The 

Fresnel equations (or Fresnel coefficients) describe the reflection and transmission

of light (or electromagnetic radiation in general) when incident on an interface between different
optical media. They were deduced by Augustin-Jean Fresnel (/freɪˈnɛl/) who was the first to
understand that light is a transverse wave, even though no one realized that the "vibrations" of the
wave were electric and magnetic fields. For the first time, polarization could be understood
quantitatively, as Fresnel's equations correctly predicted the differing behaviour of waves of
the s and p polarizations incident upon a material interface.

An abrasive is a material, often a mineral, that is used to shape or finish a workpiece through
rubbing[1] which leads to part of the workpiece being worn away by friction. While finishing a material
often means polishing it to gain a smooth, reflective surface, the process can also involve
roughening as in satin, matte or beaded finishes. In short, the ceramics which are used to cut, grind
and polish other softer materials are known as abrasives.
Abrasives are extremely commonplace and are used very extensively in a wide variety of industrial,
domestic, and technological applications. This gives rise to a large variation in the physical and
chemical composition of abrasives as well as the shape of the abrasive. Some common uses for
abrasives include grinding, polishing, buffing, honing, cutting, drilling, sharpening, lapping,
and sanding (see abrasive machining). (For simplicity, "mineral" in this article will be used loosely to
refer to both minerals and mineral-like substances whether man-made or not.)
Files are not abrasives; they remove material not by scratching or rubbing, but by the cutting action
of sharp teeth which have been cut into the surface of the file, very much like those of a saw.
However, diamond files are a form of coated abrasive (as they are metal rods coated with diamond
powder).
Polishing and buffing are finishing processes for smoothing a workpiece's surface using an
abrasive and a work wheel or a leather strop. Technically polishing refers to processes that use an
abrasive that is glued to the work wheel, while buffing uses a loose abrasive applied to the work
wheel. Polishing is a more aggressive process while buffing is less harsh, which leads to a
smoother, brighter finish.[1] A common misconception is that a polished surface has a mirror bright
finish, however most mirror bright finishes are actually buffed.
Polishing is often used to enhance the appearance of an item, prevent contamination of instruments,
remove oxidation, create a reflective surface, or prevent corrosion in pipes.
In metallography and metallurgy, polishing is used to create a flat, defect-free surface for
examination of a metal's microstructure under a microscope. Silicon-based polishing pads or a
diamond solution can be used in the polishing process. Polishing stainless steel can also increase
the sanitary benefits of it.
The removal of oxidization (tarnish) from metal objects is accomplished using a metal polish or
tarnish remover; this is also called polishing. To prevent further unwanted oxidization, polished metal
surfaces may be coated with wax, oil, or lacquer. This is of particular concern for copper alloy
products such as brass and bronze.[2]
While used less extensively than traditional mechanial polishing, electropolishing is an alternative
form of polishing that uses the principles of electrochemistry to remove microscopic layers of metal
from a base surface.[3] This method of polishing can be fine tuned to give a wide range of finishes,
from matte to mirror-bright. Electropolishing also has an advantage over traditional manual polishing
in that the finished product will not experience the compression and deformation traditionally
associated with the polishing process.
Metallography is the study of the physical structure and components of metals, by
using microscopy.
Ceramic and polymeric materials may also be prepared using metallographic techniques, hence the
terms ceramography, plastography and, collectively, materialography.

Chemicals & their impact[edit]

Alkylphenol ethoxylates[edit]
Alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEs) are widely used in household products such as detergents and all-
purpose cleaning products. These specific chemicals are found in 55% of the household cleaning
market.[3] They are susceptible to microbial or photochemical degradation into alkylphenols: lipophilic,
hormone mimicking compounds.[2] Alkylphenol ethoxylates have been directly linked to endocrine
disruption. Further investigation revealed that hormone mimicking alkylphenols affiliate with the
oestradiol receptor and averts the proper binding and function of oestradiol. Male trout in alkylphenol
contaminated rivers showed reduced testicular growth and synthesized 570,000 times
more vitellogenin than the control male trout. The astonishing quantity of vitellogenin, a precursor of
lipo- and phosphoproteins that make up egg-yolk protein, in the male trout population from River Lea
of England exceeded that of females just before ovulation.[2] ]
Triclosan[edit]
Triclosan (TCS) is an anti-microbial chemical that is commonly used in households as an anti-
bacterial and anti-fungal agent found in soaps, detergents, and other disinfectants.[4] Of household
products that contain TCS, 96% of the volume is eventually discarded down the drain.[4] Thus, TCS is
mostly found in aquatic environments, and levels have been tested throughout the US to determine
the amounts that are present in the environment. The most notable levels of TCS were found in
wastewater (up to 26.2 μg concentration) and extremely high in biosolids found in sewage sludge
(up to 35,000 μg concentration).[4] After this wastewater is treated, significant levels of up to 2.7 μg
concentration of TCS are still found in water.[4] TCS poses an environmental threat due to its
environmental accumulation and persistence, as it is impossible to be removed in its entirety.
Overall, TCS is found in 57.6% of all rivers and streams tested throughout the US. In addition, TCS
levels are transferred through the water into marine life. Other chemicals that come as a bi-product
of TCS are known as degradation products.[4] During wastewater treatment, Methyltriclosan (MTCS)
is produced as a result of methylation of TCS, which is not biodegradable and incredibly persistent
throughout the environment.[4] In addition, the transformation of TCS during manufacturing leads to
the production of dioxins into aquatic habitats. Dioxins have been proven to cause cancer as well as
immense developmental issues in almost every vertebrate species.[5] Most notably, TCS has been
found in aquatic snails and algae, with levels tested of 500μg kg−1 and 1400μg kg−1.[4] Similarly,
MTCS has also been found to bioaccumulate in species, and in aquatic snails and algae, they were
tested to have 1200μg kg−1.[4] Thus, the presence of triclosan in the water can pose immense
threats to aquatic life as it bioaccumulates.
Triclosan chemical structure & common labeling.

Sodium Hypochlorite (household bleach)[edit]

Sodium hypochlorite is the chemical commonly known as household bleach. Sodium hydroxide is
used for anti-microbial purpose as well as in unclogging drains, washing clothing, and to cleaning
toilets. This means that it is being poured directly into wastewater, which bioaccumulates and cannot
be fully filtered out.[6] Sodium hypochlorite in wastewater tends to form persistent chlorinated organic
compounds, including known carcinogens, that can be absorbed by organisms and enter the food
chain. This chemical may also pose environmental hazards because the halogenated volatile
organic compounds (VOCs),[6] have the ability to deplete stratospheric ozone, presenting concerns of
emissions from household uses of solvents including bleach.[6]

Sources of Volatile Organic Compounds. "Solvent use" is the source that originates from cleaning chemicals.

Ammonium Hydroxide (Ammonia)[edit]

Ammonia is a disinfecting chemical that is used in household cleaning products. The most common
cleaning products that contain ammonia are floor cleaners and glass cleaners.[7] Ammonia is a
significant air pollutant that has accumulated throughout the US. Ammonia is a primary source
of nitrogen oxide, which has implications for biodiversity because of toxic implications to plants,
which are a food source for many organisms.[8] The ammonia that is not absorbed by plants goes
through nitrification processes as a result of the bacteria in water, turning it into nitrates.[9] The
presence of ammonium is integral to the nitrogen cycle, which negatively impacts the environment.[9]
Propellant Gas[edit]
Products that are packaged in aerosol cans contain a chemical known as propellant gas.[10] Almost
always, this propellant gas is called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).[10] CFCs have been proven to
damage the ozone layer and caused the ozone hole. Thus, in 1996, CFCs were banned directly as a
result of the detrimental environmental impacts.[11] This ban came as a result of The Montreal
Protocol of 1989, which called for action to reduce and eliminate ozone-depleting substances.
[12]
 Following the ban of CFCs, aerosols are now filled with hydrocarbon or compressed gasses,
which have been linked to cause VOCs, which are associated with smog and air pollution.[11]
Phosphates[edit]
Phosphates are commonly used as a detergent in a wide array of cleaning products.[13] The most
prevalent form of phosphates that are found in household cleaners is pentasodium
triphosphate (PTSP).[13] PTSP and other phosphates are unable to be fully removed during
wastewater treatment. It has been linked to eutrophication, which entails excessive growth of algae,
which absorbs all of the oxygen in the water.[14] Due to lack of oxygen, all aquatic life forms ranging
from plants to marine animals will die. Eutrophication is a very serious environmental hazard that
can rapidly destroy marine ecosystems, making it impossible for aquatic life to survive in the future.
Government regulation in the US[edit]
In terms of regulation, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has headed the regulatory
advancements in recent years. For example, in 1976, the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) was
passed.[15] This act called for restrictions on some chemicals, mandatory ingredient reporting, and
testing requirements. Some of the chemicals that were restricted included polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), asbestos, lead-based paint, and radon.[15] Section 4 of this act called for testing of
chemicals to determine any detrimental impacts that could come as a result. A sector of the EPA
focused on "compliance monitoring," which ensures that companies are following the guidelines that
have been put in place by the TSCA.[15] PCBs have been found in de-dusting agents, so the TCSA
has proven important in the mitigation of this chemical in household cleaning. However, the TSCA is
primarily focused towards industrial application of chemicals.
In 1972, the Clean Water Act was passed, which regulates the wastewater standards and water
quality expectations.[16] This act led to the implementation of the EPA's National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES), which requires permits in order to discharge pollutants into the water.
[16]
 This allows for a much stricter regulation regarding the quantities of pollutants that can be
discarded.

Packaging[edit]
Aerosol cans[edit]
This chart compares the greatest sources of plastic waste, with packaging largely at the forefront of the issue.

Another prevalent issue with household cleaning products is the packaging that it comes in. As
aforementioned, products packaged in aerosol cans currently contain chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
which damages the ozone layer.[10] New aerosol cans that cannot contain the banned CFCs now
contain hydrocarbon, which has been linked to the production of VOCs, which contribute greatly to
air pollution.[11] In addition, an immense issue with the current packaging of household cleaning
products is the lack of ability to biodegrade.[17]
Plastic Packaging[edit]
The vast majority of all household product packaging comes in plastic. These common plastics are
not biodegradable and accumulate in our oceans.[17]
Aquatic Impact[edit]
Overall, it is approximated that there are up to hundreds of thousands of tons of plastic in surface
waters.[17] This plastic debris becomes incredibly detrimental to aquatic wildlife. The debris can
entangle species or aquatic animals can eat the plastic, which can lead to poisoning and often
death.[17] Plastic can also cause immense damage to the ocean floor and negatively disturb the
ecosystem.

The aquatic impact of plastic waste.

Environmentally-friendly alternatives[edit]
The EPA suggests purchasing products with recyclable packaging, refillable bottles, and
concentrated formulas.[18] Another way to minimize packaging waste is by buying in bulk containers.
The EPA cautions against buying anything with packaging that utilizes aerosol sprays or wasteful
abundance of packaging.[18]

Environmentally benign chemical alternatives[edit]

Alternative cleaning chemicals can be utilized in households without compromising its ability to clean
effectively. The EPA has provided criterion for avoiding environmentally detrimental chemicals in
household cleaning. They suggest choosing products with a low VOC content, biodegradability, and
those that utilize renewable resources
With the aim of decreasing net efficiency, some brands of laundry detergent have been reformulated
for use with cold water. By allowing the consumer to use cold water rather than hot, each load cuts
back significantly on energy costs.[19] The EPA suggests using products that are designed for use in
cold water to conserve energy.[18]
2-Butoxylethanol, ethylene glycol monobutyl ether (EGBE) [edit]
2-Butoxyethanol is a common glycol ether used as a solvent in carpet, hard-surface, glass, and oven
cleaners owing to its surfactant properties. It is a relatively cheap, volatile solvent of low toxicity.[20] It
has the further advantage of not bioaccumulating.

See also[edit]
 Environmental effects of laundry wastewater
 Green cleaning
 Trisodium phosphate
 Teeth cleaning twig
 Sustainability
 bioaccumulation

References[edit]
1. ^ Swan, S.H.; et al. (2005).  "Decrease in Anogenital Distance Among Male Infants with
Prenatal Phthalate Exposure". Environmental Health Perspectives. 113. Environmental Health
Perspectives (8): 1056–1061.  doi:10.1289/ehp.8100. PMC  1280349.  PMID  16079079.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Warhurst, A. Michael (January 1995). "An Environmental Assessment of
Alkylphenol Ethoxylates and Alkylphenols".
3. ^ Staples, Charles A.; Weeks, John; Hall, Jerry F.; Naylor, Carter G. (1998). "Evaluation of
aquatic toxicity and bioaccumulation of C8- and C9-alkylphenol ethoxylates".  Environmental
Toxicology and Chemistry. 17 (12): 2470–2480.  doi:10.1002/etc.5620171213.  ISSN  1552-8618.
4. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h Dann, Andrea B.; Hontela, Alice (2011). "Triclosan: environmental
exposure, toxicity and mechanisms of action". Journal of Applied Toxicology. 31 (4): 285–
311.  doi:10.1002/jat.1660. ISSN 1099-1263.  PMID  21462230.
5. ^ "Dioxins". National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Retrieved 2020-03-09.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b c Odabasi, Mustafa; Elbir, Tolga; Dumanoglu, Yetkin; Sofuoglu, Sait C. (2014-08-
01). "Halogenated volatile organic compounds in chlorine-bleach-containing household products and
implications for their use". Atmospheric Environment.  92: 376–
383.  Bibcode:2014AtmEn..92..376O.  doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.04.049. hdl:11147/4607.  ISSN  13
52-2310.
7. ^ Fedoruk, Marion J.; Bronstein, Rod; Kerger, Brent D. (November 2005).  "Ammonia
exposure and hazard assessment for selected household cleaning product uses". Journal of
Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology.  15  (6): 534–
544.  doi:10.1038/sj.jea.7500431. ISSN 1559-064X. PMID 16030526.
8. ^ "Agricultural ammonia emissions carry steep costs". www.rand.org. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
9. ^ Jump up to:a b "Ecological Effects of Ammonia | Minnesota Department of
Agriculture". www.mda.state.mn.us. Retrieved  2020-03-11.
10. ^ Jump up to:a b c June 9, Jay Rawcliffe; Am, 2017 at 11:06.  "Environmental impacts". Green
Choices. Retrieved 2020-03-09.
11. ^ Jump up to:a b c "Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Your Environment, Your Health | National Library
of Medicine".  Tox Town. Retrieved  2020-03-09.
12. ^ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (2018-04-05). "Ozone Layer".  Our World in Data.
 13. ^ Jump up to:a b Gilbert, P. A.; DeJong, A. L. (13–15 September 1977). "The use of phosphate in
detergents and possible replacements for phosphate". Ciba Foundation Symposium. Novartis
Foundation Symposia (57): 253–
268.  doi:10.1002/9780470720387.ch14. ISBN 9780470720387. ISSN 0300-5208.  PMID  249679.
14. ^ "Eutrophication". European Environment Agency. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
15. ^ Jump up to:a b c US EPA, OA (2013-02-22).  "Summary of the Toxic Substances Control Act". US
EPA. Retrieved 2020-02-26.
16. ^ Jump up to:a b US EPA, OA (2013-02-22). "Summary of the Clean Water Act".  US EPA.
Retrieved 2020-03-11.
17. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (2018-09-01).  "Plastic Pollution".  Our World in
Data.
18. ^ Jump up to:a b c US EPA, OCSPP (2014-11-20). "Greening Your Purchase of Cleaning Products:
A Guide For Federal Purchasers".  US EPA. Retrieved 2020-03-09.
19. ^ Martin, Andrew; et  al. (2011). "For a Few, Focus on Green Products Pays Off".  The New
York Times.
20. ^ Siegfried Rebsdat, Dieter Mayer "Ethylene Glycol" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2000. doi:10.1002/14356007.a10_101.

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