Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998

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Construction and Building Materials

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State-of-the-art of porous asphalt pavement: Experience and

considerations of mixture design
Zhengwei Zhang a,b, Aimin Sha a,b,⇑, Xiang Liu a,b, Bo Luan a,b, Jie Gao a,b, Wei Jiang a,b, Feng Ma a,b
a
School of Highway, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710064, China
b
Key Laboratory for Special Area Highway Engineering of Ministry of Education, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710064, China

h i g h l i g h t s

International experience of PA mixture was investigated.

Material selection of PA mixture in different countries was analyzed.

Stone-on-stone contact and particle interference in PA gradation were discussed.

A series of performance tests of PA mixture in different countries were analyzed.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Porous asphalt (PA) is a distinct mixture type that deliberately designed with stone-on-stone contact of
Received 23 December 2019 the coarse aggregate fraction and high percentage of interconnected air voids to provide water drainage
Received in revised form 14 May 2020 and adequate resistance to both raveling and permanent deformation. During the past decades, PA has
Accepted 17 June 2020
attracted much attention in the worldwide. Many studies have been conducted to confirm numerous
Available online 26 July 2020
benefits in terms of safety, comfort and environment. However, the acceptance of PA appears to have
some sort of diminished when defects with durability and winter maintenance became a serious practical
Keywords:
issue and overtaken by environmental concerns in recent years. Now this dilemma seems to be partially
Porous asphalt
International experience
improved, several limitations have gradually ameliorated due to the progress of materials and test meth-
Mixture design ods. While some additional problems are also exposed in the meantime. Therefore, it is necessary to pre-
Performance test sent a comprehensive review of existing research to clarify the challenges that currently being
encountered. The content of this article mainly includes international experience and four important
aspects of PA mixture design, as well as the favorable contributing factors affecting each design process.
In different sections, achievements including the advantages and shortcomings in each branch have been
discussed and suggestions also have been put forward expecting to identify corresponding areas of study
for future improvement, thus provide references for the next phase of field application of PA pavement.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction (definition, benefits and future challenges)
Porous asphalt mixtures, a general term, hereinafter referred to
as PA, constitute a particular type of hot mix asphalt (HMA) char-
acterized by a high interconnected air voids content and a coarse
granular skeleton with stone-on-stone contact. According to differ-
ent functional requirements, this type of mixture is designed for
various PA structures which are known by varied names all over
the world, such as open graded friction course (OGFC), permeable
⇑ Corresponding author at: School of Highway, Chang’an University, Xi’an
710064, China.
E-mail address: ams@chd.edu.cn (A. Sha).
friction course (PFC), permeable European mix (PEM), Fliisteras-
phalt, dranasphalt or lérmmindernde deckschicht, and so on [1–4].
While PA pavement designs may vary, they all have a similar
porous surface layer. Sometimes also include porous base and sub-
grade to obtain the safety, comfort and environmental benefits,
which are confirmed by many previous studies [2]. In terms of
safety, PA with high interconnected porosity creates an effective
path to allow water to infiltrate the surface thus successfully avoid
the production of continuous water film. These favorable condi-
tions help reduce many safety hazards that include but are not lim-
ited to decrease hydroplaning, splashing and low skid resistance
under wet weather, as well as control surface run-off during heavy
rainfall. These provide very favorable conditions for reducing acci-
dents in wet weather. A survey conducted by the Louisiana DOT

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119998
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998
revealed that the wet weather accidents at three PA sections (US
171, US 71, I-20) decreased by 57%, 76% and 100% during the first
5 years after construction [5,6]. Similar safety result was observed
from Japanese expressways that the number of wet-related acci-
dents dramatically dropped by more than 80% after PA applied a
year [7,8]. Also, a reduction of 51% in wet weather accidents was
reported by San Antonio and Texas [9–11]. Historically, it is not
hard to realize that safety benefit is one of the fundamental causes
for some departments initially decided to adopt PA, especially in
France and the United States.
In respect of comfort benefits related to drivers and pedestrians,
on the one hand, PA with high interconnected porosity sometimes
more like sponge can continuously absorb the standing water from
pavement surface. Which helps eliminate spray and splash as vehi-
cles traverse therefore improving driver visibility during wet
weather [12–19]. It was found that a 40 mm PA layer can absorb
up to 8 mm rainfall before structure becomes saturated [4]. On
the other hand, tire-pavement noise is often criticized for causing
obviously distressed to drivers and passengers. In this regard, PA
is committed to improving driving comfort by interfering with
noise generation mechanism and energy conversion [18,20]. More
specifically, there are two possible ways of moving to the com-
pressed air under vehicle tires, namely dissipating from pavement
surface or entering internal voids. In the first case, it is difficult to
form a closed cavity unilaterally between complex tread tires and
open porosity of PA surface thereby fundamentally avoiding the
generation of pumping noise [2]. In the latter, due to the successive
process of friction, collision and thermal conduction occurs
between entered air and inner concrete surface, part of the acoustic
energy is converted into internal energy. This helps alleviate the
subjective feelings to drivers and passengers caused by noise. Some
countries has successfully limited tire-pavement noise by using PA
on highways. It is reported that overall noise can be reduced by
3 dB to 6 dB in dry conditions, even up to 8 dB during wet weather
[21]. Other benefits related to drivers including allowing higher
average speeds and traffic capacity, as well as reducing fuel con-
sumption are also reported [2,22,23].
Apart from the benefits mentioned above, recent studies found
that PA is highly beneficial to the ecological environment. Com-
pared with impervious pavement preventing rain runoff infiltra-
tion, the full-depth PA structure enables rainwater to flow into
subgrade soil, which can be effective in recharging groundwater
resources and promoting ecological harmony [24]. In addition, this
type of porous structure also causes a spontaneous thermal trans-
mission between the top layer and sub-layers to lower surface
temperature (i.e., usually 2 °C) and mitigate urban heat island
(UHI) effect under high temperature conditions [2,25]. Another
concern that is closely related to the ecological environment but
easy to be ignored is the water storage of PA pavement. Studies
shows that the stored water quality and quantity of PA pavement
are correlate to the structural layer design [26], surface slope and
clogging conditions [27], as well as the ambient temperature
[28]. Some positive measures to improve the water storage quan-
tity and quality of PA pavement include the selection of suitable
geotextiles [28], and the use polymer modified bitumen (PMB) sur-
face course in combination with limestone aggregate sub-base
[26].
Although PA has a good many significant advantages, it can suf-
fer from challenges that seriously affect both its performance and
service life [29]. Inspections indicated that common problems
encountered with failed PA pavements were mainly related to
moisture and temperature [30]. These problems initially referred
to early raveling, stripping, clogging potential of the surface layers
[4,12,31–33], and then later, when defects with winter mainte-
nance and durability became serious practical issues and exceeded
by environmental concerns, thereupon, many countries and
departments decided to stop using this type of pavement around
the new millennium [9,34,35].
Subsequently, profited from the progress in terms of materials
and test methods, some parts of drawbacks of PA are progressively
improved, which has significantly promoted many contributing
researches and applications. For example, Japan first developed a
special polymer modified bitumen (PMB) containing more than
9% SBS (styrene-butadienestyrene) that successfully increased the
resistance of rutting deformation and prolong the service life of
PA surface [36]. It is reported that more than 67% of the existing
expressways in Japanese are paved with this type of standard sur-
face before 2008 [37]. Whereafter, a better high-viscosity additive
named Tafpack-Super (TPS) was manufactured and used to
improve the properties of PA mixture. Now, 100% of new express-
ways are required to place with PA course in Japanese [8,38]. Cor-
respondingly, it about 20% of existing expressways choose to adopt
PA in Europe.
Similarly, PA as one of the desirable solutions for the strategy of
Sponge City proposed by China in 2012, it seems to have
a wide range of potential applications for supplementing tradi-
tional urban drainage systems. However, in fact, the total length
of PA to date does not exceed 200 km, only accounts for 0.1% of
expressways in the southeast of China [39]. Overall, compared with
the United States, Europe and Japanese, PA is still a newborn in
China. Admittedly, there is thereby an urgent need but simultane-
ously it still caused some new problems. It must be noted that, PA
is endowed with higher expectations than ever before, not only
more durable but also more functional to adapt to increasing traffic
loadings and higher environmental requirements. In this case,
future research of PA need to focus on some more in depth prob-
lems, such as long-term of weather resistance and durability,
anti-freezing and maintenance-free in winter, supplementary
groundwater as well as other potential function-related issues.
This means PA must be designed properly to play its functions as
intended. However, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, most
of studies related to PA are mainly for OGFC, PFC and suchlike over-
lays. Hereto, it is necessary to present a comprehensive review of
international experience as much as possible to obtain relevant
guidance that can be used to actualize some of special multipur-
pose designs in China.
2. International experience (history, motivation, durability,
service life and functional life)
What is being put forth in this section is a summary of existing
studies having been conducted on the knowledge and experience
of PA mixtures from different countries during the past 50 years.
A brief look at the history of PA was preliminary summarized in
Table 1. It is mentioned in the literature that PA mixture was orig-
inally evolved from a seal coat treatment in the United States to
prevent skidding on wet pavement in the 1930s [34,40,41].
Nonetheless, it was not until 1970s that PA was generally applied
on highways and airports [34]. While Europeans took the United
States version of PA mixtures and improved its performance in
subsequent works [35]. From then on, PA mixtures rapidly gained
popularity throughout many other countries (Germany, Nether-
lands, France, Italy, United Kingdom, Belgium, Spain, Switzerland,
Austria, Japan, India and China) due to the good experience [2].
The motivations for choosing PA are inseparable from its advan-
tages, which mainly include improving traffic safety under wet-
weather conditions and reducing noise in accordance with the
results from literature review. However, an interesting survey con-
ducted in the NCHRP report 640 shows that over 78% of agencies
selected PA mixtures largely due to policy factors from the
responses of four Canadian provinces, Austria, Japan and 14 states
 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998 3

Table 1
The general use of PA in different countries.

Country Acronym First Primary General NMAS Main concern Service life Functional Supporting researches
use reason thickness life
America OGFC; 1930’s frictional 20– 12 mm reducing hydroplaning, splash, 3–12 years 2–5 years [2,12,34,42]
PFC resistance 50 mm spray; updating mixture
properties; stormwater
management
Canada OGFC noise updating mixture properties; <10 years [41]
reduction stormwater management
England PAWC; 1967 drainage of 50 mm 20 mm drainability; clogging behavior; 7–10 years 5–8 years [34,41,43–46]
PA water Construction cost
France DA 1976 40 mm 10 mm durability 8–12 years [34,41,45–47]
Denmark PAWC 1970’s noise noise-reducing capacity; winter 7 2–5 years [8,41,44,48]
reduction maintenance
Germany WA 1971 noise 40 mm 8/ noise reducing properties; good 5–7 years ＞6 years [2,4,34,49–55]
reduction 16 mm structural lifetime 3th > 10 years
Switzerland PA 1972 traffic 40– 8 mm skid resistance; rolling tire noise; [56–59]
safety; 50 mm deformation winter maintenance
noise
reduction
Australia PA all good road safety and traffic flow during 8–10 years 3–6 years [35,41,44,60,61]
benefits rain
Portugal PA 1991 40 mm 15 mm [34,62]
New OGPA 1975 low noise; 70 mm 8/ layer stiffness; field performance; 10–12 years 6–7 years [6,34,63-66]
Zealand ability to 16 mm maintenance methods
drain water
Belgium PA 1979 all good 40– 11– mixture design; acoustic [35,57]
PAWC benefits 50 mm 16 mm properties; construction,
maintenance
Netherlands PAWC 19800 s noise 40– 11– guaranteeing traffic safety; 10–12 years [2,4,34,35,42,50,58,63,67]
OGPA reduction; 50 mm 16 mm improving mixture properties
traffic
safety
Spain PA 1980 noise 40– 11– using warm open-grade mixtures 9 years [34,67-70]
reduction; 50 mm 16 mm
driver
comfort
Austria PA 1984 40 mm 11 mm early damage; winter 8–10 years 3–6 years [70,72]
maintenance; structural life
Japan PA 1987 traffic 20– 5/ using polymer modified asphalt;5–11 years [8,73–75]
safety; 50 mm 13 mm performance under heavy traffic;
driving severe climate conditions
comfort
China PA 19800 s traffic 50– 13– field performance [76–79]
safety; 150 mm 16 mm
noise
reduction
Malaysia SRSS 1991 skid 14 mm improving mixture properties; [4,80]
resistance; drainability, clogging behavior
noise
reduction
Remarks PA: porous asphalt; OGFC: open-graded friction course; PFC: permeable friction course; PAWC: porous asphalt wearing course; DA: drainage asphalt;
WA: whispering asphalt; OGPA: open-graded porous asphalt; SRSS: skid resistant silent surfacing;

of the United States, and 50% of these agencies believe that traffic
volume is also important next to the policy [35]. This is consistent
with the fact that the rapid promotion of a technology is initially
dependent on policy support. In this regard, China should learn
from foreign experience and also recognize the importance of the
policy factors to the promotion of PA, and find proper materials
and structures suitable for China’s traffic conditions through future
research. In agreement with literature review, other factors are not
considered the most decisive but crucial cannot be ignored for any
agency, such as safety, winter maintenance, monitor performance,
wet weather accident history, and noise reduction.
In addition, durability has always been a matter of concern
since this is the major weakness due to the open gradation struc-
ture of PA. Durability as a large conception mainly refer to the
whole pavement rather than just of the asphalt mixture, it needs
a clearly definition for each guidance on best practice. From this
point of view, pavement durability is defined as the ability to
maintain a satisfactory level of property over the expected struc-
4 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998
tural service-life without major maintenance [42,82,83]. It must be
noted, pavement durability of PA is a complex and comprehensive
problem that is affected by the durability of the mixture itself, as
well as the combined damaging effects of environment and traffic
loading, ultimately affecting the structural mechanics and func-
tional properties of the pavement. While as for asphalt mixture
system, durability refers to the ability of compacted asphalt con-
crete to retain its structural integrity throughout its expected ser-
vice life [82,83]. According to the survey, the deterioration of PA
mixture is attributed to cohesion and adhesion failure, which usu-
ally results in early raveling, stripping that affecting the durability
of overall pavement, even clogging potential that leading the loss
of original function of PA [33,53,82,84]. Besides, open gradation
makes PA structure more susceptible to external factors. Inspec-
tions indicated that these common problems affected its durability
were mainly related to moisture and temperature [3]. Specifically,
moisture damage mechanisms involves thermodynamics, chem-
istry, physics and mechanics, which can be summarized as: (1)
changes in internal or external conditions due to moisture trans-
port and (2) system response due to the deterioration of cohesive
and adhesion bonds [33,85]. The presence of water initially affects
the microstructure of the material, ultimately leading to distresses
from cracking to rutting in the macrostructure [33]. On the other
hand, asphalt is actually a temperature-dependent material. Ambi-
ent temperature has a significant impact on asphalt binders. When
the pavement temperature drops rapidly enough to a low temper-
ature, PA surface layer will develop tensile stresses by temperature
gradient [86]. However, PA is a skeleton structure with stone-on-
stone contact, the resulting tensile stresses can cause brittle crack-
ing inside the PA pavement [4]. Although low-temperature crack-
ing at first may not lead to the significant disease in PA
pavement, these cracks tend to gradually expand and increase with
time and finally affect the pavement performance and life expec-
tancy over the next few years. In addition to the ambient temper-
ature, the compaction temperature is also closely related to the
volume characteristics and mechanical properties of PA mixture.
Studies show that a higher compaction temperature may decrease
the air voids of PA mixture, thus failing to achieve the required
density and designed performance. On the contrary, the decrease
of compaction temperature may lead to an increase in air voids
and a reduction in mixture density, which may adversely affect
the ability of the PA mixture to resist abrasion loss, permanent
deformation and moisture induced damage [87].
According to investigation presented in Table 1, both the service
life and functional life of PA existed a wide range of data in many
countries. Here, the service life is defined as the length of time
from new completed pavement to the initial rehabilitation, or
the year of failure referring to a certain serviceability threshold.
Fig. 1. Service life of PA pavement in different areas in Japan [8].
While the functional life is defined as the number of years when
expected characteristics of PA remain effective during this period
[35,88]. However, it is noteworthy that PA pavement still has the
basic traffic flowing capacity even after losing of its original func-
tionality. Statistics indicated that the service life of PA ranges from
3 to 12 years or even higher, and the average service life is about 5
to 8 years [41,60]. By contrast, the functional life is generally 50%
to 80% of the service life, a lower percentage only about 38% to
60% is also reported in the literature [8,35,41,60]. In Japan, due
to abundant rainfall, PA has been widely applied as a standard sur-
face course. A comparative survey including 34 sections on 10
expressways in warm areas and 35 sections on 6 expressways in
snowy areas, as shown in Fig. 1 [8]. It was observed that the service
life of PA is not inferior to DMA in warm areas as long as it was rea-
sonably designed to be sufficiently resistant to stripping and ravel-
ing. However, the number of investigated sections with service life
less 8 years in snowy areas was twice that in warm areas [8]. This
means the application of PA may be restricted in cold regions with
heavy snow in winter. Identical conclusions was obtained in study
where PA was not recommended to be use in snow zone due to
extensive snow plowing may cause the raveling of coarse aggre-
gate from the surface course [2].
Overall, PA is often considered as a functional layer rather than
a structural layer in many countries and agencies. The United
States uses it to improve the frictional resistance [2,89]. France is
mainly devoted to reducing the tire-pavement noise [2,90,91].
Japan uses PA as a standard surface to eliminate traffic accidents
under rainfall conditions [8]. New Zealand has developed a twin-
layer structure that taking into account noise reduction and clog-
ging resistance at the same time [92]. These countries have accu-
mulated some practical experiences or specifications matching
their own situations. In China, PA mixture was introduced in
1980’s, it was not further studied and applied thereafter
[77,78,93]. In 2012, China proposed a significant strategy for build-
ing the Sponge City. The government invested 60–80 million dol-
lars a year in some pilot cities. As one of the desirable solutions,
PA is highly expected due to its excellent functionality. However,
the localization of PA still encounters many difficulties at present.
On the one hand, it is very hot in summer and pretty cold in winter,
both seasons last a long time. On the other hand, heavy vehicles
account for a higher proportion in traffic composition. Under
extreme weather and heavy load conditions, how to ensure the
pavement durability in practice is one of the most difficult and
urgent problems in China.
After reviewing the literature on international experience
through the worldwide, it is not hard to find durability of PA pave-
ment is a universal but complex problem due to multiple affecting
factors. However, in the final analysis, this issue cannot be sepa-
 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998 5

rated from the design category. Therefore, this article attempts to
maximize the advantages and minimize the disadvantages in
terms of structural design and mixture design, as well as the favor-
able contributing factors affecting both design process. Accord-
ingly, achievements including advantages and shortcomings in
each branch have been discussed and referential suggestions for
future research have been put forward expecting to improve the
functionality and durability of PA pavement.
3. Mixture design of porous asphalt pavement
Although PA has gradually attracted widespread attention in
China, the lack of unified design standards at present is the main
limitation to further use of PA mixture. In an effort to promote
advancement and standardization of the mixture design practice,
this section summarizes the mixture design methodologies for
PA used by different foreign agencies and institutions. Many of
the methods have either different mixture design requirements
or different procedures, as well as calculations to determine the
OBC (optimum bitumen content). The following sections conduct
a deep discussion about four important aspects of material selec-
tion, grading design, performance testing and OBC determination.
Some of these practices could apply to China are recommended
to improve the durability of PA in future studies.
3.1. Material selection
In view of the insufficient durability of PA pavement, many
countries have conducted continuous researches mainly focusing
on asphalt binder and aggregate gradation [31].
3.1.1. Favorable researches on asphalt binders
Asphalt binder is a general term for asphalt materials (including
modifiers, additives, etc.) which play a cementing role in asphalt
mixture. Investigation showed the former generation of PA in the
United States and Europe suffered varying degrees of early damage
after being paved for 2 or 3 years [4,94]. The main reason is attrib-
uted to the usage of normal road asphalt or direct distillation
asphalt as well as little asphalt content. Such an insufficient thick-
ness of asphalt film causes loss of adhesion between aggregates
and asphalt accompanied by the aging of the asphalt binder. In
recent years, many countries have carried out many researches
on asphalt binders to improve the problems encountered in the
use of PA mixtures. Table 2 summarizes many favorable researches
on asphalt binders recently used in PA mixtures [61,95,96].
3.1.1.1. Proper selection of asphalt binder grade. Asphalt properties
are the key factors affecting the performance of PA mixtures.
Firstly, temperature has an extreme effect on viscoelastic behavior
of asphalt binders. Concretely speaking, when the temperature
reaches 150 °C or more, matrix asphalt exhibits strict fluid proper-
ties therefore have good workability. At the moderate temperature
of about 25 °C, matrix asphalt has similar consistency of rubber to
ensure adequate stability. However, at temperature of about
20 °C and lower, matrix asphalt becomes very brittle and easily
to brittle cracking [104–106]. Note that, brittle cracking is not lim-
ited to cold regions. Large day-night amplitudes or rapid drops in
temperature can also generate cracking in the embrittled pave-
ment [106,107]. Secondly, previous research found the penetration
of PA decreases by 20% per year and brittle fracture occurs when its
value is less than 15 to 20. Once the first aggregate removed, the
nearby aggregates followed like domino effect due to lose support
[108]. Thirdly, it generally observed that PA is prone to aging as

Table 2
Types of asphalt binders used recently in PA mixtures in different countries.

Country Local climate Binder Binder modifiers Binder Special fillers Fibers Supporting
properties content researches
America varied, rainy 80/100 pen A-R binders:15%–20% crumb 8.0%– 1%–2% lime no fibers [1,2,97]
rubber 10%
PMB (PG 76-XX) 6.0%– 0.2%–0.5% cellulose or
7.0% mineral fibers
England mild, rainy 100/150, natural rubber, 3.7% hydrated lime 2% fibers (organic and [34,35,98–100]
160/220 pen 4.5%, inorganic)
SBS, EVA 5.2%
Denmark cool summer, 50/100 pen SBS 3.9%, 1.5% hydrated 0.25% cellulose fibers [61,95]
warm winter 5.4%, lime, limestone
6.3%
Germany mild, humid B65, B85 PMB, not explicitly specified 6.2–6.8% [34,60,95,96]
Switzerland warm summer, 50/70, 70/ paving grade bitumen, PMB, >3.0% hydrated lime polymers, organic, mineral [96,100]
cold winter 100 pen not explicitly specified fibers
France mild, rainy 50/70 pen A-R binders:15%–20% tire hydrated lime [34,47,61,95,100]
powder
Belgium mild, rainy 80/100 pen SBS 4.0%– fines < 0.080 mm [57,61,95]
5.0%
A-R binder 5.5%–
6.5%
Netherlands cool summer, penetration- no modifier 4.5% limestone filler, without polymer additives [4,34,67,100]
warm winter graded 5.5% hydrated lime or fibers
Spain hot summer, 80/100, 60/ SBS, EVA 4.5%– [35,70,99,101]
cold winter 70 pen 5.5%
South Africa hot, dry PMB, A-R binders >4.5% [35,99]
Italy hot summer, 80/100 pen SBS, EVA 4.0%– polypropylene, [34,35,99,102]
warm winter 6.0% polyacrylonitrile, cellulose
fibres
Australia hot, little rain unmodified SBS, SBR, A-R, EVA 4.5%– hydrated lime, 0.3%–0.5% cellulose or [35,44,61,100,103]
binders 6.5% ground limestone mineral fibers
Japan hot summer, 60/80 pen SBS (more than 9%) TPS (12% 4.0%– limestone filler optional use [39,73,75]
cold winter to 14%) 6.0%
China hot summer and 60/80, 80/ 8% SBS + 4% TPS/HVA 14% TPS/ >4.5% 1%- 2% hydrated polymers and organic or [24,61]
cold winter 100 pen HVA lime mineral fibers
6 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998
well as adhesion and cohesion degradation due to the open-graded
structure under the long-term effects of sunlight, air and moisture
[4,13,29,31,100,109,110,111]. As well the repeated action of heavy
traffic and hydrodynamic pressure, the wrapped asphalt film tends
to stripped from the aggregates surface thus leading to the cohe-
sion failure [29].
However, in fact, these problems can be balanced or even min-
imized by proper selection of asphalt binder grade [104,105]. It
must be emphasized that the asphalt grade should be determined
according to local factors such as environment, climate, traffic, and
pavement diseases history [2]. Table 2 reflects two basic conditions
of matrix asphalt related to climate. (1) Temperate maritime cli-
mate regions: including some parts of Demark, Switzerland, France
and Belgium. These regions have relatively mild climate and very
little low temperatures. High stiffness binders with penetration
of 50/70 are commonly used to achieve better high temperature
stability. (2) Cold regions in winter: including some parts of
Switzerland, Spain, Japan and China. It seems that brittle cracking
or durability issues caused by low temperature are often very seri-
ous in these areas. Therefore, a higher penetration asphalt of
80/100 is generally recommended to give better flexibility to PA
at low temperatures. Besides, most states in the United States
has adopted the performance grading (PG) system to divide asphalt
binder grade. It has been recommended high stiffness binders, gen-
erally two grades stiffer than normally used for the local climatic
conditions, such as PG 76-XX [2,112].
3.1.1.2. Use of suitable modifiers in asphalt. Based on relevant inter-
national experience, the general tendency in most countries is
towards using polymer modifiers in PA mixtures on a routine basis
[2,4,34,47,71,72,98,111]. From the perspective of binder proper-
ties, modifiers are considered to be effective in increasing the bin-
der content and thickening the asphalt film, thus improving the
cohesion and adhesion in PA mixtures [4,34,113,114]. Another
important effect, modifiers have proved to be helpful in reducing
the temperature susceptibility of PA mixtures due to the higher
viscosity at high temperatures and better flexibility at low temper-
atures [34].
However, it must be noted that different kinds of modifiers have
different emphasis on improving the binder properties and cannot
be generalized owing to their respective physical and chemical
properties. For example, in the 1980s, after field survey, Japan
introduced European technology to its own expressways, and later
found that the same technology was not suitable for domestic cli-
mate and traffic conditions. The test road experienced severe dis-
persion and rut problem during operation [115]. Subsequently,
through continuous research a special polymer modified bitumen
(PMB) with more than 9% styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) is
adopted in Japanese expressways to overcome the poor durability
in cold areas [8,36,73], and gradually developed into a more versa-
tile high-viscosity modified asphalt [116–118]. In view of this sit-
uation, the modifier selection should be based on its modification
effect, environmental suitability and economic efficiency. Table 3
briefly examines the characteristics and application of different
modifiers used in PA according to the literature.
Currently, there are three main types of modifiers used in PA
mixtures. Among them, SBS has been widely used in most Euro-
pean countries, Japan and China since it replaced ethylene vinyl
acetate (EVA) due to its better overall performance. A notable
advantage is that SBS can simultaneously improve both high and
low temperature properties of the matrix asphalt, thereby raising
the overall performance of PA mixtures, especially suitable for
areas with both high temperatures and low temperatures in a year.
Next is rubber modifiers which are commonly used in relatively
cold areas in the United States and Europe as well as in South
Africa [131]. In practice, the fine crumb rubber is mixed with the
hot asphalt, letting it fully react with the asphalt and swell up to
3 to 5 times by absorbing the molten component of the asphalt
[42,126,132,133]. The swelling process has many positive effects
on the properties of asphalt binders in terms of the viscosity
[134], softening point [135], loss modulus, and storage modulus
[119,136]. It has been proved that asphalt-rubber modified binder
(A-R) have the ability to improve the rutting resistance, resilience
modulus, and fatigue cracking resistance of PA mixtures [124]. This
is consistent with a survey of NCHRP 640 report, approximately
two-thirds of agencies among 64% of the United States, four Cana-
dian provinces, Austria, and Japan responded to use SBS and
rubber-based modifiers, or as an option in PA mixtures [36].
Another is a new type of high-viscosity modifier (HVA) origi-
nally developed by Japan, namely Tafpack-Super (TPS). It mainly
consists of thermoplastic elastomer, tackifying resin and plasti-
cizer, and contains more rubber or thermoplastic polymer com-
pounds than ordinary modifiers. More importantly, Japan and
later China put forward a series of high requirements for the prop-
erties of this type of high-viscosity PA binders, including: dynamic
viscosity at 60 °C over 20000 Pas, softening point above 80 °C as
well as toughness and tenacity at 20 °C exceed 15 Nm, as shown
in Table 4 [118,137,138]. Because it has better performance than
SBS modified asphalt. Currently, TPS is the mainstream modifier
used in PA mixtures in Japan, and also attracted widespread atten-
tion in China.
Moreover, Fig. 2 shows a comparison about many properties
and economics of three types of modifiers in a more intuitive
way. It is believed that HVA may have a more general application
trend with the improvement of technology and the reduction of
manufacturing cost. As for other modifiers, such as SBR, EVA and
epoxy, they all have some gaps more or less in improving ability
of matrix asphalt and applicability compared with three types of
modifiers above, also the usage rate of these modifiers has declined
obviously in recent years.
3.1.1.3. Effects of filler on porous asphalt binder. To further enhance
the bond between aggregates and asphalt binders and improve the
water stability of PA mixtures, a number of agencies specify the use
of fillers or anti-stripping agents in PA mixtures [12,97,140]. Differ-
ent types of fillers and anti-stripping agents are used in various
countries, which mainly include mineral powder, hydrated lime,
limestone powder, fly ash, cement [4,104,105,109,141] and liquid
amine anti-stripping agent [131].
It is well known that mineral powder is the most commonly
used filler in asphalt mixtures. Good quality mineral powders are
generally obtained by grinding limestone or magmatite. These
mineral powders, smaller than 0.075 mm in particle size, incorpo-
rated into the mixture as part of the asphalt mortar, are extremely
important for filling the voids formed by aggregate interlocking.
Although the filler only accounts for a small fraction of the volume
in asphalt mixture, it changes the engineering properties of the
asphalt binder, and then affects the overall mechanical perfor-
mance and workability of asphalt mixture. Therefore, its amount
should be carefully determined. More fillers will cause segregation
of asphalt mixture, while less will not be enough to adsorb asphalt.
In practice, other additives may also be adopted to partially replace
the mineral powder for a certain purpose, such as hydrated lime,
fly ash or recycled powder in mixing equipment, etc.
Hydrated lime is an alkaline filler, usually containing more than
90% calcium hydroxide (formula is Ca(OH)2), and the pH value of
its aqueous solution is greater than 12 [142,143]. The specific sur-
face area of hydrated lime used in asphalt mixture, typically more
than 7000 cm2/g, is much higher than that of ordinary mineral
powders and limestone (2500–3500 cm2/g), making it easier to
adsorb more asphalt binders. What’s more is that the hydrated
lime can chemically react with sulfoxide, carboxylic acid in asphalt
 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998 7

Table 3
Main characteristics of different modifiers used in PA mixtures.

Type Modifiers Benefits of Binder properties
Thermoplastic SBS better penetration index
elastomer higher softening point
highly dynamic viscosity
(60 °C)
better elastic recover ability
(star-SBS)
less sensitive to temperature
(star-SBS)
Rubber-based A-R higher softening point
increase binder viscosity and
content
better low temperature
flexibility
less sensitive to temperature
SBR highly softening point
better low temperature
ductility (5 °C)
less sensitive to temperature
High-viscosity TPS higher softening point >80
HVA highest dynamic viscosity
(60 °C) > 20000 Pas
adequate toughness (20 °C)
> 20 Nm
better low temperature
ductility (5 °C)
less sensitive to temperature
Thermoplasticsresin EVA good penetration index
good elastic recover ability
little sensitive to temperature
Thermosetting Epoxy ideal performance at media,
high temperature
Benefits of mixture performance Potential downsides Recommended Supporting
researches
lower abrasion loss poor stability at high all areas [8,98,119–122]
better resistance against rutting temperature
good resistance to fatigue and low poor compatibility
temperature cracking (star-SBS)
good indirect strength and
resilient modulus
low abrasion loss small particle reduced cold area [119,121–126]
good resistance against rutting air voids
good indirect strength and big particle increases
resilient modulus discontinuity
better resistance to fatigue and high temperature
reflective cracking performance lower
than SBS
lower abrasion loss poor stability at high cold area [96,101]
good resistance against rutting temperature
excellent resistance to low high temperature
temperature cracking performance lower
than SBS
lowest abrasion loss high additive amount all areas [39,119,121,127]
best resistance to permanent and cost
deformation
better indirect strength and
resilient modulus
better resistance to fatigue and
reflective cracking
better water stability
low abrasion loss big differences in warm area [98]
good resistance against rutting properties
better resistance to fatigue overall performance
cracking lower than SBS
better resistance to moisture, long curing time warm area [128–130]
aging and ravelling more brittle at low
better resistance to permanent temperature
deformation and reflective 5–10 times the cost of
cracking regular asphalt

Table 4
Quality requirement for high-viscosity asphalt binder (JMAAS-01) [139,140].

Physical property Test condition Unit Technical requirement Test method

Penetration 25 °C, 100 g, 5 s 1/10 mm 40 JIS K 2207
Softening point °C 80 JIS K 2207
Ductility 15 °C, 50 mm/min cm 50 JIS K 2207
Viscosity 60 °C Pas 2,000 JAA-001
Toughness 25 °C Nm 20 HPIEM-A057
Tenacity 25 °C Nm 15 HPIEM-A057
Loss on heating RTFO, 5 h, 163 °C % 0.6 JIS K 2207
Retained penetration ratio RTFO, 5 h, 163 °C % 65 JIS K 2207
Flash point cleveland open cup °C 260 JIS K 2265

to generate an alkali-earth salt [144,145]. Which has a strong
adsorption capacity, can be firmly attached to the aggregate sur-
face without falling off, thereby helping to reduce the asphalt bin-
der draindown and the abrasion loss of asphalt mixture [34,146–
149]. Secondly, using the hydrated lime instead of some mineral
powders would increase the softening point of the asphalt binder.
This also represents a better mixture performance at high temper-
ature. Thirdly, hydrated lime can be used as an anti-stripping agent
in asphalt mixtures selecting acidity aggregate, with silica content
exceeding 63% or 65%, such as granite. In addition, another type of
filler to be noted here is quicklime, which is calcined from lime-
stone at temperatures above 900 °C. Quicklime consists mainly of
calcium oxide (formula is CaO), and the pH value is usually less
than 9. Interestingly, it can react rapidly with water to produce cal-
cium hydroxide and then transform into hydrated lime. Therefore
it is also considered to be beneficial to improve the water stability
of asphalt mixture.
At present, there are two approaches to incorporate hydrated
lime into asphalt mixtures. The first is known as dry method,
quicklime reacts with an appropriate amount of water to generate
hydrated lime, which is ground into powder after drying, and then
added directly to a mixing plant in order to replace some mineral
powder. The second refers to the wet method. The hydrated lime
is mixed with water to prepare dilute slurry, which is then blended
with aggregate to make it fully coated on the aggregate surface. For
more information, please refer to the California test methods LP-7:
lime slurry marination mix design [150]. In contrast, wet method
seems to work better but more complex in process, requiring addi-
tional equipment for preparing slurry and specialized mixing plant.
Moreover, note that the specific amount of mineral powder should
be determined according to the test, usually 1%–2% by weight of
total mixture [1]. It is found that excessive or complete substitu-
tion may reduce the ductility of the asphalt binder and increase
its creep stiffness modulus, resulting in poor performance of
8 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998
Fig. 2. Effects of three mainstream modifiers on PA properties and economics.
asphalt mixture at low temperature. When the substitution
amount exceeds 40%, it will affect the workability of the asphalt
mixture.
Another traditional filler or anti-stripping agent is Portland
cement, also called silicate cement. Which is often used to replace
some mineral powders in asphalt mixtures in the United States and
Europe [151,152]. Also, it is allowed to be used as filler instead of
the limestone powder in some areas of China. Portland cement is
an alkaline material with a specific surface area of about 3500 to
4000 cm2/g and the PH value of the solution is about 10. Similar
to the mechanism of hydrated lime mentioned above, it can react
with organic acids in asphalt to produce highly adherent sub-
stances. Studies show that Portland cement has more complicated
effects on asphalt binder and moisture due to its complex compo-
nents. Elements such as aluminum, magnesium and calcium are
considered to be beneficial to improve the adhesion between
asphalt binders and aggregates [33]. Generally, there is an opti-
mum amount of Portland cement in the asphalt mixture, too much
will make the mixture too dry and weaken its water stability. Com-
pared with hydrated lime, Portland cement has lower activity and
smaller specific surface area, therefore a little higher content is
needed in practice, however, the improvement effect is slightly
inferior to that of hydrated lime in terms of high temperature per-
formance and moisture damage resistance.
Diatomite is also a potential filler of PA mixture, its chemical
composition is mainly silicon dioxide (SiO2), which is famous for
its excellent hardness. The high silicon content is beneficial to
increase the stiffness of asphalt binder, thus contribute to improv-
Table 5
Representative anti-stripping agents used in asphalt mixtures in different periods [154].
Anti-stripping agent First generation
Main categories inorganic
Representative lime and cement
Modified object aggregate
Advantage low-cost, good performance
Disadvantage complex process, poor dispersion
Current usage still in use
ing the deformation resistance. Moreover, diatomite is also charac-
terized by high porosity, strong adsorption, chemical stability and
low bulk density. It is found that microscopic porous structure of
diatomite leads to high specific surface area, which is helpful to
increase the content of asphalt binder and improve the adhesion
to aggregate [153].
Apart from the above fillers, other representative anti-stripping
agents used in asphalt mixtures to date are also listed in Table 5.
Currently, the most widely used polymer anti-stripping agents in
road engineering are mainly amines and non-amines. Both of them
belong to the category of surfactant compounds.
The amine-based anti-stripping agent contain many hydrocar-
bon chains, one end of which is hydrophilic amine group with a
strong affinity to acid aggregate, at the other end is lipophilic alkyl
group melted into the asphalt. The whole hydrocarbon chain acts
like a ‘‘bridge” between the surface of the hydrophilic aggregate
and the hydrophobic asphalt, thereby enhancing the bonding force
between each other [154]. It should be noted here that many of
these anti-stripping agents are liquid and have poor thermal stabil-
ity [154,155]. Although it works well in the short term, its long-
term performance has arisen many queries, especially in mechan-
ical properties, which is considered to be inferior to hydrated lime
[156,157].
In contrast, non-amine anti-stripping agents are generally con-
sidered to be superior to the former in terms of thermal stability
and durability [154,158]. This will beneficial to ensure the con-
struction temperature of the asphalt mixture. At present, there
are few non-amine anti-stripping agents on the market, mainly
Second generation Third generation Fourth generation
metallic saponification low molecular weight polymeric
soapstock iron quaternary ammonium salt amines and non-amines
asphalt binder asphalt binder asphalt binder
low-cost, easy to use easy to use good performance, easy to use
ease of segregation high-cost, poor thermal stability high-cost
rarely used rarely used extensive use
 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998
include phosphorus hydroxyls, amino amines and their derivatives,
sodium lignosulfonate, diatomaceous earth, and phosphate esters.
However, the authors believe that it may be one of the major
trends in the near future, while some institutions are also working
on new nano anti-stripping agents. Overall, the selection of anti-
stripping agent should be determined based on thermal stability,
durability, compatibility, and economic cost.
For porous asphalt binders, however, it requires better adhesion
than common asphalt due to the open gradation structure and
stone-on-stone contact of the mixture. Table 2 also investigates
the use of fillers in porous asphalt mixtures in various countries.
Most countries prefer hydrated lime considering the low-cost
and good effect, such as Austria, Denmark, Germany and China
[100,106,159]. It usually accounts for 1% to 2% of dry aggregate
weight, and hardly affects the porosity distribution in the PA mix-
ture. Concretely, compared with limestone filler, hydrated lime is
more conducive to improving the tensile strength ratio (TSR) of
PA mixture [160]. For both un-aged and aged specimens, the Can-
tabro abrasion of PA mixtures containing hydrated lime is less than
the same mixtures having limestone filler. In addition, from the
long-term performance of the mixture, hydrated lime is more
effective than amine anti stripping agents in resisting water dam-
age. Here, based on previous studies, it may be possible to infer the
effect of various fillers or anti-stripping agents (suitable amount)
on the performance of PA mixes: 2% hydrated lime >2% limestone
>1% Portland cement >3% ammonia anti-stripping agent [161].
3.1.1.4. Application of fiber stabilizer in porous asphalt mixture. It has
long been recognized that fibers play an important role in the
behavior of asphalt mixtures. Many different types of fibers have
been used to improve the specific performance of asphalt mixtures
[14,35,162,163]. These fibers can be divided into two categories
depending on their origins and processing methods, namely natu-
ral fibers and chemical fibers, more classified details as shown in
Fig. 3 [164–167]. It has been found that the intrinsic properties
of fibers have a direct effect on the improvement of mixture
performance.
Cellulose fibers are produced by the stems and phloem of some
plants (usually coniferous and broadleaf trees). It is observed that
the interior of cellulose fibers was mostly loose or hollow struc-
tures under scanning electron microscope (SEM) [167–169]. One
of the most prominent features of cellulose fibers is its strong oil
absorption capacity, which can effectively inhibit the draindown
behavior of asphalt during mixing, transportation and paving of
asphalt mixtures [12,16]. However, it also has some obvious short-
comings that restrict its further promotion. Take lignin fiber as an
example, it has little significance for toughening and cracking
resistance of asphalt mixtures. This is largely determined by its
Fig. 3. Classification of fibers used in PA mixtures.
9
own properties, such as insufficient tensile strength and low mod-
ulus, as well as poor heat resistance [170].
Coconut fiber is another kind of natural fiber extracted from
coconut shell, which is mainly composed of cellulose, lignin, hemi-
cellulose, pectin and so on. A recent study showed that incorpora-
tion of an appropriate amount of chemically-treated coconut fibers
(0.3% by weight of mixture) into the PA mixture may help increase
its Marshall stability and rutting resistance. Moreover, the study
found also that the use of 10% coconut shells instead of aggregates
with the particle size of 5 mm appears to contribute to improving
the Marshall stability of the PA mixture [171].
Mineral fibers are rapidly drawn from mineral rocks after melt-
ing at high temperature. Benefiting from better mechanical proper-
ties, these fibers can be evenly dispersed in asphalt under external
forces to form a stable three-dimensional network structure, and
play a good bridging and reinforcing effect on the asphalt mixtures
[102,123,172–174]. Besides, the reasons for the popularity of min-
eral fibers in road materials also include: wide distribution of raw
materials, simple manufacturing process, and environmental
friendliness. Here, it is worth noting that asbestos fiber has been
banned from use in asphalt mixtures due to its potential toxicity
[175,176].
Synthetic fiber is a general term for a class of polymer chemical
fibers made from small molecular organic compounds by polyaddi-
tion or polycondensation reaction. This type of fiber has not only
good chemical stability and satisfied mechanical properties, but
also similar bridging and reinforcement effects in the asphalt mix-
ture system. Different from the mechanism of lignin fiber adsorb-
ing of asphalt, both mineral fiber and synthetic fiber will form a
spatial network structure in asphalt binders, and then form more
structural asphalt in asphalt mixture by physical infiltration and
surface adsorption [177–181]. Studies show that the oil absorption
capacity of fibers is closely related to the microstructure, specific
surface area and compatibility with asphalt components
[165,169]. For these two kinds of fibers, emphasis should be put
on controlling the length diameter and mixing amount of the
fibers. These parameters also determine the magnitude of the sur-
face area and the spatial frame formation.
The other category is inorganic fiber, which is made from natu-
ral inorganic substances or carbon-containing polymers by artifi-
cial drawing or direct carbonization, mainly including glass fiber,
carbon fiber and metal fiber. Glass fiber has high tensile strength,
insulation and heat resistance, which helps to improve the high
temperature performance of asphalt mixture. However, factors
such as fragility, poor wear resistance and high price also limit
the further application of glass fiber in road materials. For carbon
fibers and metal fibers, a very special function in the application
of asphalt mixtures is good conductivity or electromagnetic effect,
therefore, they are usually used in studies related to asphalt self-
healing and road deicing or snow-melting [182–185]. In addition,
steel fiber has been proved to have a good adsorption capacity
for asphalt, which has a positive contribution to improving the
strength, Marshall stability and abrasion resistance of PA mixture
[186].
Fig. 4a and 4b displays the effects of four commonly used road
fibers on matrix asphalt (AH-70) and SBS modified asphalt mix-
tures based on a study [187]. Overall, the effect of the fibers in
the matrix asphalt mixture is more pronounced than in the modi-
fied asphalt mixture. Different fibers exhibit obvious differences in
the same binders in terms of their own properties and the
improvement of mixture performance. More specifically, lignin
fiber has the most prominent oil absorption capability, which can
significantly increase the amount of asphalt in the mixture. But
mineral fibers and synthetic fibers are superior in terms of load
carrying capacity, high temperature performance and water stabil-
10 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998

Fig. 4a. Effects of different fibers on matrix asphalt (AH-70).

Fig. 4b. Effects of different fibers on SBS modified asphalt mixtures.

ity. Among them, polyacrylonitrile fiber shows more comprehen- lizing additive in PA mixture [35]. However, the main purpose of
sive effect in improving the overall performance of the mixture. using fiber stabilizers in PA mixture is to minimize the draindown
According to the investigation in the NCHRP 640 report, more potential and then increase the binder content, thereby thickening
than 90% agencies believe that fiber is the predominant type stabi- the asphalt film wrapped on the aggregate surface to maintain the
 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998
stability of the stone-on-stone contact. Although it is found that
fibers can also improve the mechanical properties, rutting resis-
tance and water stability of PA mixtures, while this improvement
may be slim compared with the use of modified asphalt or high-
viscosity modified asphalt [34]. This is because that PA mixture
is deliberately designed as a special open-graded skeleton struc-
ture consisting of a high proportion of coarse aggregate (usually
more than 85%) and small amount of fine aggregate. The fibers
are more adherent to the larger aggregate surface, and cannot be
evenly dispersed, interlaced and overlapped to form a relatively
continuous spatial framework. Unlike in dense asphalt mixtures,
fibers do not play a good reinforcing and bridging role in PA mix-
tures. Moreover, excessive fibers can seriously reduce the porosity
(about 1%–1.5%) and permeability of PA mixture [188–192], which
will greatly shorten the function life of PA pavement [189–191].
Considering at present and in the near future, the use of modi-
fied asphalt is still the mainstream trend in PA binders. From the
engineering point of view, the application of fiber may be deter-
mined by appropriate reference to the following two aspects. The
first case is the need to control the draindown potential to increase
the amount of the asphalt binder. Indeed, there are three types of
fiber stabilizers commonly used in PA mixtures, namely cellulose
fibers, mineral fibers and polymer synthetic fibers. As mentioned
above, cellulose fibers have a significant difference in their own
properties and the improvement of the mixture performance,
while the other two types of fibers have relatively close perfor-
mance in asphalt mixtures. However, a previous study by NCAT
has shown that cellulose fibers and mineral fibers are equally effec-
tive in PA mixtures [2,16]. This result is in line with the main func-
tion of fiber stabilizers in PA mixtures. Another case is to reduce
the construction costs by using alternative solutions that meet
the basic performance requirements. Generally, high-viscosity
modifiers exhibit superior properties, but also have higher dosages
(typically 14%) and prices. Whereas the fiber only account for a
very small proportion, usually ranged from 0.2% to 0.5% by weight
of total mixture [35,97,193,194]. Some regions in practice often use
specific fibers and polymer modifiers to achieve comparable effects
as high viscosity modifiers in PA mixtures [35,112].
3.1.2. Properties of coarse aggregate
PA mixture is designed as a coarse granular skeleton with
stone-on-stone contact. Unlike the dense asphalt mixture (DMA),
the proportion of coarse aggregate is up to 85% or more in PA mix-
ture [12,195,196], and the contact area between the aggregates is
reduced by about 25% [61,195,196]. This means that the contact
points will be subjected to higher stresses. Hence, the nature,
shape, particle size and gradation of the aggregate will definitely
have a large impact on the performance of the PA mixture
[99,197,198]. Table 6 investigates the aggregate requirements for
PA mix design in some countries, mainly involving the following
four aspects [61,72,96,199–201].
Table
6 Aggregate requirements for PA mix design in different countries.
Country Cantabro loss Flat and elongated particle
1:3
America 25% 15%
England 30% 20%
Japan 30%
Spain 20% 20%
Germany 35% 10%
South Africa 21%
China 28% 12%,15%,18%
11
Firstly, the coarse aggregate used in PA should have enough
wear resistance to resist external loads and provide necessary fric-
tion for driving safety. On the contrary, care must be taken when
using softer aggregates because excessive aggregate breakdown
may occur during mix production and on-site compaction. It is
generally considered that the Cantabro abrasion value of the coarse
aggregate should be less than 30% [2]. This standard is not uniform
different countries. At this point, the coarse aggregate used in PA
pavement chooses basalt more than limestone in China.
Secondly, the percentage of flat and elongated particles should
be strictly controlled in PA mixture. When the ratio of the mini-
mum thickness (or diameter) to the maximum length (or width)
in all directions of the particle shape is less than a specific value
(mostly 0.3), it belongs to the flat and elongated particles [2,202].
These irregular particles are easily broken or even crushed by the
compactor or heavy vehicle, thereby resulting in asphalt-free frac-
ture surface in the mixture. This will change the mixture gradation
and the stone-on-stone contact of coarse aggregate, and may clog
the connected porosity. If there are too many flat and elongated
particles in coarse aggregate, it may seriously affect the durability
and function of the PA mixture.
Currently, most countries have strict requirements for flat and
elongated particles. Both the United States and the United King-
dom adopt double standards to better control the shape of coarse
aggregate. The percentage of flat and elongated particles should
be less than 5% corresponding to ratios of 5:1, and not exceed
15% and 20% respectively corresponding to the ratio of 3:1 [199–
201]. Japan and Germany require no more than 10% of flat and
elongated particles in coarse aggregates, and take 5:1 and 3:1 as
reference standards respectively [55,199–201]. China currently
adopts the same regulations as ordinary asphalt pavement. For
expressway, this requirement should be no more than 15%. When
the nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS) is greater than
9.5 mm, the flat and elongated particles should not more than
12% in coarse aggregates, while the ratio should not exceed 18%
when the NMAS below 9.5 mm [79,203]. Considering that PA mix-
tures are particularly sensitive to the flat and elongated particles in
coarse aggregates, this standard is clearly not well suited for PA
mixtures. In view of the lack of relevant research at present, this
article suggests that American or Japanese standards can be con-
sidered temporarily.
Thirdly, fractured faces are also required to provide a coarse
aggregate structure with high internal friction. If the fractured face
count is significantly less than 100 percent (for example in par-
tially crushed gravels), the OGFC mix will not have the desired
resistance to rutting. Crushed gravel must have at least 90 percent
particles with two faces and 100 percent particles with one face
resulting from crushing. The percentage of flat and elongated par-
ticles should not exceed 5 and 20 corresponding to ratios of 5:1
and 3:1, respectively [55,199–201].
Moreover, similar to dense-graded HMA, the amount of asphalt
absorption can affect the performance of OGFC. Aggregates with
Crushed face Water absorption
1:5 1 face 2 faces
5% 90 75 2%
5% 100 90 2%
10% 2%
75
90
90, 100
2%
12 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998
relatively low absorption (less than 2 percent water absorption)
are preferred [2,55,199–201]. However, if locally available high-
absorptive aggregates are used, the optimum asphalt content
should be selected on the high side within the specification limits
to account for absorption during mix production, placement, and
service.
Besides, asphalt is generally weakly acidic due to the presence
of anhydrides in the components. It has strong adhesion to alkaline
aggregates such as limestone. However, the poor wear resistance of
limestone will seriously affect the skid resistance and durability of
PA pavement surface. Generally, the surface layer often chooses
aggregates with high strength and high polishing value. The com-
monly used coarse aggregates are mainly basalt, granite and dia-
base. Since basalt has the greatest polishing value and better
road performance, thus could be the most preferred choice in PA
mixture, it may be the preferred choice for PA mixtures in the case
of material source and economic allowance.
3.2. Selection of trail gradation
In the past, PA mixture design always preferred to meet the air
voids requirements, while ignoring the important role of the coarse
aggregate skeleton. Studies have shown that without a special tar-
geted design, it is very difficult to form a stable skeleton and por-
ous structure between coarse aggregates even if the initial air voids
meet the requirements. Especially for continuous gradation, it is
almost impossible to create a skeleton-stabilized porous structure
due to the interference behavior of the aggregate particles in
advance to meet the design air voids. This may be one of the main
reasons for pore clogging and function deterioration of previous PA
mixture after initial use.
3.2.1. VCA ratio of PA mixture
Recently, many studies have attempted to improve the grada-
tion composition of PA mixtures by drawing on the design of the
coarse aggregate skeletons in stone matrix asphalt mixture
(SMA). It is essential in this method that the coarse aggregates have
to be able to provide stable skeleton with stone on stone contact.
For PA mixture, the criterion for the presence of stone-on-stone
contact is that the voids in coarse aggregate (VCA) of the com-
pacted mixture (VCAMIX) is less than the VCA in the dry-rodded
condition (VCADRC) [2,112,204,205]. Here, the VCADRC, VCAMIX
and VCA ratio are calculated as follows [2,35,205]:
8 h i to operate and has high image acquisition accuracy. The lat-
>
> VCADRC ¼ ðGCAGCAcxcÞcs  100
>
> ter method is nondestructive and can obtain continuous
< h
x
i slice images for both two-dimensional analysis and three-
VCA ¼ 1  Gmb PCA
 100
>
>
MIX GCA
>
>
: VCA
VCAratio ¼ VCADRC MIX
<1
where GCA is the bulk specific gravity of coarse aggregates; cs and cx
correspond to the dry-rodded unit weight of the coarse-aggregate
and the unit weight of water, respectively; Gmb refers to the bulk
specific gravity of the compacted PFC mixture. Here P CA is the per-
centage of coarse aggregate in compacted specimens by mass, com-
puted as below:
    2.
%RBS Pb
PCA ¼  1
100 100
where %RBS refers to the percent of aggregate retained on the break-
ing sieve; and Pb is the percent of asphalt binder in compacted
mixture.
When calculating the VCA ratio, the first thing to note here is
the definition of the breaking sieve (BS). In SMA design, BS refers
to the sieve size of 4.75 mm (NO.4) when the nominal maximum
aggregate size (NMAS) is greater than 9.5 mm, while BS is
2.36 mm (NO.8) when NMAS is less than 9.5 mm. For PA mixture,
BS in broad sense refers to a sieve size of 4.75 mm. In Bailey
method, the sieve size corresponding to 0.22 times of NMAS is used
as the BS to classify the coarse and fine aggregates [206]. Besides,
based on the stress transfer of the main skeleton, it is also proposed
to use the aggregate particle size that transmits 70% of the load
stress as the criterion for separating coarse and fine aggregates
[207]. Therefore, the definitions of BS in several gradation design
theories are different. For PA mixtures, the definition of BS has also
been discussed in many studies, several suggestive criteria for
determining BS in PA mixture are summarized as follows [206–
208]:
1. Choose the 4.75 mm sieve (NO.4) according to the sieve of
dividing coarse and fine aggregate, this is the most commonly
adopted criteria in the mixture design of PA [2,209].
2. Choose the sieve size based on the inflection point on the slope
of the gradation curve. Specifically, when the gradation curve is
below this sieve size, the slope begins to flatten out [204].
3. Choose the finest sieve size with a residual of the total aggre-
gates blend more than 10% [204].
4. Choose the aggregate particle size that transmits 70% of the load
stress [207].
5. Choose the sieve size with 0.22 times of NMAS according to the
Bailey method [206].
Studies have shown that VCA ratios calculated using different
criteria mostly exhibit great differences (coincident in 6 out of 16
gradations) [208]. In other words, for the same gradation, it will
lead to diverse conclusions including the BS determination as well
as the interpretation of stone-stone contact. This is mainly due to
the different fractions of the coarse aggregates incorporated into
the calculation. Therefore, it is necessary to further establish a uni-
fied criteria for determining the BS, or develop a set of methods to
analyze the BS of different individual gradations. Given this, in
recent studies, some advanced techniques have been used to
explore the relationship between micro-structure and macro-
properties in PA mixture.
(1) Digital image technology. Usually, specimen images are
obtained from high-sensitivity charge-coupled device
(CCD) cameras or X-ray industrial computed tomography
(ICT) systems. The former method requires cutting the mix-
ture sample, which will lead to certain damage, but it is easy
ð1Þ
dimensional reconstruction. However, high costs, including
equipment and testing, are major drawbacks. Subsequently,
a series of complex processing is performed on the obtained
image by means of related software, as follows [196]:
1.
Binarization–this process converts the scanned true color image in
to a grayscale image, which can be implemented by reb2gray func-
tion in Matlab.
ð2Þ
Filtering wave and denoising–noise, the useless information gener-
ated in image generation, will affect the process of image segmen-
tation. Image denoising methods include frequency domain
method and spatial domain method (subdivided into mean filter,
median filter, Wiener filter and wavelet domain filter). For the
scanned image of asphalt mixture, median filter (midfilt2 function
in Matlab) is considered to be more effective in removing noise
points in aggregates [210].
 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998 13

3. 3. Bond model–considering the shear strength and normal

strength at the contact.
Image enhancement–grayscale transform can change the image
One study used the DEM-IA method to determine BS by simu-
contrast, enhance the edge clarity of image particles, and help to
lating the mechanical response of PA mixtures with different
distinguish the features of each component in the image. The com-
aggregate fractions [208]. Four kinds of aggregate blends are
mon methods include non-linear transformation, linear transfor-
designed namely 1) all aggregates; 2) aggregates above the
mation and piecewise linear transformation. Since asphalt
NO.16 sieve; 3) aggregates above the NO.8 sieve; and 4) aggregates
mixture is composed of aggregate, asphalt binder and air voids, it
above the NO.4 sieve. The results show that the fourth case (ex-
can be processed by a three-piece piecewise linear transformation,
cluding the aggregates passing the NO.4 and retained on the
corresponding to the imadjust function in Matlab [196].
NO.8 sieve, P4-R8) is significantly different from the other three
4.
cases, not only in the changes of total energy and tensile strength,
but also in the decrease of interface cracking and the increase of
Image segmentation–the threshold segmentation method is usu-
matrix cracking. That is to say, the P4-R8 aggregate fraction not
ally used to separate the aggregate, mortar, and voids in the
only functions to fill the AV structure formed by the larger parti-
scanned image in order to study the skeleton structure of the mix-
cles, but also contributes to the development of the stone-on-
ture. A contact is considered when the nearest distance between
stone contact by carrying part of the load and transporting the load
any two adjacent aggregate is less than a certain threshold. Accord-
in PA mixtures. Finally, according to the results of DEM-IA model,
ing to previous studies, this threshold is generally 0.2 to 0.25 times
the study suggested that setting the BS to the NO.8 sieve could
the minimum calculated diameter [211–214].
be more reasonable for the PA mixture. Interestingly, when the
content of P4-R8 aggregate fraction increased, the slope of grada-
Combining image technology with mixture properties may pro-
tion curve begins to flatten out at the NO.8 sieve (2.36 mm) rather
vide a way to explore the relationship between the micro-structure
than the NO.4 sieve (4.75 mm). This is consistent with the criteria 2
(air voids, radius and distribution; connected pores; number of
discussed above [204]. Another study used the DEM-IA method to
aggregates and contact points; coordination number; VCA ratio)
simulate the micro-contact force of aggregate gradation under 400
and macro-properties (permeability; compaction characteristics,
kilonewtons (kN) load (According to JTG E42-2005T-0316) [203].
Cantabro loss) of PA mixture. One study reported that the PA mix-
The results show that the average contact force and maximum con-
ture tends to form a fully developed stone-stone contact state
tact force of PA-13 gradation are 1.71 times and 1.28 times of AC-
when the VCA ratio is less than 0.9 [208]. Moreover, it seems that
13 gradation, respectively. Considering the durability and economy
the lower the ratio of VCA, the more developed the stone-stone
of PA mixtures, the test load is increased to 1.5 times of the origi-
contact in PA mixtures [215].
nal, namely 600 kN. With the same loading time (10 min), the
crushing value of aggregate is 1.44 times as much as before.
(6) Discrete element method and image analysis (DEM-IA).
Accordingly, the study suggested that the crushing value standard
Asphalt mixture is a complicated heterogeneous material
of coarse aggregate for PA mixture could be revised from less 26 (as
composed of aggregates, asphalt binder, additives and air
stipulated in JTG F40-2004 for expressways and first-class high-
voids [216]. Sometimes studies tend to get inconsistent con-
ways) to no more than 18 [79].
clusions when trying to establish the relationship between
Another important thing to note about the calculation of the
the aggregate morphology and the mechanical properties
VCA ratio is the bulk specific gravity (Gmb) of PA specimen. This
of the mixture through laboratory tests. This is mainly due
value should be measured as accurately as possible by selecting
to [217]:
the appropriate test method. It is well known that surface-dry con-
1. Different material morphology and properties.
dition method is the most fundamental method to test the Gmb for
2. Different evaluation characteristics and indicators.
DMA specimen. The key operation of this method is to create a sat-
3. Different test equipment and methods.
urated surface-dry (SSD) condition by wiping the specimen surface
with a wet towel. That is, water neither remains too much on the
Therefore, it is necessary to develop an ideal method to avoid
specimen surface nor flows out of the open pores. However, there
the deviation caused by the above factors. The discrete element
are many open pores in the PA sample. Water will flow out of the
method (DEM) is a numerical simulation method, in which New-
open pores when the specimen is removed from the water and
ton’s second law (law of motion) and finite difference scheme are
wiped with a towel [222]. Therefore, it is impossible to form a true
suitable for solving the interaction between discrete particles
SSD condition on the specimen surface. In order to solve this prob-
[208,218]. Since Cundall introduced DEM to analyze rock mechan-
lem, a wax-coated method was proposed [223]. Note that the
ics in 1971 [219], many computer codes have been developed for
melted wax should completely seal the open pores but not flow
the simulation of granular or solid materials [220]. However, for
into them. Generally, the specimen surface is coated with talc pow-
asphalt mixtures, there are four types of contact interactions,
der before being immersed in the melted wax. In this way, it is con-
namely contacts within single aggregate, within mastic (fine aggre-
venient to scrape off the wax adhering to the specimen surface in
gates, fines and asphalt binder), between adjacent aggregates, and
subsequent Marshall tests. This method is complicated to operate
between aggregate and mastic [216,218,221]. At present, only two-
and has many influencing factors, often leading to inaccurate
dimensional or three-dimensional particle flow codes (PFC2D/3D)
results. Instead, the ASTM specification (ASTM D1188-07 and
are applied to model the asphalt mixtures because of higher com-
ASTM D7370) proposes the use of Coted method and CoreLock
putational efficiency and better suitability to simulate fracture
method to test the Gmb of mixtures with water absorption greater
cracks in above four contacting interaction behaviors [220]. Each
than 2% [224,225]. The latter is mainly used for open-graded
contact model consists of contact stiffness model, slip model and
asphalt mixtures. In addition, ASTM D3203 stipulates the use of
bond model [218].
dimensional analysis to test Gmb for open-graded specimens
[226]. This method is simpler, faster and cheaper than CoreLock
1. Contact stiffness model–describes the relationship between
method. No additional testing equipment is needed, also, not to
contact force and their displacement of two adjacent contact
worry about the environmental burden by using plastic vacuum
aggregates.
bags. The percent air voids (AV) determined by this method is
2. Slip model–used to give the friction characteristics of contact.
14 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998
higher than the vacuum method, because all surface air voids are
analyzed [227,228]. Overall, this method is more suitable for open
graded asphalt mixtures with high void permeability which cannot
be determined by surface-dry condition method and wax-coated
method [222].
However, according to the latest report of NCHRP 877, it states
that the VCA test does not seem to be impractical for PFC mixtures
[229]. Such doubts were raised mainly in view of the fact that this
kind of mixtures are usually paved at less than the thickness of two
maximum aggregate size. As a result, the mixtures designed for
different VCA ratios do not exhibit an obvious difference between
the good and bad designs. Therefore, it is inferred that for the thin
lifts, VCA testing was not a performance indicator and design
necessity. While the thickness design of PA structure depends on
different functional and load-bearing requirements. Further
research is needed on the applicability of VCA ratio in the thick
layer design of PA mixtures.
3.2.2. Design the trail gradation
Unlike DMA, PA mixtures are endowed with special functions
due to its high interconnected air voids and coarse granular skele-
ton with stone-on-stone contact [208,230]. However, the gradation
design of PA mixtures seems to be more complicated by taking into
consideration of the balance between penetration requirements
and mechanical properties, either removing parts of fine aggre-
gates or adopting an open-graded gradation may affect the stabil-
ity of PA mixture [35,231]. This section mainly discusses the
gradation design of PA mixtures from the following three aspects.
3.2.2.1. Literature survey of PA gradation. A literature survey was
conducted to obtain as much information as possible about the
gradation bands of PA used in different countries. Fig. 5 illustrates
the design gradations of PA mixture adopted by 17 states in the
United States [35]. In the figure, upper gradation limits shown as
solid lines, and lower limits shown as dashed lines (the same
below). By analyzing the gradation composition of the above
states, the following characteristics can be simply summarized:
Fig. 5. Design gradation bands in 17 states of the United States [35].
1. Most states (13 out of 17 states) use the maximum aggregate
size of 12.5 mm (1/2 in.) in their PA design gradations, 3 states
use 19 mm (3/4 in.) including Tennessee, Texas and Carolina,
while Oregon is the only state uses the maximum aggregate size
of 25 mm (1 in.) in the United States. Here, the maximum aggre-
gate size means the finest sieve with 100 percent of the aggre-
gate passing. Accordingly, the NMAS are 9.5 mm, 12.5 mm and
19 mm respectively, which is one key sieve size smaller than
their respective maximum aggregate sizes.
2. For coarse aggregates, the mainstream experience is to use a
continuous graded design, and only two states choose a gap-
graded coarse aggregate blend in their PA design gradations.
Specifically, in the design gradation of Connecticut, the coarse
aggregate blend is composed of a large amount of 4.75–
9.5 mm fractions and a small amount of 12.5–19 mm fractions
(no more than 5 percent of the total mass of design gradation).
Note that this gradation is stripped of the 9.5–12.5 mm aggre-
gate fractions. Interestingly, the same coarse aggregate portion
was also excluded from the design gradation of Oregon, but the
difference was that the latter used a larger top-level aggregate
size.
3. For fine aggregates, one notable feature in common is that all
states choose a gap-graded design. The design gradations used
in most states (15 out of 17 states) exclude aggregate compo-
nents from 0.15 mm (NO. 100 sieve) to 1.18 mm (NO. 16 sieve).
Besides, the aggregate fractions between 0.15 mm and 0.3 mm
(NO. 50 sieve) are removed in the design gradation of New York,
while Nevada excludes the aggregate fractions between
0.15 mm and 0.6 mm (NO. 30 sieve).
In addition, Fig. 6 also lists some useful gradation information of
PA mixture in different countries. By analyzing the composition of
different design gradations from 8 countries around the world, the
following characteristics can be summarized:
 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998 15

Fig. 6. Design gradation bands from different countries [35].

1. The maximum aggregate size is still mainly concentrated
around 19 mm (3/4 in.), which is slightly exceeded in some
countries due to the use of different standard sieves, such as
Spain, Switzerland and Italy.
2. For coarse aggregates, most gradations would force the aggre-
gate blend to be gapped somewhere between the 4.75 mm
sieve and the 9.5 mm sieve.
3. For fine aggregates, almost all of these gradations use a gap-
graded design, most of which removes aggregate fractions of
0.15–0.6 mm or 0.15–1.18 mm. With the exception of Japan,
the passing percent of fine aggregate has strict requirements
at the sieve size of 0.075 mm (NO. 200 sieve), 0.15 mm (NO.
100 sieve), 0.3 mm (NO. 50 sieve) and 0.6 mm (NO. 30 sieve).
4. There is a wide range of allowable gradations for PA mixture in
different countries. For instance, the percent passing of the
lower gradation limits range from a high of approximately
95% (Korea) to a low of about 35% (Italy) on the 12.5 mm sieve,
about 74% (Britain) to 12% (Italy) on the 9.5 mm sieve, about
30% (Britain) to 4% (Italy) on the 4.75 mm sieve, about 23% (Bri-
tain) to less than 1% (Italy) on the 2.36 mm sieve, and about 16%
(Britain) to 0 (Italy) on the 1.18 mm sieve.
5. Besides, filler contents contained in different gradation bands
also vary significantly. Italy stipulates a lower limit of 0% while
South Africa allows as much as 8% passing the 0.075 mm sieve.
Another survey concerns the percent air voids of the PA grada-
tions as it is related to many of the functional properties of the PA
mixture. The percent air voids refers to the percentage of air void
volume other than aggregate and asphalt in the total volume of
mixture sample. It is one of the main factors that affect the proper-
ties of asphalt mixture in terms of strength, high temperature sta-
bility, durability and water permeability [12]. Table 7 briefly
illustrates the relationship between the air voids and asphalt mix-
ture performance in the literature. Most studies have concluded
that the optimum air voids for DMA ranges from 3% to 5%. This
could provide deformable space for aggregate displacement and
asphalt binder expansion at high temperature.
However, for PA gradation, the determination of design air
voids is particularly important in order to achieve the best balance
between the functionality and durability of PA mixture. Fig. 7
shows the initial air voids requirements for PA gradations in differ-
ent countries mentioned in the literature [233]. Note that almost
all of these gradations are included within mixture design methods

Table 7
Relationship between design air voids and asphalt mixture performance [232].

Air Permeability and drainage Mainly affected performance Major contribution/diseases Applicable
voids design
<3% dense and impervious poor high-temperature stability easy to produce rutting and weeping inapplicable
3%–5% dense and impervious good high-temperature stability provide deformable space for aggregate and asphalt suitable for
binder DMA
5%–7% permeability increase poor low-temperature stability easy to cause freeze–thaw damage inapplicable
7%–8% permeability increases rapidly but service life and durability harmful to pavement strength and stability inapplicable
impervious
8%–12% large permeability and poor drainage generate lots of unconnected air easy to induce water damage inapplicable
voids
>15% large permeability and good drainage interconnected air voids increase contribute to drainage, noise reduction and skid suitable for PA
rapidly resistance
16 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998
Fig. 7. Initial air voids requirements (%) for PA pavements in different countries.
Fig. 8. Relationship between the total air voids and effective air voids of asphalt
mixture [234,235].
that specify a minimum of 18 percent air voids or more [35]. Most
countries tend to set the initial air voids around 20%, such as
Netherlands, Singapore, Germany, France, Japan and Britain.
Fig. 8 depicts the relationship between the total air voids and
the effective air voids (interconnected void that allow water flow)
of asphalt mixture measured by X-ray computed tomography
[234,235]. Obviously, there is a good power function relationship
between the effective air voids and the total air voids. Also, the per-
cent of interconnected voids was almost 0 when the total air voids
was 8%, which further confirmed that asphalt mixture was almost
impermeable to water when the total air voids was less than 8% as
shown in Table 7 above. In addition, the inflection point of the
power curve occurs approximately at the total air voids of 15%,
which is basically consistent with that only the total air voids is
not less than 15%, the water inside asphalt mixture is likely to flow
freely without water damage [232].
3.2.2.2. Particle interference in PA gradation. One remarkable feature
of open-graded asphalt mixture is that the coarse aggregate fully
contacts and embeds with each other to form a skeleton-
stabilized porous structure. Here, skeleton refers to the network
structure composed of many adjacent aggregates to resist and
transfer stress [207]. In fact, all mixtures have their own internal
skeletons, the distinction being that the difference between aggre-
gate and gradation will eventually lead to significant diversity in
terms of skeleton strength, stiffness and stability. Fig. 9 illustrates
the distribution of contact force and contact points by means of the
DEM method for two typical graded skeletons when the loading
pad going down 1 mm [207]. Six colors in (a) and (b) represent
six aggregate fractions with different sieve size, respectively, and
only two colors in (c) are used to more clearly distinguish whether
the contact point is located on the main chain (black thick solid
line). For the AC-13 and SMA-13 gradations (cross-sectional
images as also shown in Fig. 9), although the maximum aggregate
size is the same (16 mm), however, the force chain of SMA-13 is
much more complete than that of AC-13, which means the skele-
ton structure of SMA-13 is more capable of resisting and transfer-
ring external loads. What is more, it is noted that in (c), the larger
the aggregate particle size, the more contact points there are. But
even for coarse aggregate, only the majority of contact points par-
ticipate in transferring the main stress, which are called effective
contact points. While there are many contact points below
2.36 mm (green particles), but these points are rarely located on
the main chain. Basically, they do not transfer the main contact
stress and can be regarded as invalid contact points. Here, it should
be noted that the invalid contact points will also contribute to the
load transfer, but are relatively much lower than the effective con-
tact points [207].
At present, the criteria for skeleton formation is often judged by
means of volume indicators, namely VCAMIX  VCADRC. However,
practical studies have found that the above relationship is often
not satisfied for the general continuous dense gradation
[236,237]. This particular evaluation indicator seems to be more
suitable for the gap-graded mixture. As introduced in the previous
survey, most countries tend to adopt a gap-graded design in their
PA mixtures. In this case, special attention should be paid to the
influence of particle interference on PA gradation design.
The particle interference theory was originally proposed by G.A.
Wegmouth and later applied more in the gap-graded mixture
[238–241]. The theory states that the air voids deposited by the
superior particles should be filled by the next-order particles, the
filler particle size should not exceed the diameter of the voids,
and so on. When the next-order particles do not exceed a certain
content, they mainly fill the air voids, and the interference effect
on the superior particles is small, which is called accidental inter-
ference. As the next-order particle content increases, the skeleton
interlocking structure formed by the superior particles is gradually
expanded thus causing an increase in air voids, which is called
inevitable interference [207]. In addition, according to the particle
packing theory, the air voids of the main skeleton is mainly related
to the state of particle tightness, arrangement, particle shape and
gradation. The air voids of single particle skeleton is generally
35%–40% [242].
In general, the inevitable interference is mainly due to the use
of excessive fine aggregate in PA mixture. Studies have shown that
excessive fine aggregates between 0.3 mm and 4.75 mm may
destroy the skeleton formed by the coarse aggregate and weaken
the stability of the mixture, especially the particles of 2.36–
4.75 mm and 1.18–2.36 mm are very sensitive to the inevitable
interference [236,243]. Meanwhile, if there are very few particles
of 0.075–0.3 mm in the mixture, the total air voids will increase
due to lack of sufficient filler [244]. Therefore, in order to reduce
the interference of fine aggregate, it is recommended to use the
fine aggregate of top size (2.36–4.75 mm) as few as possible, this
part of aggregate generally does not exceed 15% of the total mass
of aggregate blend when the maximum particle size is 19 mm
 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998
Fig. 9. Distribution of contact force (a, b) and contact points (c) when loading pad going down 1 mm [207].
[42,236]. Also, it has been reported in the literature that the inter-
ference of 1.18–2.36 mm aggregates is most significant for the
main skeleton [236,244].
Another study investigated the effect of gradation and asphalt
content on VCAMIX. It is found that for five different SMA grada-
tions, the coarser the gradation is, the smaller the VCAMIX value
is. However, for the same gradation, this value appears to be
mainly influenced by the gradation and the asphalt content, and
the effect of gradation is more significant than the latter [245].
From this point of view, the void characteristics of PA mixtures
are related to the material properties, gradation design and mix-
ture molding process.
3.2.2.3. Multi-grade stone-on-stone design method. It is well known
that aggregates generally have both skeleton composition and void
filling functions. The key of PA gradation design is to ensure the
formation of a stable skeleton structure while meeting the void
requirements. In view of this situation, it is necessary to clarify
the effect of filling and interference between different particle sizes
on the skeleton embedded structure. This section attempts to rec-
ommend a design method, the multi-grade stone-on-stone design
method, which is based on the step-by-step filled theory and par-
ticle interference theory. The proportion of aggregates in each
grade is determined in turn from large to small particle size, and
finally a stable skeleton structure is designed. The design steps of
the method are as follows [246].
1. Calculate the bulk specific gravity and the dry-rodded unite
weight of coarse aggregate fraction for each standard sieve size,
respectively.
2. The next-order aggregates (D1) are filled into the superior
aggregates (D0) according to different mixing proportion (from
0% to 100%). Then the curve of the relationship between the
mixing ratio and VCADRC was drawn according to the experi-
mental results. The aggregate proportion corresponding to the
minimum VCADRC represents the optimal composition that
can form the skeleton with stone-on-stone contact.
3. Similarly, the next-order aggregates (D2) is incorporated in dif-
ferent proportions to the aggregate blend of A and B with the
optimum composition determined above. As mentioned above,
based on the experimental curve, the optimal composition of
D2, D1 and D0 is determined according to the proportion corre-
sponding to the minimum DCRDRC. In this way, until the optimal
composition of all coarse aggregates is determined.
4. The void volume of the main skeleton is equal to the sum of fine
aggregate volume, asphalt volume and design void. Accordingly,
it can be inferred that the mass fraction of aggregate, asphalt-
aggregate ratio, VCADRC and design air void have the following
17
relationship, as see Eq. (3) [246,247]. Usually, the mass fraction
of the coarse and fine aggregates can be determined by empir-
ically setting the mass percentage of the asphalt and the min-
eral powder.
(
M ca þ Mfa þ M p ¼ 100
M fa Mp ð3Þ
Mca
100cs
ðVCADRC  AV Þ ¼ cfa þ cp þ Mc b
b
where M ca ,M fa ,Mp ,Mb correspond to the mass percentage of coarse
aggregate, fine aggregate and mineral powder, and the asphalt-
aggregate ratio, respectively; cs , cfa , cp , cb refers to the dry-rodded
unit weight of the coarse-aggregate, the apparent density of fine
aggregate and mineral powder as well as the asphalt specific grav-
ity, respectively; VCADRC is the voids in coarse aggregate in the dry-
rodded condition (VCADRC); and AV refers to the design air voids of
the PA mixture.
3.3. Performance tests for trial mixture
PA mixture design is a complex performance-based design pro-
cess. When the aggregate gradation is determined, a series of tests
should be carried out on loose mixture and molded specimens to
finally determine the optimal proportion of the PA mixture. This
section mainly summarizes the performance tests for PA mixtures
in different countries from the aspects of durability evaluation,
asphalt draindown, air void and permeability analysis, as well as
the determination of optimal asphalt content [248].
3.3.1. Durability evaluation of porous asphalt mixture
Despite recent advances in materials, test methods and mixture
design, the durability of PA mixtures has always been a matter of
concern due to the open-graded structure [230]. As mentioned ear-
lier, for PA mixture, durability is a very complex problem, which is
affected by the nature of the mixture itself and the combined dam-
age of the environment and traffic loadings, and ultimately seri-
ously affects the structural mechanics and functional
characteristics of the pavement surface [29,81,82,249–251]. In
general, the deterioration of PA mixtures, such as early raveling,
stripping and clogging potential, is deemed to be associated with
adhesion failure and cohesive failure due to deficient film thick-
ness and excessive aging of asphalt binder as well as moisture-
induced damage. At present, the durability evaluation of PA mix-
tures is mainly based on phenomenological methods [230]. Most
test methods focus on the ability of PA mixtures to resist abrasion
loss, moisture induced damage and permanent deformation. Here,
these methods are discussed as follows.
18 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998
Table 8
Recommended standard for Cantabro abrasion test.
Test method Samples preparation
Cantabro abrasion test SGC, 50 gyrations; or Marshall compaction, 75 times
3.3.1.1. Abrasion resistance. The Cantabro abrasion test is the labo-
ratory test most commonly used to evaluate the resistance of com-
pacted PA specimens to abrasion loss [34,98,252–258]. It is an
abrasion and impact test conducted in the Los Angeles abrasion
machine. This test was originally developed in Spain in the
19900 s and then adopted by many countries [259,260]. PA speci-
mens are generally prepared by the superpave gyratory compactor
(SGC) compacted with 50 gyrations [97], and the Marshall com-
paction method is also used in a few cases [98]. Both unaged and
aged compacted PA specimens should be subjected to Cantabro
abrasion test. This is due to the fact that the asphalt binder of
the open-graded mixture is tend to hardening faster than dense-
graded mixture, so a laboratory accelerated aging process is often
adopted to simulate the effect of field aging on resistance to abra-
sion [2].
Table 8 summarizes the main relevant information for the Can-
tabro abrasion test [2,97,108,193,261,262]. The abrasion loss is
equal to the ratio of lost weight to initial weight of the test speci-
men, expressed in percentage. The recommended maximum per-
mitted abrasion loss for unaged specimens is 20 percent, some
European countries have appropriately relaxed this value to 25
percent [177,263]. However, for aging specimens, the average
abrasion loss should not greater than 30 percent, and no individual
result should not greater 50 percent [2,264]. Laboratory studies
have shown that mixtures containing unmodified binders gener-
ally have lower abrasion resistance than mixtures containing
polymer-modified binders for a specific gradation and binder con-
tent. In addition, polypropylene, polyacrylonitrile and cellulose
fibers have greatly improved the behavior in Cantabro test, espe-
cially for PA mixtures with high binder content [34].
Currently, there seems to be a little different understanding of
the reliability between the laboratory Contabro abrasion test and
the field performance. For example, according to empirical reports
from Spain in 1990, there is a good correlation between abrasion
loss and field performance [70]. However, many studies also
reported that there is insufficient direct correlation between them
for PA mixture, especially when polymer-modified asphalt binders
are used. Even though, there is no commonly used surrogate for the
Cantabro abrasion test [34]. Some studies have proposed the rotat-
ing surface abrasion test [34,265], but no more information has
been found related to the PA mixtures in the literature.
3.3.1.2. Resistance to moisture induced damage. Moisture-induced
damage is one of the important causes for the performance deteri-
oration of PA pavement. The existence of moisture is likely to cause
cohesion failure within asphalt binder or adhesion failure between
binder and aggregate [143]. Usually, the loss of adhesion may
result in the stripping or debonding of asphalt binder film from
aggregate surface, even more serious permanent cracking
[32,143]. This is because the aggregate has a greater affinity for
water, and the repeated pore water pressure can easily cause
hydraulic erosion [34,97,143]. Moisture-induced damage of
asphalt mixture can usually be assessed by visual tests like boiling
test or retained strength tests such as indirect tensile test [266].
Table 9 attempts to summarize some of the existing laboratory
tests and parameters related to moisture-induced damage
[13,267,268].
The boiling water method (ASTM D3625, or Texas boiling water
test) is a very simple and intuitive test for evaluating the moisture-
Samples operating Test conditions Abrasion loss
unaged aged 30–33 rpm, 300 revolutions unaged aged
25 °C, 20 h 85 °C, 120 h; 25 °C, 4 h 20% 30%
induced damage of asphalt mixture. However, in practice, this
method is difficult to accurately determine the amount of strip-
ping, because some fine aggregates are hard to see even after the
stripping has occurred [222].
The modified Lottman test (two most commonly used versions:
AASHTO T283 and ASTM D4867) base on the retained tensile
strength ratio (TSR) is recommended for examining the suscepti-
bility of moisture-induced damage for PA mixtures in 2000 [277]
and 2002 [2,44]. In fact, this method integrates the main essence
of the Lottman test [278] and the Tunnicliff and Root conditioning
test [268,272]. After two groups of three specimens are processed
according to the specified conditions, the resilient modulus test
and/or indirect tensile strength test are performed based on stan-
dard procedure [268]. The TSR is equivalent to the indirect tensile
strength (ITS) of the conditioned specimens divided by the ITS of
the control specimens. The minimum acceptable TSR have been
recommended at 70 percent [278–280] or 80 percent
[271,281,282] partly accounting for the changes in the test proce-
dure used in different agencies [283].
However, recent reports indicate that the modified Lottman test
is not strictly suitable for PA mixes [97]. Because this procedure
has special regulations on the air voids (6% to 8%) of test specimen,
while the air voids of PA mixtures are usually about 20% [273]. The
vacuum saturation of the conditioned specimen is required to be
55 percent to 80 percent, but there is a large amount of intercon-
nected voids in the PA specimen that easily exceeds the upper sat-
uration limit. According to the AASHTO T 283 standard, the sample
is recommended to be discarded when the vacuum saturation
exceeds the upper limit [273]. Question remains on how to choose
an appropriate degree of saturation to meet the level of air void for
the PA mixture. One study suggested applying a partial vacuum
(26 in. Hg) for 10 min and performing five freeze/thaw cycles in
lieu of one cycle [2].
In many cases, the water damage of asphalt pavement is insep-
arable from the permanent deformation, especially for PA mixture.
The long-term intrusion of water is equivalent to being clogged
and saturated, which may have a significant impact on rutting
when it is in hot in summer. The Hamburg wheel tracking device
(HWTD) is often used to predict the rutting potential and moisture
susceptibility of PA mixtures [30]. The HWTD was developed in
Germany by Esso A.G. of Hamburg in 1979 [284], similar device
is also used in Britain, but rubber tires are used instead of steel
tires [268]. According to AASHTO T 324 standard, the HWTD test
was carried out by rolling a steel wheel on the surface of the spec-
imen submerged under water at 50 °C [276]. The maximum allow-
able rutting depth specified by different agencies is not the same.
For example, Hamburg, Colorado, and Texas specify that the rutting
depth after 2000 passed are not exceed 4 mm [285], 10 mm [286],
and 12.5 m [288], respectively. While Louisiana stipulate the max-
imum allowable rutting depth of 12.0 mm at 7500 passes for PA
mixtures [30].
3.3.2. Draindown characters
One of the concerns with PA mixture is the potential for asphalt
binder draindown [3]. The typical film thickness for PA mixtures is
about 30 mm (lm), while the dense-graded HMA is about 8 lm,
which is three to four times higher than that of the latter
[30,103]. It is precisely because the open-graded structure, low fil-
ler and high asphalt film thickness lead to higher susceptibility for
 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998 19

Table 9
Comparison of different laboratory testing method for moisture induced damage.

Test method Samples operating Test conditions Testing indicator Recommended Specification/
limit report
Boiling water loose mixture boiling water, 10 min percentage of visible area ASTM:＞95% ASTM [269]
test retained aggregate surface Texas: 65%– D3625
75%
Static loose mixture 25 °C distilled water, percentage of visible area ＞95% AASHTO [270]
immersion 16 h-18 h retained aggregate surface T182
test
Lottman test group control group 13 °C or 23 °C; loading retained tensile strength TSR ＞ 70% NCHRP [271]
1 rate of 2 in/min ratio 246
group vacuum saturated, 30 min
2
group vacuum saturated, 30 min; a freeze
3 (18 °C, 15 h) thaw (60 °C, 24 h)cycle
Tunnicliff & group control group 25 °C or 23 °C; loading retained tensile strength TSR ＞ 70% or NCHRP [272]
Root 1 rate of 0.065 in/min ratio 80% 274
conditioning group saturated 55%–80%, 5 min; 60 °C, 24 h
2
Modified group control group 25 °C or 23 °C; loading retained tensile strength TSR ＞ 70% or ASHTO [273]
Lottman test 1 rate of 0.065 in/min ratio 80% T283
group saturated 55%–80%; a freeze (18 °C, AASTM [274]
2 15 h) thaw (60 °C, 24 h) cycle D4687
Immersion- group control group 25 °C; loading rate of 2 Unconfined compressive TSR ＞ 70% AASHTO [275]
compression 1 in/min strength ratio T165
test group 49 °C, 4d; or 60 °C, 1d
2
Hamburg wheel cylindrical or slab/cubicle 50 °C water; load of rutting depth (RD) after Hamburg: AASHTO [276]
tracking test 685 N, 53 ± 2 passes/min 7500 passes RD < 4 mm T324
rutting depth (RD) after Colorado:
20,000 passes RD < 10 mm
Louisiana:
RD < 12 mm
Texas:
RD < 12.5 mm

the asphalt binder to drain off the aggregate particles [278]. One
study found that there was a very serious asphalt draindown (very
high asphalt content and low air void) at the bottom part of PA
mixture by observing the wheel track cores after 3 years of con-
struction, as well as drainage of the filler and sand. Therefore, it
is speculated that draindown may have started since the construc-
tion [109]. Another study shows that the irregular distribution of
asphalt binder caused by draindown will lead to raveling in the
area with low content of asphalt binder, and reduce the permeabil-
ity in the area with accumulation of asphalt binder [277].
In order to evaluate the mixture design and construction quality
of PA, the purpose of draindown test is to check whether there is
free asphalt separation during the storage, transportation and pav-
ing of asphalt mixture [12]. This test is included in the PA mixture
design procedure proposed by NAPA [108] and ASTM [289]. The
draindown test used in different countries is not the same but sim-
ilar in principle. For the main relevant information of several typ-
ical draindown tests, see Table 10 [61,118,290]. The general
procedure for the draindown test consists of preparing laboratory
uncompacted samples (or loose mixture obtained from field pro-
duction), placing specified quality of samples in a standard con-
tainer, then heating in the oven for one hour at the operating
temperature, and finally calculating the draindown loss of these
samples.
According to the NAPA recommendations in 2003, the accept-
able draindown of PA mixture should be limited to less than 0.3
percent [112], and a higher standard of 0.2 percent has also been
reported [291]. Note that the results determined by the three
methods in Table 9 may be different. Generally, the basket method
has the largest draindown loss, while the beaker method has less
drainage than the enamel plate method [292]. In China, the beaker
method is generally defined as the standard method for testing
draindown, which specifies that the draindown loss does not
exceed 0.3 percent [222].The results show that the use of appropri-
ate amount of fiber can significantly improve the leakage phe-

Table 10
Three typical draindown test methods [61,118,290].

Representative method Country Test temperature Processing time Recommended limit of draindown loss
Beaker mothod France 175 °C, 185 °C for modified asphalt 1h 0.2% or 0.3%
Basket method America 170 °C, also 165 °C is mentioned
Enamel plate method Japan 15 °C higher than mixing temperature
20 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998

Fig. 10. The volume composition of PA mixture.

Table 11
Comparison of different methods for testing the bulk specific gravity (Gmb ).

Test method Suitable Sample volume for calculation Test characteristics Application Specifications
specimen
Surface water mixture volume + closed pores in specimen + open pores simple test; difficult to form a suitable for ASTM [295]
drying absorption  2% connected surface saturated dry state DMA, SMA, ATB 2726-08
method AASHTO [296]
T 166
Paraffin- water mixture volume + closed pores in specimen + open pores time consuming; difficult to suitable for AASHTO [223]
coating absorption＞2% connected surface coat; potential safety issue DMA, SMA T 275
method ASTM D [298]
1188–96
Dimensional high air voids mixture volume + closed pores in specimen + open pores simple test; specimens with suitable for PA ASTM D [226]
method connected surface + surface depression perfect shapes 3203
Coated water mixture volume + closed pores in specimen + open pores simple test; difficult to coat suitable for AC, ASTM D [224]
method absorption＞2% connected surface + partial surface depression ATB, PA 1188-07
CoreLok water mixture volume + closed pores in specimen + open pores equipment and bag cost suitable for AC, ASTM D [225]
method absorption＞2% connected surface + partial surface depression ATB, PA 7370
AASHTO [209]
T 331

nomenon, but at the same time, it also brings adverse effects on the
air void and permeability.
3.3.3. Air void and hydraulic conductivity
Air void is the most important volume characteristic of asphalt
mixture, especially given many significant advantages for PA pave-
ment in terms of safety, environment and comfort. The percent air
voids (AV) is calculated from the bulk specific gravity (Gmb ) and
theoretical maximum specific gravity (Gmm ) of the asphalt mixture
specimen, as shown in Eq. (4). While the AV for PA mixtures were
difficult to determine due to the open-graded structure [12]. There
are several methods for determining the above specific gravity of
asphalt mixture, and different methods apply to different situa-
tions. This section mainly introduces the measurement of Gmb
and Gmm of PA mixtures, and discusses the relationship among
the air voids, seepage coefficient and water permeability coeffi-
cient of PA mixtures.
Gmb
AV ¼ ð1  Þ  100
Gmm
3.3.3.1. Determination of the bulk specific gravity. The bulk specific
gravity refers to the mass of the unit volume of the material under
specified conditions, including material entities, open air voids,
and closed air voids [222]. Fig. 10 shows the volume composition
of PA mixture. It can be seen that the bulk volume of the specimen
(Vmb) is composed of total air void volume (AV), asphalt binder vol-
ume (Vb) and aggregate volume (Va).
There are mainly five kinds of method for testing the Gmb of
asphalt mixture. Table 11 simply compares the characteristics of
various methods [293]. While the Gmb test methods for the PA mix-
ture have been briefly described earlier above. Both the CoreLok
method (ASTM D 7370 and AASHTO T 331) and volume method
(ASTM D 3203) are superior to other methods. Generally speaking,
the dimensional method is more simple, convenient and fast, and
does not need to worry about the burden of plastic bags [227].
However, it has higher requirements on the shape of the specimen
and the test result is slightly higher than the CoreLok vacuum
method due to more surface depression volumes are included in
ð4Þ the calculation [293,294].
 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998 21

3.3.3.2. Determination of the theoretical maximum specific grav-
ity. There are three methods to determine the maximum theoret-
ical density of asphalt mixture, namely vacuum method, solvent
method and calculation method. When the solvent method is used
to calculate the volume, the open volume inside the aggregate is
excluded. It will cause the measured Gmm being too large, accord-
ingly, the finally obtained air voids will also being higher, which is
not in line with the fact [222]. It is generally agreed that the vac-
uum method is the standard method for measuring the Gmm of
asphalt mixtures. However, for the modified asphalt, it is difficult
to manually disperse to the requirement of less than 6 mm due
to the large viscosity, even the dispersed aggregate contains many
bubbles. These bubbles rarely escape from the closed aggregates
under vacuum vibration conditions. The measured Gmm result tend
to be small, and the parallel error can easily exceed the allowable
limit during the test, especially when fibers are incorporated in the
modified asphalt mixture [222]. However, modified asphalt is often
used in PA mixture. When the result of vacuum method is not so
ideal, the calculation method of effective specific gravity in super-
pave mixture design can be considered as a feasible reference.
3.3.3.3. Relationships between air void and hydraulic conductivity. In
most cases, PA pavement services in unsaturated conditions, while
the most critical performance will play out weher there is heavy
rainfalls, ponding, small flooding or saturation conditions [299].
The hydraulic conductivity of porous media is determined by three
basic properties: porosity, conductivity and tortuosity [300]. Most
of the existing functional models among hydraulic conductivity
and above three properties are semi-empirical. The practical use
of these models is often limited due to the need for various com-
plex parameters which are generally difficult to obtain [301]. For
PA mixtures, the determination of tortuosity or conductance is a
fairly complex work compared with the air void test. Therefore,
many studies have devoted to try to establish the relationship
8 0
< f ¼ 1500 þ 7
4
Re
ð5Þ
: Re0 ¼ Dp u
uw ð1pÞ
where Dp refers to the equivalent spherical diameter of the particles
forming the porous media; u and uw represent the seepage velocity
and dynamic viscosity of water, respectively; p is the porosity of the
porous media, namely the percent air voids of PA mixture.
Previous study used different Dp values (1, 3 and 6 mm) to cal-
culate the hydraulic conductivity for pervious concrete with air
voids of 15% to 35%. Finally, it was found that the best fitting value
can be obtained when Dp = 1 mm [299]. Another study (Lujun Xu
et al.) used the same Dp value (1 mm) to calculate the relationship
0 0
between f and Re for the five gradations of PA-13 mixtures (air
void varies from 17% to 21%). It was found that when the head
height in the test tube (20 cm in diameter, and 50 cm in height)
did not exceed 27.5 cm, the flow regime inside the PA specimen
was considered as laminar flow [302]. This means that Darcy’s
law does not apply to the calculation of hydraulic conductivity
when the head height exceeds this value.
After the flow regime in porous media is judged as laminar flow
by Ergun equation, according to Darcy’s law, the hydraulic conduc-
tivity of PA mixture (K) can be calculated according to equation 6
[300,302,303,305]. Then, the expected relationship between the
air voids and the hydraulic conductivity of the PA mixture can be
established by using the Carman-Kozeny model [235,309–312],
as shown in equation 7 [300,302,313]. This will contribute to the
design of PA pavement system, and may provide reference for
hydrologists and stormwater designers on stormwater manage-
ment and sustainable design.
8  
>
< K ¼ aL ln HH12 ð6Þ
At
h 3 i
>
: K ¼ a p 2 ð7Þ
ð1p Þ

between air void and saturated hydraulic conductivity as accu-

where a is the cross-sectional area of the test tube; L refers to the
rately as possible without considering the other two basic proper-
height of the specimen; A stands for the cross-sectional area of
ties [302].
the specimen; H1 and H2 refer to the height of the initial water level
Hydraulic conductivity, also known as water permeability, is
and the end water level, respectively; t is the test time; a is the
defined as the unit flow rate per unit hydraulic gradient, which
equation coefficient.
indicates the difficulty of water flowing through porous media
In the same study of Lujun Xu et al., equations 6 and 7 are
[300,303]. At present, the established methods for determining
finally used to establish the relationship between air voids and
the hydraulic conductivity of porous materials are based on Darcy’s
hydraulic conductivity for the five gradations of PA-13 mixtures
law. The most commonly used methods are the constant water
(air void varies from 17 to 21 percent), as shown in Fig. 11 [302].
head permeameter method and falling head permeameter method
[300,303–305]. It is important to note that the flow rate within the
porous media will affect the flow regime. Because the measure-
ment of hydraulic conductivity is based on the assumption of lam-
inar flow, and the Darcy’s law no longer applies under turbulent
conditions [290,300,303].
The constant water head permeameter method is suitable for
porous media with many voids and large permeability. In this
method, a constant head difference and a controlled velocity are
given to ensure the laminar flow in porous media. Previous studies
have classified the flow regime in porous media into laminar, tran-
sitional and turbulent flows in turn according to whether the Rey-
nolds number (Re) exceeded 10 and 100, respectively [301,302].
For PA mixtures, the dimensionless Ergun equation is recom-
mended to determine the internal water flow regime. This equa-
tion was proposed by Sabri Ergun, a Turkish chemist, on the
basis of considering the particle size, air void and fluid kinematic
viscosity of porous media [307,308], as shown in Eq. (5). Which
is sutable to describe the relationship between the dimensionless
0 0
friction factor (f ) and modified Reynolds number (Re ) when the
fluid passes through the porous media [115,299,307-309].

Fig. 11. The relationship between air voids and hydraulic conductivity [302].
22 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998

The results show that the hydraulic conductivity tends to rise in a

curvilinear way with the gradual increase of air voids. This is
attributed to the formation of more interconnected pores in PA
specimen due to the increase of air voids, which provides more
possible paths for the flow of water. This is also consistent with
the relationship between air voids and effective air voids in PA
mixture as mentioned earlier. According to the fitted Carman-
Kozeny equation, it is deduced that when the air voids of PA-13
specimen is greater than 15 percent, the hydraulic conductivity
will meet the minimum requirement of 0.12 cm/s. In addition,
many studies have given different recommendations for the
hydraulic conductivity of PA mixtures. For example, Japan stipu-
lates that the hydraulic conductivity of PA mixture should be
greater than 1:0  102 cm/s [118], and the minimum value of
1:5  102 cm/s [314], 2102 cm/s [315] have also been men-
tioned in the literatures. Fig. 12. Determination of OBC based on Cantabro abrasion test and draindown test.

3.4. Determination of optimum binder content

The determination of optimal binder content (OBC) should not
only ensure the durability of PA mixture, but also facilitate con-
struction, besides, economic considerations must be taken into
account [116]. The determination of the asphalt binder content
of PA mixture mainly includes four methods: empirical method,
oil absorption method, new NACT method and asphalt film thick-
ness method.
3.4.1. Empirical method
In general, the empirical method is to determine the initial bin-
der content of asphalt mixture by long-term experience accumu-
lated in asphalt pavement construction in some countries. In this
method, many factors that have a potential impact on the binder
content should be fully considered, such as aggregate properties
and NMAS, the air voids of mixture specimen, modifiers and fibers
[116].
DOT used equations 8 and 11. In addition [321]. The Arizona DOT
and Wyoming DOT also take into account the oil absorption of fine
aggregates [322,323].
3.4.3. New NCAT method
In 2000, NACT released the design method of new generation
open-graded friction course on the basis of summarizing the exist-
ing experience and combining the relevant experience of Europe,
Japan and other countries. In new NACT method, the specimens
prepared according to desire gradation and several binder contents
(with increments of 0.5 percent) are subjected to the specified tests
in Table 12. The binder content that meets all four requirements is
determined as the optimal binder content. If none of the binder
contents meet the above four criteria at same time, it is necessary
to take some remedial measures, such as the use of stabilizers and
modifiers in the mixture [2,15,42,324].

3.4.2. Oil absorption calculation method

The second is the oil absorption calculation method, which
determines the OBC of PA mixture by testing the absorption capac-
ity of the aggregate using a specified oil. This method is now rarely
used. In the procedure, 100 g of the predominant aggregate size is
soaked in oil for a specified period of time (usually five minutes)
after which the aggregate is drained for two minutes at room tem-
perature and an additional fifteen minutes in an oven at 60 °C
[15,316]. The OBC of the PA mixture is then determined by a series
of calculations based on Eqs. 8–11.
8 between 4% and 6%, and 5 different binder content with an incre-
>
> Percent oil retained ðPORÞ ¼ 2:65
Gsa
 BA  100ð8Þ
>
> A
< Surface content ðK C1 Þ ¼ 0:1 þ 0:4PORð9Þ
>
> Optimum binder contentðOBC Þ ¼ ð4 þ 2K C1 Þ  2:65 ð10Þ
>
> Gsa
: loss and abrasion loss was obtained.
Optimum binder content ðOBC Þ ¼ 3:5 þ 2K C2 ð11Þ
where, Gsa refers to the aggregate apparent specific gravity; A and B
are the mass of dry aggregate and oil soaked aggregate, respec-
tively;K C2 is determined according to the GDT-114 (2009) [317].
This method is used by many agencies, and the procedures are
basically similar except for a few differences [316]. The FHWA, Ala-
bama DOT and Kentucky Transportation Cabinet used Eqs. 8–10 to
calculate the OBC of the PA mixture [318–320], while the Georgia
3.4.4. Binder film thickness method
The third is the binder film thickness method. After determining
the gradation, the amount of binder is preliminarily calculated
based on the surface area of the aggregate and the desired binder
film thickness. Studies have shown that for dense asphalt mixtures
with the air voids of 3% to 6%, the optimal binder film thickness is
approximately 8 lm. However, for PA mixtures with high air voids,
the minimum binder film thickness is generally about 14 lm for
durability considerations [325]. Generally, the binder content is
ments of 0.5 percent are set. Then the draindown test and the Can-
tabro abrasion test were performed respectively, and the curve
relationship between different binder content and the draindown
According to the change of curve rate, the upper limit of binder
content is determined by the fact that asphalt binder does not
drain off the aggregate particles, while the upper limit of binder
content is determined based on the asphalt mixture not loosening,
falling off, or stripping [61,325]. As shown in Fig. 12, an appropriate
binder amount between the upper and lower limits is selected as
the optimum binder amount. If necessary, the results of Marshall
stability test can also be used as a Ref. [61].

Table 12
NACT recommends criteria for determining OBC [15].

Mixture test Air void Binder draindown Cantabro loss Cantabro loss after aging
Limit value 18% <0.3% <20% <30%
 Z. Zhang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 119998
4. Conclusion and discussion
This paper reviews the history and experience of PA mixture
application in different countries and agencies. Both favorable con-
tributors and potential issues are discussed in terms of materials
selection, gradation design, performance evaluation and OBC
determination, thereby expecting to inspire practical considera-
tions to identify corresponding areas of study for future improve-
ment to meet the current potential use of PA in China. Based on
the review conducted, the following conclusions are offered:
1. The property of asphalt binder is a key factor affecting the per-
formance of PA mixtures. Nowadays the use of polymer modi-
fiers has become a routine practice to improve the PA
performance. The asphalt grade should be determined in line
with local factors such as environment, climate, traffic, and
pavement diseases history, while the modifier selection should
be on the basis of its modification effect on specific property,
economic efficiency and environmental suitability. By properly
selecting the asphalt grade and modifier, some early diseases or
performance degradation of PA mixture may be balanced or
even minimized, so as to obtain a better durability of PA
mixture.
2. Several methods have been reported to determine the braking
sieve size for PA mixture, many researches tend to consider
2.36–4.75 mm sieve (NO. 8) as the criteria to distinguish coarse
and fine aggregate. The proportion of coarse aggregate in PA
mixture is up to about 85% and the contact area between aggre-
gates is reduced by 25% compared with DMA. The nature, shape
and gradation of coarse aggregate are especially important due
to the effects on the air voids, hydraulic conductivity and
mechanical properties of PA mixture as well as the mechanical
response among aggregates.
3. PA is a distinct mixture type that deliberately designed as an
open-graded structure characterized by a high percentage of
interconnected air voids and a coarse granular skeleton with
stone-on-stone contact. The criterion for the presence of
stone-stone contact is that VCAMIX is less than the VCADRC. In
recent years, CT scanning and imaging technology allows
researchers to better understand the relationship between the
micro-structure and macro-performance of PA mixtures, while
DEM method is useful in gaining more insight into the basic
laws related to aggregate morphology, particle stress, gradation
composition and mixture performance without considering the
inconsistencies caused by differences in materials, tests and
evaluation methods. According to the particle interference the-
ory, the gap-graded mixture design seems to be more conducive
to satisfying the air void requirement while providing a stable
granular skeleton with stone-on-stone contact.
4. Many fillers and anti-stripping agents are used to further
enhance the bond between aggregate and binder as well as
improve the water stability of PA mixture. The amount of filler
and anti-stripping agent should be determined carefully. For
example, excessive fillers may cause segregation of the mixture
while few fillers may not absorb enough asphalt. Hydrated lime
is the most widely used filler in PA mixture at present. In addi-
tion, fiber is another common additive in PA mixture. The main
purpose of fibers in PA mixture is to reduce the draindown
potential of asphalt binder, another way is to use small amount
of fiber instead of partial polymer modifiers to reduce the con-
struction cost. The content of fiber also needs to be discreetly
determined, too much may seriously reduce the air voids and
hydraulic conductivity of PA mixture.
23
5. PA mixture design is a complex performance-based design pro-
cess. A series of tests need to be carried out on loose mixture
and specimens for the OBC determination and the evaluation
of durability and functionality. However, there are sometimes
insufficient direct correlation between laboratory tests and
related field performance due to the different compaction pro-
cesses. The clogging potential and hydraulic conductivity of
PA mixture seem to be more closely related to the initial air
voids in the field. Currently, a general consensus, it is unaccept-
able to increase the air voids by reducing compactness in the
field, because a good compactness is more decisive in resisting
permanent deformation and particle loss.
6. The structure design of PA may vary due to the functional
requirements and service environments in different countries
and agencies. For example, a thin PA surface layer may be ade-
quate to eliminate splash and spray during wet weather in areas
with low annual rainfall. Smaller NMAS of PA mixture is gener-
ally more conducive to reduce the tire-pavement noise. While a
twin-layer is a good choice for areas with both needs above.
However, in areas with high annual rainfall and strong drainage
requirements, a thick surface layer or even a base layer of PA is
required according to the relationship among the porous layer
thickness, rainfall and hydraulic conductivity. Currently, a gen-
eral consensus is that PA mixture may not be suitable for areas
with heavy snow or continuous low temperature. However, it is
interesting to note that PA structure in some areas appears to be
able to effectively inhibit the pavement surface from freezing in
winter compared with ordinary asphalt pavement. This phe-
nomenon probably involve the complex heat transfer processes
related to structural design of PA. In this way, it may provide
some possible opportunities for those areas with potential
application requirements but occasionally adverse weather.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the National Key R&D Program of
China (NO. 2018YFB1600200) and the Special Fund (No.
300102318208, NO. 300102218515) for Basic Scientific Research
of Central Colleges, Chang’an University. The author would like to
thank Professor Aimin Sha and Professor Wei Jiang for their helpful
guidance. Thanks are also due to Professor Liqun Hu and Professor
Feng Ma for their kind support to complete this study.
References
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