...(27.

3)
whcre fi is meaiured bet0w the hipJi llooti levet (HFL).
' Scour level = 11.F.L. - fi = H.F.L . - 2fii. ...
The grip length (27.4)
is taken as y A b<low the scour lovul according to ihe cok of
gractico of lie Tndian Roads Cuagrcss aM es /f in Railway pre:fi«a. This means dul the
deplti of fuuidation slould be at least IQ R below HFL according to FRC code, aixt
I, R below HFL accordiog iu Railway prac4ce . It is hirth¢r momaxadol tt‹at the minimum depth
of cnztedrocat below lie scour level sltmild not be less fhan 2.0 m for picrB ¥od
abiithieni witti archm and 1.2 m for pi cs and abuimenn suptDrting oilv•r iypes of supeistruciure.
6ccording to Terzaghi and Peek, thu uliimnle bcaring capacity can be dmeraiimd
from the fbllowing expressio•:
...(27.5)
g, -- se’ (i .z ¢Nc + yak n, ...
whcre 0.+y/ta',) (27.6)
N„ N#, N, -- Terza@i's boaring capacity factors
Jt = radius of well
Df -- dcpttt of weJï {Jcpfh of fnu d¥fion)
27.4. FORCES ACTING ON A WELL FOUNDATION
In additioo la rise self-weigbt arut buoymy, a well carries the deed toad of tbc
super-s\nicrure, leasings piw aod is liable to tbc followiog horizontal forces
(i) bracking and tiaclive effort of the moving vehicles.
(ir) force on accourf of resists of the bearings against movcmeat due to

PM magniwdc, dire¢tioo and point of agglication of all he above fbrces can be

found undct II+c worst possible cambinarioru aud fti¢y cast be rcgla¢¢d by two l›oriz‹x›taj
forces, 7° arid g sod a sfngIe vertical force \V as sbown in Fig. J° = Resulurit of 2?.3.
all korizoofal forces io the direcóan acnas g - Rcsuluint of alt úio pier.
Ilorizomal forccs in rhc üiroc‹ion alorig P = Resultan of alt Yenical tim pier.
forces.
PM analysis is dnzs an líie following assurnptions (Baoerjee anü Garigopaühyay, j960).
 . . 1. The . well is acted. upon. by. an art-

3. Tbe resultant u fit pressure on soil at any

depllt is ñt simple proportion to borizontaf

4, The latin between contact prmsuro and

corresponding displacement is ind<pea1mt of tLo

5. The cmefficinnt of vertical sum

£eBctioa has the Name value for every point
of surface acie4 ripen by contact p
ure.
The aaatysis that fbtkia's is lhat
Aug

slid

27.S. ANALYSIS OF WELL

FOUhDATJOH

ihe resultant unit preowe ai a depth z below the svrfice N

is by p = y . t (R# - fJ C
.
there y= weighi of soil
unii Kp, K. —- co-efficient of passive 2
7
.
upon the angT¢ of infemaT Mction §. 3
aid zngle of wall friction 6. .

Mt p be fhc loed per unit erca of F

vertical eurface of sazrt and p be di¢ O
R
corzcspomtiog displacement. Asswo- C
ttut ”e tic dis laccmcat uircd E
S

O
N

A
...(27.8)
,i Y
E
S
.
to in origi°n1 position, uialer the action of
a

or
side to passive star of plastic egui1ibriton
6. Etal0allnn of moment 3f prodiiced by
Ph
Pl ...(2†. ï9)

†. E•aJu=Laa où vertical rcitctiaa Et : f•fcduius of verlicäl subgraüe rcacü on is

where p = vcrö cal defiection of soil corresponding io vertical reection f = p‹

B/2 Bf2

or 6 = Œp ...(27.20}
8. ïî+aluatioa al œoæmt Of produced at tbc base due to vertical. rea¢tioa p
soit tLc base oo
account’Tbe
of the 4owaward
rotation of deflection
the wey ofisIdle toe and
also upwardbydeflection
resisted a raoaiedof tbc
A heel. Fig.
27.8 sbows
acting at the rotation of the base, with displaœrœnt p a1 the eods. Let p be the
öeflection at a dis e z fraga Ile ccooc ô of tf›c base.

=2
a’
B 6
PCG. 27.8 ROTASION OF NF.

This moment acti in clœtwise direction for the present case of Fig. 27.5 (a),
. Bvoluation of m P o• the bush of mexlmum re
soif reactioo p «i euh dep A
If re plastic flow ii atlowed hr ike soif, bor*ootal ail
muit not exceed @p for that depth, given by . ..(z7.22)

=. y(J - K») ...

(2J.U)
 789

is in contact wilh soil and the remaining portion is o i ly I\elJ by skin friction. A thr'c-puin\ support of
rim cutting ed$e zes‹ing on a log may be assumed for design purpos e. Th« Iaa4 coming on the cutting
edge is uncertain as a considerable part of it is borne by sf:ia friction. Anoifior facior of u+cexaioty
is in regard to the tffativo depth of iht well
curb, since ihc enfire well acts ve a deep girder to mist torsion a•d bending. Since W load is
mcasionai, working studs upto 94$ of yield stress may Ie permitted. Th well curb has also to
withstaixi siress m to •iixl btows. as well in due to light blasting requirod when boulder obstrucu the
sinking of the well
Culling edge. The cutting olgc should kave as sharp an aagle as p au i«ablc fur knifing inlu Log
soil wiihou£ Riakiog it Tomweak lo zt•sis£ thin Various sTrcs5s6 induced by boulders, blows, blaming, ‹n. An
angle x› the vertical of â0•, or a slope of 1 horizontal
£0.2 veftiCal Ens bœn foudd gâtisfdct0ry io gr8Ctiœ. Io C00«rete CBâgsoflg, tht• TOWer §›OxiU71 of the
curting edge is wrapped 'ilh ï2 mm stee! p)ates wÎiîch aro axe orcd to the coi<r<‹c by mearis of stccl
soaps. A sharp venical cdge is gciz•raI\y providcd a\ong the ouLxide re er ‹hc caisson. SuCh an cdge
ñtcilirBlœ the rate où sinking and prevents air leakage in the case of pzeumatic casissons.
Stelnlng ihlckness. The thickœss of steîning ii designel in such a way ihat at all suiges the well
can be sunk uodcr iu owa wuigbt, as tbe md for weighing 'with k«J¢dee lskes tiztie aud retards
progress coiuidcrzbly, For Is circu)aT well with ouI<r diarnmr D ami lnictness i of ttie iteining. we
have

51fin friction force per uaif

whcrr p = unit weighi of concrète or masonry of ibe sieining
r/-— unit skîn fJ1clioo
Eguating the two, ws ges n (0 - f)/ p = Æ r/

From wbîcft
...\27.46j

It wiil be been from iliis equation ibst lot a given value of stin friction, the shining thickness
comes out ¡o be less wia imreasing value of diameter of the well. This is, however, oonliury to the
usasl practice of providing greater t h i c k of sleirfing with increasing diameter of W well u given in
the following table :
D ‹aiaside äfianieter af wetfi t (sieining iliickness1
3 0.75 m

wiili depth. Moreover, for deeper welli, water is invariably met with and the
effmxivc
self-weight is induced by bunya ry in the portion of tire well below waier level, and
lance
 use up /dtotv/o/i phonn is clTcclive. Whco power witches are available clxyuy strcta cax also be
suacssfuJly excavated wilh tbc help of big gr8bs kaving rcmper«d stoet ‹ecrh, As the well siriks keeper,
ihe skin friction on the sides progrcssiveïy inczeascs. To
overcome the iiireascö skin friction aii4 the loss in uei8bi of ihc welk deto bucyaicy.
addiiional loading lmown as WJndgr is applied on the wall.
Pumping our th waier hoiii inside the well is effective in sinking of wctl under certain conditions.
Pumping shouldbe discouraged in inc initial stage. Uniess the well hex gone deep eonugh or has passed
through a ring of cfayey strata so i4ot chances Of tilts atd shifts ar¢ minimised during this process.
Comple\c dewateririg . should unt be allowed whcn ‹hC wd1\ has been BuFJk £0 Bb0ut 10 ân depth.
SinLing thñft*afTvr Sgioul4 bc dorJC by grabbing. chiselling, applying ken‹Iedgc anJ usiag gcfignite
charges. OriJy when tbese methods bave failed, dewatering may be allowed ugto depressed wattr 1cwcI
uf 5 m and

On ce ain ncasions a well is sck up and normal method of kentte4gc and dredging fail to sink if
further. In such a case friclinnal rmistzrite developed oii its oukr psriplxry is re4uc‹xi considerably by
forcing jei of water on the rzrier face of ibe well aroa0d. This rra•tfiod ix effective in cnse ilic well is
being sunt in xml slrata.
4. This ood Slüfts. Tbe primary aim in welk sfakizig is to slak them sïraigbt zxd al fhe correct
position. Suitabie precautions slx›ufd be ‹a¥cn to avoid tiJu and shifts, Also proper records of tfIts and
shifts sbould be maimaiond and roeasure should be taken to coua‹cr-act ‹iHs and shifb. TM precasutions
to avoid tilt ctd shifts are as folk›ws:
1. be outer surface ol° the web! curb nnd steiJfiog should be zs regular arzJ smith

2.Alle radius oï curb shouJü te kep 2 io 4 cm fargor than olie outside mdius of well steirtiog.
3. The cuniog edge of the cuzb shnu)d be of unifrom Otickncss and sharpness since
th¢ sharper edge has a gra‹m t¢ndcmcy of sinking than a bluni rage.
4.The dredging shoul0 be doix uniformly out all sides in a circular H'¢IIan4 in hoñt pockets of a
t''in well. TM tiI‹s and sftifa uf weTT, if any, must be carsfuT!y checked and recorded. be conoct
measurement of the tiles at arty stage is perhaps one of the roost important field observations required
during well sinking.
As soon as tilt ¢xceah i in 2IXl, th¢ sinking shouldbe supervised witb special care and
reciifyi»g measures sixiild be immediatety taken. Any of the following measures can usefuÏÏy be
cmployed la coumeract tbe tillis in rhe well during sinking operafioos : fig Rt$ulation oJ
pm6biag. U equai dreiging causes iiits and hem if higber xidc
is giabbed more by regulaiing the dredging, the rïlt can be mcöfied [Fig.
27.12. (u)].
This mefl›od is not vcq' effective when the well has been suok to a great depth. In l1ia‹ case, a I\ale in tile
steining of tho vrelJ is made on tbs ITighet side, arrt by hooks, the rope of I-be grab is yuIIcJ inwards
htgher eide ‹a the maslaua {ossible extent [Fig. 27.12 (d}]. the fioTc is made near II+c grouad feel.
t h e well may be dewaiczcd if possible and opm excavation on th¢ higher side is canied our.
 In larger size wells to be sunk to grcal depths, eccentric loading may be ai much as 400 to 6fD
tonms with an eixcntricity of 3 to 4 m. In such a case a - l d o l frame br;tckct is used as shown in
(Fig. z7. 12 (c)l.
rid iY«ie y«i»$ or «iggi»g pit out ide ia sigs‹r s:de o/ ii‹ »'eii. i» iris neth»a. waier ju is
forvcfi on the outer taccs of tin a l l , tow»rdS ihe higher xide so that xtin friclion is reduced iowards
the higher side. The nleiliod if used alone is not very elftcti*e bui provides a contributory effect if jised
wills other mctbods.
(iv)F-xoaݴuYon under rim czzrfiz\g edge. A filtcd oleh g rally. rehues ID 5w4ighieo on account of
unbroken sniff strala on tke Itigflcr side of the wc1L Fn such a case, the wc|l is dcwatcred, if {ossible
ard safe, an npen excavation is done below tbe cuning edge of the higher side. If dcwatering is unsafe,
divers shoula 6« sun la iw » ‹h« «r‹›u›.
(v)Providing temponcry aâsredes 6e/w f8¢ cvfzing edge. In some cases wmden sleeper
pieces arc put temporarily below the cu ting edge of the well on I1ie lower side to avotd fitrthct tilt of
th wcTT while various cxpediesxs are Ining tempted ‹a rectify the
‹ ft ffiig. 27. t2 (dj]. Hooking ihc cu«ing eJgc on ‹he lon't side of ‹he well with
the
help of ‹he steel wire rope, pult¢d, and kcpr strained by slcam which also has a
similar
efTect [Fig, 27.1 2 (c)].
(i*i1 f’z/ffing rite a'eff. Tbis method is eR”cctive only io early stages of sinkiog,
well is pulled towards the higher sible by placing ors• or more steel ropes found ihe well with
vertical slew re pactcd in between to distribute llic pressure over larger areas o£
well
steining. The pulling of rop•s roay be carried out by winches [Fig. 27.12 {/}].
(vial Srru0ing The +reZf. Tbis rnetbod is used to avoid any further bcrease io tbe tilt of ihc well
raihcr tlun rectifying ii. The well ii siruaed on iti tilted side with suitable logs of wood. The well
staining is given covering plaic to distribute pressure. Tne other mls of th lugs reef against fine and
non-yielding bese by driving piles etc. Wood pieces are kept ready ‹o be inserted and fixed in rhc gaps
caused by rhe lime of tbe will beiog

(riii) f'ttAñig AJ jizfhi. The weil may be pusfitni by force applied by hydraulic or rrm:hanica1
jack on the rifled side of the zellx.
The cssentiaJ féañtre of a pzeua›atic caisso» is ‹hai compressed air is used to excliute or zcmovc wa‹cz
from II\e 'working chamber at I?ie bottom, tiul the excavarions are dius carried out in dry corulitions.
The rocthod oF com\sanction nf pneumatic caiason is similar to ttnt for oper caissous (welts) except that
the working chamber is lept air tight. in order that sub-soi! water may riot enter ¢Iie working
cltaotber, the precsuze of air io Idle sfltft is kepl just
hi@cr than tkzt o£ the p ale r at that dopth. However. thr roaximum pressure is l i m i t s
from ‹he considcraiiosts of ketltlt of persons who work inside lie tolerable ckzoiber. Normally, ltie to
8ir prersuru under wkich a man can work is limi e4 3.3 kg /cm‘.
Lm li be Oie hcigbt of waicr, at any stage of working. Then air pmssuro p required
to exclude c'aicr is g i v a by
 inside the well. The air feet rriay reat on rubber seats just above the cutting edge. The nurotet of air
locks may vary ftorn one e truce. Generally, two air locks are used - oue fbr serzJiag ruco iaside and
the orher for zriovipg the excavated otatoriaJ uitb the beep of a mu¢h bucket aod koisjlng rope.
3.After properly placing the air lock in posilion, so that dircci air entry is seated. water is
pumped out from the bottom and air pressure is gfaduelly incmns‹xt so that fresh water do••s rat enter
thc working chamber.
4.Labourers are then sent do' n to 0x working chamber, tftrou$h the appropriate air 1ntk. In
order In przveiii leakage of air, arrangement of doable gates ii provided. Th¢ person enters Idle first
gate, ''hers pressure is atmocph¢zic. The first door is closed and pmseurc is gradually increased tu
ma¥+ it ¢qual to iltc oos in the sulking cksabcr.
The heighi of working chamber is kept about 2 m, with proper ligbting arrangement. Air
supplk4 though the air inict pipe connected to an air conipmssot.
ñ 5.Excavation is carried out in the sorting chamkr by ihe labourers sent down ihrnugb air lock.
The excavated material is seni up tkrougb 1h• muck buckets lifted iip by a hoisting ropu opens i by
winch dnun, through the air loct. In order to assist skiking. air pressure may be reduced for a sbori
while. Sometimes, explosives may be employed in which case ii is esseniiaJ lo make arraogeinetns for
the immediale removal of fall fume.
6.Wlcn ih• causon txutom has reached tic desired level, concrete seal (or ping) is nude by oo
crewing upio the underside roof of be worldng chamber. Sufficient air pretence is maintained to force
ihe concrete against tic bottom surface iill ii hardens.
7. Air locks aze removed, well is filled with sarzl or water (or even kept ernpry).
The well cap is then fonned On its tag aS usual.
 Machine Foundations

38.I, C O ï L D W A h ff C G
Soit 4yruzrHcs is dcfincd as IÏiat consütuezt part of soil recckantcs which dcals wiL soil undei
dynamic oo0ditioris. Ii studies ihe effect of forces on xoil in any way asmiateà with c.•using motions in
Mail as wcïl as will tkc mutual Jycamic ixteracüon of the foundarion and soil (Jumikis. I9ó9). Mosi
of the zziotioas cixountcmd in soil dyiuaics work arc tltose of vibraúon, pÏanc liacaz moóon,
motion brought atout by impact, shoúk, cïastic wavcs, and seismic actioo of geopbysicèl forcea.
'T'M design of foundctioas of turbines, motors, generators compressors, Forge kamroezs azxl
oilier machines, having a rhythmic appticaion of unbalanced forces require special knowledge of
theory of bartnorñc vibrations. JosrtIa1 fozczs of rotating cJentenrs of rrachiru:s cunhibutv. besides tkeir
staic loads. aclditionzl éyaaatic loads. Tbc machinery vibration influences adversely I1ic four<laéon
supportiog s0i1 by dmsifyiog it u•fiich may in lurn, ensue differenfial smtlerncnt of soil and foundation.
 Fig. *8.2 (a) shows a siatp|e spriog wilti a spring constartl £ kg/m. H'lten a •<ight
\¥' ›s allacbed to it (will+out any 'ribraiiozs), it extends by an amuunt 6, {Fig. 28.2 (d)].
The static acfletiion 6, of ibe apring is given by
. .(2B.1)

(b) loi
FIG. 28.2. FREE VIBRATIOHS.
If ibt tin spring mais system is pulled down, by an external force, by a maximum distance
or A {called the amplitude}, and then released, the whole system Yibratm wittt a certain frequeocy. Let z
be tbe displacement of rhe maes at aoy ioslark, with respect to ihe equilibrium position, the force I'’, in the
spring (†) is then given by
— z - -
z ..
’Tile foxc acts in the opposite direction to tk• motioo a any iasta»t. 'The graYiTy force \+' acu
downward. Bellcc whm tl+c motion is downward, lhe net downward force is equal to k’ T - (IN + 1z) †,
This must be cttual to mas8 x aocekratiuo. Hcac¢, xc get
W — [W + tr) = —
OF ...(28.3 a)

which ii usually written as ni’ + R = 0 ..(28.3)

n'hcre /r = mass of lhc vibrating bo4y = H'7g
z’ —
- acceTerziion
£q. 28.3 is called the o/nm%q aUnUac io the fo0owimg
mbicb % sumd:ud
equation of motion z” + w, z = 0 ...(28.4)
whcro u = natural frequency of tbe systcai.
Comparing Eqs. 28.3 and 28.4.
N CltlfłE FOUNDAWONS

or raó/sec

rsgue of the systeæ in cycJœ per second, wu ł\am

..
.lt8.6)
38.8. УÏBRATING SPRING-MASS SУ5TEM WTTI4 DAFfPING

dash-pot, having r at the doping /«cior and i it the

velocity of ibe vibrating xytsnn at any instant, the forGe
in inc d h-pot, opposite the motion, will be equal to rż.
Hence the e9untion of the motion will te

for dømpiag vibniiotø :

i' * 2вj + too z = 0

. .(28.9)

Eq. 28.8 iз tbв standard ăiffereiuiai equation wbicb cøn be sols'cxi by putting
z = C ' *‘ ’ ...(ij I = C ’W ’ ... I’= C 'i.' . e ’ .. ,{iir3 ,..(28. 10
Putóng t1ъ•se hi (iO o)
›nC ’ä 'f ’ + Eq.
c 628.7,
' e‘ ' иæ
+ tCggt
' e‘ ’ = 0 ...t28.10)

Thrœ cases may atise front Eq. 28.11 :

b# (i) b). if a’>wȘ
 Eg. 28.! I for case (i/} redtioes to ’ = 0, ia‹tica‹iag ‹t›zt for dds condition tBere

For case {ij, tic radical is real ( n' > n , and c * 2 .

Horn hom (1), .

(2813)
Ed. 28. \ 3 shows that z is not a peri‹xtic fuimion of iime. Therefore, rhe m¢4Jon, wbcn n' —
u{ > O is r o‹ a vibrarioa, hccausr ii caa only approach tbe equilibrium position af I —+ •s. Hpwsvez,
tl›¢ visco\ s Icsisuincs is so promuoccd ñut th wcigbt set ia mccioa from ifs eguilitirium does lot
vibrate but creeps gradually back ro 0e cguilibriuai {xnition

to/ = o/ — n* is positive or
mo
roots of Eq.
28. 11

k,=-n-ev1

,28.14
Now Eq. 28.10 (o) gives
two particular elations of Eg.
28.8. Also. I1ie sum
or dif-
ference of these cwo solutions mul-
tiplied by any constant is also a
solution

when 6, and C are coastanis.

Substituting tfi¢ value's of 1,
and fzooi Eg. 2B.T4, arxl
simpltfying, we g¢t
 z = e"” }Ci sha oa t + C cafi w t} ...(28. t6) T quantitj/
in ft\e bmckct rcprcsau jh siotple karznoriic motion of tile câ se of vibraiion without damping
wf6le e" is the damping term. Fig. 28.4 to) sbows the timv
diiplaccmeni curve for this case. The pcroid £ of the dumped vibr«tioa is
j;iven by

or . .‹28.
18)
ZB.4. FORCED VIBRATIONS
Fotc<d vibrations of a sjrstero arc generated and sustained by rhe application or an external peri
xlic mov‹nncni of the foundation of M system. Forced vibrations constitute the mos1 imporian\ rype of
vibration in machiw foundotioq design, We sl›a\I coiuidcr Itie case of forced vibralioas with dazoping.
Generally, for oscillating machinery (thcrt ‹he roackir<cy ›'ihratos because an unbataJxed rotational
force oxtsts), the force can t< expressed as a sioe or cosine function, such as r sir ai. the equation of
motion for ruclt a case
may be writen as
...{28. I9J

Or

Th¢ solution of lits above equation may Le assumed ir If+e following forms
z =4 ooi or + 6 sin o/ ...(28.2O oj
B}' successive differentiation, we obtsin
z = — be .. 28.20 tñ

!iubstituiog imo Eg. 28. t9sio oi +wegoget

(e), cos ai

(- xe ‹xls or - ss’ io a ) 4 /— xo sin e 4 a,» cas o ) + (J cos a + s ip city = in oi

..f28.21)
Equating the co-efficiem of sin ur ‹o both sia
. .‹*8.22 c)
,
Similarly, equating tbc coefficients of cos ur to t›otb sides.
-He’+-Bo+—%°0 ...(28.22 6›

Mv #s 8 . N o ) M (D) fw flkWnsH adB, egm

 F ca›
(ñ - uso’)° (co)’
Substituting these in Eg. 28.20 (o), we gei
I • solution in the form

The equation represents tbe coroporeats dv to fbrced vibiatiora with the p¢rioJ of
7’ . The freq\icoCy fa vibrations (in cycles p¢r second) is given by
-
* 2n

. ..{28.25 b1

arxl

Sobitituting in Eq. 28.24,

sia § ...(28.26 a) ard §, . .(28.26 ti)

'ue get z = z (sin } cos o f+ms ti sin ct rj=z xiv {ni i+$) . . .{28.27)
where rhe angle § is tenned as Ibc phase angle bzrwecn the exciting force arul the ntution of vibrating
mass.
Notiog lTia theso tcrozs represent a psir of vectors whicb must be added to obiain the sotuñon
the displacemeot, for ¢bc displacement d\ie to \he fbrccd vibrations of Ed.
28.34
becomes c = “Y,4’ + 6’ F» sin {or + ,y) ..
Substi«ttiog tile ’alucs of d and notiag from Ed. 28. I2 fha‹ (2B.28)

...{28.29 b)

we get z = —’ ...(28.30
o)

or ...(28.30 6)

TM maximum deflection z„„„ is thus given by

 — .t28.31 j
-

Bul deflection of spriog

I
. . .(28.31 ui

where A, = = maximum dynamic deflection of the system.

Fig. 28.5 show8 a plot

between

Froro Fig. 2B.5, it is observed

that magnification factor scdderJy

0.6to 1.5. At r = 1, rezo/xriceoccurs

for en undamped cnndifion. Even for
damped coralitioris, die magni-

tbcce ccrvcs sbow th¢ ¢ffcct ofdamp-

ing gon shiftings Otley freq
for
aim of the desi8i 'r shouj4 be sucft
that the fre9ueacy ratio /Z/ is eiller ric. u.i . w P DE recqumcv uONSHIP
FOR 9AHPED FORCED Yif RATtOt'iS.
less than 0.6 or more than 1.5. Hogg
ever, tlu frequency / of the machine is always constant, uxl a fD tiQD I
has to aianipuJaie the iumral frequency/ of themachine fourvJalion sysmm by suitably pmportioning
 . .(28.34 I )
" ' ’" tu in 1-
wbe zu °‘ 2e w+W
m W, = weigki of tlu vibrator, anl
W/ —- wcigbtlhe
\Joforturiate!y, of Ife
sizeapparent soiJ mass. body of soil cazmoi be determined exactly as yet
of lie co-xibr8ting
because ii depends on frequcmy arid is influenced by tile size of ihc bese area of ibc vibrator
(foundaiion) and by the elastic propertin of ihc soil (spacing).
We shall consider berc tkrcc methods of determining the natural frequency of fiourxlation xoil
sysiem : 1) Bsrken's mctliml, (2) BalaYrishna Rao's method, (3) Ptuw’s method.
28.†. BARKEN'G ME'Ft1OD
Barbeo suggeecd W following equation for the natwal frequerx;y of system

..(2B.35 o)

who C« —
- co-efficient of ¢lasiic uaiforozcompression of soil
m
m = mass of' o›acbirte plus foundation.
The amplitztde of dicplacenteoi is given by
..(28.35 6)

r —
— exciting forc¢ , r = frcquewy mtio = —.
Tht above formulae for neturai

Barren givu the following equaiion for ibc co-efficient of elastic uniform compression of soil,
obtaimd frxim the soluiinn nf ibeory of elasticity problem concerning the distribution of t r i a l
strmsm under the basecontact arei of a rigid plate
f,-—1.13 . .(28.36}

where 12 = Young's zrodutus of s, oil y=

Poisson's ratio
SKS, C. dc Ends ›ot only out clasiic co£ala0ts fi and y but also on size of the base contact area
of £ouixhtion. The co-¢ffctcimH C» ckaages in inverse proportion iu he

...‹28.37)
Table 28.1 gives the reconmmrñed value of C for A - 10 m‘, for various soils.
 soiL nEciixsics son rounxiioas

erasric ann coueemsios c, gxaxfs, reste

send, in a plauic sTzie, maya, W siTty

sanrh; atso soils of czazgnriea f£ GLI wah up Io I .5 up To 3
lgmiiur of ozggnic silt xrd of gru}

28.8. BULB OF PRESSURE CONCEPT

The calc tation of naturel fiequercy by Barkcn tom. no account of liu mess of soi} vibrating.
But his work dane by D EG E B O ii<tirates tbat alien a vibrating load acD on a soil, a certain mess
of soil ranging from 4 to 5 Lima tbe vibratory bad parñ¢ipates in II\c vibration. BaJakrisfma and
Nagrej (tP60) grojx›sed lie billb of pressure coixept of calculatiog the apparent mass of s0il
panicipatiog in tb¢ vibration. According to ‹Lis. tbc vibrktiug mass of soil is assumed to be conuined
by the bouadazy of a pressure bulb. For thc purpose of simplicity, ‹he Toad acting on any surface is
replaced by ari equivalent conccnuated load actiog at fbc ntass cenlze of ihe original arec. If y is rhe
unit weight of t he soil in lbfcu. fi., th•n according io the pressure buJb concept, the apparent mars of
iÏle soif is the mess cncfœrd by ‹tu prcssurc bob o7 intmsity o, Ib/sq. h. soch tfat
o: = I y I

...(Z8.38}
For exemple, if ifc unir - i g b t of soil is 110 Ib/cu.it. , ibe apparent xiass of the oil will be ttu
mas• of tin toil contained by a p u r e bulb of inmuity 110 Ible. fi, From Boussi»eiq analysis,
the vtriical stress o, at a depdi t and radial distnace is
r 0 Îs gfvefl by

Heore Iy I = 0.4?’75 ...(28.39j

In the above equation J 2 J and tK, known.
am the pressure bulb is known.
Heace z = diameter of 4
Weigbt IV, of soiï = 4 ^ (
2 ) 0.477ô R'v "
...
(2B40)
lt shoul4 be œtcd thtt Eq. 28.40 is ru›/ dimensionaïïy üomogeneous, and is applicable
orlly in F.P.S. nuits, where lY,. and W, are in pounds and y is 1bs/cu. fi.
 y4aLB z gJ. VALTJk OP AND p

7 — 11.$
0 w — sx 4 — $.8

L,xc< siiry ss«a Y ex - i\s a.sz - \,\s

one ugly rod 21 W — 460 3.30 — •t.60
C g/. •soT@ 56 — T05 T I .•i —23 0. I IS —0. 23
Clay, still plastic @— @ I 1.S —23 0. I \5 — B.23
Kiev w-k 14 It.5 0 I IS 0 23
28 23

The spring constant for the truo¢alcd pyrazoid is câl¢uJaicd by fizst of NIJ de the iniog
surface deformation Q given by following infinite integral :

..,(28.44 o)

P» ”' dm
OT ..28.V d)

,.
(]8.45)
The eqtrivaieni soil spring constant k in tfie vertical pm is given by

I ! dm
„(38.46)

Th values of I are lbs curves of 28.7 in ahkh i give #

the equation Fig.
A @k1 bee . . ,(28,48)
(for
ard /: = g6k circular base of 4ia. b). . . .(28.48 a)
(fbr
For given *alun of .g atzl ratpios, ii dctemiir<d
 c
s

%i'
S.0

1 g q 5
2

VG. ZB.7. E§UIVA STL SP@NG INSTANT FOR HORIZONTAL SURFACE.

PtUw developed expro$$ion for apparent soil mass mt by equntiPg M kinetic energy of the
effected zone to tin kixeiic o rg y of a mast aisun›ed io be concentrated at the base of klc foundation
Following is final form of ¡he exprusio0

(where the factnr Cq ñ read floor Fig 28.8.)

..,t28,49)

D-iG. 28.8 DETERMINATION OF FACTOR W.

 el
i

23 (0.3)'
I - .23 (0.3) 2

of eiastit unifomi in coh reision L C . Air merge of ‹uâttator ts 62 tg end the forts
produced by it at 12 cles per secuiaf is I IN kg. Akn camputn ihc noxrieium oznpfiruzfe

o» = 2n/< = 2« x 22 = 44x

Mass of vibratot = 62 62
Mass of fouzzlAtioa blcck (coocrete) = ' ” ” * = 244.‘7

xs 4= 6.3 244.7 = Z51 ; J = coniact area of fouixlntioro = 1 m'

fiabniaifin$ lJzcse in

C» —- (44a)' (251 ) = 4.76 x 10’ tg zm'

N. - ' £octrt•s = 3 8 10”' Cm.

’ 251 {44a)' (1 - 0.3)
Example 28.3. The resonance of o ierf blast 2 m • / m • I m or.rurred or
25 clrstser: in iM vnoical di icy, Tht ather data ore os olliws .•

Ib

lt’ = mui load in II {i.e. weighi of hiae íõundaóon + iinbalamed

+ fotce)
i
Weigtu of os¢úlator = 62 kg : Veriicsl unbilanced force = SOO
kg
d12 sorL XtECTtAMCSAHD £¥XJNDA‘Tł0HS

rrnrro//Y oscif/otizzg /zorc, /or rme /o/bowing dœo.

2. Speed of rotation = 26 r.p.m.

J. d'oíœcrd vertices /orce - I roe
I, å ‹uc dirvmia' o/ the engine = / in •
2.1 n

Sò tutioo. Let Iżie size of fl:ш bïock be 1.3 x 3 æ at tbe base of tbc ancbiœ, aad
2 x 3ø.б œ ifs bot‹aaт. Lm fts bcigbt of tbc connects blcck be 2.0 oт, so thet it
psocoatвs
+ (t ^ 3.S} x 2 x 2,4 toaocs = Z7,ó t
2

Tonl гnass of hзachiвв zыl fouяdsñon, 27.6 + 4.S

• If¥Xt = 3270 kg-æc*/ro

Now s-

Table 28.2, assuœs, ğ = 4.6 x IO' kg/ro'Zrn .

Froat Fig. 28,7, z = 1.3s and - I.75, we

’’‘ ' '' Á ' ‘ 2

"’ # = ßò't - t4.6 x ł0’j t2)' ;j.5) = 64.4 x 10‘ kg/m
31
3
Frora Fig. 38.8, г-i.Зз шm -—1.
=1.75, {

Ннсе the naturai is iven by

f» -- -- ” -- t6.6 c.p.s.= 996 r.p.m.

Зп еь -i- 2« 326‘7 + 26’79
s‹

The amptitudc of vibiaiion is deerinlmd from

Fв

F = Оупав ііс loul = IQXI kg. Asaum — = It. i5

' ” 0 2 0' 64.4 х 10’ х 0.P7

23+

''Icfo & = y (2 + 2.5) - 275 fri : z - depl i Oelow gzmind eurface = t m

6 = i — 0.6 = 1 — 0.2ie = 0.782

’. (Je)<e‹ = 0.IXll6 x 0.‘782 = 0.001M cot. Pcratîssible aroptiIz+dc by Raucb cguation is

azass of sort psr0cipates ia the vzbratioa wtfli 0+e fouzula0oo, Barkea's are@ad ts based air liocr cprfog
tbcory. Tbs axdtéd mgfeca tbe effects of daaiping cat psrticipatiog sob) mase. Barkea'a zaeI:bad is
very oturb iued ia desigo offices. A sozzlzoazy of various fbrazula

1. Equation of Motiou : la the gemtat case, tlu foundaëon rnay be

cunsklercd

у, z) sвd rotation them eвch of there axm (Fig. 28.9). The minëoвs about у. z
zяd
x—azes are mcspectively Ьззwо as rocbng, j nиing cod piïd›iлg. Lci us fïrst coruidcr тЬе
Bl6

[a) fioil lxzse. die »£ues ob t„ /, zul g,. for the elastic sirppox of Coil are
given by the following exprmsiom
For izrfico/ moioa £- = C I . . .(28.66 o)
horizotitol (sliding} mention : k —- Cs A . . .[28.bb b)
For Prior : q = Ct it . . .t28.66 c)
for
I3tus, kriawing C , the vclucs of t, , t, and ¥» can bc coaiputed
(8} Elastic pride. If, however, the foundation blmk is supported on elastic pad of contact arch I
ind thickness i, rim the vaiues of the stiffiness fmnri are given by the following expmssioos

wbele 6 = modulus of' etasticir}/ of die pad material

G = sMar moduJus of lie pad auierial.
(c) Steed sprtog. If wie föuodaüon ^. '80

c/ as the diazrimcr of spring w0ire, ”

as täc diamcter of spring coil. lt s
as ‘
the number of windings in each coil,
sheor modu1u8 oftbe roaterid, Iöe stiffocss -
fsctore are giveo by lie fölfowiag ez—

if there axe N springt in the coü,

the iesultani veriical xtiffnexs will
be
N.L,.

0.77
o# to ts zo
28.12. INDIAN STANDARD CODE OF PRACTICE FOR DESIGN OГ
FOUNDATrON TOR IMPACT TYFE MACHINES
The design cx@rcmenn of W impact types møchinn, ncti as dmp and forge hammers, am
difkrDnt lżian ÜX›3fi of ńte r¢ciȚirocańng £yç< ØBcbÎacs 4iscusscd 8bovc. I5 : *Œ4 (Parr iJ) i966
covers tłt¢ design reg\tireœmts for tłтc fó ułdaó ocs oč tbes hcgvy impact type roachirшs. rig. 28. 13
stowas some typical sectîoas of tbe fouadatìoтłs fór their machiткs.
Qg/îniń ó ru. (i1 Jятif: AnУЯ is a base-bïгcL fó r a bammor on wÏiich maïгтiel is forged into sbape
by repeated slriking of jłlc lap. (i/} fufii• Tup iy a weighted block which strikœ lżic roatcriвl beiog
fórged on IAe anvil. {ii‹1 Fo тгa äaiian btO : It is a mans of r¢inforccó
concrœe on which fłтc 8nviï rвsts. tïv) /°zo/emive cкdúoning ( rer {joict 7i ) ” It is an
elastic cushiorúng of suitable material grd jÎiick-
riœs provided between lfic a»vîI and the fouo-
daiioo block in order œ prevent bouncing of anvil
aiań creaóoo of !azge iznpect suosscs ar•ã
cяœojъcrit d8œages to ùłc top surface of тÎłe
coacrete iu tbo fomdatir›n block. (x) Fa n anon
zt/P pori joint J, ) : It is e supțкirt

laycr ctc. The bto¢£ Toay alto Œ @ipporteü on

pile fouadatio•s.
Dœig• Crikria(I) The itiessm produced
ai the time of impact in the foundation base
lsoil, timber, sleeper, cork, spring elements or
piles) should be within 0.8 times allowable

(2)Thь• dvsign of the entire fouвdalion

system sbould be such that the ccnttm of gravity
of the artviJ, aod of tbe foundation
blœt, æ well as tlu joixts at which the
resullanls of forces in the elastic join¡s I, and
I act. ooimidc with the lire of fall of the
baminer nip. Whü e dełemiiniпg
ù ic ceorrв ed gravity oГ II+c foiułdaú oa block,
the weight of the frame of thв tup could

(3)the maximum vertical vibrational

amplituA n£ the fóuœlation block sżiould not hg
rhan ł.2 mm. In case oГ fouяóations on
sand below тt›c ground walør, tbø penoìssibte
amplitude *bouJd aot be more Otao 0.8 mm.
 PART YH

PAVEMENT

DESIGN

29. DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENT

30. DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENT

31. STABILISATION OF SOILS

 Design of Flexible Pavement

29.1. INTRODUCTION : TYPRS OF PAVEMENTS

The Jerif›ir pavement comisi of a relahvely thin wearing surface hunt over a be a•d sub-base
c course, and thy riat on compacted sub-grade. The flexible pavements
vsrc able to resist only vary small tensile stresses. In contrast zo ‹his. rigid yovernen/s arc roadc up of
Portland reire'tit concrete and may or may riot kave a base course between tote gavemmt arm ihe sub-
grade. A rigid pavement can take epprccinhlr tcwilc stresses and is capable o£ bridging small
weakness aod depression in tile sub-grade. A semi-/eri6/e pavement is made of try-lean cooc•ete or
soil cement, aad possesses qualities intermediate between flea flexible aod rigi0 pavements. A semi-
flcxiblc pavement possesses appreciable f3exural sDeogrb but iI8 roodtJus of elesticify is coasidcrabJy
\oeer thnn rt›at of concrete.
essential 4iffereixe )JeMeen rigid aad flexible pavemcoa is the maruwr in which II+ey
disaibute the Saad over fhe sub-grade. The design of 8 flexible pavement is f›ased oo Idle principle hut
a eurfa¢e load ie diseipated by carrying it deep into tho ground ‹hrough successive layer of gramzlar
Trizleziñls, Heace the strsngtb of a flcxiblc layer is a result of building up ttiick layers and thereby
dfstñbtitiog the load over the sub-grade miller tflan by ihc bmding action. Tbc thickness design of tlte
flexible pavement is iaflucncal primarily
b/ die strength o€ the s‹›t›-gmde.

The rigid pnveaunts are mud for heavier IM an4 can k constructed over pmr sub- •laiively
grade such as black cotion or plastic soils, peat etc. However, xince is taten up by the the lDad
bending sciion ot the slab, uniform tub-grade support is the most
826

iasemial condition for the Satisfactory performance of rigid pavement. In the flexible pavmu0ts.
on the contrary, a high quality, well compacted tub-gradt is msential.
29.2. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OP A FLEXIBLE PAYEMENT
A flaible pavement is usually built up io several layers as sbown in Fig. 29. I, rlrh layer
having a special fumrion. Generally. fbe flexible pavement tliirkrie • consists of Plus compomrits
surfacing, t'ese acd sub-base course. The leering course or s«f/bcing is the . coroponeut- of, a
pavemerk wilh wbicb tbe wheels of vobicTes arc ia •••Js! ooatatt. the purpose of tile wearing
course.' male of bi0rmitrrts material is te provide a smith riding xurface thii is resilieni and will
rexist
prmsure excfied by the tyres. It • 1* be
flexiblc so that it will not fait if conmlidation of
M subgrade or base cotirse takm place.

arat sub-bas<s aro used undcr ftezible geve-

ments pórnarily to increass tllc mal supporting
capacity of the paveoienl by itistributing
the fond thmugb a finiie thit of
pavement.
The baseaod
surface, course
bcrtcclies close deto y:osscss
it. aiust die pavement
higk rcsi t• • to dcforaiation io ordcr to w' h•t• •t
Itigb precsures imposed upon it. Hotvever, a sub-basc cari be of a Lower guality.
‘Tim su&gradc is lJ›c foundaüon laycr, lTie stnxturc wltich n.uat cvcntudly ztlpgart
als the loads wfiicb come oo to I1ie paveznmt. The perforraarw of rbe paveraeat is gffc¢tod by the
cbaractcristics of the sub-grade. Desirablo propertíes wlúch the sub-gtade sbould josse¥s ase :
4ocoglh, órain8gc, casc of coropacúon, pcrmanctmy of cozipacúoo, anó pemtaaency el strerig‹k. Tïc
suc•gtb of fbc szb-gmóe is imrcascd by compaction. or in soato c8ses by slabiJisation. Stabüity of
the sub-gradc is inftuerxed by soil texture, water coateut, dcasity, frost a¢óon, sltrúzkage nn‹1 swelltag,
aod other clitoatic lectors.
3. S U Ï S S E S II"f PI I Z I B L E PAVBMIZMT
1.Stzesses la bo-ogezieous zaass : We kavc scen in cfiapter 13 II:iat tbe vezticd st+css
distribution oo ai y horizonlai plaac at a dcplh z below lhe grotml surface, due to a cottccuttra\ed
loaa takes tile form of a belt-sbaped surface, I'M masiroum stresses oc¢jlr on lbs vertical pTar••
passing lbrough the poiot of load application. According zo Bouuir<sq’s analysis, tTtc vertical stress
a, at aoy point (r, z) is gixert by
 Iniegraiing the equation over a loaded circular area of radiui o, the vertical strm on a vertical
lim pasting through the centre of tic lords area is given by
.
.(29.2)

mum p ’w the unit load on W circular lot&d plati, z is flu ‹lepth and o is the radius
of the plate. Similarly, the horizontal radial stress is given by

..
.(29.3)

load {o„ o„ o, = a,) uader tbe ceoae of tbe plate

Is gñ'en by A k e ’s laa' :
c‹ = (or - 2po,) ...(29.4)
wbcrc 6= modulus of elasticity of
the
FIG. 29.2. CLA5TfC DEFORMAIJOR
Subsituting Eq. 29.2 and 29.3 in Eq
z - •s, tbc elazdc strtia A of Idle sub-grade is giveo by

A = p (2 - 2q’) (o' + + (p + 2p' - 1) z

”“' (d v dl' '
Taking p - 0.5, the above ezpiessio0 reduce to

. ..t29.6) A ...{29.7)

3 nr settlement Mtor. .
..t29.8)
Ed. 29.6 or 29.7 give the ekstic defortoadon of tbc sub-grade arty. The elastic defornuzioia frooi
swfacc fa dcplh 7 are aot corsi‹kmI siJ c tbc only eiginificaa deflections are in the xub—grade. If ibc
toad is ai the surface of ttic sab-grade (z=0), Eg. 29.6 reduces to
. ..(29.9)

Fig. 29.3 gives 0Is cuzvee for deTlcczioo factor fbr various values of aaJ
. Tb
¢

rado correipoixiing io Eq. 29.6 ii zero and the cume of q = o in Pig. 29.3 givei
ihe deflutions according io Eq. 29.7 tFoitei W Ahivin. 1954).
828 SOlLMI5Cl4ANlCSANDFOUNDAWONS

ver eat aett°ction fPol—’« ‹ e d . S I

FIG. 29.3. CHARTS FOR VERYfCAL DEFLECTIONS i FOSTER AND
AHLVIi'l 19S4 .

of the pavement components was ignored while calculating the deflections. Burmister
(1943,
45. 68), took inio account the effeci of various layers. In the simplest csse, th
whole
structure may be Jiought to be made up of two layers : tile base course or paveateot layer and the sub-
grado layer. In the analysis of the two layer syslem following assumpti¢ms
 #01LM#CB*NCS*NDFOUH,AL08S

rbe dual wheels are equal

to thoae of a siogle
wbecJ

of 0+e whee1l. fiig.

tiplc wheel on ations.
29.6
At a deptb approsi-
mately ball tbs face-to-face
spitci•g (dj, cbe wbeeis
cease to act indepcndmtly,
aod at a depllt e@uzl xi ” twice
Oie centre to ccmze to
spacing ( , the overlap
gy g ’g -TO. TW6.’U¥FLUENCR OP XtULJtPLE 6XESM ON STRESSES.
Wgible. in imfoU
fe el load can be foimd ciiber from ihe e#oai d ion criterion or cdmi-areas criterion.

P = wheel load of ce¢lt of 0›c dial tyres

F= settIao›em factor fbr eqttivatmt sf'bcsI load
Fi = seaIozrezn factor contributed by or tyre of duals
6 = setIJea+cot factor coxtrib«tcd by tbr otber tyre.
The solution of the problt- is accomplished by determining values of f•‹ ana N, se
that the Sq. 29.13 is- h i r e d . The P ’ is kiu›wo and farmis F, and Ni can
be known from Fig. 29.5 for various values of — ratioB. The maximum
vatue o'f
Hi + F. occurs at a small. d i n e from the emus of W tyre. However, fa practical problems, tin
valum of I, + I', urvlei the centre line, rind under a tyre, oeod by cfJcalaied and the greatest of the two
eiay be taken to. be used in Eq. 29.13. Thus the R.H.S. of Eq. 29. 13 is known. A number
of v sluea of r are assumed and the values of
, . F, are compuu:d dIt Bq. 29.13 is salJsfi‹xI.
29.5. DE6IGN. METHODS
The fleiible pavéniem deaigu methods can be bmadiy clarified iito three
distioci
(r1 Empirical methods based on sdil classification and otber factors sucb as climate
and nioimire. Thy include the following:

(d) Federal avi6ñon agency (U.S.A.) metbod.

Dt›StGn 0P- FLmmLs rnVEM8Ht

soaked as well m uasoakcd snnples

an deiermimd. Botb during sonking
m1 pMmtration ie$I, the $QfKim£n is
covered with equal surcharge
weigbls to simulate Die effect of
overlying pavement or tire particular
layer maker comlruclio0. Each sur-

dianieter wilfi a cennel tamle 53 mm

is coasidered approx oately equiva-

zniniznuoi”of two s m h a r $ c weigfits

(i.e 5 k8 surcfiarge load) is pkicod on S mm
lžie speckz›m. Load is applied on the
pcictraiion pislon io tke.
W pcnetration is eppmxim•lety 1.25
Co od 2.S
c rd¢d u pcocoazio•s, 0, 0.5, T.0, I.3, mm
2.0, 2.3, 3.0, 4.0, S.0, 7.3,

curve is dzzo plwBcd cs sbown io 0 2s s.0 Y.s 10 12.$

Fig. 29.8.

ftlie ciirvo may be comave upwazds

due to surfaos irregularitiea. A cor-
rection is Ihcn app\i¢d by drawing a at the poin\ uf gr2atcst slup'u.
¢nzlgent to iM cme
Tti¢ corrccaxt origin wi41 fc the poizt wbcrc lž+c tarlgnit mccts thc a scissa.
The CBR vafucs ere ueuslly cele Ilst¢d for pmclzačoos of 2.'i mm and S mm. Gmcrally the
CBR values at z.5 ouo peactratioa will be greater tbao that at 5 mni pczierracion and in such a cue fhs
former is to fe takcn as lžie CBR malce for dcsigu yurposcs. if the CBR value correspor<Iing ro a pem
atioo of 5 roro exceeds ‹hal for 2.5 mm, the test is rcpeated. Tf idzridcal resulls Follow, the bearing ratio
correpording to 5 mm peix•tration

Fig. 29.9 gives time design cuzves fbr detennining the appropriate thickness of construction
required zzfzo«e a maierlz) wilh a givea CBR, for differem wbnc! loads znd oafFic cor¥li\ions. 'Ilxsc
design curves fbr roads have been proposed by the Reaa Rescaxfi Laboratory, EngTaid, aad aze also
followed in lodia.
co iOois,Ue&ebfe,

so itnt tkc p¢nctration

p, under 9 kg beComes
half of the p<rieaation
pt undcr 36 kg.

...(29.17)

thic of 24 cm is provided for bearing values of 28 kg /cm' or mfirc.

29.9. BURMISTER’S DESIG i METHOD

A = 1.5 F
2
wbere yi = moaulus of elasticiry of Ile sub-grade
6 = dcftectioo factor, detamJzted froro Fig. 29.5.
The metbcd consists in aelecring xazious v¥lua of die dticDx s ii of tfe ‹op
Ja er the vaJuc of ltie dcflccčoo corzcspofdiog to cach vatue of /‹, froro Eq. 29. t t, tlte valuc
and fiadiag
of fac1or F bzizig taken io eacb case frora Fig. 29.5. W thic /i conesponding to an arbiwary
dcflccrion of A = 0.2 imb (5 mm) kas beso recammended by Burznislsr as tla r=guized ddckzecs oč
tbe pavezaeot. T¢olstive dcsign curv¢s for flcxibe runw8y pavemecls, using 0.2 io. as iimiting
deformation bave bem drawa asuuo1ng approzimatc valuo of mcdulus of d¥stfcity fbr v a š e
tytes of sub-gradcs.
29.10. £L8. NAYY PLATg BEABj fG Tg$ jyfgTž4OD
Tlzis mettod ie also bared a• B+umis ’s two-loycr tt ry. It coasisa of ltic
fotlowing

Any 1. The th i cMs £ of ihc base course is calculated on ibn basis of the no-layer theory.
For this the vanes of nuiu0iiliu of elasticity £, and £ for tne be court and sub-grsde an determimd
from two plate tearing iris.
 Slip 2. Trial sections are constructed with the pavement thickness equal to 1,

5iep 3. Plan during ices arc run on these trial ations and final diickncu is
chnscn on the ba•’i of ibese rests which produces s deflection of 0.2 in. {5 mm).
Step T. In order tel use tile two layer theory Of calGuJgtio• of required pa•c‹o=m thickness in
step 1, it is n<cessay first of determine the value of *, by the plate tearing tests un the sub-gmle. A
30 iach diameter plate is zeconuoci¥lcd for this test. In performing ifie less, it is essential to use a
series of staked plates to minimize the berating of the pta‹c upon IoaJing. The Saad 7’ corresponding
to a deflection of 0.2 in, is determis¥d froro 1he tesl, and the modulus of e\asticiry 6, is calculated
from Eq. 29. 12 by ‹aki+\g the plate to be rigid. The deflection factor 6 for ‹Its rest is equal to urrity
siuce The
TKT 0fl 5ub-grad2 9Oil FesUlLs in 8 One J8yor syslem. Heiwe
A = 0.2 in.= t. I B

..(29. t8j
Ey
From rhis, E, is determined. After rhc modulus of elasticity 6, is lcrown, a test scciiun consisting
of tho base course maicrial is buil‹ and plate-bearing tcs‹ is made on fl Ls, The ‹¢st section sLould
bc 5 m hy 5 m sqore (or largcr) and !5 to 30 cm d¢sp.
tic load inzcnsity y cormsponding io A = 0.2 in. is dctennir¢d from tbc tests.
Knowing
E/ from the prrwious tcsi, and A = 0.2 in.} and p from tL< present wt. the
factor 6
is calculated from Eq. 29. 12 A = 1. 18 F

OT

Thus, factor 6 is known. From Fig. 29.3, the value uf E z 6, is found currespondiag to da•
value of 6 and /i/a ratio.
Aher having known 6t and 6 ;/ 6 , (and bmce 6, also), rhe value of F corzrsporuling a a
givcm wheel loaJ intensity y is cooiput<d from Eg. 29. I I by taking A = 0.2 in.

A=i3 i lč f
*i
:.U9.20)
(Coiaideñny Jte wMet load to bo a flexible plate)

In this equation A . *2. # • (radiM Of tile tyre contact azea) are k rown .
arxl base courscs are coapac\ob to tkc dmsiti es rbat
I€rzzwieg 'ill b c expcctcd dwipg coostrucčori.
BMp B. £.•/Ei
F, and Pa>bmdW zuDthickz
radio. ihc m pmfo
•ss ii of fbo base fiN co«rsexmwx. Tfm danfroro
is drfermincd Uwo
w'd to d¢tctmim
on
Fig. 39.5. the required paveiztent thickztess s•hicIt wtIT result
smin bile assurocd deflectioa
Step 2. in ‹he itczt siep. lrial sectia•s •rc constructed of I ti i c Ws s h,

and ¿ it
c*lcul*«a in s‹eP t. E*ca trixi ••ctio» or • siveo itñck••s i co«s‹r«ctcd for ‹tvoe different soil
curididtiozls: oa on a typical fTIJ secrioo, ariorher on a typical cut scction, aod a third at a position on
of 0.2 in. In makiny thèse io the teste. a plate is mipluyal wlùch has a ra0ius coïTespncding
nffèctivc tyre radius In the o.
above method, the design ihic ix die total 1hicknes• of ban' tnaicriat
‹a sustain a giYun load a‹ a given deflection, aim no consideration of the tyf= or depth of weariog
surface is given. However, tbe strucruzaT qualities of wearing surface material am aiways f<tu'r, and
Ix'nce a certain iIticf:ness of surfaoc nufcrial can b¢ substituted for the base course material. I3tis
will, in effect. gr0ducc zn ada‹'d f»c‹or of safety.
29.11. LABORATORV BZPBRIMBNTC
BXI9DH74ENT 2 : DBUMWBNATtON OF CâLŒOBNJA B9AïtthG ¥u\UO
ot:ject assd eœpe. TIe• objet of Ile expcrim<r« Il io drtcrmirc bc California Bc«rin8 flaix› \C.fl.R.)
of a œmpzcicd soit szmplc in ils Iabors‹ury, beih in soaktd es cell as utaoakc4 zlso covcrs dx ua<. Th n<iIx›d
Oeteminatiœ of CTIR of uodisturbed sod samFle nht i•ed fmm ike ficla.

Ives a TO mm \S Skve. AJk wane for (urge rnzicrel sir uN t< mek fry B r i g ii hF an cquel aoounl
ed rastcziaT wklufi q @ W $' & is on 4.75 mv W S h e . W s§<cimoi znsy oon.
be red cii b or xuTic
ao

to its tottom. laser the Spicer disc o*er ihe W {with the ml fv›le of ihe disc at the iomr si4eL Pat a di'c ot a
ceerst filter en H top ct the 4ispiacei dix. Cap W mid sriil in ihr mould using ciihcr thr i ccuop•ction or
heavy compaction, For ligfii compaction, compact thr soil in 3 cquil liyvrs, cach ta¡'er being given •* i blows, anifimnly
diaribuic4, by itc 2.6 t# nmmcr. For la-ag
83
8

\f' - yą (î4 wȚ V
•'hcrc \+' - v•’eiyhr of wa soil . yr - óoit¢d d-ry detoity
n• = døsiroź waNr œ n W ; V = volume of spøcimn io W mould ZZ*i0 uW2.
Take ab‹xit 4.s io 5.S Mg of soit ztd raise its 'water co/actr e ific dœired •aIne ••. '7aLe wzigkt

u in t›oaooi. Tamg ‹he soil @ hxnd auziog pouring. Place a ñlW gap•r eral üm dóptsccr disc on dv ‹op of ifø œil.
Keep rI+c mould aæoably ia am corapressioo aucbir< ant cœipsct tMe æll @ pressing il • ąisgfacsr disc till it›c Icvct
of ił›c dix rœcMs tic iqp nf II+c oani(d. j¢zeg óø tea‹t Iôr u›me timr aixl tLen release. Itcu›ore ił< disFbccr dix.
2. Łp æ : To ¢ńXatri uixltuurlxd p i e s , at/sch tbø cua1«g edge to Us mDt\#T s d pet; it g¢nily in
ił< grounó. wløn ibc ooulü is sufFicicaül full of coil, we, *t by u/der-digg\ag.

The âoвity of th шil sfквúd be ‹kтгпnisd hy wci¡;bing tfir soil with fк mouhl or by my field 'я•• tsucłi zs ihc
sar<I regIs•enicra c+oIod) rm ił< soiI in 0e vicinity of no șpx et which sungle is œ I ! - Ÿ .
fàJ SO l'iC OP SPZCIMT'N ANO TEST FOR SWELIJNG

3.îrruocrsc tI+e mguld assembly but weighs cIc. in s unk of wslo flowing . free accœs. of wato a ihe «›g
ø»d touœi of me ęecăueo.
4.flours 0ø ‹npod of dv expzrsloa rnæsurtng Peake on d< edge of the itouId aizI ro+c down th iniiJal
K i n g of dial gaugr.
S. W set-up urxŁótur6cd for 96 houza {4 dz }. down readings day
egsioa tbe
‹iox of reading. ż•źairftsin onsts•øm wzter We4 in .
6.Take d< ruaI rctdiag ai tI›c crcl of pcr+‹<I, mnow +N• ‹ńpxl and take out ibc a>xzId. Allow tbc ę=ciri›<•
to dr•in, ror t5 miwtes. Relieve all ilø frœ øaet a›ll r+'d in 1hc nouId taking œu tlut rtir surface oS \t< spo•iøim
is not diuurbal durlng ńø process.
7. R°w'usc iIк wcigtтia. ¡мrfti te4 place мd top filar ¡яpor and Ngh tic

2.S¢at č< wietruion pieoa at ił< ccxc ef čn sp¢citacn wiói the œullcct possible lasd Inn in no case
excess of 4 Lg so it\at All ixmso Is essNisWl I›m/eeri dp irfaw of iłe speciøee
zaÏ

3.S'-I ‹h• srrcss a»d strain dial Bau8c to zao. ApFIy ihc load on the pcIuua‹ion plsion so Out th
p<œraiinn caic is epprosxru th 1.25 m /aiiø. Record 0< Iœd readú g xt peieaxtioæ of 0, 0.S,
 #]9
I.0, T .5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0. 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, I0 zid J2.5 innt. Itzcord It\c mnxiMoi. kid fo:I
j<r<trction
if i‹ oixurs for x $<Ixustioa of leo dci I2.5 mm.
4. Al tic owl of rI< pux«>iJon feel, deixch tile ioould f\ofn he loading cquipm¢m. Take •bou‹ 30 ro 50 g
of soil fr‹xri tlx tag 3 cm Um of ihc sp¢cirr<n, Int kceg ii for waier com¢nt dctcn•iiuiion.
Tabulath<i of obrersarlooa. Tbe i¢st dtu aixl observation cce recorded xs illustrated
in Tabl•
29.2.
TABLE 29.1 DA3'A ID OBSBBVATION MIEB'I FOR C.8.&' D6T€TUH3NXTiOh

7. Dry doaity

1. Dty ‹fcrAlty befett &âtiftg 3. ggT¥ density before sazkrng

't. Surcluzge aelgfft used dunng s t i n g

Tool fxpa incl (mm)

 SOA TERHAIgI S MD FOUNDATIONS

Ezjisrfiion fsto = % z lvi

fi izsiaT height of specimen {mzo).

2. Lns##nmn#bm P1oi 0e kod penezdw -c (Fq. 29.8) 1f0e tnhAl pordnu 0fOm
xnr

Corrzspxding la Jr g r a i k u i wI«c ai wliicb Ge C.B.B. is desired, coueaed load wlixs zie fo•nd Fror•
he cuwr x& C.B.R. is calculztat ss fdbws
C.B.R.= x IA

pcffif4i n caM.
l•s - Shutter lead to the samt petctruien as tor fi txYcn fiwn Table 29. t.
Tbc C.B.R. ••lies ar• u•u•tII czlcukud fbr Fer<oation of 2.S niui cid S aim. if C.8.R. For S cm e*reods
rIu‹ for 2.5 moi. 0c ia« sIx›uld f< pmied. If IrImrIch result feIIesv, 0e C.8,p. crszeqx›rdñ›g
 Design of Rigid Pavement

30.1. INTRODUCTION
Rigid pavemena øre tвadc up of Portland cement eorcrae, a•d maş or rnny iзoi bnve a base
course between the pavement æul the sutьgrade. Because of its rigidity , arid hi@ tcвsiże stnmgth, a
бgid psvetomt łeтrls to distribute th load ovrr a relativвIy wióc ezea of soil, aod a raajoт çortiou of ihe
smJctur¥t capacity is supplied by ïlзe stab irseïf. For lżiis rcasoп, rrúвor vańatioтts in sub-grade
strmgth kaYe Ïiitle iтtйueлcc upon the structтtrзt
capaci of ńic pkveœsat. The rigi4 pavments are used For heavier loads ariJ can be poor sub-
constructed over relatively grade suclt as 8t•r8 cotioп or plastic soils, peat, ctc. pnvements any
A base under rigid be used lot the foßowiog reasons
t. Prвventioп of pumping of fine gмiт›cô soil (Pк/тping is dcfincó as Фc eÿкtion of waNr
and sub-grade soiTB through jeinte. cracks and among be edges if p8Vmfinls caused by üowownrd slab
movement by Ihz passage of beavy axle loads over the pavemem
after ùтc accumulation of° freв wateт on or in tLe sub-gcade).
2. Protection against Prost ætioa.
3. Provides draiœge.
4. Controls tho shriпk aid swell of sub-gradv.
$. It forms a working sitriace on clayi aixl iilta, atzt tnus enables the
to prœeed expeditiously during wet weather.
6. Serves as a levelling couræ ozt iJтвgu1zr formaôoлs.
7. L<zxls sorue stmchual capacity to the gavęment.
LOG. €ŒP VEMENT
STRRSSESîNI
feca›rs affecting saesses îa rigid pavenieat cao be pIsE& fõur
broad ca\egories:

2. Stresses due to the externally applied loads.

3. 5tressm due lв volume вhaвges of the supporting material, including froxi
action.
4. Streæes óue to conč•uity of Iłie sub-grado support as aÏf«toó by perromt defórznalions
of the rob-grade or lots of supportthrough pumping.
M2

Betellve Stiffness of Slebs : When a load is applied on a slab, ii deforms in a saucer slispe, and
the rcsistam to deformation depends upon the s l i d of the supporting nediiim as weil as flcxural
niffiuis of the slab. Ttu mlative stiffnni of the sub-grade ard the slab is indicated in terms of his o/
refoiivt wifi' cis, acfiiuxl by Westeigasid t1927) by the following c teriitic equaiion :

f ...(30.1)
12 (1 — p' )
=
1,
where / = radius of n•larive stiffness {cm) (a liocar dimension} 6 =
mocluJus ot” elasticity of lliv gavem¢nt (kg/era) It = tfiickmss
of pavment (cm)
p = Poisson’s ratio oF the pavement
k, - modulus of sub-grcdc rcactioa ( kgXcm’)
TN• modiftu o/ zuâ-grmfc reaction is deFwd as 4te intensity of pressure oo IU
boñ znntai surface of a soil mass required to cause a unit seniemenl of surface :

...(TO.2)
whm p = tub-grsdc reaction. p = vc'ttica1 dcflatioo
34A. STRESSES DUE TO WREBL LOAD
Weitergsard 1926) considcnxl three cases of loading : (1) oorner lord, (2) load at flu edge of
the pnvt neni. and {3) interior leed. His oripirlaJ oquztinn for inferior loading was liter modified by him
(Weaiergaard, l933J. The e9vatiora for eoge eat com loading
mt omdiñ#d by Tudinhnd (1943). 99ic Do‹xñMed equadoss ooovrmed Uuo cmmc unix,
are given below :
logo» ] 12 (I — p’) }

wbae
(ctkv, = roazimum teiaite stress at tbc bat oro of arab due la laading ac tbe
iQt OF (kg/Cm’)
(a) roaxiznurn tcrui4e sDecs at the bnttoat of slab due to loading at the edge

(a),«er = roaxiznuzo tensde sfresa at th top of fbe slab due to loading at corner
 ii = slab tIticku<ss (cra)
p = Poisson’s račo for concrete
f = radius of rslative stiffšcss (cm)
E = niodulus of el8sLicirj/ (kg/cm\

, whc ..,
n (30.6)
6 = o wben o z 1.724 s
. ..(3s.7j
circular fu casu of comer aad interior loads, End semi circular for edge laads
ri, c = correlatioa f?cIors to dtow fbr a redistributioo of sub-gradn reaction ,
ci e SI ; cj e 0.2.
Preden t1951) gave the foliowing scmi-empirical formulac foi coroer loading for pmtetted

3.?6 P f I—
0.92J + 0.22 afl !

4.2 P
'* 0.925+0 22 oZfJ ”’'
The abeve txvo formufne ure tri FPS imits tri whicli f• in lbs, o is in lb tri
,

Ux m bt mar of dw dRgem* *m) m# 0y M!wr (1948)

infl chns And
Pickcd {1951).
Tbc eurface of lTie slah is sub@wd to wide mango of tszoperaturs during lie deily cycle,
whereas the teropercrure of tbe bonooi ol° dzc slab in comact a'ith ¢Ite sub-grade of tbe base rernaizo
relatively o›ore constam. This terriperarure gradient through ‹he slab caua<o diJTocatiaJ espaz ioa o
contractioo between IM ‹op aod botlozn of IM slab.

la the nfigbt , la sidles aod corners warp upwards, and might actually l a v c ti c sub-grade. la
tbis jx›si‹ioa, tile weigbt of Oie raised goztiota of llie 8Jab tend to berd them down.
 soI1. tdECïl CS AND FOU¥DATIONS

Hence tendien at top and

compression in the bouom is de-
veloped. Bradbuq' (1938) gas'o lie
fbJlowisg equations for edge stress
arrl interior Guess due to

...(30.10)

. . .(30. 1 I}
wfiesr = cwefficient of ezpin-
e of concreta ( S » 10 ‘
sion

to ate ut l• F per I cns thickness

of slabj
£ = modulus of ctssiicity of ooncrck
ti = Poisson'x raiio
C = co-efficient givm by Fig. 30.1, cormjxinding to LU ratio
C —- cmefficiept in the desired direction(say, .r directinn)
C —- co-efficient in th perpendicular direction (my. y directions
L= length of ibe edge
L = free length ’in z direction (i.e., tie direction in which o,«w, is sought)
Ly = free width in y direction.
30.S. STRESGES DUE TO SUB-CRADE FRICTION
Siresmi can also be fet up in rigi4 pavemenrs duc to mi/on ie»g›trataze cliongc, wfiich
cause the sïab to contracï or czpalxl. Ïf tots slab is fïcc to move az¥I halo is no frictioii &tween
the xlab and the xutr-grade, no xtressex will resum. Howevei, if frictien

slab ü *mumd. Dming vpaxMn, Un uodm<fi of dw hab is subj#owd :o

comgnsiive strDSs, whilc auFing conuactiod tcGsiTc gacBg¢8 am inducal del tO En sub-gra:k Iricioo.
Fig. 30.2 (6} slxiws the distribution of frictioaal stresses, as suggested by Kelley (1939). Tot reins
have shown Um fully mobilised frictions reiisisme /p is rmlhed for s d£iiaice
- x, bttt from tÏisrc to the ccnlze of ttis slsb, the swcss óiswibnúon is pamtolic in shape.
The oguaóons los ú+c a veza $e no-e//ïoie z of suó-grode rez/sfooce f are as follows :
 Forz < y 1./-/+ ( - ) ...(30.
I2)
:(30.13
•- - -
FI kas bmo skown üut tbc aúrúrnum amonof (a) Frlmlon forcee acting
of displ•ceracrit r=quirzd for friction no be fulty
devch›pcd is 0.0ó ixcti (1.5 nun).

Icia?on in tM ¢ofic¥¢te. fzictfonal resistaWe al - Te ra\ure de £"F—I

(b) Vaelatlon ol f vrith langth
the weigbt of the slab and c efficieni of
sliding RG. 0J2. SIRESSES
RESU[JJM€
Lot IP= weight of llie hab per Eq. metre
1 = lertgth of tM slab, in metrcs ó =
tbi¢ktKss of tM slab io cm

J= average co-efficient of aub-grade resiitaace =2.3 io 1.15 ; 1.5)

avenge
Then frktiooal resistance up to the centre of the slab
= IV x x 1 x/ ‹kgj ‹per meae of tbc slab) ...(t)
Tout t¢aciari in tbs comtete - (I x 1IXI}Jta (per ntmre widlli of the slabJ ...(2J

..
.t30.l4)
7aklng uoit weigbt ol° concrcte as 24IXI kgbto’,
W - i x J x x 2400 - 24h kg ...
Subsriruúag ía equaúon 30.14, we get
(30.15)

..(30. f6)
”° * 25/i
Mora exaci caJculatio0s could be made by tating info accouni the varíaiion in kiction
bcrween the fzec end and the ccnrr¢ of thc stgb.
Cozobioed ctrecses due ‹o load and te‹aperatoze : The criticar stress coz›aition in the xlab is
die one in whicb stresses due to tempcfalure and stresses due to lnad are additive. 'T'his condióon can
rmult when the slab coroers are wazpcd aown ward ard a laad is appTi¢d al LIi¢ iriu•rior of tic sTab.
Similarly, óuring a clwr, cool night foTTow d
 5OIL%IDCW DIC$*NDFOUNDAWOM6

by a ho1, sumoy day, ée edges :md zomcm oftbe lab wij weg u p w M mnd b
may
o o b Min be ody p*nüüQ su uM or svm umug›oned. 7lü coMi6on *ill i*c
maximum
Us stresses due io Reading.
34.ä. DESIGN h4ETROD
Portland *cmml A iation t1951) riss developed « dcsig• procedure for rißid hißhw4Y
pavements haied upon fortriulec ßcveloped by Pie ett (Eqs. 30.8 and 30.9). Fig. 30.3 and 3ß 4 show
the dnign cbaris for presented and unproiecied coroms, based oa the fomiM by Picketi for ¡he
design of bighwßy pavmnenk. 'I2u vxlues of ¥, are in lb/in’.

FTP. 30.0. PCh EtESIGN CT4ART3 FOR RI£iTD HTGHWAY

I'AVEMENTS PROTECTED CORH5ItS, FOR LDADS
ON DUAL 3-¥RES.
sign charts for Rigid airport
pflvemeGu. With various wheel lofldi and ty4u pressure (irdl0ated doned l i x ) .
 Stabilisation

31.I. IHTRODUCT2ON
of Soils
DobiJimioti, ie o fioød scre, im9ioroiei the iozi‹ u met e red /er wedding the
propeøies Q ø weir to iвprøm Rr eяgiвeeriвg peт¡¡formввcв. Stabilisation is bcîвg used for a variety
of eogimering woria, the most common application being in the construction of road a»d air-field
pnveœeats, where the møin objective is to it lease &e itrengiß or stability of on and to e the
construction cost by making boit use of the mally available шateria1s. Methods of stnbilisañon miy
bв grouped uixlei two вiañi types : (o) тnodiГicaúon or iæprovemem of a soü propmy oč thл ezżstîog
зoiJ wilhout any admixture, and (ô) mcdifîcaóon of ßтe properúes witb zlтe bвlp ol° adniixгures.
Compaction an4 drainage are Ihe esaruplcs of rbc first rjrpc, wbicb iæprovø due iobcreaz sb’a’ sa”"
’’ o’ soij. BsaropJes of tkc second rype arc : œectiaлiral ctsbiliвańoa, søbilisaóan with cemeot, Limo,
bihtmen azd rhnmica)s etc. Some of Iżic •xire comzouiIy used mețhrxłl wúl be
discussed in II\is

MвchAnicat atabîlisaûoo iavolvœ Evo opeтatioœ : ‹fj chaaging rÏтc гoatpoeióoo of soil by
additioa or reolovd Of ccrl8io œ œ ó N œ ß , 8яd (ii) dcœificaóon or caatpactîon. Tlзв parńcte size
dîstzibutîoo tтd coaspзsiüon are tbe important factors governing the вrgitз•ering behaviour of a soil.
SĘpziñcaot cba•ges in tbø propertii-s can be made by additioo or removal of suifabk вoil fîactîora.
For mechanical stabílisaúon, where the prtmaтy purpose is æ

divided into two frøctioæ : flu g v or Union retained on a †5 micron IS sis and the N e soil
fizirhon pasting a 7J-micmn sieve. Tke granular fraction impart strength and bardms. The fire
fraction rovißm colwiien or bindin to water-mtcaiion c i

ldeгhanitnl atabûisntion has bten largely mod in the construction of cbeap roads. Gui‹Je of
specifications hive drawn for gradation mquireinenti of tht arid surfacing. Typical exaшplвз are
given iв Table 31.1. liatend of strictly ohscrving the specifications. eшphaзis sbould be laid on
шakiвg the maximum usв of the locally available materials as гnany materials are fou•d tn be quiœ
satisfactory uтяkr load eoœliioos.
 'rABre 3i .1. F I N A L GzADATT 5PeCTriCA+O s OP MZCHAxiCAL 'Y STcBlLïsBD

Note. (i) For &m : Liquid limit not exceeding 25a and plot ity index not exceeding

ii1 For suzfäcing : Liquid limit not 33 %and plasticity

4 aitd 9.
If the soil frontone prince doce not meer the grsdition ard plasiticiiy iequirements of a job, it
bœomei necessary io ruiz 'malerinls from two mnre sources for obkiniog the dmircd mixture. Tlu
bleoding of nuterials can bc carried ait by making trixl coinbiaaiioni.
Propcr compaction playi a very importarii role in stabilisation. Coinpaction bas a grear effeci
ou soif propcrties, @ch as sttengtij arsJ itzms-strain characretîsjies, ¡crmcAbilily, comptcæion,
swclling and water ahnrpf imi. Tix• piopcrties of a soif uixier compaciion dcpcial

coarse grai0ed soils, th propenies of fkie trained sods are affected to a greater extent by
the pt erit conditions. Compaction has been discusmd in Chapter 17.
3. CEMENT STABILISATION
1.Soil ¢ement nod ks iaftueztclztg fa¢tnrs. The soii stabilised wiib ceoteot (Pordazxt) is ¥nnwn
as soil cement. Tbe cementing action is belivod jo be the resulr of cb¢+aiccI maccion oF cemenc wi0i
rM silic\ous soil duriog hydration. The binding aciion of individtlYl particles through ccmmt may be
possible oily in c -grained soils. In fine grained, cohesive
3Tm8tN6A]1ONOfSOM

In the nziz-in-Afore melttod, fhc sub-glade is first shaped to the required gredc aad is cleared of
undesirable materials. T‹ is \fien scarified to the required depth of tfeatroent and the soils is pulverised,
until at least 80% of Ihc materiaJ (excluding e\uncs) passes a 4.?5 mm sievc. If aloilicr soi1 is to be bl
¢n‹ko, it is mixed with the loose, puJ•erisod soil. Tbe putverfsed soiJ is spread aryt shaped to pzopzr
grade. Calculatcxl amount of ccnn¢nt is fhro evenly discibutsd one Ells surface aad intimately raised.
Walcr is arI‹lcd as required fbr compaction arid tti¢ soil ccroeitt-wajcr is turrc‹I into an iatimale
rnizlure. Tbe wet eiisture opcragon should not lasi more tlua 3 bour8. sRer wkicb the compaction
skmild be completed wiihin the ext 2 hours. It is feirly easy to process cotrsc gr8ino4 soil.
Pulverisation aod miv of plastic clays can be fucilitaed by adding lime in proportions of 1 to 4g. The
compacted xoil cement ii inoistured for at leasr 7 days. A bitumiooas wearing iurl'ace is nonnally
pros'ided a protect th coil-cemect base flora abrasion aod absorption of wcier in shñdcage czacks.
The mix-in-placr method is considered cheaper aad more adapiabk to di£forcnt ficT4
coalitions. buttthe processing of soil is not so thorough and accurate as willi otticr methods. in ITie
tiav ltin$ p/onr method, tltc jxilvcriscd soil is heaped into a window ard Oie cemmt iS spTcB4 on f@
Top. the soil and c¢megt arc lihed by an el6Vator to a mixvi carried on a travelling platfoml when
water is added an4 mixing ix done. The mixture is then discharged on to the iubgride. It is spread with
a grader and compacted. Unifrum mixing ard accurate contml on sdded wtier cm be
ensured in the method. A unifomi iubgrade surface with conhollod dcpih of trmnne•t is possible. The
plani is however, costiy. In die rioiimry pt c i e W, the excavated oil pis brougbt to a sationary
mixing plant.

aalaporled back ¢o tbc desired Jocatioa, durop¢d, spread and cooipactod. Similar so thr aavelliog
au«bod, ñze ux'rho‹1 •ftbnh co 8ccurgts propoztioniog of oi¥terials and thorough miziag. Tbe deptlt of
aealoieat caa Le easily coaaolted. The aetbcd is slower aa4 may prove expensive due to additional
haulage of soil.
31.¥. LThIE STABIMSATION
Hydralcd (or stated) lime is Yezy effective in seating heavy, plastic ciayey soils. Limc @By be
ugcd CIaD'g, Or iO C&0bizIatiOTI Wiki Cement, bilflmgn Or fly ask. Snrkty soils can also be srabilised a'ith
tbese co+obinations. Lime kas beeo mairdy used fbr stabilising the road bases and sub-grades.
On addition of lime fa soil, rna main types of chemical reacfiolls occur : {i1 zltetation in fhe
rulure nf Ibc aksarbed layer tbrougb base exchange pberomenon, and (ir1 cementing or puzzolanic
actinn. f.i ne reduces fhc plasticity iadcx of ItigI›ly plastic soils making ihem m0re f?i8b1c 8nd 6tsy IO
be Il¥ndlcd and pulverfged. IIte plasticity inlet Of soils of IOW plasticity 8cner•i!F i - e a s e s . Tbctc is
g<xcrally an ircrcacs in lTie optimum water comot aod a decmase in rite mazIm«m coropacicd
dc‹uity, but the size-nglti and durability increases.
The amouoi of lime required iniy te nd
on
or tin CBR test criteria. Normally 2 or 8'$
of lime
 The construction procedures of lîтrie stabili 'd bases are similar to tłłoг¢ soil-ccoтcnt.
?ło słzict iime Ïimitańoæ for comp!eóon of the job are however cœi чвaтy, sitкc the soií-Jimc
¢ntation reactions arc respectively slow.
3J.5. BITUMEN STABILISATION
Asphalts and tars are the bituniinnus mлterials wtiirh ne used for atabiiiыtinn of soil, ge fly for
pavement construction. Ttieae inazriaii are aurmølly too vixous to be iccor]x rated áirectIy wilżt
soü. The fluidity of aspba4ls is iнcrcasod by cilJicт hcaóлg, вmiJsifyiog or by cui-back process. Tars
are Iшat‹кl or cui back. 33зз bituminołzs тnaтeŃaJs wbea added to a soil impart coã¢sion or binding
acтion aтd młcced water absпrptioп. Thus eîtŁcs the binding action or tbe water prpofîog actio• or
botb jhe uti oas, oæy ba utüisał for sæbilisaóon.
Depcrzlirig upon Ificse actions nruJ the nature oF soils, binzrueo stabilïsatioo is classified following
uжlcr the four types : (i1 stod- biïumeтi. (îi1 soìl-bitumen. (ïii) wøcr-proofed sjabilùafion and (ïv)
mœtтaвic8l Oiled e8тtlт.

This tern refers to bitiunen-itabdísed cohcsioukas rod, Fch ct hebeach, ‹June, pit
or river sand. The primary fяocdon of bitumen is to bîn4 the язiı pwticlea. 5saa

з wide range, bui ttтe fra¢óon pasзiog a 73 mîcroa вíeve stoпld nomully вot exceed ł2g
; io case of ftвe durш saлd óic fr8ctioo may t< пpto 25g. Cruзłxó stans, ro¢k dust, gravet, eic.,
may be added ‹a poorly gradeó saпd.
The climatic conditions sucb as rвinfnll nтxl temperature decide the type of
binrяihзoвs

aзix saaã asphalt is suitable ia azea of bsavy rziafall, end eœukîoæ aгe prcfвrabfz io azi4 zoos.
Rapi4 cuńag cu‹-ba¢Łs aze ›œoazaz•›aea for how tœoj>emtures aoó doa' cuziag

‹ols. Tbe approsimse jzroportions oв dry weigbt basis of sand are æ folkiws (Ugpct
вod

It rerers to z cnlesive soil in wticli the resin Munition of bitumen ii to pieærve the røtural
coWive itmngth by water-pruofî9g the soil or reducing the walвr ahsorption. A large v •ty of Sdnk
can tlns siabilf 1, For txt rmalts the following в::quiвmuntт are recommended (HR8, 1946)
(ú Maximum sizo : œt greatœ ùiao approxńтiateïy oтæ-tãčd тłш compacted tbicXzœs,
(f) Pwsq 4.75 mm sie : omœ iRin 50a ,
(iiî} P8ssîog 4M micron вievc : 35—If0%.
(iv) Passing 75 вticron siвvc i 0 — 3 0 g ,
(v) Liquid limit : Less тhan 4 0 ' ,
{t‹1 Ptвзticify iпJcк : Leзs thзя 18.
B7J soiL @EC"Fb^dgTcsAbID &uxDATIoxs

tbey can bc printed by tbc niuncrical primer aloogwilli riznc aod channct zlo., at prograzruocd črne
intcrvaJs and soquclscs. kje systcm cBn bc programmed to skift the 4¢ciroal poiob accoidirg io
requireinent. The daia-logger bas provision of peak bold facility which itores
ttic pcak v8)ucs of aoy paraaicter, au‹kxd 4uriog the test.
3 . . ELECTRONIC TRIAXiAL SHEAR TEST EQUIPMENT

are carried out by coniinuous sensing of pore pressure, axial stiuin and axiei load with the help of pore
pressure tnnsducer, displacement tramducer and load cell rmpccfiveiy and their display directly in
respective cxgireering u•its on the digital read our unii coupled to it through selectable switch. The unit
ii dnigmd to be corrected to micro-processor

0A4. PMMDVUaCEARTR L
Earth pressure cñlb are used to roeasure the acrual eanh pressure on retaining u/atls, building
basoneots, briage abuaoerits stteet piling surface of ruru+el lining as well as for measurement of loud
pressure at foundations of csrth rlams and embardotiaTs. Su¢li measumne0ts belt iO ev8lu8ting CiF plc
cO@truct?0n behBViOttr Bnd lading firaely raDediñl raeasuzes fb'r tho scuctures shoa'iog distress.
carth pressure cells, e) n called sfrcu zrfft, are gc cratly of two oaicgoria :
(i)Flexible dinphragm typc, erid

diaphragm inserted x› a rigid stiff r•••. the pressure is measured due to cornices displaced
shape of the flexible diapbzagnt, Itie greatest deflection occuriag at ñ ›c ceqtre. In It+c sly
/rndcr 4pr ‹-eh, the axisl coozprcssion of Ihe stif£, prismatic e!ement. usuafly er<Joa<d within e zase
to isoTat< if lmam igc lateral stzesses of the sunourxliog soiJ mass, is os¢rj to sease Ižie total pressure.
Varions systmu available to mmsurc esrtfi pressure use ttt¢ fotlowirg .
(i) EJc¢trial resistawe stfain gaugcs
(i1) Sezni-cooductor su nirt gauges.
‹fHl Vibraliug size sjrstem.
tiv) Closed fluid systeat (usually called Gloelz or /zydmu/ie pressure cell), and
\v) Pncuoiaric syszcai, where air pressure ›s tsed ro tTarr • ihe stiffness of th call.
Out of ifis above eys‹ems, tie strain gauge type, lie vibratiag 'eire type cra'I
tbe
cmscrt flui4 syszm type (i.e hydraulic pressure cell) are commonly used siacc II+ey are iaost accurate.
Resistance strain gauge type cells are ¢asy to use aixl lube liaear zapid response, bul llicy are
susceptible to damage and are alTccied by the moisiuze of ldc #artb
fiTT material in long use. Vibrating wire type cells arv ntore durable but bave oon-Iirz•sr
respo: nse these are described in § 33.5.
*DVAnCRDMI #TRU

The hydraulic canh prcssu+o ceTT, also known as Gtoetz ctlt, has rccenfl) com¢ inio vogue as
means of measuring tnlal pressure chaxg¢s in soil, ¢arth or backfill, or a‹ tlte interface bcfwcrn any
of rlesc materials. ft may also be used to measure pressm «Tianga in Tcck, whezi installed in a
machined s!nt.
Rate XJV shows du• pho‹ograpb of a hydraulic pressure cell roaoufacrured by HEfCO. The
prnswc cell csscmi8lly consists of s sensor flat jack or fiui4 filled pressure pad c o - i « d to a
hydraulic or pneumatic diaphragm rrarmfucer, wkiclt io nun, is connected by a flexible t«bir\g to a
toad out unit. Pressure trans£erral from tile suuounding soil to Idle flai jack is measured by balaming
ihe fluid pressure in ‹he «elf by a pressure applied io Ihc ruvtrsc side of the trans‹lucct diaphragm.
Ttu fiai jack (pteasum unsor or cctl) is formed from two sheets of stainless xieel welded
arouod the peiipliery. Thr narrow gap of 1.5 mm between ftu plates is filleü with fluid of c ruparebte
dcfomtity ‹a ‹t‹at of k›c gr‹xmI. Mercury is used in rocks and oil is used iñ soils. The ceTTs caa be ciTh¢r
Circular or rec£anguTar in plan wlth dimcr0iofls ranging from 6 to 40 cm.
The cell ii connected to a bydraulic transducer by a sbort ltngth of stainless steel tubing forming a
closed hydraulic circuit. Bodi the cell anl the traiuducer are embedded in the suvcïum to be
mooitorcd. Hyôrau1ic traiudu¢w is a hydmulic ve1ve c nsisting of a flexible seul, pJætic or rubber
diaphtagra, iacorparaled in izictaï ïtousing. Tite diaphragro must œmplctely scpazate tbe œ\\ fluid
from the mcasurùtg flui4. One siJe of tbe diaphragm is coorie¢ïcô to die cell fluid and th¢ ntfï¢r to
the measurirg fiuid îelivery an4 rcrum tubus. The oarisctucer âœign is such that ‹fie pressure in cell
fluid is slightly gruatcr that IÊist i0 Ile mcasuriflg j u i l i n orücr Io prt•\'cm imam of Ttc mcaburiag
ftUiÜ. When the appïicd moæwing pressuzc equaJs the ceJï fluid prcssurc, fhc diaplvagrn will
4îsplacc, aïïowing flow a1oog the tncasuriag ñuid a1um liri«.
 . Transit o+
w . Vibrating-wi e
Z : Tfansial s

l0tl mm is recommended Because of their thickness/diameter ratio (0 28 for P 100 ard 0.?-z for P-105),
the transducers are installcd in special steel frames win retd in earth fills for earih pressure
measurements

'The P-540 cable is made of FIG. 33.4. P.34O CA9L2.

PPOP standard
one-pair shieJde‹J cable with OD
10 nun PE tubing outside as an extra prmeciion and to me ni°iti atmospheric pressure in-sit
ific transducer.

The P-430 cable ix specially dc-

mitsidc insulation (Fig. 33.5). TM- space FIG. 33.S. P-430 CABLE.
betz'een ihe cable cores and also heiw'een steel armour wire a • filled wiih petroleum ally
‹o prcvvtx longitudinal leakages P a u l by tig1›f surface damage to die cable. An exua protecting PE
rubing for the P-430 cable (OD 25 • 3 mm) is sonxñirri+s used in adverse

Reading of P-T @ an P- t01 transducers may b« g<rIonned either manually or the automatic
recording cquiym<nt. P1atcs X\' Ip) and XVI show he' P-3?0 F frequency izxlicator. ti way be connected
directly to thetransducer cable or to a s Pitch box. Automatic read out can be obtained by means of a
micro-logger with digitnl print our ‹ i all dam ip engimering suits,
33.6. YfBRATiNG•WIRE gXTENSOMETER
A vibrating-wire cxtcnsomeicr is used to monitor displacements or strains in eanli structurm.
Ii is pflrticulafly fl$elul fOT nnnitofing infeinal NfOfmaIiOn afl4 cf8ckiDg ut d8fli embankment near tke
abutmcnis.
The exteiuomelers are ixirmally
linked together wiih sieni pipe
and anchor plates to form a con-
tinuous chain over tfic distance to
be moniiorcxi. Fig. 33.6 shows
P-265 eziensomcter maaufac-
mrcd by AIMIl..
The voliiplue measuring
system consists of three main
pans

Ii) Exiensomcter nG. 31.6. v›BIzATING•WTRE EXTEN@METER.

(Jiij Read out insjniinent.
Tb• bnsic principle (Fi s 33.7) of thn vibrating-wide srr0in gaugn is itigt Itie chBngc in natural
frequency a! a snatched wire depends oo the cbangc of ttie tension in tt+e wire. In this iris‹zument one
cu4 of the wide is allach¢d to whomovable head ol° file es:ter:sorneter
by a stat spring. A displacement of the eztensomrter is thus transformed to a variation
in tension Of the string all also in r e3 ercY
the vibrating-wire. Thus, the "“‘"’
frequcrcy of the wiru is a moas- Picc.up and
ure of ltte displacement bmvoen "^'°^
oxmuomcmr #nd anchor. ”
Tbs
square difference of frequencies is
proportional io tbc displace-
ma{. Tbs signal cable of P-
‹yPc tFig. 33.5) is used. TM
P-430 cable is specially designed
430
Vibratlng-wire
to withstand strong e.eternal
forces in hosiil< environments,
PLATFi fiI

(To Face Page 880