Unit 2 Fracture, Creep and Fatigue

Unit 2
Fracture, Creep and Fatigue
Fracture:
Fracture is the separation or fragmentation, of a solid body into two or more parts under the action of
stress. The process of fracture is made up of two components, crack initiation and crack propagation.

The different loading conditions leading to fracture include:

1. Gradual application of load (static loading like in tensile test)
2. Shock loading (like in impact testing)
3. Cyclic or repeated loading (like in fatigue)
4. Time-dependent loading (like in creep)
5. Gradual loading in corrosive environment (like in stress corrosion)

TYPE OF FRACTURE: Fractures can be classified in two general categories,

i) Ductile fracture and
ii) Brittle fracture.

Ductile Fracture:
A ductile fracture is characterized by appreciable plastic deformation prior to and during the
propagation of the crack. An appreciable amount of gross deformation is usually present at the
fracture surfaces. The ductile fracture in a moderately ductile material under tensile stress is as shown
in figure. It follows the following steps before fracture.

Figure 2.1 : Stages in the cup-and-cone fracture. (a)

Initial necking. (b) Small cavity formation. (c)
Coalescence of cavities to form a crack. (d) Crack
propagation. (e) Final shear fracture at a 45° angle
relative to the tensile direction.

1) Necking: As the applied stress exceed the yield stress, necking (reduced cross-section) takes
place (Figure a) and the material yields by a considerable amount.

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 Unit 2 Fracture, Creep and Fatigue

2) Formation of cavities: after necking, small cavities (or micro-voids) form within the necked
region (Figure b).
3) Coalescence of cavities: With increasing stress, gradually the cavities enlarge, join together and
coalesce to form a crack roughly perpendicular to the axis of applied stress (Figure c)
4) Crack propagation: Further, the crack propagates under increased stress, with more and more
cavities coalescing with it (figure d).

5) Final fracture: As the crack propagates, and approaches the surface of the neck, it changes its
direction to 45° to the tensile axis and fracture by shear deformation (note that shear stress is
maximum at 45° to the applied stress direction). This results in the familiar cup and cone
fracture (Figure e).
Brittle Fracture: The brittle fracture occurs suddenly
without any prior indication. In this case, the fracture
occurs with a rapid rate of crack propagation as the rate
of crack propagation is very high, it has a very little or no
plastic deformation. The brittle fracture shows a
granular surface at the fracture surface of material. So
strain diagram for brittle fracture shows the fracture
strength of the material.
Figure 2.2: Brittle fracture in steel
Table: Ductile and Brittle Fracture

Theoretical cohesive strength of metals:

Figure 2.3 Cohesive force as a function of the separation between two atoms
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 Unit 2 Fracture, Creep and Fatigue

The strength in metals is due to the cohesive force between atoms. In general, high cohesive force is
related to large elastic constants, high melting points and small coefficients of thermal expansions.
Figure 2.3 shows the variation of the cohesive force between two atoms as a function of the separation
between these atoms. This curve is the resultant of the attractive and repulsive force between the
atoms. The interatomic spacing of the atoms in the unstrained condition is indicated by a0. If the crystal
is subjected to a tensile load, the separation between atoms will be increased. The repulsive force
decreases more rapidly with increased separation than the attractive force, so that a net force
between atoms balances the tensile load. As the tensile load is increased still further, the repulsive
force continues to decrease. A point is reached where the repulsive force is negligible and the
attractive force is decreasing because of the increased separation of the atoms. This corresponds to
the maximum in the curve, which is equal to the theoretical cohesive strength of the material.

A good approximation to the theoretical cohesive strength can be obtained if it is assumed that the
cohesive force curve can be represented by a sine curve.

-----------------(1)
Where s max is the theoretical cohesive strength x=a-a0 is the displacement in atomic spacing in a lattice
with wave length ?.For small displacements sin x˜ x

--------------------- (2)
Also, if we restrict consideration to a brittle elastic solid, the from Hooke’s law

------------------------- (3)
Eliminating x from eqn (2) and (3), we have

------------------------ (4)
When fracture occurs in a brittle solid all of the work expended in producing the fracture goes into the
creation of two new surfaces. Each of these surfaces has a surface energy of γ s J m-2. The work done
per unit area of surface in creating the fracture is the area under stress- displacement curve.
Therefore work done is given by

------ (5)
But this energy is equal to the energy required to create the two new fracture surfaces.

or --------- (6)
And substituting into eq. (6) in eq. ( 4) one can get

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 Unit 2 Fracture, Creep and Fatigue

Using expression for the force-displacement curve which are more complicated than the sine-wave
approximation results in estimates of σ max from E/4 to E/15. A convenient choice is to say the σ max

Griffith theory of brittle fracture:

The discrepancy between the observed fracture strength of material and the theoretical cohesive
strength was explained and proposed by Griffith. Griffith proposed that, the brittle materials will
contain number of fine cracks, which will acts as stress raisers due to stress concentration of sufficient
magnitude so that the theoretical cohesive strength is reached at these region even at a very nominal
stress which is well below the theoretical value of cohesive strength.

When one of the cracks spreads into a brittle fracture, it produces an increase in the surface area of
the sides of the crack. This requires energy to overcome the cohesive force of the atoms, or, expressed
in another way, it requires an increase in surface energy. The source of the increased surface energy is
the elastic strain energy which is released as the crack spreads. Griffith Figure 2.4 Elliptical
established the crack model
following
criterion for the propagation of a crack: A crack will propagate when the decrease in elastic strain
energy which is released as the crack spreads.

Now, we consider a crack of an elliptical cross-section in a rectangular specimen

A certain amount of energy is always stored in a material, before the propagation of crack, is known as
elastic strain energy. When the crack is to propagate through the material, the release of the stored
energy must be sufficient to provide the energy associated with the two surfaces produced. The
expression for total elastic strain energy for unit volume is

-------- (1)
In fact, the strain field should be integrated from infinity to the surface of crack, which gives the elastic
strain energy available per unit plate thickness is equal to

------------------- (2)
where E is the Young’s modulus of elasticity, s is the tensile stress normal to the crack of length 2c. The
negative sign indicates that the elastic strain energy stored in the material is released as the crack
formation takes place.
Now, if γ s is the surface energy per unit area in J/m2, then the surface energy due to the presence of
crack of length 2 c is given by
Us=(2 ?s c) X 2= 4c ?s --------------------- (3)

The total change in potential energy resulting from the creation of the crack is

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 Unit 2 Fracture, Creep and Fatigue

According to Griffith’s criterion, the crack will propagate under a constant applied stress s if an
incremental increase in crack length produces no change in the total energy of the system; i.e., the
increased surface energy is compensated by a decrease in elastic strain energy

------- (4)

-------------------- (5)

---------------------- (6)
Eqn. (6) gives the stress required to propagate a crack in a brittle material as a function of the size of
the micro-crack. Note that this eqn. indicates that the fracture stress is inversely proportional to the
square root of the crack length. Thus increasing the crack length by a factor of 4 reduces the fracture
stress by on-half. Eqn. (6) is known as the Griffth’s equation.

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 Unit 2 Fracture, Creep and Fatigue

CREEP
Materials are often placed in service at elevated temperatures and exposed to static mechanical
stresses (e.g., turbine rotors in jet engines, steam generators that experience centrifugal stresses,
and high-pressure steam lines). Deformation under such circumstances is termed creep. Creep is a
time dependent phenomenon and observed after a long period of time.

Creep is the slow plastic deformation of metal with time, under constant stresses usually at high
temperature. Or Creep can be defined as the slow and progressive deformation of a material with
time under a constant stress, at high temperature.

Creep is normally an undesirable phenomenon and is often the limiting factor in the lifetime of a
part. It is observed in all materials types; for metals it becomes important only for temperatures
greater than about 0.4Tm (Tm-absolute melting temperature).

Creep Curve:

E
∆ε
D Creep rate =
C ∆t

Figure 2.5 schematic representation of the typical constant load creep behaviour of metals

A creep curve is a plot of the creep strain (deformation) against the time till failure. The plot is obtained
by conducting creep test during the test the creep strain at various time intervals in measured and
plotted as a function of elapsed time. A typical creep curve is illustrated in Figure 2.5. It consists of
three stages primary, secondary and tertiary. These stages are designated based on the deformation
behaviour of the metal with time. In the figure curve AB represents the instantaneous strain, produced
instantly as soon as the load is applied, curve BC represents the primary or transient creep curve CD
represents the secondary or steady stage creep while DE represents the tertiary or accelerated creep.

Stages of Creep
There are three stages in creep
Stage 1 Primary or transient creep
Stage 2 Secondary or steady state or viscous creep
Stage 3 Tertiary or accelerated creep
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Primary or transient creep:

This is the first stage of the creep curve extending from B to C, which represents a region of decreasing
creep rate. In this region the rate at which the material deforms decreases with time until I reaches a
constant value. The creep rate goes on reducing because as the metal deforms it undergoes strain
hardening and offers more and more resistance to further elongation. Primary creep is important for
those materials which undergo creep at room temperature and this covers a short part of total period.

Secondary Creep:
The second stage of creep is also known as secondary creep. The middle part of the creep curve (C to
D) with a long span and nearly constant creep rate. The constant creep rate is obtained because of the
balance between the strain hardening and recovery (softening due to temperature). For this reason,
secondary creep is usually referred to as steady-state creep. The average value of the creep rate during
secondary creep is called the minimum creep rate. This is the important part of the curve because most
of the working components will be in this state.

Tertiary Creep: The last part of the creep curve (E to rupture point) with an increasing strain rate.
Tertiary creep occurs when there is an effective reduction in cross-sectional are due to necking or
internal void formation. So the stress at that cross-section increases and consequently the value of
strain also increases at a faster rate before the occurrence of fracture.

Stress and Temperature Effects on Creep:

Figure 2.6: schematic plot showing the effect of stress σ and temperature T on creep
The two important parameters that influence the creep are stress and temperature. In Figure 2.6 the
effect of stress and temperature on the creep is shown using creep curve. At a temperature
substantially below 0.4Tm, and after the initial deformation, the strain is virtually independent of time.
With either increasing stress or temperature, the following will be noted: (1) the instantaneous strain
at the time of stress application increases, (2) the steady-state creep rate is increased, and (3) the
rupture lifetime is diminished.

Mechanisms of Creep:
The following mechanisms are known to be responsible for creep in crystalline materials.
1. Vacancy diffusion.
2. Dislocation gilds
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3. Dislocation climb up
4. Grain boundary sliding.

1. Vacancy diffusion: In materials which consists of vacancies, the creep deformation will takes place
by the inter transfer of atoms to the vacancies under constant stress and with the elapse of time.
When some constant stress has been applied on to the material, the vacancies will be filled up by
the atoms of other places, i.e., from longitudinal to transverse direction & viceversa.Correspondingly
there is some creep deformation in one direction of materials. Referring to Figure 2.7, grain ABCD is
under stress ‘p’, the atoms moved from faces ‘BC’ and ‘AD’, along the path shown and the grain
creeps in the direction of stress. Movement of atoms creating vacancies on face ‘AB’ & ‘DC’ and
destroying them on the other faces.

Figure 2.7 Vacancy diffusion

2. Dislocation glide: The materials will consist of dislocations. The dislocations can move or glide
under constant load with elapse of time leading to deformation of the materials. This type of
deformation which takes place under constant stress with elapse of time is known as creep
deformation & it is a simple mechanism which is observed in most of the materials.

3. Dislocation climb up: This dislocation climb-up will take place under high temperatures. At high
temperatures the dislocations which are piled up at the boundaries will climb up permitting the
other dislocations to move further forming more deformation. This phenomenon which takes
place only at high temperatures will lead to deformation of materials under constant stress with
variation in temperature.

4. Grain boundary slide: The third mechanism of creep is the sliding of grain boundaries, i.e.
sliding of neighbouring grains with respect to the boundary that separates them (Figure 2.8). As
compared to individual grains, grain boundaries lose their strength at a lower temperature. This
effect arises from the non-crystalline structure of the grain boundaries and grain boundaries
play a major role in the creep of polycrystals at high temperatures as they slide past each other
or create vacancies. At higher temperatures, ductile metals begin to lose their ability to strain-
harden and become viscous to facilitate the sliding of grain boundaries.

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Figure 2.8: Grain boundary slide

Creep properties:
Creep strength: The maximum constant load, the materials can withstand without
deformation with elapse of time at the particular temperature is called the
creep strength of the materials. Creep strength is often referred as creep
limit.
Creep rupture The maximum constant load at which the material ruptures under particular
strength: temperature with elapse of time is called its creep rupture strength. The life
to rupture is specified usually as 1000,10000,or 1 00 000 hours depending
upon the type of application.
Creep limit: The maximum constant load the material can withstand without any creep
deformations creep limit of the material.

For a given material, creep properties are generally represented by creep-rate diagram and creep-
rupture diagram, which are useful as design data for creep. These diagrams are generated by plotting
a number of creep test results on a single diagram, which give the overall creep behaviour of a
material. In a creep rate diagram, the creep rate is plotted by varying the temperature and stress. A
typical creep rate diagram is shown in Figure 2.9(a)

Similarly for a creep-rupture diagram the rupture life at different stress and temperatures obtained
from a number of tests are plotted on a single diagram. A typical creep-rupture diagram is shown in
Figure 2.9(b)

Figure 2.9 (a): Creep-rate diagram Figure 2.9(b): Creep-rupture diagram

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Creep Test:
A typical creep test consists of subjecting a specimen to a constant load or stress while maintaining the
temperature constant; deformation or strain is measured and plotted as a function of elapsed time.

Figure 2.10: Schematic diagram showing Creep Testing setup

The phenomenon of creep is studied by subjecting a test specimen to a constant load (less than that
required yielding) and at a constant temperature. The applied stress may be tensile, compressive or
shear. To conduct a creep test, a specimen similar to a tensile specimen, is enclosed in an electric tube
furnace. The test temperature of the specimen in the furnace is controlled and maintained at a
constant value. A simple lever system is used to apply load on the test specimen. A sophisticated
extensometer or strain gauge or optical means is used to record the strain. The strain recorded at
various intervals is plotted against time to obtain the creep curve.
Stress relaxation:
Stress relaxation is a phenomenon that is closely associated with creep behaviour of metals. Stress
relaxation refers to the reduction in stresses in a material over a period of time under an applied
constant stress at a constant temperature. However, with stress relaxation, there will not be any
change in the dimensions of the component. Stress relaxation is mostly as a result of movement of
dislocations crossing the internal barriers. Examples of components undergoing stress relaxation are
rivets, bolts, guy wires, pre-stressed assemblies, and other parts that may be under tension,
compression or bending loads. Stress relaxation tests are conducted to determine the time required to
relieve the internal/residual stresses (in cold worked components) by heat treatments. Stress
relaxation is a more common and predominant phenomenon in thermoplastic materials.

Elastic-after effect or Anelastic behaviour or delayed elasticity

The time dependent change of strain on loading and unloading is known as elastic a-after effect. It is
as shown in figure. The time depending change of strain on loading and unloading is known as elastic-
after effect.
Consider a material subjected to constant stress below the elastic limit. Due to this constant stress let
the material deforms instantaneously up to certain level. Then the material deforms further under this
constant stress with the elapse of time in creep deformation will takes place.
After certain time, if the load is removed, the strain drops instantaneously upto certain level, where as
certain amount of strain still remains in the material. This strain will decrease slowly with time to

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 Unit 2 Fracture, Creep and Fatigue

regain the original dimensions of material. This phenomenon observed in the material is known as
elastic after effect.

Figure 2.7: Anelastic behaviour and the Elastic after effect

From the figure the elastic strain e1 is applied to an anelastic material. With increasing time the strain
gradually increases to a value e2, the completely relaxed strain. The amount of anelastic strain is e2-e1.
If the load is suddenly removed at t = t1, the material undergoes an immediate elastic contraction
equal in magnitude to e1 and with the passage of time strain decays to zero. This behaviour is known
as elastic after effect.

FATIGUE
If the material when subjected to fluctuating, cyclic or repeated loads, it will fails at a load which is
much below the load required to fail on continuous application of load. This phenomenon is fatigue.
The fracture caused by this type of loading is fatigue fracture.

All rotating parts such as crankshaft, shafts, spring defecting to various amounts, aircraft wings
subjected to repeated gust loads, rubber tyres deforming repeatedly with each revolution of the wheel
etc. are some of the examples subjected to fluctuating stress. Fatigue occurs due to the losses due to
the strength, losses of ductility and increases in brittleness.

Types of fatigue loading:

There are 3 general types of fluctuating stress that can cause fatigue failure are:

1. Completely reversed cycle of stress or fluctuating cycle:

Figure 2.8(a) show a complete reversed cycle of stress. In this type of loading where a member is
subjected to opposite loads alternately with a mean of zero. (For example bending of steel rod or wire
with your hand after bending it back and forth several times in the same place leads to alternate
tensile and compressive stresses on its surface layer and failure by fatigue.) The maximum and
minimum stresses are equal and mean stress is zero. Tensile stress is considered as +ve and
compressive stress is –ve. Ex: cantilever beam connected to the crank at free end, and a rotating shaft
with a bending load applied.

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Figure2.8
:

Repeated stress cycles:

Figure 2.8(b) shows the type of fatigue loading where a member is subjected to only tensile but to
various degrees. A spring subjected to repeated tension as in a toy would lead to fatigue failure. Ex
connecting rod, turbine blades

Irregular or random stress cycle:

Figure 2.8(c) shows a type of fatigue loading where a member could be subjected to irregular loads
just as in the case of an aircraft wing subjected to wind loads. Ex. Automobile shocks, aircraft wings.

Fluctuating stress parameters:

Mean stress σ m : The stress amplitude fluctuates about a mean stress σ m , defined as the average of
the maximum and minimum stresses in the cycle, or
σ Max + σ Min
σm =
2
Range of stress σ r is just the difference between σ max and σ min i.e σ r = σ Max − σ Min
Stress ratio R is just the ratio of minimum and maximum stress amplitudes:
σ Min
R=
σ Max

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Mechanism of Fatigue failure (Stages of fatigue failure) :

A general fatigue failure process is progressive in nature and involves three stages
(i) Crack initiation (ii) Crack growth and (iii) Fracture. These stages of failure are illustrated in figure

The Figure 2.9 shows mechanism of fatigue failure in three stages. The crack propagates slowly from
the source, the fracture surface rub together due to pulsating nature of the stress & so the surface
becomes burnished. Fatigue failure in metals is very easy to identify. The fatigue cracks are not result
of brittle fracture but of plastic slip.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.9: Schematic diagram showing Mechanism of Fatigue failure or stages of
fatigue failure
Crack initiation
This is the first stage in a fatigue process. With the applied cyclic stress, a crack nucleate at some point
of high stress concentration, mostly on the surface (Figure 2.9a). This may initiate at a micro crack or a
notch/scratch or some inclusion. This crack nucleation takes place at some early state of the service life
of a component.
Crack growth:
With increasing number of cycles, this crack grows gradually into the component in a direction
approximately perpendicular to the tensile axis of loading (Figure 2.9b). The crack grows in size and
gradually propagates across the cross-section.

Fracture
With the growth of crack, the cross sectional area of the part becomes so small that at some stage it
can no longer sustain the applied load. For the same applied load, the stress keeps on increasing with
continuously reducing cross-sectional area, and finally leads to an ordinary tensile fracture (Figure 2.9c).

Theories (Mechanisms)of fatigue failure:

A number of theories (or mechanism) proposed for fatigue failures are as follow:
1. Orowan’s theory
2. Wood’s theory
3. Cottrell & hull theory

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1. Orowon’s theory:
In this theory, it is considered that the material will contain some weak regions due to imperfections
and these areas will act as areas of high stress concentration. When this material is subjected to fatigue
loading, when stress exceeds some critical value, the crack will be developed at this region. This crack
will grow with the application of load and finally results in fracture.

2. Wood’s theory:
Wood interpret that the slip produced by the fatigue loading is the cause for fatigue fracture. He states
that the slip bonds are formed as a result of fine slip movement and back and forth movement of these
slip bonds, due to fatigue loading will produce microscopic notches and ridges at the surface of
materials. These regions will act as high stress concentration region and with further loading the crack
will be initiated at the notches and finally results in fracture.

Ridge

Notch

Figure 2.10: Wood’s mechanism of Fatigue crack initiation

Cottrell and Hull theory:

Cottrell and Hull suggested that subjected that the edge dislocations and two slip planes are the cause
for fatigue fracture of materials. They proposed that the movement of edge dislocation on two
different slip planes in two different directions produces slip planes at the surface of the material
forming intrusion and extrusion at the surface. These intrusions and extrusions will act as high stress
concentration regions and under fatigue loading, the crack will be initiated at the intrusion of the
surface which grows and finally results in fracture.

Figure 2.11: Formation of Intrusion and Extrusion

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R R Moor Reversed-Bending Fatigue Test:

Fatigue failure in engineering materials is observed by conducting the fatigue test which involves the
plotting of an S-N diagram. One such test is the R R Moore reversed bending fatigue testing machine is
shown in Figure 2.12.

Specimens subjected to fatigue test are made to undergo fluctuating or opposite stresses. One such
test arrangement is shown in the Figure 2.12. Where the specimen is bent with the help of weights as
well as rotated. By this, alternate tensile and compressive stresses are imposed on the various layers of
the specimen.

Figure 2.12: Schematic diagram showing Fatigue test

A counter coupled to the motor counts the number of cycles to failure. The experiment could be
conducted for different loads, and different number of cycles to fracture is noted to draw the S-N
diagram.

S-N Diagram:

The S-N curve which gives information on the fatigue behaviour of a materials, it is a plot of stress (S)
against the number of cycles to failure (N). The value of stress that is plotted can be alternative stress
( σ a a), Maximum stress ( σ max ) or Minimum stress ( σ min ). The values of N are usually taken along a log
scale.

The S-N curve is potted by applying a cyclic load at any particular value of stress and repeated
continuously until the specimen fails. The number of cycles required for failure at the stress in plotted.
Specimens would fail for different numbers of cycles when held at different stresses and hence a
number of points are obtained. By joining all these points, an S-N curve typical of that material is
obtained.

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Figure 2.13: Typical S-N curve for Mild Steel and Aluminium

Figure shows the S-N curves for two metals Mild Steel and Aluminium alloy. It is seen from the S-N
curves for the both metals that the number of cycles which a metal can endure before failure increases
with decreasing stress. But in the case of mild steel, the S-N curve becomes horizontal at a certain
limiting stress. Below this limiting stress, which is called fatigue limit or endurance limit, the material
can endure an infinite number of cycles without failure. This means that if the stress is below the
fatigue limit, the material will never fail for any number of cycles of stresses.

In the case of the non-ferrous metals, like aluminium, magnesium & copper alloys, the S-N curve slopes
gradually downward with increasing number of cycles. This material does not have a true fatigue limit
because the S-N curve never becomes horizontal. In such cases the fatigue limit is arbitrarily taken as
the stress at which 108 cycles is required for failure.

Fatigue Properties:
Fatigue Life (N) The total number of cycles required to bring about final fracture of material under
given condition of use is known as fatigue life of the material. It is the basic fatigue
property.
Fatigue strength Fatigue strength is the maximum stress which the material can withstand without
fracture under fatigue loading.
Fatigue Limit or It is the definite stress that the material can withstand under which the fatigue
Endurance Limit fracture do not takes place though the stress is applied infinite number of times
(cycles)

Factors Affecting Fatigue:

(i) Corrosion: The effect of corrosion is to reduce the number of cycles required to reach for every
stress amplitude. We can protect the steel against salt corrosion by chromium or zinc-plating.

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(ii) Surface Finish: Scratches, dents, identification marks can act as stress raisers and so reduce the
fatigue properties. It is reported that shot peening a surface produces surface compressive residual
stresses and improves the fatigue performance. Electro-plating produces tensile residual stresses and
have a detrimental effect on the fatigue properties.

(iii) Temperature: As a consequence of oxidation or corrosion of the metal surface increasing, increase
in temperature can lead to a reduction in fatigue properties.

(iv) Micro Structure of an Alloy: Composition of an alloy and its grain size can affect its fatigue
properties.
In comparison to coarse grained steel, finer grain size steels have higher strength. In addition to higher
strength, fine grain size also results in better resistance to cracking, better machine finish and
improved plastic deformation. In comparison to fine grains, coarse grained steels are less tough and
have a greater tendency for distortion. Addition of lead and sulphur in steel increases its machinability
and can act as nuclei for fatigue and so reduce fatigue properties.
(v) Residual Stresses: Residual stresses are produced by fabrication and finishing processes. Case
hardening of steels by carburising results in compressive residual stresses, on surface it improves the
fatigue. Several machining processes produce tensile residual stresses, which impair the properties.

(vi) Heat Treatment: This reduces residual stresses within a metal. By producing compressive residual
stresses in surfaces, case hardening improves fatigue properties. However hardening and tempering
treatments reduce surface compressive stresses and so adversely affect fatigue properties.

(vii) Stress Concentrations: These are caused by sudden changes in cross-section, keyways, holes, or
sharp corners can more easily lead to a fatigue failure. Even a small hole lowers fatigue-limit by 30%.
To study the effect of stress raisers on fatigue, a specimen containing V-notch or circular notch is
prepared. When specimen is loaded, the notch has the following effects: (i) a axial state of stress is
produced (ii) stress gradient is set up from the root of the notch to the centre of the specimen (iii)
there is stress concentration at the notch. A crack is developed due to stress concentration at the root.

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Question Bank
1 With the help of a neat sketch, explain ductile fracture or illustrate the states in cup and 6
cone fracture with suitable sketch
2 What is fracture? State the differences between ductile and brittle fractures 8
3 How fractures are classified? State and explain different types of fracture giving appearance 8
of fracture in each case.
4 What is theoretical cohesive strength of a material? Derive an equation to determine this in 8
a material.
5 State Griffith’s criteria. Derive Griffith expression to find the critical stress required to 6
propagate a crack
6 What is creep? Explain different types of creep with the help of creep curve. 8
7 Discuss the mechanisms of creep 6
8 Discuss the effect of stress and temperature of the creep curve 4
9 With neat sketch explain the creep testing method. 6
10 What is fatigue? Explain with neat sketches different types of fatigue loading of materials. Or 8
with the help of sketch, discuss the of stress cycles which bring about the fatigue failure.
11 Explain the mechanism of fatigue. 6
12 What are the factors that affect fatigue failure of materials? 6
13 Explain the important feature that is noted in the S-N diagram for ferrous and non-ferrous
materials. or Draw the S-N curve for steel and aluminium alloys.
14 Write a brief note on fatigue properties. 4
15 Explain with neat a sketch how a fatigue test is carried out 6
16 Explain the process of stress relaxation 5

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