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Mathematics Department
Higher Mathematics
EXPONENTIALS &
LOGARITHMS
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Exponentials and Logarithms
1 Exponentials EF
We have already met exponential functions in the notes on Functions and
Graphs..
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EXAMPLES
1. The otter population on an island increases by 16% per year. How many
full years will it take the population to double?
Let u0 be the initial population.
u1 = 1·16u0 (116% as a decimal)
= =
u2 1·16u1 1·16 (1·16
= u0 ) 1·16 2 u0
= =
u3 1·16 u2 1·16 (1·16=
2
u0 ) 1·163 u0
un = 1·16n u0 .
For the population to double after n years, we require un ≥ 2u0 .
We want to know the smallest n which gives 1·16n a value of 2 or more,
since this will make un at least twice as big as u0 .
Try values of n until this is satisfied.
If=
n =
2, 1·16 2
1·35 < 2 On a calculator: 1 ⋅ 1 6 =
If=
n =
3, 1·16 3
1·56 < 2 1 ⋅ 1 6 ANS =
If=
n =
4, 1·16 4
1·81 < 2 =
If=
n =
5, 1·16 5
2·10 > 2
Therefore after 5 years the population will double.
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Try values of n until this is satisfied:
=If n 2, = 0·952 0·903 > 0·75
=If n 3, = 0·953 0·857 > 0·75
=If n 4, = 0·954 0·815 > 0·75
=If n 5, = 0·955 0·774 > 0·75
=If n 6, = 0·956 0·735 < 0·75
Therefore after 6 years, the machine will have to be serviced.
2 Logarithms EF
Having previously defined what a logarithm is (see the notes on Functions
and Graphs) we now look in more detail at the properties of these functions.
The relationship between logarithms and exponentials is expressed as:
= x ay
y log a x ⇔= where a, x > 0 .
Here, y is the power of a which gives x.
EXAMPLES
1. Write 53 = 125 in logarithmic form.
53= 125 ⇔ 3= log 5 125 .
2. Evaluate log 4 16 .
The power of 4 which gives 16 is 2, so log 4 16 = 2 .
3 Laws of Logarithms EF
There are three laws of logarithms which you must know.
Rule 1
log a ( xy )
log a x + log a y = where a, x , y > 0 .
If two logarithmic terms with the same base number (a above) are being added
together, then the terms can be combined by multiplying the arguments (x
and y above).
EXAMPLE
1. Simplify log 5 2 + log 5 4 .
log 5 2 + log 5 4
= log 5 ( 2 × 4 )
= log 5 8.
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Rule 2
log a xy
log a x − log a y = ( ) where a, x , y > 0 .
Rule 3
log a x n = n log a x where a, x > 0 .
The power of the argument (n above) can come to the front of the term as a
multiplier, and vice-versa.
EXAMPLE
3. Express 2 log 7 3 in the form log 7 a .
2 log 7 3
= log 7 32
= log 7 9.
• log a x − log a y = ( )
log a xy – the arguments are split into a fraction.
• log a x n = n log a x – the power of an argument can fly to the front of the
log term and vice-versa.
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Note
When working with logarithms, you should remember:
log a 1 = 0 since a 0 = 1 , log a a = 1 since a1 = a .
EXAMPLE
4. Evaluate log 7 7 + log 3 3 .
log 7 7 + log 3 3
= 1+1
= 2.
Combining several log terms
When adding and subtracting several log terms in the form log a b , there is a
simple way to combine all the terms in one step.
arguments of positive log terms
log a ( )
arguments of negative log terms
Multiply the arguments of the positive log terms in the numerator.
Multiply the arguments of the negative log terms in the denominator.
EXAMPLES
5. Evaluate log12 10 + log12 6 − log12 5 .
log12 10 + log12 6 − log12 5
+ log12 10 + log12 6
10 × 6
= log12
5
log12 ( )
= log12 12 − log12 5
= 1.
6. Evaluate log 6 4 + 2 log 6 3 .
log 6 4 + 2 log 6 3 OR log 6 4 + 2 log 6 3
= log 6 4 + log 6 32 = log 6 22 + 2 log 6 3
= log 6 4 + log 6 9 = 2 log 6 2 + 2 log 6 3
= log 6 ( 4 × 9 ) = 2 ( log 6 2 + log 6 3 )
= log 6 36 = 2 ( log 6 ( 2 × 3 ) )
= 2=
(since 6 36). 2
= 2 log 6 6
= 2= (since log 6 6 1).
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4 Exponentials and Logarithms to the Base e EF
The constant e is an important number in Mathematics, and occurs
frequently in models of real-life situations. Its value is roughly 2⋅718281828
(to 9 d.p.), and is defined as:
( )
e= 1 +
1 n
n
as n → ∞ .
If you try very large values of n on your calculator, you will get close to the
value of e. Like π , e is an irrational number.
Throughout this section, we will use e in expressions of the form:
• e x , which is called an exponential to the base e;
• log e x , which is called a logarithm to the base e. This is also known as the
natural logarithm of x, and is often written as ln x (i.e. ln x ≡ log e x ).
EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the value of log e 8 .
log e 8 = 2.08 (to 2 d.p.). On a calculator: ln 8 =
2. Solve log e x = 9 .
log e x = 9
so x = e 9 On a calculator: ex 9 =
x = 8103·08 (to 2 d.p.).
3. Simplify 4 log e ( 2e ) − 3log e ( 3e ) expressing your answer in the form
a + log e b − log e c where a, b and c are whole numbers.
4 log e ( 2e ) − 3log e ( 3e ) OR 4 log e ( 2e ) − 3log e ( 3e )
= 4 log e 2 + 4 log e e − 3log e 3 − 3log e =
e log e ( 2e ) − log e ( 3e )
4 3
= 4 log e 2 + 4 − 3log e 3 − 3 ( 2e )4
= log e
= 1 + 4 log e 2 − 3log e 3 ( 3e )3
= 1 + log e 2 4 − log e 33 Remember
16e 4
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5 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations EF
Many mathematical models of real-life situations use exponentials and
logarithms. It is important to become familiar with using the laws of
logarithms to help solve equations.
EXAMPLES
1. Solve log a 13 + log a x =
log a 273 for x > 0 .
log a 13 + log a x = log a 273
log a 13 x = log a 273
13=x 273 (since log a=
x log a y ⇔=
x y)
x = 21.
1 for x > 32 .
2. Solve log11 ( 4 x + 3 ) − log11 ( 2 x − 3 ) =
log11 ( 4 x + 3 ) − log11 ( 2 x − 3 ) =
1
4x + 3
log11 =1
2x − 3
4x + 3
= 111 = 11 (since log a x = y ⇔ x = a y )
2x − 3
4 x +=3 11( 2 x − 3 )
4 x + 3= 22 x − 33
18 x = 36
x = 2.
3. Solve log a ( 2 p + 1) + log a ( 3 p − 10 ) =
log a (11 p ) for p > 4 .
log a ( 2 p + 1) + log a ( 3 p − 10 ) =
log a (11 p )
log a ( 2 p + 1)( 3 p − 10 ) =
log a (11 p )
( 2 p + 1)( 3 p − 10 ) =
11 p
6 p 2 − 20 p + 3 p − 10 − 11 p =
0
6 p 2 − 28 p − 10 =
0
( 3 p + 1)( p − 5) =
0
3 p +1 =0 or p −5 = 0
p = − 13 p = 5.
Since we require p > 4 , p = 5 is the solution.
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Dealing with Constants
Sometimes it may help to write constants as logs to solve equations.
EXAMPLE
=
4. Solve log 27 log 2 x + 3 for x > 0 .
Write 3 in logarithmic form: OR =
log 27 log 2 x + 3
log 2 7 − log 2 x =
3
3= 3 × 1
= 3log
= 22 (since log 2 2 1) ( )
log 2 7x = 3.
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6. Solve 53 x+1 = 40 .
log e 53 x +1 = log e 40 Note
log10 could have been
( 3 x + 1) loge 5 =
log e 40
used instead of log e .
log 40
3x + 1 = e
log e 5
3x + 1 = 2·2920
3 x = 1·2920
x = 0·431 (to 3 d.p.).
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8. The world population, in billions, t years after 1950 is given by
P = 2.54e 0 0178t .
.
= 2.54e 0
= 2.54.
So the world population in 1950 was 2.54 billion.
(b) For the population to double:
2.54e 0 0178t = 2 × 2.54
.
.
e 0 0178t = 2
0.0178t = log e 2 (converting to log form)
t = 38.94 (to 2 d.p.).
So the population doubled after 39 years (to the nearest year).
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Taking logarithms we find that
log e y = log e ( ab x )
= log e a + log e b x
= log e a + x log e b.
We can scale the y-axis so that Y = log e y ; the Y-axis is called a logarithmic
form Y ( log e b ) x + log e a , which is a
axis. Now our relationship is of the =
straight line in the ( x ,Y ) -plane.
Y
=Y ( loge b ) x + loge a
gradient is log e b
log e a
O x
Since this is just a straight line, we can use known points to find the gradient
log e b and the Y-axis intercept log e a . From these we can easily find the
values of a and b, and hence specify the equation y = ab x .
EXAMPLES
1. The relationship between two variables, x and y, is of the form y = ab x ,
where a and b are constants. An experiment to test this relationship
produced the data shown in the graph, where log e y is plotted against x.
log e y
( 7,5)
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Find the values of a and b.
We ned to obtain a straight line equation:
y = ab x
log e y = log e ab x (taking logs of both sides)
x
=
log e y log e a + log e b
=
log e y log e a + x log e b
=Y ( loge b ) x + loge a.
From the graph, the Y-axis intercept is log e a = 3 ; so a = e 3 .
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Using the gradient formula:
5−3
log e b =
7 −0
= 72
2
b = e7.
2. The results from an experiment were noted as follows:
x 1⋅30 2⋅00 2⋅30 2⋅80
2⋅04 2⋅56 2⋅78 3⋅14
The relationship between these data can be written in the form y = ab x .
Find the values of a and b, and state the formula for y in terms of x.
We need to obtain a straight line equation:
y = ab x
log e y = log e ab x (taking logs of both sides)
x
=
log e y log e a + log e b
=
log e y log e a + x log e b
=
log e y ( loge b ) x + loge a.
We can find the gradient log e b (and hence b), using two points on the
line: using (1.30,2.04 ) and ( 2.80,3.14 ) ,
3.14 − 2.04
=
log e b = 0.73 (to 2 d.p.).
2.80 − 1.30
So=
b e=
0.73
2.08 (to 2 d.p.).
=
Note that log .
e y 0 73 x + log e a . We can work out log e a (and hence a)
by substituting a point into this equation: using (1.30,2.04 ) ,
2.04 = 0.73 × 1.30 + log e a
log e a = 2.04 − 0.73 × 1.30
= 1.09 (to 2 d.p.)
.
a = e 1 09 Note
Depending on the
= 2.97 (to 2 d.p.).
points used, slightly
different values for a and
Therefore=y 2.97 × 2.08x . b may be obtained.
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Equations in the form y = axb
Another common relationship is y = ax b , where a > 0 . In this case, the
relationship can be represented by a straight line if we change both axes to
logarithmic ones.
EXAMPLE
3. The results from an experiment were noted as follows:
1⋅70 2⋅29 2⋅70 2⋅85
1⋅33 1⋅67 1⋅92 2⋅01
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7 Graph Transformations EF
Graph transformations were covered in the notes on Functions and Graphs,
but we can now look in more detail at applying transformations to graphs of
exponential and logarithmic functions.
EXAMPLES
1. Shown below is the graph of y = f ( x ) where f ( x ) = log 3 x .
y y = f (x)
( 9,a )
O 1 x
( −1,1)
O x
2. Shown below is part of the graph of y = log 5 x .
y y = f (x)
(5,1)
O 1 x
y = log 5 ( 1x ) y
y = log 5 ( 1x )
= log 5 x −1
O 1 x
= − log 5 x
(5, −1)
So reflect in the x-axis.
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3. The diagram shows the graph of y = 2 x .
y
y = 2x
(1,2 )
1
O x
On separate diagrams, sketch the graphs of:
(a) y = 2 − x ;
(b) y = 22− x .
(a) Reflect in the y-axis:
y
( −1,2 ) y = 2− x
1
O x
(b) y = 22− x
= 222 − x
= 4 × 2− x.
So scale the graph from (a) by 4 in the y-direction:
y
( −1,8)
4 y = 22− x
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Exercise 1 : Exponentials
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Exercise 3 : Logarithms
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Exercise 5 : Further manipulation with Logarithms
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Exercise 6 : Logs to base 10 and Natural Logarithms
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Exercise 7 : Logarithmic Equations
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Exercise 8 : Exponential Growth and Decay
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Exercise 9 :
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Exercise 10 :
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Exercise 11 : Graph Transformations
Exercise 12
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3. The diagram shows part of the graph of
y =log5 x.
(a) Find a.
(b) Sketch the graph of y = log4 4x.
(c) Sketch the graph of y = log4 x3
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7. The diagram shows the graph of
y = logb (x + a).
Find a and b.
Find a and b.
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ANSWERS
Exercise 1 :
Exercise 2 : Exercise 3 :
30
Exercise 4 : Exercise 5 :
Exercise 6 :
31
Exercise 7 :
Exercise 8 :
32
Exercise 9 :
Exercise 10 :
33
Exercise 11 :
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Higher : Exponential & Logs Revision
2008 P1
Ans B
2008 P1
Ans D
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2008 P1
Ans
2007 P2
Ans 12.2
1
2007 P2
Ans
2006 P1
Ans a = 2
36
Ans
Ans
Ans
Ans
Ans
2004 P1 2005 P2 2005 P2 2005 P1 2006 P2
37
4
4
1
4
1
2
5
2002W
Ans
Ans
Ans
Ans
2003 P2 2003 P1 2004 P2
P1
38
3
3
2
4
4
3
Ans
Ans
Ans
2001 P1 2001 P1 2002 P2 2002 P1 2002W P2
Ans x = 81
39
3
1
3
3
4
4
1
Ans
Ans
Ans
Specimen 2 P2 2000 P2 2000 P1 2001 P2
Ans 2
40
3
4
4
2
3
3
Ans
Ans
Ans
Specimen 1 P1 Specimen 2 P2
41
3
3
Ans
Specimen 1 P2
42
3
Higher Mathematics
Logs and Exponentials Homework
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