Chapter 2 (PART C)

The Drag Polar

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Summary of Drag Components Revisited
• Drag components can now all be
conveniently summarized as follows:
– Skin-friction drag: is due to the frictional
shear stress integrated over the surface
– Form drag: is the pressure drag due to
flow separation
– Profile drag: is the sum of the skin-
friction drag and the form drag. It is also
called the section drag because it
applies to infinite wings
– Induced drag: is the pressure drag due to
the pressure imbalance in the drag
direction caused by the induced flow
(downwash) associated with the vortices
created at the tips of finite wings
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– Interference drag: is the additional
pressure drag caused by the mutual
interaction of the flow fields around each
component of the airplane. The total drag
of the combination is usually greater than
that of the sum of its individual parts. The
difference is the interference drag
– Parasite drag: is the term used for the
profile drag for a complete airplane. It is
that portion of the total drag associated
with skin friction and pressure drag due to
flow separation integrated over the
complete airplane. It includes interference
drag.
– Zero-lift drag: is usually used in
conjunction with a complete airplane. It is
the parasite drag that exists when the
airplane is at its zero-lift angle of attack
2
 Definition of the Drag Polar
• We shall now deal with the aerodynamics • We shall now construct a suitable
of the complete airplane, and we focus on expression for the drag polar for an
a way in which the aerodynamics can be airplane
wrapped up in a single, complete package • We’ve seen that the total drag for an
called the drag polar. In fact, the drag airplane can be written as:
polar is the culmination of our discussion Total drag = parasite drag + wave drag +
of aerodynamics in chapter 2
induced drag [2.38]
• Basically, all the aerodynamics of the
airplane is contained in the drag polar, so • In coefficient form, this equation is
let’s investigate and see what it actually is C D = C D ,e + C D , w +
C L2
[2.39]
• For every aerodynamic body, there is a πe AR
relation between CD and CL that can be • The parasite drag CD,e can be treated as
expressed as an equation or plotted on a the sum of its value at zero lift CD,e,0 and
graph. They are both called the drag the increment in parasite drag ∆ CD,e due
polar to lift. i.e.,
• Virtually all the aerodynamic information CD,e = CD,e,0 + ∆ CD,e [2.39a]
about an airplane necessary for perform-
ance analysis is wrapped up in the drag
polar
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 Components of Drag
• Now take another look at the generic plot
of cd versus α (or cl) in Fig 2.9, we note
that the change in cd denoted by ∆cd
measured above its minimum value is a
parabola. i.e., ∆cd varies approximately
as the square of cl
• Now the source of cd is pressure drag and • We can similarly write the wave drag to
skin friction drag; and the source of CD,e be the following sum
is also pressure drag and skin friction C D , w = C D , w , 0 + ∆C D , w = C D , w , 0 + k 2 C L2
drag !__________[2.42]
• So it is reasonable to assume that ∆CD,e where k2 is another constant. Substituting
varies as the square of CL. In fact, we (2.40) and (2.42) into (2.39), gives
assume
C L2
C D ,e = C D ,e , 0 + ∆C D ,e = C D ,e , 0 + k1C L2 C D = C D ,e , 0 + C D , w , 0 + k1C + k 2 C +
2 2

πe AR
L L

!__________ [2.40] !__________[2.43]

where k1 is a constant

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 The Drag Polar Equation
• If we define k 3 ≡ 1 /(πeAR) , then (2.43) • In equation (2.47):
is written as CD is the total drag coefficient
C D = C D ,e , 0 + C D , w , 0 + (k1 + k 2 + k 3 )C L2 CD,0 is the zero-lift drag coefficient
!_____________ [2.44] KC L2 is the drag due to lift
• The sum of the first two terms is simply • The form of eqn (2.47)
the zero-lift drag coefficient CD,0; i.e., – is valid for both subsonic and supersonic
CD,0 = CD,e,0 + CD,w,0 [2.45] flight.
– At supersonic speeds, CD,0 contains the
wave drag at zero lift, along with the
• Also, if we let
friction and form drags
k1+ k2+ k3 = K [2.46] – and the effect of wave drag due to lift is
then we have contained in the value used for K

C D = C D , 0 + KC L2 [2.47]
• This equation is the drag polar for the
airplane

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 Plotting the Drag Polar
• A graph of CL versus CD is sketched in Fig 2.56 which is
simply a plot of eqn (2.47). Hence the curve itself is also
called the drag polar
• Now consider an airplane at angle of attack α as shown
in Fig 2.57a. The lift and drag forces are shown
• R is the resultant aerodynamic force acting at an angle θ
wrt the free stream. R and θ can be plotted on the L/D
graph
• For a given α, the values of R and θ act as polar
coordinates which locate a point a in
Fig 2.57a
• If α is changed, so are R and θ. The new
values of R and θ when plotted produce a
different point, say b
• The locus of all such points, for all values
of α, forms the drag polar (Fig 2.57b)

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 Plotting the Drag Polar
• Thus the drag polar is nothing more than • X
the resultant aerodynamic force plotted in
polar coordinates
• Note that each point on the drag polar
corresponds to a different value of α
• The plot of L versus D yields the same
curve as CL versus CD as shown in fig
2.56
• In most cases, the drag polar is plotted in
terms of the aerodynamic coefficients
rather than the aerodynamic forces, as
done in Fig 2.58
• Now consider the dashed straight line in
Fig 2.58 drawn from the origin to the point
“1” on the drag polar

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 Maximum Lift-to-Drag Ratio
• Then the length and angle of this line • X
corresponds to the resultant force
coefficient CR and its orientation relative
to the free stream direction θ
• Point 1 corresponds to α = α1. The slope
of the line 0-1 is equal to the lift-drag ratio
CL/CD
• As we move along the drag polar curve,
the slope of the dashed line changes. At
first it increases, reaches a maximum at
point 2 and then decreases like line 0-3
• Line 0-2 is tangent to the curve.
Conclusion: the tangent line to the drag
polar drawn from the origin locates the
point of maximum lift-to-drag ratio

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 Design Point
• Sometimes this tangent point is called
design point and the corresponding CL
is called the design lift coefficient for the
airplane
• Also note that the maximum L/D ratio
does not correspond to the point of
minimum drag
• Look at the drag polar again; it’s a
parabola with its vertex on the CD axis.
This means we’ve assumed the zero-lift
drag is also the minimum drag
• For real airplanes however, this is not
usually the case. At zero-lift angle of
attack, the parasite drag may be slightly
higher than the minimum drag as shown
in Fig 2.59. i.e., the drag polar has simply
been slightly translated vertically a small
distance. The shape stays the same.
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 The Final Drag Polar Equation
• The equation for the drag polar of Fig
2.59 is obtained directly from eqn (2.47)
by translating the value of CL by an
amount as CLmin,drag, as
C D = C Dmin + K (C L − C Lmin drag ) 2 [2.48]
• Usually the difference between CD,min
and CD,0 is negligible so we will ignore it.
• This means we will treat eqn (2.47) as our
analytical equation for the drag polar in
subsequent chapters ( Important: read
design cameo at the end of chapter )
• Some drag polars for actual aircraft are
now shown in Figs 2.60, 2.61, and 2.62.
Study these graphs as described in your
text to get a feel for the numbers

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 Lockheed C-141A McDonnell Douglas F4 Phantom

• x • x

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 McDonnell Douglas F-15
• x• x

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 Homework Assignment
• Do the following problems from page 142:
2.5 through 2.8

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