MATH 172 , CALCULUS II

Ishmael Takyi
Department of Mathematics
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
Kumasi, Ghana

May 12, 2021

Content
1. Integration: Indefinite Integral and Definite Integral.
1.1 Rational Algebraic Fractions
1.2 Irrational Fractions
1.3 Integration by substitution or change of variable
1.4 Integration of Circular Functions
1.5 Trigonometric substitutions
1.6 Integration by Parts
1.7 Application of Integration to Areas and Volumes
2. Coordinate Geometry
2.1 Equations of circles
2.2 Conic sections
2.3 Parabola, Ellipse and Hyperbola
2.4 Parametric Representation of curves
Books
I James Stewart, Calculus, Early Transcendentals
I Gilbert Strang Calculus
I Jerrold E. Marsden and Alan Weinsterh Calculus II
 INTEGRATION
Suppose f : R → R is a continuous curve y = f (x ), with domain
bounded by the coordinates x = a, x = b and the axis y = 0, i.e
the region enclosed by ABCD in the figure below

Figure

We partition [A, B] such that

 A = x0 <x1 < · · · <xi−1 <xi · · · <xn = B
B−A
where ∆xi = xi − xi−1 = n ,i = 1, · · · , n.
Let coordinates be drawn to meet the curve. M, N denote points
of abscissae xi−1 , xi and xi∗ is the abscissa of any point in M, N.
Lets form the sum
Sn = Σni=1 f (xi∗ )∆xi
Sn is called the Riemann sum of f (x ) in D. If as n → ∞, the
sequence converges to a limit S and S is the same for any choice
of points xi∗Rin M, N; then we say that f is integrable and is
denoted by AB f (x ) dx and is called the integral of f (x ) with
respect to x from a to b.
NB f (x ) is called the integrand, and AB f (x ) dx is called a definite
R

integral; A and B are called the limits of integration.

Gemetrically AB f (x ) dx is interpreted as the area under the curve
R

y = f (x ) over the domain R = [A, B].

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
If f is continuous on [a, b], then
Z b
f (x ) dx = F (b) − F (a)
a

where F is any antiderivative of f , that is, a function such that

F0 = f .
 Indefinite Integral
1.1 Integration of Rational Algebraic Fractions
I Denominator of the First Degree
If the degree of the numerator is equal to or higher than the
degree of the denominator the numerator must be divided by
the denominator until the remainder is of lower degree than
the denominator.
Example
Evaluate the integral
x3
Z
dx
x +3

R
NB: The notation f (x ) dx is called an indefinite integral.
They represent an entire family of curves or functions.
 I Denominator of the Second Degree
i. If the denominator can be factorized we use the mehtod of
partial fractions as illustrated in the example below.
Example
Evaluate the integral
5x − 4
Z
dx
x2 + 8x + 12

ii. If the denominator does not factorize, we proceed as follows:

We make use of the fact that
Usea) Z
complete of x dx+ a = a1 arctan( xa )
2 2

squares to of a fraction whose numerator is the differential

b) The integral

so thecoefficient of its denominator is the logarithm of the

denominator, i.e

denominato Z f (x ) dx = ln f (x ) 0

f (x )
r
Example
a. Evaluate the integral
dx
Z

x 2 + 2x + 10
b. Evaluate the integral
dx
Z

x 2 + 6x − 4

I Denominator of Higher Degree than the second

If the denominator breaks up into factors of first and second
degree we use the method of partial fractions.
Example
Evaluate the integral

x2 + 1
Z
dx
x (x 2 − 4)
1.2 Integration of Irrational Fractions
We consider integration of irrational fractions of the form
px + q
√
ax 2 + bx + c
i.e a fraction whose numerator is a constant or of the first
degree, and whose denominator is the square root of an
expression of the second degree.
Many irrational expressions can be rationalized by a suitable
change of variable.
R
Suppose we are to evaluate the integral F (x ) = f (x ) dx .
By change of variable, we express F (x ) as an integral of a
function u(say) with respect to the variable u, where u is a
given function of x .
Example
a. Evaluate the integral
Z
sin4 x cos x dx

b. Evaluate the integral

x5
Z
dx
a6 + x 6
c. Evaluate the integral

x2
Z
dx
a6 + x 6
NB:
i. Generally, if the function to be integrated is the product of
x n−1 and some function of x n or of a + bx n , which is
recognized to be a type whose integral is known, the
substitution x n or a + bx n = u will effect the integral.
p
ii. Any algebraic expression in the form (ax + b) can be
rationalized by the substitution ax + b = u 2 .
Example
a) Evaluate the integral
x2
Z
1 dx
(x + 2) 2
b) Evaluate the integral Z
dx
√
4+ x
iii. Any expression of the form
1
q
(x − k) (ax 2 + bx + c)

1
can be integrated by the substitution x − k = u, which
reduces the given expression to the form
1
q
(Ax 2 + Bx + C )

Finally, we integrate this expression by making use of the

standard integrals below
dx x
Z p
√ = arcsinh = ln[x + x 2 + a2 ]
a2 + x 2 a

dx x
Z p
√ = arccosh = ln[x ± x 2 − a2 ]
a2 − a2 a
Example
Evaluate the integral
dx
Z
q
x (x 2 + x + 1)
1.4 Integration of Circular Functions
We have the following standard integrals
i. Z
sin x dx = − cos x + C

ii. Z
cos x dx = sin x + C

iii. Z Z
sin x
tan x dx = dx = − ln | cos x + C |
cos x

iv. Z Z
cos x
cot x dx = dx = ln | sin x + C |
sin x
v.
Z Z
sec x (sec x + tan x )
sec x dx = dx = ln | sec x +tan x |+C
sec x + tan x
vi.
csc x (csc x + cot x )
Z Z
csc x dx = dx = − ln | csc x +cot x |+C
csc x + cot x
Other Important Integration Properties
a)

1
Z Z
sin mx cos nx dx = [sin(m + n)x + sin(m − n)x ] dx
2
1 cos(m + n)x cos(m = n)x
 
=− + + C , m 6= n
2 m+n m−n

b)

1
Z Z
cos mx cos nx dx = [cos(m + n)x + cos(m − n)x ] dx
2
1 sin(M + n)x sin(m − n)x
 
= + + C , m 6= n
2 m+n m−n
c)

1 x sin 2nx
Z Z
cos2 nx dx = [1 + cos 2nx ] dx = + +C
2 2 4n

d)

1 x sin 2nx
Z
sin2 nx dx = [1 − cos 2nx ] dx = − +C
2 2 4n

e) A rational function f (sin x , cos x ) can be integrated by means

of the change of variable, t = tan x2 .
2t 1−t 2 2 dt
Then we have sin x = 1+t 2 , cos x = 1+t 2 , dx = 1+t 2 .

f) If the integral is a rational function of sin2 x and cos2 x we

may make the substitution u = tan x , giving

du 2 u2 1
dx = 2
, sin x = 2
, cos2 x =
1+u 1+u 1 + u2
Example
Evaluate the following integrals
1. Z
sin 4x cos 2x dx

2. Z
cos 3x cos 5x dx

3.
cos2 5x dx
4. Z
sin2 4x dx

5.
dx
Z

4 + 5 cos x
1.5 Trigonometric Substitutions
Many algebraic functions which involve the square root of a
quadratic expression can be rationalized by a trigonometric
substitution.

q
function substitution
(a2 − x 2) x = a sin θ or x = a cos θ
q
(a2 + x 2 ) x = a tan θ or x = a sinh u
q
(x 2 − a2 ) x = a sec θ or x = a cosh u
r
1 (x −α)
(x − α)(β − x ), √
p
the expressions , (β−x ) where
(x −α)(β−x )
β>α can all be rationalized by the substitution
x = α cos2 θ + β sin2 θ.
If we make the substitution we obtain the following
expressions:
 x − α = (β − α) sin2 θ
β − x = (β − α) cos2 θ
q
(x − α)(β − x ) = (β − α) sin θ cos θ
1
p = (β − α) sin θ cos θ
(x − α)(β − x )
s
x −α
= tan θ
β−x
Example
a) Evaluate the integral
Z q
(a2 − x 2 ) dx

b) Evaluate the integral

dx
Z
√
x2 9 + x2
c) Evaluate the integral
Z q
x (1 − x ) dx
Theorem
i)
Z a (2 R a f (x ) dx if f is even
0
f (x ) dx =
−a
0 if f is odd

ii) Z a Z a
f (x ) dx = f (a − x ) dx
0 0

iii)
Z 2a Z a Z a
f (x ) dx = f (x ) dx + f (2a − x ) dx
0 0 0