Real - and - Complex - Numbers Linear Algebra

Real number system Mathematical Induction Complex number system
Real number system and Complex number

systems
Dr. B. O. Bainson
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
May 12, 2021

Outline
Real number system
Mathematical Induction
Complex number system

Real number system
0. Introduction
• Numbers are vital mathematical objects used in various
descriptive situations. For example to describe weights,
lengths, temperature, profits, loss, and many more.
• Different quantities may require different kinds of
numbers to describe them leading to classification of
numbers.
1. Natural Numbers
A preliminary set of properties of natural numbers set by the
Italian mathematician Giuseppe Peano in the 19th century is
the following
Peano Postulates
• 1 ∈ N,
• for each n ∈ N there is a unique n∗ ∈ N called the
successor of n,
• 1 is not a successor of any number,
• if two numbers have equal successors then they must be
equal,
• if a set S of numbers contains 1 and every successor of
every number in S, then S = N.
1. Natural Numbers
Definition
The set of natural (counting) numbers denoted by N is the set
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, · · · }.
N admits some binary operations including addition and
multiplication.
1. Natural Numbers
Definition
The set of natural (counting) numbers denoted by N is the set
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, · · · }.
N admits some binary operations including addition and
multiplication.
Properties of N under the operations
1. Commutativity: n + m = m + n and n × m = m × n.
2. Associativity: (n + m) + a = n + (m + a) and
(n × m) × a = n × (m × a).
3. Distribution: a × (n + m) = (a × n) + (a × m) and
(n + m) × a = (n × a) + (m × a).
4. Multiplicative identity: There is some e ∈ N such that
e × n = n = n × e for all n ∈ N.
5. Cancellation: m = k if m + n = k + n or m × n = k × n.
1. Natural Numbers
Definition
We define the order relation < on N by
m < n, iff there is some k ∈ N such that m + k = n .

1. Natural Numbers
Definition
Is this relation reflexive, symmetric or transitive?

1. Natural Numbers
Definition
Is this relation reflexive, symmetric or transitive?

Remark
1. 1 < n for all n ∈ N.
2. n < n∗ for all n ∈ N
Proposition (Trichotomy law)

For any m, n ∈ N, either m = n, or m < n or m > n.
Proposition (Trichotomy law)

For any m, n ∈ N, either m = n, or m < n or m > n.
Theorem
The set N is well-ordered, that is every subset of N has a
least element.
2. Integers
Definition
The set of integers denoted by Z is the set
{· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }. Thus Z = Z− ∪ {0} ∪ Z+
Z admits both addition and multiplication binary operations.
2. Integers
Definition
{· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }. Thus Z = Z− ∪ {0} ∪ Z+
Properties of Z under the operations
1. All the properties observed under N holds for Z.
2. Additive and Multiplicative identity: ∃ e ∈ Z such that
e + n = n = n + e and e × n = n = n × e ∀ n ∈ Z
respectively.
3. There is an additive inverse for all integers.
2. Integers
Definition
{· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }. Thus Z = Z− ∪ {0} ∪ Z+
Properties of Z under the operations
1. All the properties observed under N holds for Z.
2. Additive and Multiplicative identity: ∃ e ∈ Z such that
e + n = n = n + e and e × n = n = n × e ∀ n ∈ Z
respectively.
3. There is an additive inverse for all integers.
Z admits subtraction operation by the definition

a − b = a + (−b). It is evident that Z is not commutative nor
associative under this operation.
2. Integers
We can define the order relation < on Z analogous to N.

Key observations
1. n + a < m + a iff n < m.
2. If a > 0, then na < ma iff n < m.
3. If a < 0, then na < ma iff n > m.
2. Integers
Absolute Value
The absolute value of n ∈ Z denoted by |n| is defined by

n :n≥0
|n| =
−n : n < 0
2. Integers
Divisibility
Let x, y ∈ Z. We say that x divides y and write x|y iff there
exist a ∈ Z such that y = xa. On the other hand if x does not
divide y , we write x - y .
2. Integers
Divisibility
Lemma
If x|a and x|b. Then x|ma + nb where m, n ∈ Z.
2. Integers
Divisibility
Lemma
Definition
1. x ∈ Z is called a unit if x|1.
2. Integers
Divisibility
Lemma
Definition
2. If x ∈ Z neither 0 nor a unit we say that x is irreducible
iff whenever we write x = ab with a, b ∈ Z, it follows
that either a or b is a unit.
2. Integers
Divisibility
Lemma
Definition
2. If x ∈ Z neither 0 nor a unit we say that x is irreducible
iff whenever we write x = ab with a, b ∈ Z, it follows
that either a or b is a unit.
3. If x ∈ Z neither 0 nor a unit we say that x is prime iff
x|ab implies x|a or x|b.
Key Observations
Theorem
Every prime element in Z is irreducible.
Key Observations
Theorem
Every prime element in Z is irreducible.
Theorem
There are infinitely many primes.
2. Integers
If x|y1 and x|y2 , we say that x is a common divisor of y1 and

y2 .
2. Integers

y2 .
Definition
A number x ∈ Z is called greatest common divisor(gcd) of
y1 and y2 iff x|y1 and x|y2 , and if v is a common divisor of y1
and y2 then v |x.
2. Integers

y2 .
Definition
A number x ∈ Z is called greatest common divisor(gcd) of
y1 and y2 iff x|y1 and x|y2 , and if v is a common divisor of y1
and y2 then v |x.
Definition
Two numbers x, y ∈ Z are said to be relatively prime or
coprime whenever gcd(x, y ) = 1.
2. Integers
Theorem (The Division Algorithm)

Let x, y ∈ Z with y > 0. Then there exist unique q, r ∈ Z
such that x = qy + r where 0 < r < |y |. Here q and r are
called the quotient and remainder respectilvely.
2. Integers

Example
If x = 17 and y = 5
2. Integers

Example
If x = 17 and y = 5 we have that q = 3 and r = 2 so that
17 = (3 × 5) + 2
2. Integers

Example
17 = (3 × 5) + 2
Example
If x = −19 and y = −12
2. Integers

Example
17 = (3 × 5) + 2
Example
If x = −19 and y = −12 we have that q = 2 and r = 5 so
that −19 = (2 × −12) + 5.
2. Integers
Euclidean Algorithm
It is an iterative method to determine the gcd of numbers.
Suppose x, y ∈ Z, then by the division algorithm we get
x = q1 y + r1
We now proceed with finding q2 , r2 ∈ Z such that
y = q2 r1 + r2
and further q3 , r3 ∈ Z such that
r1 = q3 r2 + r3
and so on until we get some rk = 0 as the remainder. We then

read off the last nonzero remainder (rk−1 ) as the gcd.
2. Integers
Theorem
Any two integers x and y (not both zero) have a uniques gcd.
Furthermore, let gcd(x, y ) = c, then there is some a, b ∈ Z
such that c = xa + yb.
Lemma (Euclid’s lemma)
If p is a prime that divides ab, then p divides a or p divides b.
Proof.
Let p be a prime and p - a so that a and p are relatively prime.
Thus 1 = sa + tp. Multiply through by b we have
b = sab + tpb. Notice that p divides the RHS and so LHS.
Therefore p|b.
3. Rational numbers
Definition
The set of rational numbers denoted by Q is the set of all
x
numbers which can be written in the form where x, y ∈ Z
y
and y 6= 0.
Alternatively a rational number can be written as a
terminating or a repeating decimal.
Addition and multiplication operations on Q is the usual
addition and multiplication operation on fractions.
3. Rational numbers
Definition
The set of rational numbers denoted by Q is the set of all
x
numbers which can be written in the form where x, y ∈ Z
y
and y 6= 0.
Alternatively a rational number can be written as a
terminating or a repeating decimal.
Addition and multiplication operations on Q is the usual
addition and multiplication operation on fractions.
Properties of Q under the operations
1. All the properties observed under Z holds here.
2. Every nonzero rational number has a multiplicative
inverse.
3. Rational numbers
The order relation on Q is defined by a < b iff a − b < 0.

3. Rational numbers

Proposition (Density property)
Suppose a, b ∈ Q and a < b, then there is some c ∈ Q such
that a < c < b.
3. Rational numbers

Proposition (Density property)
Suppose a, b ∈ Q and a < b, then there is some c ∈ Q such
that a < c < b.
Proposition (Archimedean Property)
Suppose a and b are positive rationals, then there is some
c ∈ Z+ such that ac > b.
4.Irrational numbers
These are decimals which do not fit the description of rational

numbers. That is non-repeating nor terminating decimals.
Alternatively these are numbers which can not be written as
ratio of integers. The set of irrational numbers is denoted by
Q.
5. Real numbers
The set of real numbers denoted R is the union of Q and Q.
R exhibits all the properties enlisted so far including dense
and Archimedian property.
5. Real numbers
and Archimedian property. An extra property of R not
exhibited by Q is completion.
5. Real numbers
Definition
R is complete since every nonempty of real numbers having an
upper bound has a least upper bound.
5. Real numbers
Definition
Show that A = {x ∈ Q : x 2 < 3} no least upper bound in
Q.
5. Real numbers
Definition
Show that A = {x ∈ Q : x 2 < 3} no least upper bound in
Q.
The absolute value operation also works here. That is

x :x ≥0
|x| =
−x : x < 0

4x + 4 : 4x + 12 ≥ 0
Eg. |4x + 12| =
−(4x + 12) : (4x + 12) < 0
To solve inequalities involving absolute values we use the

following observations
1. |x| = a iff x = ±a.
2. |x| < a iff −a < x < a.
3. |x| > a iff x > a or x < −a.
Example
Solve
1. |3x + 6| = 9 2. |x − 4| < 6 3. |2x + 4| ≥ 8

To solve inequalities involving absolute values we use the

following observations
1. |x| = a iff x = ±a.
2. |x| < a iff −a < x < a.
3. |x| > a iff x > a or x < −a.
Example
Solve
1. |3x + 6| = 9 2. |x − 4| < 6 3. |2x + 4| ≥ 8
Ans: 1. {1, −5} 2. −2 < x < 10 3. x ≤ −6 or x ≥ 2

Key notes
1. If a<b
then a + c < b + c
2. If a<b
and c < d then a + c < b + d.
3. If a<b
and c > 0 then ac < bc
4. If a<b
and c < o then ac > bc
1 1
5. If 0 < a < b then > .
a b
Mathematical Induction
In a typical proof by induction, there is a statement Pn to be

proven true for positive integers n. It involves three main steps
namely:
1. Basis Step: The statement is verified at the initial point
n0 .
2. Induction Hypothesis: The statement is assumed true for
n = k.
3. Inductive Step: With this assumption made, the
statement is then proved to be true for n = k + 1.
Example
Prove that 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2 for all n ∈ Z+ .
Example
Solution
We show the validity of the statement at the initial point
n = 1.
2(1) − 1 = 1 = 12 .
Therefore the statement is true for n = 1.
Example
Solution
We show the validity of the statement at the initial point
n = 1.
2(1) − 1 = 1 = 12 .
Therefore the statement is true for n = 1.We can test for
n = 2. That is 1 + 3 = 4 = 22 . Thus the statement is true for
n = 2. We can test for n = 3, 4, 5, · · · .
It turns out that it is true always. So we assume that the
statement is true for n = k for some k ∈ Z+ . That is
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) = k 2 .
Then we want to show that the statement will be true for

n = k + 1 following the fact that it is true for n = k.The next
term in the series after the kth term will be
2(k + 1) − 1 = 2k + 1. So we add 2k + 1 to both sides of the
statement for n = k to get
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) + (2k + 1) = k 2 + (2k + 1)

= (k + 1)2 . (1)
Hence the statement is true for n = k + 1 (since equation (1)

is same as replacing n in the original statement with k + 1).
Therefore the given statement is true for all n ∈ Z+ .
Example
n(n + 1)
Prove that for all n ∈ Z+ , 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + n = .
2
Solution
The statement is true for n = 1 since
1(1 + 1)
1= .
2
Now suppose it is true for n = k. That is
k(k + 1)
Pk = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + k = .
2
Then we want to show that Pk+1 is true following the fact
that Pk is true. The next term in the series will be k + 1. So
we add k + 1 to both sides of Pk to get
k(k + 1)
Pk = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + k + (k + 1) = + (k + 1)
2
k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
=
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
= . (2)
2
Hence the statement is true for n = k + 1 (since equation (2)
is same as replacing n in the original statement with (k + 1)
Therefore the given statement is true for all n ∈ Z+ .
Example
We shall prove that 1 + 3n < n2 for every positive integer
n ≥ 4.
Example
Prove that for all n ∈ Z+ , 4 + 8 + 12 + · · · + 4n = 2n(n + 1).
Example
Prove that
1 1 1 1 n
+ + + ··· + = for
1·3 3·5 5·7 (2n − 1)(2n + 1) 2n + 1
every positive integer n.
Example
Prove that any even positive power of a nonzero integer is
positive. That is, if x 6= 0 in Z, then x 2n is positive for every
positive integer n.
6. Complex numbers
Definition
A complex number is a number of the form z = a + ib where
a, b ∈ R. The number a is called the real part denoted by Re
z and b is called the imaginary part denoted by Im z. The
symbol i is called the imaginary unit. The set of complex
numbers is denoted by C.
Basic operations on complex numbers
Let z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ib2 be complex numbers. Then
z1 ± z2 = (a1 ± a2 ) + i(b1 ± b2 )
Also,
z1 z2 = (a1 + ib1 )(a2 + ib2 ) expanding and simplifying gives

= (a1 a2 − b1 b2 ) + i(a1 b2 + b1 a2 ) since i 2 = −1
6. Complex numbers
Let z = a + ib be a complex number. The complex
conjugate of z denoted by z is defined as z = a − ib
Let z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ib2 be complex numbers. Then
z1 (a1 + ib1 )
=
z2 (a2 + ib2 )
In order to identify the real and imaginary parts, we simplify

the right hand side by multiplying and dividing by the complex
conjugate of the denominator. That is
z1 (a1 + ib1 ) (a2 − ib2 )

= ×
z2 (a2 + ib2 ) (a2 − ib2 )
(a1 a2 + b1 b2 ) (a2 b1 − a1 b2 )
= 2 2
+i
(a2 + b2 ) (a22 + b22 )
Every complex number z is uniquely determined by a pair

a, b) ∈ R × R which can be represented by diagram
y z(a, b)
θ
x
O
often called the Argand diagram named after Jean-Robert

Argand(1806). The expression z = a + ib is called the
cartesian form of z.
Alternatively z can be described using its radial distance

(modulus) and the angle θ (argument). The modulus and
argument of z written |z| and arg z are given by
√
|z| = a2 + b 2
and
θ = tan−1 (b/a)
respectively. Note that θ is indeterminate up to integer
multiples of 2π, because the coordinates
z = (|z|, θ) = (|z|, θ + 2kπ),with k = ±1, ±2, · · · .
The the angle θ is called the principal value written Arg z of
the argument of z when it lies in the interval −π < θ ≤ π.
In summary
Sign of a and b Argz = θ
−π
a < 0, b < 0 −π < θ <
2
−π
a > 0, b < 0 <θ<0
2 π
a > 0, b > 0 0<θ<
π 2
a < 0, b > 0 <θ<π
2
From the Argand diagram
z = r cos θ + ir sin θ = r [cos θ + i sin θ]
This is called the polar representation of z.

Suppose z1 = r1 [cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ] and z2 = r2 [cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ].
Then
z1 z2 = r1 [cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ]r2 [cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ]

= r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )] .
Similarly
z1 r1
= [cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )]
z2 r2
Theorem (De Moivre’s)

Let z be a complex number. Then
z n = r n [cos nθ + i sin nθ]
for any natural number n .

Note that by Taylor’s expansion one can show that
e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ
This is the Euler’s formula. By this
z = re iθ .
It follows that
z n = r n e inθ .
The nth root of a complex number z is given by

" #
√ θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
ω = n r cos + i sin
n n

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Real number system Mathematical Induction Complex number system

Real number system and Complex number

May 12, 2021

Real number system

Complex number system

Real number system

m < n, iff there is some k ∈ N such that m + k = n .

m < n, iff there is some k ∈ N such that m + k = n .

Is this relation reflexive, symmetric or transitive?

m < n, iff there is some k ∈ N such that m + k = n .

Is this relation reflexive, symmetric or transitive?

Proposition (Trichotomy law)

Proposition (Trichotomy law)

Z admits subtraction operation by the definition

We can define the order relation < on Z analogous to N.

If x|y1 and x|y2 , we say that x is a common divisor of y1 and

If x|y1 and x|y2 , we say that x is a common divisor of y1 and

If x|y1 and x|y2 , we say that x is a common divisor of y1 and

Theorem (The Division Algorithm)

Theorem (The Division Algorithm)

Theorem (The Division Algorithm)

Theorem (The Division Algorithm)

Theorem (The Division Algorithm)

We now proceed with finding q2 , r2 ∈ Z such that

and further q3 , r3 ∈ Z such that

and so on until we get some rk = 0 as the remainder. We then

The order relation on Q is defined by a < b iff a − b < 0.

The order relation on Q is defined by a < b iff a − b < 0.

The order relation on Q is defined by a < b iff a − b < 0.

These are decimals which do not fit the description of rational

To solve inequalities involving absolute values we use the

1. |3x + 6| = 9 2. |x − 4| < 6 3. |2x + 4| ≥ 8

To solve inequalities involving absolute values we use the

1. |3x + 6| = 9 2. |x − 4| < 6 3. |2x + 4| ≥ 8

Ans: 1. {1, −5} 2. −2 < x < 10 3. x ≤ −6 or x ≥ 2

In a typical proof by induction, there is a statement Pn to be

Then we want to show that the statement will be true for

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) + (2k + 1) = k 2 + (2k + 1)

Hence the statement is true for n = k + 1 (since equation (1)

z1 z2 = (a1 + ib1 )(a2 + ib2 ) expanding and simplifying gives

Let z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ib2 be complex numbers. Then

In order to identify the real and imaginary parts, we simplify

z1 (a1 + ib1 ) (a2 − ib2 )

Every complex number z is uniquely determined by a pair

often called the Argand diagram named after Jean-Robert

Alternatively z can be described using its radial distance

From the Argand diagram

z = r cos θ + ir sin θ = r [cos θ + i sin θ]

This is called the polar representation of z.

z1 z2 = r1 [cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ]r2 [cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ]

Theorem (De Moivre’s)

z n = r n [cos nθ + i sin nθ]

for any natural number n .

This is the Euler’s formula. By this

The nth root of a complex number z is given by

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