotyledon following terms should be mentioned:
Gametophyte, Gametangia, Sporophyte,
INSTRUCTION (115 MINS) Sporangia
1. Divide the class into groups of four and will assign each group to bring flowers and fruits
to class. The flowers (particularly gumamela) and fruits will be used during the delivery of
GENERALIZED LIFE CYCLE OF PLANTS
152
4. Describe the different types of life cycles: dividing mitotically to become
I. Haplontic life cycle a multicellular gametophyte.
A. Show life cycle of the green alga Chara III. Diplontic life cycle
i. Chara is a multicellular green alga related to higher plants because it has both
chlorophyll a and b and produce plant starch. Its dominant stage is a multicellular
haploid stage which produces gametes that eventually fuse to form unicellular
zygotes. Each zygote then undergoes meiosis to become haploid, after which it
undergoes mitosis to become the multicellular organism.
II. Haplodiplontic life cycle A. Type of life cycle found in

A. Show life cycle of a moss (use figure 3 at the end of the document as reference) flowering plants (and in most
i. A moss has a multicellular haploid (gametophyte) stage that produces gametes. These animals). The organism is in the
gametes fuse to produce a zygote that undergoes mitosis to produce a multicellular diploid stage ( all cells are
sporophyte. Within a part of the sporophyte called the capsule, cells undergo meiosis diploid in chromosome number)
to produce meiospores. These spores are eventually released and germinate by except for mature, haploid sex
cells which are called gametes.
5. The flower
I. The four major whorls
A. Sepals
B. Petals
C. Stamen with Anther and Filament
D. Carpels- with Stigma, Style, Ovary and Ovule
II. Types of flowers based on the presence of the whorls
A. Complete
LIFE CYCLE OF THE GREEN ALGA CHARA,
B. Incomplete
DEPICTING A HAPLONTIC LIFE CYCLE
WHERE THE DOMINANT STAGE IS A
MULTICELLULAR HAPLOID ORGANISM
(GAMETOPHYTE) AND THE ONLY DIPLOID
STAGE IS THE ZYGOTE WHICH UNDERGOES
MEIOSIS
LIFE CYCLE OF A MOSS, DEPICTING A

HAPLODIPLONTIC LIFE CYCLE WHERE BOTH
THE DIPLOID (SPOROPHYTE) AND HAPLOID
(GAMETOPHYTE) STAGES ARE
MULTICELLULAR. THE MOSS PLANT PROPER
IS A GAMETOPHYTE.
III. Types of flowers based on the presence of reproductive whorls B. Imperfect / Unisexual
A. Perfect / Bisexual i. Staminate flower
ii. Carpellate flower
Exercise: use the exercise given at the end of this section to identify different floral parts.
Plant types based on the presence of reproductive structures: Monoecious or Dioecious

Development in flowering plants
I. Gametophyte - Development through gametogenesis (use figure 6 to
illustrate gametogenesis in flowering plants)
A. Male gametophyte - The microsporangium in the anther contains numerous
microsporocytes. Each microsporocyte will undergo meiosis to produce four haploid
microspores each microspore develops into a pollen grain (containing two sperm
nuclei
and one tube nucleus)
B. Female gametophyte - The megasporangium in the ovule contains megasporocytes.
One megasporocyte will undergo meiosis to produce four haploid megaspores three
megaspores degenerate remaining megaspore divides mitotically three times, an
embryo sac with eight haploid nuclei membranes partition to make the embryo sac GAMETOGENESIS IN FLOWERING
multicellular PLANTS
II. Pollination
A. Transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma
B. May be animal-aided or wind-aided
III. Double fertilization
A. Inside a pollen grain there is a tube cell and generative cell generative cell divides to
produce two sperm cells while the tube cell becomes pollen tube pollen tube
elongates along the style and penetrates the ovule in the ovary via the micropyle (an
opening) pollen tube discharges the sperm cells into the embryo sac inside the ovule
one sperm unites with the egg to form the zygote while the other sperm fuses with the
polar nuclei to become the endosperm, which serves as food of the early embryo
154
DOUBLE FERTILIZATION IN
FLOWERING PLANTS
IV. Embryo development (embryogenesis) A. Zygote divides mitotically to

produce the proembryo and suspensor, which anchors the proembryo and transfers
nutrients from the parent plant to it cotyledons appear on the proembryo (monocots
have only one cotyledon whereas dicots have two) proembryo elongates into an
embryo.
V. Maturation of ovary and ovule
A. Ovary matures into fruit while the ovule becomes the seed. The seed may
become dormant for some time.
VI. Seed germination
A. Transformation of seed to seedling
B. Seed undergoes imbibition to break dormancy nutrients stored in the endosperm or
cotyledons are digested and transferred to the growing regions of the embryo to
primary meristems (protoderm, ground meristem, procambium) develop to radicle
emerges to plumule breaks through the soil surface
i. Epigeal germination occurs when the cotyledon emerges above ground, thereby
exposing the hypocotyl of the plumule.
LIFE CYCLE OF FLOWERING PLANTS
ii. Hypogeal germination occurs when the cotyledon remains below ground, thereby
concealing the hypocotyl.
VII. Seedling growth to mature plant
A. Primary meristems differentiate to become the different plant tissues
TYPES OF GERMINATION
ENRICHMENT
1. What could be the significance of the ability of flowering plants to produce seeds?
What advantages does a seed provide?
2. What is the advantage of having seeds covered in fruits?
Teacher Tip:
EXERCISE ON PLANT REPRODUCTION Seeds can be dormant when conditions become
harsh or dry, then germinate when conditions
become favorable, i.e. presence of moisture.
Fruits allow better dispersal of the seeds in
Materials order to minimize competition for resources
with their parents. Fruits encourage animals
1. Gumamela flower to consume them, discarding the seeds in the
2. Scalpel blade or sharp pencil process. Other fruits physically disperse the
seeds, as seen in the “wings” of the fruits of
3. Optional: other available flowers dipterocarps, also known as samara.
Procedure
1. Obtain a flower of gumamela (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis).

2. Locate the outermost floral whorl. You can find it at the base of the flower and resembles a green crown. These are the sepals, collectively
called the calyx. Inner to the sepals but extending beyond them are the prominent petals, collectively known as the corolla.
3. At the center of the flower is a prominent tube. This is called the staminal tube. Surrounding the tube are minute stalks with yellow
bulbous tips. These are the stamens. The bulbous tips are the anthers containing the microsporangia while the stalks are the filaments.
4. At the very tip of the staminal tube are five bulbous structures, each borne on a stalk that fuses with the other stalks as they go down
the staminal tube. The structures at the tips are the stigmas of the carpels while the stalks are the style.
5. Remove the petals carefully so as not to damage the base. Using a scalpel blade or the sharp end of a pencil, make an incision from the
tip of the staminal tube down to the base. Carefully open the staminal tube to reveal the rest of the fused styles. Follow the styles until
they terminate at the base. This base is the ovary.
6. Draw the flower and label the following parts: petals, sepals, stamens, anther, filament, carpels, stigma, style, and ovary.
156
7. Optional investigation: do the same for other flowers available. Draw and label the parts. Using all the flowers used in this exercise, classify
them as to whether they are complete or incomplete, perfect or imperfect.
Table 1. Fates of the primary meristems in flowering plant development
PRIMARY MERISTEM MATURE TISSUE
Protoderm Epidermis
Ground meristem Cortex, pith
Procambium Primary xylem, primary phloem, vascular cambium, cork cambium, secondary meristems

Process in Plants and Animals: Nutrient
Procurement and Processing (1 of 3)
Content Standard
LESSON OUTLINE
The learners demonstrate an understanding of plant and animal organ systems
for nutrient procurement and processing and their Introduction Communicating Learning Objectives 5
functions.
Motivation Review Physiological Processes 5
Instruction Lecture on Plant Nutrition 25
• enumerate the structures or organs involved in nutrient procurement and
processing in plants and animals; At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• describe the functions of structures or organs involved in • define nutrient and cite the nutritional requirements of plants and
nutrient procurement and processing; and animals;
• explain how food is processed in a mammalian digestive system • enumerate nutritional adaptation by plants and feeding
mechanisms in animals;
Learning Competency
The learners shall be able to compare and contrast nutrient procurement • distinguish different kinds of digestive compartments in animals;
and
and processing in plants and animals. STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1
• trace the pathway of food processing in a mammalian/human
digestive system. Practice Drawing Activity or Laboratory Work 15
Enrichment Quiz 5
Evaluation Assignment 5
Materials
Microscopes and slides of monocot and dicot root cross sections. In the
absence of microscopes, visual aids on monocot and dicot root cross
sections.
Resources
(1) Barrion AA, Tudor MFVA, Colle MCD, Reamillo MCS, and MAP Robles.
2000. BIOLOGY II Laboratory Manual: An Investigative Approach.
Institute of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, UP Los
Baños. ISBN 971-547-099-8. 140p.
(2) Johnson GB and PH Raven.1996. BIOLOGY: Principles and
Explorations.Austin, USA: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1072p.
(3) Reece JB, Urry LA, Cain ML, Wasseman SA, Minorsky PV, and RB
Jackson. Campbell Biology. Tenth Edition. Boston, USA: Pearson
Education, Inc. 1279p.
(4) Starr C and R Taggart. 2004. BIOLOGY: The Unity and Diversity of
Life. Tenth Edition. Australia: Thomson – Brooks/Cole. 933p.
158
INTRODUCTION (30 MINS)

1. Give the overview of the lesson by enumerating the learning objectives. MOTIVATION (5 MINS)
2. Present the topic outline for Nutrient Procurement and Processing. An example is Recall Physiological Processes
given below: 1. Ask the students what they think are the
important activities for the maintenance of life.
I. Plant Nutrition
Sample responses: eating, breathing, ability to
A. Nutritional requirements of plants respond to stimuli.
B. Routes for absorption of water and minerals across the roots 2. Ask them to enumerate the kinds of nutrients
C. Nutritional adaptations by plants that organisms obtain from food.
II. Animal Nutrition Sample responses: proteins, fats,
carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals.
A. Nutritional requirements of animals
3. Ask them to recite the different organs in the
B. Food uptake in cells animal body that may be involved in
C. Variations in feeding mechanisms and digestive compartments in animals digestion.
III. The Human Digestive System Sample responses: teeth, tongue, stomach,
small intestine.
Teacher Tip
The teacher may engage the attention of students by bringing food (e.g. fruits, nuts, biscuits, etc.) to the Teacher tip
class as an introduction for nutrition. In relation to the questions asked, the following
concepts may be integrated to answers given by
the class:
Teacher Tip • Maintenance functions refer to the various
The topic on Nutrient Procurement and Processing can be divided into three parts, with one-hour session
physiological processes that occur in an
being allotted for each part. organism necessary for the maintenance of
Part I. Plant Nutrition (1 hour) Part II. Animal Nutrition (1 hour) life.
Part III. The Human Digestive System (1 hour)
• Some physiological processes for the
maintenance of life include: nutrient
procurement and processing, gas exchange,
internal transport, and regulation of body
fluids among others.
• Maintenance functions help the organism
attain homeostasis, that is, the state of stable
equilibrium in a biological system.
INSTRUCTION (25 MINS) micronutrients which are required in

minute or trace amounts;
Lecture on Plant Nutrition
1. Define nutrient and enumerate the two types of organisms based on mode of nutrition. D. examples of macronutrients: C, H, O,
N, K, Ca, Mg, P, S
I. Nutrient – refers to any substance required for the growth and maintenance of
an organism. The two types of organisms based on the mode of nutrition are: E. examples of micronutrients: Cl, Fe, B,
Mn, Zn, Co, Mo
A. autotrophs – organisms that obtain energy from sunlight and chemicals to produce
their own food. Examples: plants; chemosynthetic bacteria
3. Distinguish between the routes for the
B. heterotrophs – organisms that cannot make their own food and obtain their energy
absorption of water and minerals across plant
from other organisms. Examples: animals, fungi roots:
A. symplast route – through
2. Identify the nutritional requirements of plants: plasmodesmata
A. water B. apoplast route – along cell walls
B. carbon dioxide Note that the water and minerals from
Further, note that water and carbon dioxide are the raw materials needed for the soil need to reach the conducting
photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert the energy from sunlight into tissues of plants, specifically the xylem.
chemical energy. The two routes mentioned show how
this can happen.
C. essential nutrients or elements – which include macronutrients which are
normally required in amounts above 0.5% of the plant’s dry weight; and
Misconception: mineral deficiencies or by enumerating symptoms
Students may think that plants are self- sufficient in terms of nutrition. Emphasize that although plants are or manifestations of mineral deficiencies.
capable of producing their own food (autotrophic organisms) through photosynthesis, they also require the
raw materials from the environment for the maintenance of life: water, carbon dioxide, and minerals. A visual aid on the cross section of a root showing
the two routes will be helpful to the learners. The
different layers of cells should be illustrated and
labelled: epidermis, cortex, endodermis,
Teacher Tips Casparian strip, vascular cylinder (xylem and
The significant role of essential nutrients in plants can be highlighted by showing pictures of plants with phloem)
160
4. Cite specialized absorptive structures:
A. root hairs – slender extensions of specialized epidermal cells that greatly increase
the surface area available for absorption.
B. root nodules – localized swellings in roots of certain plants where bacterial cells
exist symbiotically with the plant. The bacteria help the plant fix nitrogen and in turn,
the bacteria are able to utilize some organic compounds provided by the plant.
3. mycorrhizae (singular, mycorrhiza) – a symbiotic interaction between a young root
and a fungus. The fungus obtains sugars and nitrogen-containing compounds from root
cells
while the plant is able to get some scarce minerals that the fungus is better able to
absorb from the soil.
5. Enumerate nutritional adaptation by plants:

A. Symbiosis of plants and soil microbes
B. Symbiosis of plants and fungi
C. Parasitism
D. Predation
PRACTICE (15 MINS)

Drawing Activity or Laboratory Work
Teacher Tips
6. For those with microscopes, observe slides of monocot root and dicot root cross sections. Letting the students draw and trace the routes
For those without microscopes, visual aids for monocot and dicot root cross sections may be of movement of water and minerals reinforce
shown on the board. Ask the students to do the following: the concept of absorption through plant roots.
A. Draw the monocot and dicot root cross sections.

B. For each, label the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, Casparian strip, xylem and phloem.
C. On the drawing, use a red ball pen to trace the symplast route, and a blue ball pen
to trace the apoplast route for the movement of water from the soil to the xylem.
ENRICHMENT (5 MINS) A. autotrophs and heterotrophs
Quiz B. apoplast and symplast routes

1. What is a nutrient? C. macronutrients and micronutrients
2. Give the difference between: 3. What is the significance of having root hairs in
plant roots?
4. How do plants benefit from symbiotic associations with bacteria? With fungi?
EVALUATION (5 MINS)
Quiz
1. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and potassium are examples of for plants.
A. macronutrients
B. micronutrients
C. trace elements
D. essential elements
E. both a and d
2. The nutrition of some plants depends on a root-fungus association known as a .

A. root nodule
B. mycorrhiza
C. root hair
D. root hypha
Teacher Tips
Letting the students draw and trace the routes
of movement of water and minerals reinforce
the concept of absorption through plant roots.
162
3. Th]]]e nutrition of some plants depends on a root-bacterium association known as a .
A. root nodule 4. Plants are autotrophic organisms
B. mycorrhiza and therefore do not require raw
C. root hair materials from the environment.
D. root hypha True or False.
5. Certain plants may acquire nutrients from other organisms through parasitism or
predation. True or False. Answer Key:
1. e
Assignment 2. 2.
6. Give three examples of nutrient deficiencies in plants and the corresponding symptoms.
3. b 3
7. What is the role of the Casparian strip present in endodermal cells?
4. 4 a
8. Research on examples of parasitic plants and predator plants. Give an example for each.
5. False. Plants need to acquire water
What structural adaptations are present in these plants that allow them to acquire nutrition
from the soil through roots and
through parasitism and predation? Tabulate answers by using three columns with the following
carbon dioxide from the air through
criteria: Type of Adaptation (parasitism or predation), Example Plant, and Structural
leaves. Both water and carbon
Adaptation.
dioxide are needed for
photosynthesis.
ASSESSMENT GUIDE (FOR THE ACTIVITY AND LABORATORY WORK)
5. True.
A. 1. (POOR) – disorganized drawing with many errors in the labeling of cell layers in the
root cross sections and in the tracing of the apoplast and symplast routes.
B. 2. (SATISFACTORY) – acceptable drawing with some errors in the labeling of cell layers in
the root cross sections and in the tracing of the apoplast and symplast routes.
C. 3. (VERY GOOD) – clear drawing with minimal error in the labeling of cell layers in the
D. 4. (EXCELLENT) – clear drawing with correct labels for the cell layers in the root
cross sections; and accurate tracing of the apoplast and symplast routes.
Lesson 18.2: Compare and

Contrast Process in Plants and
Animals:
Nutrient Procurement and Processing (2 of 3)
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of plant and animal organ systems for nutrient procurement and processing and their
functions. LESSON OUTLINE
Performance Standard Introduction Communicating Learning Objectives 2
Motivation Observe Nutrition Facts 3
• enumerate the structures or organs involved in nutrient procurement
and processing in plants and animals; Instruction Lecture on Animal Nutrition 25
• describe the functions of structures or organs involved in Practice Drawing Activity or Laboratory Work 20
nutrient procurement and processing; and
Enrichment Quiz 5
• explain how food is processed in a mammalian digestive system
Learning Competency
Materials
The learners shall be able to compare and contrast nutrient procurement Microscopes and slides of Paramecium, Hydra, or Planaria. In the absence
and processing in plants and animals. STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1 of microscopes and slides, visual aids of the mentioned specimens may be
used. Also, visual aids of an insect’s digestive system and a toad’s
Specific Learning Outcomes digestive system; if available, dissecting pan and dissecting kit.
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to: Resources
• define nutrient and cite the nutritional requirements of plants and animals; (1) Barrion AA, Tudor MFVA, Colle MCD, Reamillo MCS, and MAP
• enumerate nutritional adaptation by plants and feeding mechanisms in Robles. 2000. BIOLOGY II Laboratory Manual: An Investigative
Approach. Institute of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and
animals; Sciences, UP Los Baños. ISBN 971-547-099-8. 140p.

• distinguish different kinds of digestive compartments in animals;
Explorations.Austin, USA: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1072p.
and
• trace the pathway of food processing in a mammalian/human (3) Reece JB, Urry LA, Cain ML, Wasseman SA, Minorsky PV, and RB
digestive system. Jackson. Campbell Biology. Tenth Edition. Boston, USA: Pearson
Education, Inc. 1279p.
164
INTRODUCTION (2 MINS) II. Animal Nutrition
Communicating Learning Objectives A. Nutritional requirements of animals

1. Present the topic outline for Nutrient Procurement and Processing. An example is B. Food uptake in cells
given below: C. Variations in feeding mechanisms and
I. Plant Nutrition digestive compartments in animals
A. Nutritional requirements of plants III. The Human Digestive System

B. Routes for absorption of water and minerals across the roots
C. Nutritional adaptations by plants
MOTIVATION (3 MINS)
Observe Nutrition Facts
1. Ask the learners to locate the table on Nutrition Facts on the package of the food or
snack that they brought in class. Teacher Tip
The topic on Nutrient Procurement and Processing
2. Call one or two learners to read aloud the kinds of nutrients listed in the Nutrition Facts can be divided into three parts, with one-hour
table. Example: A 100 g foil pack of peanuts may show the following kinds of nutrients: session being allotted for each part.
Fat, Cholesterol, Carbohydrate, Protein, Sodium, Vitamins, Minerals e.g. Iron

3. Ask the class what we need to eat and why. Part I. Plant Nutrition (1 hour)
Part II. Animal Nutrition (1
Example: what we need to eat – rice, potato, meat, fish, fruits, vegetables, etc.
hour)
why we need to eat – to obtain energy for our activities, to grow, to provide our bodies with Part III. The Human Digestive System (1 hour)
materials for making bone and muscles, etc.
Teacher Tip
You may assign the learners to bring food or snack
packed in foil or plastic that shows a table on
Nutrition Facts.
The different kinds of nutrients listed in the

Nutrition Facts table are among the
nutritional requirements of animals.
INSTRUCTION (25 MINS) are usually obtained from grains,

cereals, breads, fruits, and
Lecture on Animal Nutrition
vegetables. On average,
1. Introduce the concept of calories from food.
carbohydrates contain 4 Calories
A Calorie is a unit of energy that indicates the amount of energy contained in food. It
per gram.
specifically refers to the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg
II. Proteins – can also be used as an
o o
(2.2 lb.) of water by 1 C (1.8 F). The greater the number of Calories in a quantity of food, energy source but the body mainly
the greater energy it contains (Johnson and Raven, 1996). uses these as building materials for
cell structures and as enzymes,
2. Identify the nutritional requirements of animals: hormones, parts of muscles, and
I. Carbohydrates – serve as a major energy source for the cells in the body. These bones. Proteins come from dairy
products, poultry, fish, meat, and grains. Like carbohydrates, proteins also
Teacher Tip:
contain 4 Calories per gram. You may ask the learners to check the amount
III. Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid hormones, and other cellular of calories indicated in the Nutrition Facts table
structures; also used to insulate nervous tissue, and also serve as an energy source. Fats of the food they brought.
also contain certain fat- soluble vitamins that are important for good health. Fats are
obtained from oils, margarine, butter, fried foods, meat, and processed snack foods.
They contain a higher amount of energy per gram than carbohydrates or proteins, about
9 Calories per gram.
IV. Essential Nutrients – include substances that animals can only get from the foods
they eat because they could not be synthesized inside the body. These include:
A. Essential amino acids – needed for synthesis of proteins and enzymes; among the 20 Teacher Tips:
Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are energy-rich
amino acids, eight could not be synthesized by humans: lysine, tryptophan, compounds present in food. The energy in food is
threonine, methionine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine and valine. stored in in its chemical bonds. As body cells
B. Essential fatty acids – used for making special membrane lipids; an example is break the chemical bonds, energy is harvested to
linoleic acid in humans. make ATP.
C. Vitamins – organic molecules required in small amounts for normal metabolism; Essential amino acids, vitamins, and trace
examples include fat-soluble Vitamins A, D, E, K, and water-soluble Vitamins B, B2, elements are important substances for good
B3, B12, C. health.
Essential amino acids serve as building blocks for
proteins, while vitamins and trace elements are
necessary for many cellular chemical reactions.
The significant role of essential nutrients in animals

can be highlighted by citing examples of the
effects of certain nutrient deficiencies or extreme
excess. This may also be given as an assignment to
learners to enhance their appreciation of proper
nutrition. Examples include: rickets, scurvy, goiter,
etc.
166
D. Trace Elements or Minerals – inorganic nutrients needed by the body in minute II. pinocytosis – uptake of
amounts; these form part of enzymes, body tissues, and body fluids; examples extracellular fluid by a cell using
include: iodine, cobalt, zinc, molybdenum, manganese, selenium. small vesicles derived from the
plasma
3. Describe food uptake in cells via the three types of endocytosis: membrane.
I. phagocytosis – engulfment of organic fragments or big particles, eg. pseudopod III. receptor-mediated endocytosis –
formation in this relies on membrane receptor
Amoeba. recognition of specific solutes
which are then taken up by the cell via receptor-coated pits.
Teacher Tip:
Pictures of phagocytosis and pinocytosis can be
4. Cite the different types of animals based on feeding mechanisms: shown in class.
I. substrate-feeders – animals that live in or on their food source. Examples:

earthworms that feed through the soil where they live in; caterpillars that eat
through the leaves where they live on.
II. filter-feeders – include many aquatic animals which draw in water and strain
small organisms and food particles present in the medium. Examples: whales
and coelenterates
III. fluid-feeders – suck fluids containing nutrients from a living host.
Examples: mosquitoes, leeches, head lice, aphids
IV. IV. bulk-feeders – eat relatively large chunks of food and have adaptations like jaws,
teeth, tentacles, claws, pincers, etc. that help in securing the food and tearing it to
pieces. Examples: snakes, cats, man
Teacher Tips:
Consider a frog’s complete digestive system. The
5. Enumerate the different kinds of digestive compartments in animals: parts between the mouth and anus are: pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large
I. Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms – these fuse with lysosomes that intestine.
contain hydrolytic
enzymes. Example: food vacuole in a protozoa like Paramecium
II. Gastrovascular cavity or incomplete digestive system – composed of a single
opening through which food is taken in and where wastes are disposed of; it is a
saclike body cavity. Examples: in the cnidarian Hydra and in flatworm Planaria
III. Complete digestive system – essentially like a tube with an opening at one end for
taking in food (mouth) and an opening at the other end where unabsorbed waste
materials are eliminated (anus). In between the mouth and anus, are specialized organs
that carry out transport, processing, and absorption of digested nutrients.
6. Describe the accessory organs for digestion in a complete digestive system:

I. liver – secretes bile for emulsifying fats
II. gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver
III. pancreas – secretes enzymes that break down all major food molecules; secretes
buffers against HCl from the stomach; secretes the hormone insulin for control of
glucose metabolism
PRACTICE (20 MINS)

Teacher Tip:
Letting the learners draw the structures for
1. Observe and draw a Paramecium as seen under the microscope or from a visual aid. Label digestion allows them to compare different
the food vacuole. types of digestive compartments in different
animals.
2. Observe and draw a Hydra or Planaria as seen under a microscope or from a visual aid.
Label the gastrovascular cavity.
3. Draw from a visual aid the complete digestive system of an invertebrate such as a cockroach
or grasshopper. Label the parts such as: salivary glands, esophagus, crop, gizzard, gastric
caeca, mesenteron, Malpighian tubules, small intestine (ileum), large intestine (colon), rectum,
and anus.
4. Pith and dissect a toad. Observe the following organs: mouth or buccal cavity, tongue,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine (colon), cloaca, anus. Also find
the accessory organs: liver, gallbladder, pancreas. Draw and label all the parts. If dissection will
not be done, let the learners copy and draw from a visual aid.
168
ENRICHMENT (5 MINS) Quiz

1. State several reasons why carbohydrates are usually needed in more amounts than fats in Teacher Tip:
the diet. The answers to the review questions can be found
2. Explain why protein should be included in the diet. in the lecture given by the teacher.
3. What will happen to the human body if we are deficient in particular vitamins and trace
elements? Give examples of effects of vitamin and mineral deficiencies.
4. There are 20 amino acids needed to make proteins in the animal body. Why aren’t they
all considered essential to animal diets?
5. Compare incomplete and complete digestive systems.
6. What are the functions of accessory organs in a complete digestive system?
EVALUATION (5 MINS)
1. State the average amount of energy obtained from the following nutrients in terms
of Calories:
1 g of carbohydrate Calories Answer Key:
1 g of protein Calories 1. 4, 4, 9 Calories, respectively
1 g of fat Calories 2. Eight
2. Of the 20 amino acids used to make proteins in the human body, must be obtained 3. Oil, water (or vice versa)
through food. 4. Trace elements or minerals 5.
3. The two main groups of vitamins include those soluble in and in . endocytosis
4. refer to inorganic nutrients needed by the body in minute amounts. 5. Substrate-swallowers, food-seekers
5. Cells take up food via the process of . 6. True
6. In terms of feeding mechanisms, earthworms are considered , while humans are 7. True
considered .
7. A gastrovascular cavity is considered an incomplete digestive system. True or False.
8. A complete digestive system is characterized by the presence of a mouth at one end and
anus at the other end. True or False.
ASSIGNMENT 4. Enumerate the parts of the toad’s digestive
1. List four water-soluble vitamins and four oil-soluble vitamins. Present in a tabular form their system and give the function of each.
roles, food sources, and effects of deficiency. 5. Define malnutrition. Are the conditions of
2. Cite five trace elements or minerals. Tabulate their food sources and roles. undernutrition and obesity considered
malnutrition? Explain.
3. What are the roles of the following parts of an insect’s digestive system: crop, gizzard,
Malpighian tubules.
ASSESSMENT GUIDE (FOR THE ACTIVITY AND LABORATORY WORK) Teacher Tip:
1. (POOR) – disorganized drawing with many errors in the labeling of cell layers in the root Answers to the assignment may be written on
cross sections and in the tracing of the apoplast and symplast routes. bond paper and submitted on the following
meeting.
2. (SATISFACTORY) – acceptable drawing with some errors in the labeling of cell layers in
3. (VERY GOOD) – clear drawing with minimal error in the labeling of cell layers in the root
cross sections and in the tracing of the apoplast and symplast routes.
4. (EXCELLENT) – clear drawing with correct labels for the cell layers in the root cross
sections; and accurate tracing of the apoplast and symplast routes.
Teacher Tips:
Some questions in the assignment may be
included for assessment, in addition to the
drawings done during the laboratory work.
170

Process in Plants and Animals:
Nutrient Procurement and Processing (3 of 3)
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of plant and animal organ LESSON OUTLINE
systems for nutrient procurement and processing and their functions.
The learners shall be able to
Motivation The Digestive System 3
• enumerate the structures or organs involved in nutrient procurement Instruction Lecture on the Digestive System 30
and processing in plants and animals; Practice Drawing Activity or Laboratory Work 15
• describe the functions of structures or organs involved in
Enrichment Quiz 5
nutrient procurement and processing; and
explain how food is processed in a mammalian digestive system
•
The learners shall be able to compare and contrast nutrient procurement Microscopes and slides of a vertebrate small intestine cross-section. In
and processing in plants and animals. STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1 the absence of microscopes and slides, visual aids of the mentioned
specimen may be used.
Resources
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to: (1) Barrion AA, Tudor MFVA, Colle MCD, Reamillo MCS, and MAP Robles.
• enumerate and describe the main stages of food processing; 2000. BIOLOGY II Laboratory Manual: An Investigative Approach.
Institute of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, UP Los
• describe the organs involved in food processing in the human digestive Baños.
system and their roles; (2) Brooker RJ, Widmaier EP, Graham LE, Stiling PD. 2008.Biology. Boston:
McGraw- Hill. 1300 pp.
• summarize the mechanisms of digestion, absorption, and delivery
of nutrients into cells; Explorations.Austin, USA: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1072p.
• explain the regulation of digestion; and (4) Reece JB, Urry LA, ,Wasserman SA, Minorsky PV, Jackson RB. 2011.
Campbell Biology (10th Edition). US: Benjamin Cummings. 1488 pp.
• cite some health problems associated with the digestive system. (5) Starr C and R Taggart. 2004. BIOLOGY: The Unity and Diversity of
INTRODUCTION (2 MINS) A. Nutritional requirements of animals
Communicating Learning Objectives B. Food uptake in cells

1. Present the topic outline for Nutrient Procurement and Processing. An example is C. Variations in feeding mechanisms and
given below: digestive compartments in animals
I. Plant Nutrition III. The Human Digestive System

A. Nutritional requirements of plants 2. Cite the Specific Learning Outcomes for this
topic.
B. Routes for absorption of water and minerals across the roots
C. Nutritional adaptations by plants
MOTIVATION (3 MINS)
II. Animal Nutrition
The Digestive System
1. The usual way of presenting food processing in the human digestive system is to follow
the fate of food as it passes from mouth to anus. Teacher Tip
The topic on Nutrient Procurement and Processing
2. A figure or diagram of the human digestive system may be presented to class as an can be divided into three parts, with one-hour
overview of the components and processes of the digestive system. session being allotted for each part.
3. Demonstrate peristalsis by placing a ball inside a stocking and squeezing to move it along. Part I. Plant Nutrition (1 hour)
Part II. Animal Nutrition (1
hour)
INSTRUCTION (30 MINS) Part III. The Human Digestive System (1 hour)
Lecture on the Digestive System
1. Enumerate and describe the main stages of food processing:
A. Ingestion – the act of eating or feeding; this is coupled with the mechanical breakdown
of food into smaller pieces allowing for a greater surface area for chemical digestion.
B. Digestion – breakdown of food into particles, then into nutrient molecules small enough
172
Teacher tip
You may assign the students to bring food or snack
packed in foil or plastic that shows a table on
Nutrition Facts.
The different kinds of nutrients listed in the

Nutrition Facts table are among the
nutritional requirements of animals.
to be Chemical digestion by enzymes involves breaking of chemical bonds through the lower jaw.
addition of water, i.e., enzymatic hydrolysis. II. Pharynx –the region in the
C. Absorption – passage of digested nutrients and fluid across the tube wall and into the back of the throat that serves
body fluids; the cells take up (absorb) small molecules such as amino acids and as the entrance to the
simple sugars. esophagus that connects to the
D. Elimination –expulsion of the undigested and unabsorbed materials from the end of the stomach and trachea
gut. (windpipe) that serves as
airway to the lungs. To block
breathing as food leaves the
2. Describe the organs involved in food processing in the human digestive system:
pharynx, a flap-like valve (the
A. The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus epiglottis) and the vocal cords
I. Oral Cavity – it is where food is initially chewed into shreds by the teeth, close off the trachea.
and mixed with saliva by the tongue. Saliva is secreted into the mouth by III. Esophagus – connects the
three pairs of salivary glands located above the upper jaw and below the pharynx with the stomach. No
digestion takes place within the esophagus but the contractions within its
Note to the Teacher
muscular wall propel the food past a sphincter, into the stomach. The The lecture for this part is quite long; some details
rhythmic waves of contraction of the smooth muscle wall of the esophagus may be omitted in the delivery. A handout on the
are called peristaltic contractions or peristalsis. The esophagus is about 25 lecture may be given to the students so that time
cm (10 in.) long. may be devoted to listening to the teacher instead
of copying the lecture.
B. The Stomach
Teacher Tips:
I. The stomach is a muscular, stretchable sac located just below the diaphragm. It has Regardless of the variations in the structures of a
three important functions. First, it mixes and stores ingested food. Second, it secretes complete digestive system (eg.digestive system of
gastric juice that helps dissolve and degrade the food, particularly proteins. Third, it a toad versus that of a bird), there are four
distinct stages of food processing that are carried
regulates the passage of food into the small intestine. out.
II. The gastric juice is a combination of HCl and acid-stable proteases. These are: ingestion, digestion, absorption,
and elimination.
III. The churning action of the stomach together with the potent acidity of the gastric
juice convert food into a thick, liquid mixture called chyme. Saliva has several components. It contains an
enzyme (salivary amylase), a buffer (bicarbonate),
slippery glycoproteins (mucins), and
antimicrobial agents such as lysozyme.
A sphincter is a ring of smooth muscles that close

off a passageway or an opening to the body
surface.
The stomach secretes about 2 L of HCl every

day, rendering a very low pH in the stomach
(between
1.5 and 2.5), about 3 million times more
acidic than the bloodstream.
Ask the students to research on how the

gastric juice can facilitate chemical digestion.
C. Small Intestine area of which is increased by villi and
I. The small intestine is approximately 6 meters long and is composed of three microvilli.
regions: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
II. It is where most enzymatic hydrolysis of the macromolecules from food occurs. D. The Accessory Digestive Organs
The complete digestion of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins occurs in the I. Pancreas, Liver, and Gallbladder
duodenum, about the first 25 cm. of the small intestine. – review the functions discussed
III. The rest of the small intestine is devoted to absorbing water and the products in previous meeting.
of digestion into the bloodstream.
IV. Absorption of the end products of digestion takes place in the ileum, the surface E. The Large Intestine or Colon
I. The large intestine is much shorter than the small intestine, about 1 meter.
II. It concentrates and stores undigested matter by absorbing mineral ions and water. Teacher Tip:
A small amount of fluid, sodium, and vitamin K are absorbed through its walls. The gut wall consists of four tissue layers
surrounding a central cavity –the lumen. In
III. Unlike the small intestine, it does not coil up and does not have villi and has only
contact with the lumen is the mucosa, followed
one- thirtieth of the absorptive surface area of the small intestine. by the submucosa, circular muscle layer,
IV. Many bacteria live and thrive within the large intestine where they help longitudinal muscle layer, and serosa.
process undigested material into the final excretory product, feces.
F. The Rectum and Anus

I. The rectum is a short extension of the large intestine and is the final segment of
the digestive tract. It is where the compacted undigested food from the colon are
pushed via peristaltic contractions.
II. The distention of the rectum triggers expulsion of feces.
III. The anus is the terminal opening of the digestive system through which feces
are expelled.
174
3. Summarize the mechanisms of digestion and absorption: by active transport, osmosis, and
A. Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth but could not continue in the stomach due diffusion across the lipid bilayer of
to the acidic pH that destroys the amylase. It resumes in the small intestine where the plasma membranes.
resulting monosaccharides are absorbed. B. The nutrients then proceed into the
internal environment and pass to the
B. Proteins are digested in the stomach and small intestine. Resulting amino acids are blood which is collected into the
absorbed in the small intestine where they leave the intestinal cell and enter the hepatic portal vein leading to the liver.
blood through a facilitated diffusion carrier in the plasma membranes on the C. After flowing through the liver, the
opposite side. blood carrying the nutrients passes into
C. Fat digestion occurs entirely in the small intestine. Although fatty acids and the hepatic vein which carries the
monoglycerides enter epithelial cells from the intestinal lumen, it is triglycerides that are blood back to the heart to be
released on the other side of the cell and carried by blood capillaries to be distributed to the different body
transported throughout the body. tissues.
D. Most water-soluble vitamins are absorbed by diffusion or active transport. Fat-
soluble vitamins follow the pathway for fat absorption. 5. Explain the regulation of digestion:
A. The digestive system of animals is
4. Describe how nutrients are delivered into cells: regulated in part by other organ systems,
A. Substances pass through the brush border cells that line the free surface of each villus especially the nervous and endocrine
systems.
B. The nervous system exerts control on the digestive system in two ways: Teacher Tip:
I. regulation of muscular and glandular activity by the local nerves in the alimentary Emphasize that digestion and absorption are
inseparable in the total function of
canal; and
providing nutrition to body cells.
II. long-distance regulation by the
brain.
C. Hormones regulate the rate of
digestion.
6. Cite some health problems associated with nutrition and digestive system:
A. Frequent complaints associated with the gastro-intestinal tract include heart burn, ulcers,
and diarrhoea.
PRACTICE (20 MINS)

1. As an alternative to a pure lecture discussion, questions related to the anatomy or function
of each organ or component may be asked. As each digestive organ is discussed, reference
to an overhead transparency or visual can be done.
2. For example: In relation to the oral cavity, ask the students what other structures or secretions
may be found and cite the possible function of each in relation to digestion.
3. Sample answers: teeth, tongue, saliva – cite the functions of each; proceed to the
succeeding parts of the digestive system
4. Ask the students to observe and draw a cross-section of the vertebrate small intestine
(either from a microscopic slide viewed under scanner objective or a visual aid) and label
the following components from the inner to outer layer:mucosa, submucosa, circular muscle
layer, longitudinal muscle layer, and serosa.
5. If using a microscope to view the small intestine cross-section, shift to the low power
objective (LPO) and focus on the infoldings of the mucosa which make up the villi. Draw and
label.
6. Also present but could not be seen under an ordinary microscope are the numerous
cytoplasmic extensions of the cells lining a villus, which are called microvilli. Keeping in mind
the major functions of the small intestine, what is the significance of the presence of villi and
microvilli?
ENRICHMENT (5 MINS)
Conceptual Questions
1. Distinguish between digestion and absorption.
2. Give some reasons why dietary fiber which can come from fruits and vegetables, is
so important in our diet.
176
EVALUATION (5 MINS) Answer Key:
1. The pancreas connects to which part of the alimentary canal? 1. C
A. Esophagus
2. E
B. Stomach
C. Small intestine 3. D
D. Cecum 4. E
E. Large intestine 5. A
2. Which of the following statements regarding the vertebrate stomach is not correct?
The teacher may add more items to the quiz to
A. Its cells secrete the protease enzyme pepsin. be taken from the lecture material or books with
B. It is a saclike organ that evolved to store food. end of chapter review questions.
C. Its cells secrete hydrochloric acid.
D. It is the initial site of protein digestion.
E. Absorption of many nutrients occurs there.
3. Absorption in the small intestine is increased by :

A. The many villi that are present on the inner surface of the small intestine.
B. The brush border formed by microvilli on the cells of the villi.
C. The presence of numerous transporter proteins on the epithelial cells.
D. All of the above.
E. None of the above.
4. Which of the following is a function of the large intestine?
A. It participates in cellulose digestion by microbes that exist in the cecum of herbivores.
B. It stores and concentrates fecal material.
C. Its cells absorb salts and water that remain in chyme after it leaves the small intestine.
D. Its cells absorb certain vitamins.
E. All of the above.
5. Which of the following is correct?
A. Carbohydrate digestion starts in the mouth and resumes in the small intestine.
B. Protein digestion occurs only in the small intestine.
C. Fat digestion occurs in the stomach and small intestine.
D. Both water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed by diffusion or active transport.
E. All of the above.
Assignment ENZYME / SOURCE ORGAN / WHERE
1. Enumerate the major digestive enzymes for carbohydrate, protein, fat, and nucleic acid ACTIVE / SUBSTRATE / MAIN BREAKDOWN
digestion. Tabulate as follows: PRODUCTS
2. What contributes to the absorption capacity of the small intestine?
Note to the Teacher:
3. Why doesn’t gastric juice destroy the stomach cells that make it? Answers to the assignment may be written on
bond paper and submitted on the following
4. What are the cells making up the gastric glands of the stomach?
meeting.
5. Describe the following ailments associated with the digestive system and identify their causes:
Answers to the assignment may be found in Reece
A. Gastric ulcers et al., 2011; Starr and Taggart, 2004, and; any
B. Acid reflux General Biology book.
C. Heartburn
ASSESSMENT GUIDE (FOR THE ACTIVITY AND LABORATORY WORK NUMBERS 2 AND
3 INVOLVING DRAWING LABELING)
1. (POOR) – disorganized drawing with many errors in the labeling of cell layers in the root cross
sections and in the tracing of the apoplast and symplast routes.
2. (SATISFACTORY) – acceptable drawing with some errors in the labeling of cell layers in the
3. (VERY GOOD) – clear drawing with minimal error in the labeling of cell layers in the root cross
sections and in the tracing of the apoplast and symplast routes.
4. (EXCELLENT) – clear drawing with correct labels for the cell layers in the root cross sections;
and accurate tracing of the apoplast and symplast routes.
ASSESSMENT GUIDE (FOR QUIZ AND ASSIGNMENT): THE TEACHER MAY ASSIGN
POINTS TO THE QUESTIONS
1. (POOR) – 74% and below
2. (FAIR) – 75 TO 79% correct
3. (SATISFACTORY) – 80 to 84% correct
4. (VERY SATISFACTORY) – 85 to 89% correct 5. (OUTSTANDING) – 90 to 100% correct
178
General Biology 2
Excha
Lesson 19: Compare and Contrast
nge
Process in Plants and Animals: Gas Content Standard
90 MINS
The learners demonstrate an understanding of plant and animal organ LESSON OUTLINE
systems for gas exchange and their functions.
Performance Standards
Motivation Questions on Gas Exchange 5
• enumerate the structures or organs involved in gas exchange in plants Instruction Lecture on Gas Exchange 100
and animals; Practice Cross-section of Species 40
• trace the pathway of air in a mammalian respiratory system; and Enrichment Conceptual Questions 10
• explain the coordination of the respiratory system with the circulatory
system in the transport of gases to the body tissues.
The learners shall be able to compare and contrast gas exchange in plants Microscopes and slides of monocot and dicot lead cross-section, leaf upper
and animals. STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1 and lower epidermis, and insect tracheal system. In the absence of
microscopes and slides, visual aids of the mentioned specimens may be
Specific Learning Outcomes used; visual aids on the human respiratory system; insect tracheal system;
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to: toad, dissecting pan, dissecting set, gloves.
• state some basic principles IN gas exchange; Resources

(1) Barrion AA, Tudor MFVA, Colle MCD, Reamillo MCS, and MAP Robles.
• describe the structures for gas exchange in plants and animals; 2000. BIOLOGY II Laboratory Manual: An Investigative Approach.
• compare breathing mechanisms in vertebrates; Institute of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, UP Los
Baños. ISBN 971-547-099-8. 140p.
• describe the organs in the human respiratory system and their roles; (2) Brooker RJ, Widmaier EP, Graham LE, Stiling PD. 2008.
• discuss the coordination of gas exchange and circulation; Biology. Boston: McGraw- Hill. 1300 pp.
• explain the control of respiration in vertebrates; Explorations.Austin, USA: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1072p.
• describe some respiratory adaptations to extreme conditions such as (4) Reece JB, Urry LA, Wasserman SA, Minorsky PV, Jackson RB. 2011.
Campbell Biology (10th Edition). US: Benjamin Cummings. 1488 pp.
low- oxygen environments; and
• cite some respiratory problems and impact on public health. Life. Tenth Edition. Australia: Thomson – Brooks/Cole. 933p.
INTRODUCTION (5 MINS)
1. Present the topic outline for Gas Exchange:
I. Basic principles influencing gas exchange
II. Structures for gas exchange in plants and animals
III. Breathing mechanisms in vertebrates
IV. The Human respiratory system
V. Coordination of gas exchange and circulation
VI. Control of respiration in vertebrates
VII. Respiratory adaptations to extreme
conditions VIII.Respiratory problems and on
public health
2. Cite the specific learning objectives for this topic.

Questions on Gas Exchange
1. Ask the students what else do organisms need to acquire from the environment aside
from nutrition? Why?
Suggested response: oxygen – needed for cellular respiration, in the process of
extracting chemical energy from food (with the exception of anaerobic organisms)
2. What gas is considered a metabolic waste product of cellular metabolism? How does it
leave the organism’s body?
Suggested response: carbon dioxide – it diffuses out of the respiratory surface of
the organism
3. Ask the students to cite the structures in plants and animals that allow for gas
exchange.
Suggested responses: please refer to respiratory structures cited in the lecture
4. Let the students enumerate some respiratory problems encountered by humans.
Suggested responses: asthma, emphysema, lung cancer, pneumonia
180
Lecture on Gas Exchange
1. Define gas exchange:
I. Gas exchange is the uptake of molecular oxygen from the environment and
the discharge of carbon dioxide to the environment.
II. It is often called respiratory exchange or respiration but it should not be confused
with cellular respiration.
III. Oxygen is needed in tissues for aerobic cellular respiration to occur and extract ATP
from food.
IV. Carbon dioxide must be released to prevent physiological pH in tissues from being very
acidic. In plants however, the carbon dioxide that is released as a by-product of
cellular respiration may again be taken up for the process of photosynthesis.
2. State some basic principles influencing gas exchange:

I. The respiratory surface or organ is the part of an animal’s body where gases are
exchanged with the environment. To allow for gas exchange, it must be moist, large
enough, and protected from dessication.
II. Respiratory systems rely on the diffusion of gases down pressure gradients.
A. Partial pressures for each gas in the atmosphere can be computed; for example,
the partial pressure of oxygen is 160 mm Hg.
B. Fick’s Law states that the amount of diffusion of a gas across a membrane is
proportional to the surface area and the difference in partial pressure between the two
sides and inversely proportional to the thickness of the membrane.
III. Surface-to-volume ratio
A. As an animal grows, the surface area increases at a lesser rate than its volume,
making diffusion of gases into the interior more difficult
B. Animals must have a body design that keeps internal cells close to the surface
(e.g. flatworms) or must have a system to move the gases inward.
IV. Ventilation
A. It refers to the movement of the respiratory medium (air or water) over the respiratory
surface.
B. Bony fish moves the gill covers (operculum) for water carrying oxygen to flow
across the gill.
C. Humans move the muscles of the thorax to expand and contract the chest cavity
and move air in and out of the lungs.
V. Respiratory Pigments or Proteins
A. Adaptations of animals for gas exchange include respiratory pigments that bind
and transport gases.
B. The respiratory pigment of vertebrates is hemoglobin while that of invertebrates (e.g.
arthropods and molluscs) is hemocyanin.
C. Blood cannot carry sufficient oxygen and carbon dioxide in dissolved form to meet
the body’s requirements; hemoglobin helps enhance its capacity.
3. Describe structures for gas exchange in plants:

I. Stomates in leaves
Figure of a leaf cross-section showing stomates.
182
II. Lenticels in stems
III. Root hairs in aerial roots
IV.Pneumatophores or the lateral roots of mangroves
4. Describe respiratory surfaces or organs in invertebrates:

I. Cell surface or cell membrane – especially used in unicellular organisms
II. Integumentary exchange – refers to the general body surface or skin used by animals
with high surface-to-volume ratio; e.g. flatworm and earthworm. Amphibians also use
their skin in addition to lungs as gas exchange surface
III. External Gills – used by invertebrates that live in aquatic habitats; gills are highly folded,
thin- walled, vascularized epidermis that project outward from the body; e.g. crayfish,
lobster, sea star, nudibranch
IV. Tracheal system in arthropods – utilizes fine air-conducting tubules to provide
gaseous exchange at the cellular level; it is not dependent on a circulatory system; e.g.
insects, spiders
5. Describe respiratory surfaces in vertebrates:

I. External Gills – thin, vascularized epidermis that project from the body surface of a few
amphibians; e.g. larval salamander
II. Internal Gills – rows of slits or pockets in adult fishes positioned at the back of the
mouth such that water that enters the mouth can flow over them as it exits just behind
the head.
A. Water flows over the gills and blood circulates through them in OPPOSITE
DIRECTIONS.
B. This mechanism, called countercurrent flow, is highly efficient in extracting oxygen
from water, whose oxygen content is lower than air.
III. Lungs – internal respiratory surfaces shaped as a cavity or sac; lungs provide a membrane
for gaseous exchange; since they are not in direct contact with all other parts of the
body, lungs require a circulatory system to transport gases to the rest of the body; found
in birds, reptiles, and mammals.
A. Air moves by bulk flow into and out of the lung.

B. Gases diffuse across the inner respiratory surfaces of the lungs.
C. Pulmonary circulation allows the diffusion of dissolved gases across lung capillaries
D. In body tissues, oxygen diffuses from blood → interstitial fluid → cells; the pathway
of carbon dioxide is in reverse
E. All lungs receive deoxygenated blood from the heart and return oxygenated blood to
the heart.
Different respiratory surfaces or organs in animals: (a) cell surface or cell membrane;
(b)
integumentary exchange across body surface; (c) body surface with protruding papulae
in echinoderms; (d) tracheal system in arthropods; (e) gills in fishes; and (f) alveoli in
mammalian lungs. (Source: Raven and Johnson, 2001 PDF copy)
184
6. Compare breathing mechanisms in vertebrates: I. Amphibians ventilate their lungs by positive pressure
breathing which forces air down the trachea. II. Carbon Dioxide Transport
II. Birds use a system of air sacs as blower to keep air A. Carbon dioxide diffuses down its partial
flowing through the lungs in one direction only, pressure gradient from the tissues into the
preventing the mixing of incoming and outgoing air. blood
III. Mammals ventilate their lungs by negative pressure plasma and red blood cells → air in alveoli.
breathing which pulls air into the lungs when the volume B. Seven percent is dissolved in plasma, 23% binds with
of the lungs expands as the rib muscles and diaphragm hemoglobin to form
contract. However, the incoming and outgoing air mix, carbaminohemoglobin, and 70% is in bicarbonate form.
decreasing the efficiency of ventilation.
C. Bicarbonate and carbonic acid formation is enhanced
by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which is located in
7. Describe the human respiratory system: the red blood cells.
I. Air enters or leaves the respiratory system through
nasal cavities where air is filtered by hair and cilia,
III. Coordination of air flow with blood flow:
warmed by blood vessels, and moistened with mucus.
A. Gas exchange in the alveoli is most efficient when
air flow equals the rate of blood flow.
8. Discuss the coordination of gas exchange and circulation:
B. Local controls within the lungs correct imbalances in air
I. Oxygen Transport and blood flow by constricting or dilating both
A. Oxygen diffuses down a pressure gradient from the lungs bronchioles and arterioles.
into the blood plasma → red blood cells → binds to
hemoglobin (4 molecules per hemoglobin to form
9. Explain the control of respiration in vertebrates:
oxyhemoglobin).
I. The nervous system controls oxygen and carbon dioxide
B. Hemoglobin gives up its oxygen in tissues where partial
levels for the entire body by regulating the rate and depth
pressure of oxygen is low, blood is warmer, partial
of breathing.
pressure of carbon dioxide is higher, and pH is lower;
these four conditions occur in tissues with high II. The brain monitors the pH of the cerebrospinal fluid
metabolism. through sensors (reflecting carbon dioxide concentration
in the blood).
III. Secondary control is exerted by sensors in the aorta and
carotid arteries that monitor blood levels of oxygen as
well as carbon dioxide (via blood pH).
10. Describe some respiratory adaptations to extreme II. Many diving animals have unusually high hematocrits (ratio of the
conditions such as low-oxygen environments: volume of packed red blood cells to the volume of whole blood)
I. Animals that inhabit high altitudes have larger hearts and also muscles with high amounts of myoglobin (an oxygen-
and lungs, and hemoglobin with a high affinity for binding protein found in muscle cells)
binding oxygen.
11. Cite some respiratory problems and impact on public health:
PRACTICE (40 MINS)
I. In a respiratory disorder like asthma, the muscles around
bronchioles contract more than usual, increasing resistance Cross Section of Species
to airflow. 1. As an alternative to a pure lecture discussion, questions related
to the different structures for gas exchange in plants and
II. Emphysema is an abnormal condition of the lungs marked animals may be asked. As each respiratory structure is
by decreased respiratory function; associated with discussed, reference to an overhead transparency or visual is
smoking or chronic bronchitis or old age. suggested.
III. Smoking tobacco products is one of the leading global
2. Ask the students to observe and draw the following either
causes of death and is strongly linked to cancer, from a microscopic examination or through the use of visual
cardiovascular disease, stroke, and emphysema. aids: (a) monocot leaf cross section e.g. Zea mays; (b) dicot
IV. Pneumonia is an infectious disease involving leaf cross section e.g. Ixora sp. Label the upper and lower
inflammation and fluid buildup in the lungs. epidermis, mesophyll, and vascular bundles.
3. Describe how air can enter the leaf. If the following are available
(microscopes, slides, coverslips, scalpel or blade), prepare thin
sections of the upper and lower epidermal surfaces of Rhoeo
spathacea. Examine the stomata under the microscope for
both the upper and lower epidermis. Which side contains more
stomates? Draw the leaf epidermis showing the stoma. Label
the stomatal pore, guard cells, and subsidiary or accessory
cells.
4. Draw an insect tracheal system from a visual aid. The large

tracheae are reinforced by thickened spiral rings of cuticle called
taenidia while the smaller tracheae have annular rings. Label the
large tracheae, taenidia, smaller tracheae, and annular rings. As
an alternative, dissect a cockroach and locate the tracheal
system. Under the dissecting microscope, these appear as
silvery white tubes throughout the insect’s body.
5. Pith and dissect a toad. Examine the external nares and the
oral cavity. Locate the epiglottis which leads to the glottis.
Observe the lungs in the chest cavity. What do you call the
numerous branches and the air sacs found in the lungs? Draw a
diagrammatic representation of the respiratory system of the
toad. Label the external nares, pharynx, epiglottis, glottis,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
186
ENRICHMENT (10 MINS) Teacher Tip:
Conceptual Questions Answer to Question 3:
1. Why is the position of lung tissues within the body an advantage for terrestrial animals? An increase in blood carbon dioxide concentration
causes an increase in the rate of carbon dioxide
2. After a heavy rain, earthworms come to the surface. How would you explain this behavior diffusion into the cerebrospinal fluid, where the
in terms of an earthworm’s requirements for gas exchange? carbon dioxide combines with water to form
carbonic acid. Dissociation of carbonic acid
3. How does an increase in the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood affect the pH of releases hydrogen ions, decreasing the pH of the
the cerebrospinal fluid? cerebrospinal fluid (Reece et al., 2011).
EVALUATION (10 MINS)

Quiz
1. Which of the following is not a structure for gas exchange
in plants?
A. Stomates
B. Lenticels 4. The driving force for diffusion of oxygen across the cells of
C. Aerial root hairs a respiratory organ is:
D. Flowers A. The difference in partial pressure of oxygen in
E. Pneumatophores the environment and in the blood.
2. Which of the following respiratory systems is not B. The humidity.
closely associated with a blood supply? C. The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood.
A. The lungs of a vertebrate D. The temperature.
B. The tracheal system of an insect E. All of the above.
C. The gills of a fish
D. The skin of an earthworm 5. The process of bringing oxygenated water or air into
contact with a gas-exchange surface is:
C. When you hold your breath, which of the following gas changes A. Respiration
in the blood first leads to the urge to breathe? B. Ventilation
A. Rising oxygen C. Inspiration
B. Falling oxygen D. Resuscitation
C. Rising carbon dioxide E. Exhalation
D. Falling carbon dioxide
E. Rising carbon dioxide and falling oxygen
6. The group of vertebrates that relies on gas exchange across B. The reptiles
the skin as well as at the lungs to maintain sufficient blood C. The amphibians
oxygen levels is: D. The birds
A. The fishes E. The mammals
8. Which of the following factors does not alter the rate of
7. In negative pressure filling, air moves into the lungs when breathing by influencing the respiratory centers of the
A. The volume of the thoracic cavity increases brain?
B. The pressure in the thoracic cavity decreases A. Carbon dioxide partial pressures in the blood
C. Air is forced down the trachea by muscular contractions B. Oxygen partial pressures in the blood
of the mouth and pharynx C. Blood pH
D. All of the above D. Blood glucose levels
E. A and B only E. Hydrogen ion concentration in the blood
9. With rare exceptions, the majority of oxygen is transported in

the blood of vertebrates
A. By binding to plasma proteins
B. By binding to hemoglobin in erythrocytes
C. As a component of large organic molecules that are
broken down by the cells
D. As dissolved gas in the cytoplasm of erythrocytes
E. By binding to myoglobin
10. Which of the following is brought about by infection

and involves inflammation and fluid buildup in the
ANSWER KEY lungs?
D. C. A. Emphysema
B. E.
C. B. Pneumonia
D. C. Asthma
A. B.
B. D. Coughing
B.
E. Sneezing
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the underlying mechanism in the opening and closing of a Teacher Tip:
stomate. Answers to the assignment may be written on bond paper and submitted on the
2. How does oxygen get to the different parts of the plant? following meeting.
3. Explain countercurrent flow. How does it help make the fish gill the Answers to the assignment may be found in Reece et al., 2011; Starr
most efficient respiratory organ? and Taggart, 2004, and; any General Biology book.
188
4. Compare the avian and mammalian lungs in terms of structure and respiratory function.
5. Discuss the special adaptations for life at high altitudes.
6. In what form does most of the carbon dioxide travel in the blood? How and where is
this molecule produced?
7. How does the brain control inspiration and expiration? How do peripheral and
central chemoreceptors influence the brain’s control of breathing?
8. What respiratory problems can arise from habitual smoking? Explain how these problems
may develop due to smoking.
ASSESSMENT GUIDE (FOR THE ACTIVITY AND LABORATORY WORK NUMBERS 2 AND
3 INVOLVING DRAWING LABELING)
1. (POOR) – disorganized drawing with many errors in the labeling of cell layers in the root
2. (SATISFACTORY) – acceptable drawing with some errors in the labeling of cell layers in
3. (VERY GOOD) – clear drawing with minimal error in the labeling of cell layers in the root
4. (EXCELLENT) – clear drawing with correct labels for the cell layers in the root cross
sections; and accurate tracing of the apoplast and symplast routes.
ASSESSMENT GUIDE (FOR QUIZ AND ASSIGNMENT): THE TEACHER MAY ASSIGN
POINTS TO THE QUESTIONS
1. (POOR) – 74% and below
2. (FAIR) – 75 TO 79% correct
3. (SATISFACTORY) – 80 to 84% correct
4. (VERY SATISFACTORY) – 85 to 89% correct
5. (OUTSTANDING) – 90 to 100% correct

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6.

Practical example/ work with actual groupings

PRACTICE (45 MINS) endangered. The olive Ridley is

Phylogeny LESSON OUTLINE

Performance Standard Practice Constructing Cladograms 40

INTRODUCTION (30 MINS) Review

VI. homologous character Analogous characters-characters that

Example: Bird and bat wings are analogous

Clade- a group of taxa consisting of an

Due to the open-ended nature of this

Phylogenetic systematics emphasize

Water vascular system YES YES YES YES YES YES

Number of ambulacral grooves 3 5 5 5 5 5

Madreporita Aboral Aboral Aboral None Internal Oral

Suckers Non on podia On podia On podia Absent On podia On podia

Closed ambulacral grooves No Yes Yes No Yes Yes

Aboral surface reduced No Yes No No Yes Yes

Ambulacral grooves extended from oral No Yes No No Yes No

EVALUATION (10 MINUTES)

INTRODUCTION (5 MINS) 6. Sporulation - Type of asexual

Figure 1. Paramecium undergoing

Provide this narrative to the class:

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Number of parents involved one two

Note that sporulation is very rare in

General Biology 2 235 MINS

Lesson 17.2: Compare and Contrast

INTRODUCTION (30 MINS) 6. Fertilization- Stage of development that

Figure 1. Different stages of

Figure 4. Different types

MOTIVATION (30 MINS) 2. Then, provide this narrative to the class:

INSTRUCTION (145 MINS)

3. Differentiate human male and female reproductive organs part

Emphasize that abstinence is the only

III. Observing the life cycle of the fruit flies

Ectoderm Nervous system

Mesoderm muscles, bones,

General Biology 2 120 MINS

Lesson 17.3: Compare and Contrast

Learning Competency Materials

Specific Learning Outcomes • enumerate the different types of reproductive cycles;

INTRODUCTION (5 MINS) 7. Flower - Reproductive structure in

PARTS OF A GENERALIZED FLOWER.

II. Haplodiplontic life cycle A. Type of life cycle found in

LIFE CYCLE OF A MOSS, DEPICTING A

Plant types based on the presence of reproductive structures: Monoecious or Dioecious

IV. Embryo development (embryogenesis) A. Zygote divides mitotically to

1. Obtain a flower of gumamela (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis).

Table 1. Fates of the primary meristems in flowering plant development

PRIMARY MERISTEM MATURE TISSUE

Ground meristem Cortex, pith

General Biology 2 60 MINS

Lesson 18.1: Compare and Contrast

INTRODUCTION (30 MINS)

INSTRUCTION (25 MINS) micronutrients which are required in

5. Enumerate nutritional adaptation by plants:

PRACTICE (15 MINS)

A. Draw the monocot and dicot root cross sections.

ENRICHMENT (5 MINS) A. autotrophs and heterotrophs

Quiz B. apoplast and symplast routes

2. The nutrition of some plants depends on a root-fungus association known as a .

Lesson 18.2: Compare and

animals; Sciences, UP Los Baños. ISBN 971-547-099-8. 140p.

INTRODUCTION (2 MINS) II. Animal Nutrition