Fadlilah Rahmawati

180221607080/C-C1

Using questions as a teaching tool is one of the common parts of the teaching and
learning process. It is not only a way to develop students’ critical thinking, but this technique
also serves some purposes such as exploring how much the students already know a certain
material. It can be previous materials or upcoming materials. Besides, to prepare the students
for the new materials and create such a students-to-teacher or peer-to-peer discussion and
interaction. Effective question and poor question as inseparable in questioning. The poor
question can make the students feel confusing, intimidating, and even limiting creative
thinking. However, effective question creates such a psychologically safe learning
environment which support students’ learning with encouraging creativity, enhancing self-
confidence, and stimulating critical thinking.

Bloom’s taxonomy of learning classifies cognitive questions into several domains. In

low-order-questions, it covers knowledge, comprehension, and application domains. While in
high-order-questions, it covers analysis, synthesis, and evaluation domains. High-order-
questions are encouraged the teacher to ask 6 types of non-hierarchical questions as teaching
tools such as a convergent, divergent, focal, brainstorm, shotgun, and funnel. Convergent is a
closed question which not offering many options. In contrast, divergent is an open question
that permits the exploration of diverse perspectives and it can have many responses. Then, in
the focal question, the students must choose or justify a position. While in the brainstorm
question, it creates a list of viewpoints. Shotgun questions contain several contents are
without a particular link. Then in funnel questions, it starts with multiple broadly question
then more focused inquiry.

Anderson and Krathwohl modified a hierarchal approach to cognition that was

originally described by Bloom. They classified questions based on cognition dimension and
student actions required for achieving specific learning outcomes. According to them, there
are 6 types of questions such as remembering (knowledge), applying (application), analyzing
(analysis), evaluating (evaluation), and creating (synthesis). Remembering is low cognitive
level and it requires actions such as list, name, show, define, recognize, recall, and state.
Understanding also included low cognitive level with action required such as summarize,
explain, interpret, describe, compare, paraphrase, restate, etc. Applying is the last low
cognitive level which requires actions such as solve, illustrate, use, calculate, etc. For a high
cognitive level, there are analyzing, evaluating, and creating. Analyzing require actions such
as analyze, organize, choose, compare, contrast, etc. While evaluating, it requires actions
such as evaluate, estimate, judge, criticize, etc. And the last is creating which requires actions
such as design, hypothesize, support, schematize, report, etc.

Besides classified into the cognition dimension, questions can also be classified into
knowledge dimensions. Anderson and Krathwohl classify 4 types of knowledge which are
factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. These dimensions range from the
concrete to the abstract. Factual questions often ask students to recall specific elements from
a reference source, these address higher-order thinking built to demonstrate understanding,
quick analysis, or evaluate the work of others. Conceptual knowledge includes awareness of
the relationships between larger structural elements. Conceptual questions might ask learners
to justify answers based on underlying principles or theories or to classify elements into
categories. Procedural knowledge relates to the ability to use algorithms, techniques, or
criteria as well as the ability to determine when the right time to use them. And the last is
metacognition questions that might ask a learner to articulate the cognitive strategies needed
to complete a task or examine personal motivations and values.

For the teacher, it is necessary to pay attention to formulating questions. There are
several strategies for formulating questions. Firs strategy is the Socratic method of
questioning, it uses a form of inquiry that encourages open discussion in which one point of
view is compared to another. In this method, lessons are taught through probing and thought-
provoking questions in an effort to stimulate original thinking from students. In order to
master the Socratic method, instructors or teachers must become skillful at developing 3
categories of questions which are exploratory, spontaneous, and focused. Then, the second
method is question circles, which is a strategy that directs students from superficial responses
to deeper discussions about subject matter that includes factual, conceptual, and procedural
knowledge. Next, student-generated questions are a strategy where students are encouraged
to make their own questions. Asking students to make up their own questions can allow
students to gain a greater understanding of the subject matter.

Sometimes, instructors made a mistake in asking the question such as asking too
many factual questions, giving students the answer, not allowing enough time for the students
to think through the problem, not actively listening to the students’ responses, and not
clarifying and redirecting the students. Therefore, in questioning, the teachers should aware
of practical considerations of using a question as a teaching tool. There is some practical
consideration that helps the teacher in questioning such as phrasing and clarity, psychological
safety, sequencing and balance, wait time, and pimping questions. Phrasing and clarity,
asking multiple questions that require multiple responses often create confusion among
students. The phrasing and clarity of the words used in formulating questions greatly affect
their effectiveness. An ambiguous question is a question that is not clear to students and
makes them confused about how to respond. Therefore, the teacher can limit the number of
action verbs per question to be. Well-phrased questions allow students to effectively
understand the nature and scope of the questions asked. Then, the teacher must also consider
psychological safety, teachers should consider whether the classroom atmosphere or other
learning environment is considered intimidating or unfriendly to students, as this affects
students in expressing their thoughts and opinions aloud. The third is sequencing and balance.
The teacher should consider sequencing and balance. At first, the teacher can ask a question
that psychologically safe from students. After the students get involved and interested, the
teacher can move toward questions relating to material that is more analytical in nature. Then,
the next consideration is wait-time. Wait-time influences the quality and quantity of student
responses as well as the initiation of subsequent dialog. Then the last consideration is the
pimping question. It refers to asking students a series of difficult questions in an effort to
build respect for the educator's superior knowledge and intelligence.