Vector Spaces and Linear Transformations

Atanu Kumar

Assistant Professor
Department of Physics
Chandernagore College

August 22, 2020

Contents

I Transformations or Mappings

I Group Homomorphism and Isomorphism

I Linear Transformations on Vector Spaces

I Non-singular Transformations

I Vector Space Isomorphisms

Transformations or Mappings

I A Transformation or Mapping from a set X to another set

Y , denoted by f : X → Y , is a rule that assigns each element
x of X to an element Y , denoted by f (x), such that
x1 = x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), ∀x1 , x2 ∈ X . f (x) ∈ Y is the image
of x ∈ X under f .
I If f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2 , ∀x1 , x2 ∈ X , then f is called One
to One or Injective Mapping.
I If for each y ∈ Y , ∃ a x ∈ X s.t. y = f (x), then f is said to
be Onto. A mapping which is both one to one and onto is a
bijective mapping.
I Examples:
1. f : R → Z from the real line R to the set of all integers Z
defined by f (x) = Nearest integer of the real number x is a
mapping.
2. f : R → R, defined by f (x) = 2x + 3 is a bijective mapping.
Group Homomorphism and Isomorphism
I Homomorphism is a map between two groups which respects
the group structure. The mapping f : G → H between two
groups (G , ◦) and (H, ·) is homomorphism iff
f (x1 ◦ x2 ) = f (x1 ) · f (x2 ), ∀x1 , x2 ∈ G .
I Isomorphism is an bijective homomorphism.
I Example:
1. The mapping f : R3 → R2 between (R3 , +) and (R2 , +)
defined by f [(x, y , z)] = (x, y ) is a homomorphism since
f [(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 )] = f [(x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 )]
= (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 )
= f [(x1 , y1 , z1 )] + f [(x2 , y2 , z2 )].
But this is not isomorphism since (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x1 , y1 , z2 )
both are mapped to (x1 , y1 ).
2. The map f : P2 → R3 defined by f (a + bx + cx 2 ) = (a, b, c) is
an isomorphism.
I The groups (G , ◦) and (H, ·) are said to be isomorphic if at
least one isomorphism exists between them.
Linear Transformations on Vector Spaces
I Linear Transformations are an extension of homomorphism to
the vector spaces. The mapping f : U → V between two
vector spaces U(F ) and V (F ) over same scalar field F is a
Linear Transformation iff

f (c1 u1 + c2 u2 ) = c1 f (u1 ) + c2 f (u2 ), ∀ u1 , u2 ∈ U, c1 , c2 ∈ F .

I Set of the images of all elements of U is called the Range or

Image of f and is denoted by Im(f ) ⊂ V . Im(f ) is a vector
subspace V . f is onto iff Im(f ) = V .
I Set of all x ∈ U, which are mapped on φ (the additive identity
element of the vector space V ), is called the Kernel of f :

ker(f ) = {x ∈ U|f (x) = 0}, ker(f ) ⊂ U.

I Linear Operators are the transformations T : V → V that

map one element u ∈ V to another element v ∈ V of same
vector space: v = Tu.
Figure: Linear Transformation f : U → V
Examples of Linear Transformations
d
1. The map f : Pn → Pn−1 , defined by f [p(x)] = dx p(x),
∀p(x) ∈ Pn is a linear transformation:

p(x) = p0 + ... + pn x n ∈ Pn , f [p(x)] = p1 + ... + npn x n−1 ∈ Pn−1 .

We can say f : Pn → Pn , but remember that the im(f ) is

Pn−1 ⊂ Pn .
2. The projection map f : R3 → R2 defined by
f [(x, y , z)] = (x, y ) is a linear transformation. ker(f ) is the
entire Z axis.
3. If F be the space of all continuous function defined in (−1, 1),
then the map f : F → F defined by
Z x
f [u](x) = u(t)dt, ∀u ∈ F
−1

is a linear operator.
Theorems
For any linear operator f : U → V , f (ψ) = φ, where ψ and φ are
additive identity elements of U and V respectively.
Let u is a vector in U. −u = (−1)u is the inverse of u. So
u + (−1)u = ψ. Then
f (ψ) = f (u + (−1)u) = f (u) + (−1)f (u) = φ,
where (−1)f (u) = −f (u) is the inverse of the vector f (u) ∈ V .
ker(f ) is a vector subspace of U.
ker(f ) ⊂ U. Now we have to check whether ker(f ) is closed under
addition and scalar multiplication.
u1 , u2 ∈ ker(f ) ⇒ f (u1 ) = f (u2 ) = φ
⇒ f (u1 + u2 ) = f (u1 ) + f (u2 ) = φ + φ = φ ⇒ u1 + u2 ∈ ker(f )
So ker(f ) is closed under additiion.
u ∈ U, α ∈ F ⇒ f (αu) = αf (u) = αφ = φ, ⇒ αu ∈ ker(f ).
Hence ker(f ) is closed under scalar multiplication. So ker(f ) is a
vector subspace of U.
Dim(U)=Dim(ker(f ))+ Dim(im(f ))
Let Dim(U)=n and Dim(ker(f ))=m. Since ker(f ) is a vector
subspace of U, m ≤ n. Consider a basis set {e1 , ...em } in ker(f ).
{e1 , ...em } are linearly independent U. Let us take n − m more
linearly independent vectors {em+1 , em+2 , ...en } from U − ker(f )
such that {e1 , ...em , em+1 , ...en } form a basis set in U.

c1 e1 + ... + cm em + cm+1 em+1 + ... + cn en = ψ ⇒ ∀ci = 0,

or f (c1 e1 + ... + cm em + cm+1 em+1 + ... + cn en ) = f (ψ) ⇒ ∀ci = 0,
or cm+1 f (em+1 ) + ... + cn f (en ) = φ ⇒ ∀ci = 0,

since f (ei ) = φ for i = 1tom. So {f (em+1 ), ..., f (en )} are linearly

independent in im(f ) ⊂ V . Now let us consider an arbitrary vector
v = f (u) in im(f ). Since u ∈ U, it can be written as a linear
combination of ei s:
n n
! n n
X X X X
u= ai ei , ⇒ v = f ai ei = ai f (ei ) = ai f (ei ),
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=m+1

i.e. v is linearly dependent. So maximum number of linearly

independent vectors in im(f ) is n − m and Dim(im(f ))=n − m.
Singular and Nonsingular Transformation
Let f : U → V be a linear transformation. Recall that f (ψ) = φ, ψ
and φ being the additive identity elements of U and V respectively.
f is Singular iff ∃ a non-null vector v ∈ V , s.t. f (v ) = φ. If ψ is
the only vector whose image under f is φ then f is a Nonsingular
Transformation. In that case ker(f ) = {ψ}. For example the
projection operator PZ : R3 → R3 , defined by
   
x x
PZ y  = y  ,
z 0

is singular since whole Z axis is mapped to 0 vector. But the

rotation operator RZ (θ) : R3 → R3 , defined by
   
x x cos θ + y sin θ
RZ (θ) y  = −x sin θ + y cos θ ,
z z

is a nonsingular operator since only 0 vector is mapped to 0.

Theorems
Under any non singular linear transformation f : U → V , image of
a linearly independent set is also linearly independent.
Let us consider a linearly independent set of vectors {u1 , u2 , ..., un }
in U. We have to prove that the set {f (u1 ), f (u2 ), ...f (un )} in V is
also linearly independent.
c1 u1 + c2 u2 + ...cn un = ψ ⇒ ∀ci = 0,
or f (c1 u1 + c2 u2 + ...cn un ) = f (ψ) ⇒ ∀ci = 0
or c1 f (u1 ) + c2 f (u2 ) + ...cn f (un ) = φ ⇒ ∀ci = 0
Since f (ui ) 6= φ, ∀i, {f (ui )} are linearly independent.
f : U → V is one to one iff f is nonsingular.
We have f (ψ) = φ. If f is one to one then f (u) = φ ⇒ u = ψ,
hence f is non singular. Now let us assume f is nonsingular and
∃u1 , u2 ∈ U, s.t. f (u1 ) = f (u2 ) = v ∈ V . Then
f (u1 − u2 ) = f (u1 ) − f (u2 ) = v − v = φ ⇒ u1 − u2 = ψ ⇒ u1 = u2 .
Thus f (u1 ) = f (u2 ) ⇒ u1 = u2 and so f is one to one.
Vector Space Isomorphism

I A linear transformation f : U → V is an isomorphism if it is

bijective (one to one and onto).
I A vector space U is isomorphic to another vector space V if
at least one isomorphism exists between them.
I Theorem: The linear transformation f : U → V , between two
finite dimensional vector space, is an isomorphism iff
dim(U)=dim(V ) and f is nonsingular.
I Example: The map f : P2 → R3 defined by
f (a + bx + cx 2 ) = (a, b, c) is an isomorphism.
I For any finite dimensional vector space V of dimension n is
isomorphic to Rn . For each choice of bases {e1 , e2 , ..., en }, ∃
an isomorphism to Rn :

v = v1 e1 + v2 e2 + ...vn en ∈ V 7→ [v ] = (v1 v2 ... vn ) ∈ Rn .

Solved Problems

The vectors ~r in real three dimensional space V3 are transformed

to r~0 by an operator as follows: r~0 = A~r = ~a × ~r , where ~a is a
constant vector. Show that A is linear.

A(C1~r1 + C2~r2 ) = ~a × (C1~r1 + C2~r2 ) = C1 ~a × ~r1 + C2 ~a × ~r2

= C1 A~r1 + C2 A~r2 .

So A is a linear operator.
Find ker(A). Is A a nonsingular operator?
~a × α~a = ~0 for any scalar α. All vectors parallel to ~a are mapped
to ~0. So ker(A) is the set of all vectors parallel to ~a. Since ker(A)
contains vectors that are not null, A is a not a singular operator.
Show that the transformation A : V3 → R from the space of real
three dimensional vectors V3 to real line R, defined by
A(~r ) = ~r · ~r = |~r 2 | is not linear.

A(C1~r1 + C2~r2 ) = (C1~r1 + C2~r2 ) · (C1~r1 + C2~r2 )

= C1 2 |~r1 |2 + C2 2 |~r2 |2 + 2C1 C2~r1 .~r2
C1 A~r1 + C2 A~r2 = C1 |~r1 |2 + C2 |~r2 |2 .

So A is not a linear transformation.

Investigate whether the operators  and B̂ on the space of
2
2
functions defined by Âu(x) = ddxu2 and B̂u(x) = du
dx are linear
operators or not.
 is linear, but B̂ is not linear since
d2 d 2u d 2v
(au(x) + bv (x)) = a + b .
dx 2 dx 2 dx 2
 2  2  2  2
d du dv du dv
(au(x) + bv (x)) = a +b 6= a +b .
dx dx dx dx dx
References

1. S P Kuila, “Vector Analysis, Tensor Analysis and Linear

Vector Space”
2. B.S. Vatssa, “Elements of Modern Algebra”
3. Arfken and Weber, ”Mathematical Methods for Physicists”
4. S Lipschutz, “Schaum’s Outlines: Linear Algebra”