CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Background

Bricks are one of the most components of a construction that commonly utilized in the
construction of wall, floor, cornices, and arches. A brick could be a small rectangular piece with
the ingredients comprises of clay, sand, lime, or cement (Janbuala & Wasanapiarnpong , 2016).
Brick density is a vital parameter that shows the weight of the brickwork. There are a few
properties of bricks that got to be considered, but the foremost imperative properties are
strength, which is the compressive strength of brick can shift from 3 N/mm² to 40 N/mm²
depending on raw materials utilized for making brick, manufacturing process and the shape of
brick (Fódi, 2011). Next properties are assimilation of brick which is dry brick assimilates as
well much water from mortar. It is why the mortar cannot be cured appropriately and develop
weak bond-strength. Last, the brick is made from clay and it is burned at high temperature
which competent it to resist extreme weathering affect. It nearly depends up on the resisting
capability of water penetration of bricks.

Concrete is a material that is normally used in contruction industry due to its properties.
Plain concrete compressive strength is excellent, yet weak in tensile strength (Jiang, et al.,
2014).Fibre reinforced concrete is promoted to improve several properties of concrete in the
fresh and hardened state (Panzera, et al., 2013). Analysts have found that if fiber are mixed into
plain concrete to create fiber strengthened concrete can develop better cracking deformation
capability, impact and tensile strength, and also reduce cracks due to temperature and shrinkage
(Panzera, et al., 2013) (Jiang, et al., 2014).

Concrete brick or concrete masonry is well known building materials used in many
countries all over the world. The rising world population has caused demand for building
infrastructure. This also increases waste generation, energy and material consumption by the
construction industry. In Malaysia, the demand of the concrete brick for housing construction
has increase day by day especially in urban area which the population rate is rapidly increased.
Due to high demand, the rate of housing prices also increased. The high prices of housing are
due to the increasing in the total cost of construction and limitation of raw materials. Hence,
the lightweight building materials such as lightweight concrete brick could benefits the
economy and society because it will minimise the construction cost in terms of manufacturing,
transportation and handling cost. In order to improve the concept of sustainability in
construction industry, the reuse of industrial by-products and renewable materials must be
applied (Onuaguluchi & Banthia, 2016).

1.2 Problem Statement

Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, and Malaysia are the three leading producers of sago,
whereby sago is primarily grown for sago starch. In Malaysia, more than 90.0% of all sago-
planting areas are in the state of Sarawak, which is one of the world’s largest sago exporter,
exporting about 41,000–51,000 tons of sago products annually to Peninsular Malaysia, Japan,
Taiwan and Singapore (Arsad, 2018). Currently, Malaysia is the third main sago producer in
the world after Indonesia and Papua New Guinea and combined, the three countries produce
approximately 94.6% of the world’s sago (Naim, et al., 2016). Since Sarawak produces a
significant amount of sago per year, the wasted sago palm trunk cortex is also a huge amount.
In Malaysia, according to the sago starch export data by the Department of Agriculture
Sarawak, the estimated solid waste generated from sago production is 151,000 tonnes. Hence,
sago fibre is proposed in this study because it is widely available in Sarawak. This project is to
investigate and compare the mechanical properties sago fibre reinforced lightweight concrete
brick and plain lightweight concrete brick. From a previous study, the fibre volume content for
sago fibre concrete brick is 50% (Umar, et al., 2020). This fibre volume content is taken as a
reference for sago fibre volume content.

1.3 Objectives of study

The objectives of this research is to compare the mechanical properties of plain concrete
with sago fiber strengthened concrete with fixed fibre volume content.
In order to achieve the aim of the study, the objectives are established as shown below:
 i. To investigate the optimum portion of sago fibre in concrete bricks.

ii. To investigate the mechanical properties of sago fibre on the absorption value,
compressive strength and flexural strength.

iii. To compare the compressive strength, flexural strength and water absorption of plain
concrete brick and sago fibre reinforced concrete brick.

1.4 Scope of study

In this research, sago fibre are added in different proportions in the mixture to the
lightweight brick. This project is to investigate and compare the mechanical properties sago
fibre reinforced lightweight concrete brick and plain lightweight concrete brick. There is no
published research on fibre reinforced concrete with the addition of sago fibre. From a previous
study, the fibre volume content for sago fibre concrete brick is 50% (Umar, et al., 2020). This
fibre volume content is taken as a reference for sago fibre volume content. Thus, the proportion
needed in this research are 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% of the sago fibre are add up into
the mixture.

This study focuses on the water absorption test, compressive strength and flexural
strength involving the use of different sago fibre percentage. The produced samples are made
out of sago fibre, sand, water and Ordinary Portland Cement, where the size of the bricks are
215mm in length, 102.5mm of width and 65mm of thickness based on BS 3921: 1985 (British
Standards Institution, 2015). As for the tests on the compressive strength and water absorption
test, the samples were tested on the 7th and 28th day. The purpose of test done on the 7th day is
to observe the condition of the samples on its premature state, as on the 28 th day, the sample
bricks can be classified as matured (Kabir, et al., 2012). As for the Flexural strength test will
be performed on the sample bricks based on ASTM C293 (ASTM International, 2016).This test
method covers determination of the flexural strength of concrete and masonry bricks specimens
by the use of a brick with center-point loading. All data acquired will be recorded.
 A total 216 samples of sand cement bricks were produced (Figure 1.1), where 72 of
them were used in compressive strength test and the other 72 were for water absorption test.
Another 72 of the samples will be used for flexural strength test(Figure 1.2).

Test No. of Speciments

Water Absorption Test 72
Compression Strength 72
Flexural Strength 72
Figure 1.1 Test Speciments

Percentages 0% 0% 0% 0%
Test days 7 28 56 90
No. Samples S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12
Average
Figure 1.2 Group classification of samples

1.5 Significance of Study

The world largest sago exporter is Sarawak which exports about 51,000 tonnes of sago
products (Arsad, 2018). Sago palm trunk fibre is a by-product of sago starch extraction. The
starch is extracted from the sago palm pith which is the inner and softer part of the sago palm
trunk (Singhal, et al., 2008). From the large amount of sago being processed each year, the
wasted fibre generated from the production process is also a significant amount. According to
studies done by researchers, fibre is incorporated into plain concrete to form fibre reinforced
concrete in order to develop better cracking deformation capability, improve toughness, impact
and tensile strength and also reduce cracks due to temperature and shrinkage (Jiang, et al.,
2014).

The production of steel fibre, glass fibre and synthetic fibre require relatively high
energy for production. Natural fibre will be a more environmental-friendly material to be added
to concrete mix. Even though natural fibres have been shown to have the potential to be used
as fibre reinforcement for fibre reinforced concrete brick, the properties of sago fibre reinforced
concrete brick will be compared with plain concrete brick in this study to investigate the
probability of sago fibre in fibre reinforced concrete brick. Since sago fibre is a waste product,
the application of sago fibre in fibre reinforced concrete brick will help to reduce energy
consumption in the production of artificial fibre and maintain the quality of the environment to
promote the concept of sustainability.

1.6 Expected Results

The expectation from this study is fibre reinforced concrete brick will show a significant
better result that the standard concrete brick since natural fibre have a potential to increase the
mechanical properties of the brick
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction

A shelter or a house is one of the primary primitive instinct in humans which offers a
safe environment for them to stay for a long period of time. For the last several
millennium years, ancient societies all over the globe, built their home from earth and
stone. Then when the industrial revolution happens, where it brought assembly-line
mechanization that can produces cheap building materials. As a result of the industrial
revolution, buildings were built as fast as years grow up until now where Burj Khalifa
as the world highest building in the world with 828m above sea level (Torem, et al.,
2020). When the new era of building coming on the horizon, people are looking for
more sustainable and economical housing. This interest brings challenges to engineers
and technologist where they must bring the technology up to modern building codes
and standards.

In these recent years, the amount of waste in the landfill have rose which alerts
mankind. Engineers and technologist have done a lot of research to reuse any reusable
and recyclable waste to turn them into valuable products. Since the bricks are the most
widely used construction material that have been used since 6000 BC until now, the
demand on this construction material are relatively high. The main ingredient for the
production of cement bricks consisting of sand, cement and water, but now there are
various additional item have been added which one of it is from the recyclable waste
named as Sago Husk (SH).Therefore, this research is to study about cement bricks
consisting SH as sand replacement. In this literature review, the background of the
topic, the characteristic, types and properties of bricks and the same as for SH and its
usage, will be discussed. This chapter will include the discussion of previous
researches that is related to SH in brick production. It includes the test that have been
conducted in the previous studies involving compressive strength test, density test and
water absorption test. Based on this literature review, we can investigate the
compatibility of SH in bricks and compare the results of mixing the SH as sand
replacement in masonry manufacturing instead of the conventional way which uses
normal mix.

2.2. Bricks

The term brick is known as a block composed of dried clay, presently now is named
informally to indicate other chemically cured construction blocks (Islam, 2020)
(NiceAtoms, 2020). Brick are one of the oldest manufactured materials for building
around the globe. There are numerous types of brick, which are stone brick, concrete
brick, clay brick, sand lime brick and many others (Mohd Shafee, 2016). Each types
of brick possess their own advantages and disadvantages.

Bricks date back to 7000 BC, which makes them one of the oldest known building
materials. They were discovered in southern Turkey at the site of an ancient settlement
around the city of Jericho (BKreative, 2017). The first bricks, are made in areas with
warm climates, were mud bricks dried in the sun for hardening. Bricks were made of
clay mixed with straw by the Ancient Egyptian and the evidence of this can be seen
today at ruins of Harappa Buhen as shown in figure 2.1 and Mohenjo-daro as shown
in figure 2.2. The original concept of ancient bricks was that the size of bricks should
not be larger than one man could handle but as for bricks today, the size of bricks
varies. Standard size for brickwork usually 225 mm x 112.5 mm x 75 mm (length x
depth x height). This includes 10 mm mortar joints which mean the standard size for a
brick itself is 215 mm x 102.5 mm x 65 mm (length x depth x height) (Specified, 2020).
 Figure 2.1: Harappa Buhen ruins
Source: (Naveed, 2014)

Figure 2.2: Mohenjo-daro ruins

Source: (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, n.d.)

.
2.2.1. Classification of Bricks

Bricks have many categories depending into its usage, size and shape. Normally, for
construction that emphasize more on exterior finishes, they would prefer the facing
bricks which is gives smoother surface and various of colours. For construction that
want to minimize the cost of material, they would prefer the sand bricks rather than
clay bricks. As for clay bricks, they usually used it for development that emphasize on
the strength of the structure to behold for another hundred years. The classification of
bricks can be categorized as shown in figure 2.3 where they are based on many terms
such as mixture of material, and compressive strength.

Figure 2.3: Types of masonry unit (Mohd Shafee, 2016)

As in construction site, the term of works related to bricks is brickwork. Brickwork is

a type of work where the bricks are laid together in courses and patterns which be at
variance known as bonds. Many types of mortars can be used prior to purposes of
construction in order to ensure the bricks are laid together and stick together and
eventually make a durable structure.

2.2.2. Cement Sand Bricks

Cement sand bricks can be categorized as concrete bricks. It is also can be
known as sandcrete as the production of sandcrete is based from sand,
water and cement (Ettu, et al., 2013). (Mamlouk & Zaniewski, 2011) cited
that the solid concrete units are generally called concrete bricks, whereas
hollow units are known as concrete blocks, cinder blocks or hollow
blocks. Generally, there are two types of concrete masonry units which
are concrete building bricks and load-bearing concrete masonry units.

Concrete building brick is a solid masonry unit which made from

Portland cement, compatible lightweight or normal-weight aggregates,
water and with or without the addition of other materials (Somayaji,
2001). In addition, this type of brick is completely solid, similar with the
clay brick building’s size and shape. Moreover, the compressive strength
of this type of brick itself is considered as higher than the load-bearing
masonry units. Meanwhile, (Somayaji, 2001) also defined a load-bearing
concrete masonry unit as a solid or hollow masonry unit which made from
water, cement, and mineral aggregates with or without the addition of
other materials.

Figure 2.4: Example of cement brick

Source: (Chuan Heng Hardware Paints & Building Material, 2014)

2.3. Material in Bricks Manufacturing

Bricks is the combination of water, cement and sand and admixtures with different
proportions of each material used. Perfect proportions of the material may result to
good quality of bricks with high strength and less defects such as cracks. A good brick
material consists of alumina, silica, lime, oxide or iron and magnesia. Each constituent
has different percentage.

As for alumina, it is the chief ingredient of every kind of brick. A good brick
shall consist 20% to 30% of them. This material shows plasticity properties to the
bricks so that it can easily be moulded. If the proportion of alumina is too much with
less amount of sand, the bricks will shrink during drying process and becoming too
hard when burnt. Silica exists in clay either as free sand or combined with other
material. A good brick shall consist 50% to 60% of silica. Silica prevents the raw bricks
from crack and shrink, thus gives the bricks a uniform shape from one to another. The
durability and strength of bricks also depending to the proportion of silica in the
mixture. If the proportion is too much, the bricks will have lesser cohesion force.

Next, lime that is not more than 5% is needed to manufacture bricks. Lime
should be grinded or blended to a very fine powder because if there is even a small
state of lime present as small as pin-head can caused the bricks to fail. For raw bricks,
lime helps to avoid shrinkage of bricks where the sand alone is not able to be melted.
However, the brick is slightly fuses at furnace temperature if the lime is presented at
the time being. The fused sand acted as material to help the cement to harden in brick
manufacturing. If the lime is overly used, it may cause the bricks manufactured to melt
and lost its shape that have been moulded earlier.

Oxide of iron used for a brick is merely 5% to 6% in order to produce good

bricks. It gives red colour to the bricks and excess uses of it will make the bricks
appeared to be black or dark blue while less of its content will results in yellowish
bricks. Magnesia is needed only in small quantity which will results to yellow tint to
the bricks manufactured. Magnesia also helps to decrease shrinkage in bricks. But need
to be remembered, if the magnesia is used in huge amount, the bricks will easily decay.

2.3.1. Cementation Materials

Cement is a substance that has a cohesive and adhesive properties that acted as ‘glue’
that enable it to bind the construction materials such as aggregates into a cohesive form
with the help of good proportion of water. In civil engineering, cement or cementitious
materials always related to the ingredients in concrete, mortar and grout. Meanwhile,
according to (BS EN197-1:2000), cement is a hydraulic binder; more specifically, an
inorganic material which finely grounded. After it mixes with water, it will form a
paste which then sets and hardens because of the hydration reactions and processes.
Eventually, it will preserve stability and strength even under the water.

There are two types of cements which are commonly used in building
construction; hydraulic and non-hydraulic cement (AZOBuild, 2006). Hydraulic
cement is the cement which turning into solid form where the water is present and
resulting a material which does not degenerate in water (Shirazi, 2019). Meanwhile,
non-hydraulic cement does not need water to transform into the solid form (Al
Manaratain, 2019). There are some variations in both types of cement which are listed
in table 2.1 below. In this research, the type of cement used in the manufacturing of
bricks is Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC).

Table 2.1: Hydraulic and Non-hydraulic cement

Source: (Mohd Shafee, 2016)

Material Cementitious Nature

Portland Cement Hydraulic

Lime Non-Hydraulic

Gypsum Non-Hydraulic

Natural Pozzolan Pozzolanic or Latent Hydraulic

Fly ash Pozzolanic or Latent Hydraulic

Silica Fume Latent Hydraulic

Ground blast-Furnace Slag Hydraulic or Latent Hydraulic

2.3.1.1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is a most common type of cement used in
construction industry. The raw materials required for the manufacture of OPC are
calcareous material such as limestone or chalk and argillaceous materials such as shale
or clay. The mixture of all these ingredients are then burnt at a temperature of 1400°C
in a furnace or kiln to form clinker cement. The clinker need to be cooled and then
blended with a required amount of gypsum until the results give a very fine powder
that is famously known as Portland cement.

OPC is grey in colour and capable to bond mineral compositions when mixed
with adequate amount of water where OPC can be imagined as a glue that is used to
stick or bond two or more objects together. The hydration process shows result like a
strength and hardening development. OPC used shall meet the quality requirements
Malaysian Standard MS 522: Part 1: 1989 Specification for Ordinary Portland Cement.

Depending upon the wide variety of raw materials used in the manufacture of
cements, the chemical composition of Ordinary Portland Cement may be expressed as
given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.2: Chemical Composition of Ordinary Portland Cement

Sources: (Lee, et al., 2008) (Awang, et al., 2015) (Albert, et al., 2006)

Oxide Range (%) Average (%)

Lime, CaO 60.2 – 66.3 63.81

Silica, SiO2 18.6 – 23.4 21.45

Alumina, Al2O3 2.4 – 6.3 4.45

Iron oxide, Fe2O3 1.3 – 6.1 3.07

Magnesia, MgO 0.6 – 4.8 2.42

Sulphur trioxide, SO3 1.7 – 4.6 2.46

Alkalis, i.e. soda, Na2O 0.20

0.05 – 1.20
Alkalis, i.e. potash, K2O 0.83

2.3.2. Aggregate
Aggregates is a material varies from fine, small, medium to coarse grained
construction materials that includes sand, gravel and recycled concrete. It is the most
mined materials and used for many purposes such as concrete, bricks, roads and
drainage. Aggregate need to be properly selected so that it shall be durable, strong and
workable for optimum efficiency and results. Aggregate is divided into two groups
which is fine and coarse aggregates. In production of bricks, aggregates used is fine
aggregates.

2.3.2.1. Fine Aggregate

Fine aggregate comprises of natural, artificial or manufactured sand particle. These

small sized aggregates such as sand and silt need to passed sieving process so that they
have nearly similar size to ensure its compressive strength would not get affected.
Sieving process also important to avoid from any impurities that may affect its
strength. Fine aggregate shall pass through sieve sizes of 4.75 millimetre and is
retained on 2 millimetre. Fine aggregates can easily be found by the seashore, rivers
and lakes. The primary function of fine aggregates is to provide support to the solid
that it would fill in by filling the voids that cannot be supported by larger element in
that particular solid. The physical properties of fine aggregate used is as shown in
Table 2.3.

Table 2.3: Physical properties of fine aggregates (Rashad, 2013)

Properties Fine aggregate

Specific gravity 2.64

Fineness modulus 2.29

Saturated surface dry absorption (%) 0.85

Void 34.3

Density (kg/m3) 1680

2.3.3. Water
Water is one of important material used in brick production to bind between particle
of fine aggregates and cement. It is the least expensive thing used in this research and
can easily found everywhere. The appropriate water ratio is crucial to ensure the brick
produce is not too hard as it will get cracked easily nor too watery as the compressive
strength will get too low and the brick produce cannot withstand load. Water also make
the mixture workable and shall free from any impurities that may hinder the curing
strength or gives additional unwanted chemical composition that will react negatively
with chemical composition in cement.
2.4. Green Brick Technology

The rating of ‘green’ of building and infrastructure has become broadly spreading in
the most recent years. In general, the current system of Green Building Rating (GBR)
will evaluate the buildings’ sustainability conferring to several categories, by which
the materials of construction used is one of the vital categories. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
emission during the production of Portland cement is such an issue, along with the
significant amount of water, aggregate, fillers and energy used for concrete production
as well as waste of construction from their demolition. Thus, this has made the most
important materials used in construction not as much of compatible with the
environmental requirements of modern sustainability of construction industry
(Syafigh, et al., 2014)

Also, in addition, latest studies have shown that the successful usage of
agricultural solid wastes in both non-structural and structural concrete. Among the
wastes used in previous researches for this purpose are such as tobacco wastes,
pistachio shell, spent mushroom substrate, coconut shell, rice husk, palm oil fuel ash
and etc. The outcome results by using these wastes are such as energy saving,
conservation of natural resources, cost reduction of construction materials, partial
replacement of conventional aggregates and helps protecting the environment by
lessening the disposal of wastes problem (Syafigh, et al., 2014).

Besides concrete, brick also has been revolutionized to become a part of green
technology. Industrial wastes and agricultural wastes has also been used in previous
researches such as waste paper inside the fire brick conducted by (Shibib, 2015), cotton
and limestone poweder wastes as bricks’ new material by (Algin & Turgut, 2008),
adding spent coffee ground inside clay bricks by (Velasco, et al., 2016)and corn husk
ash in soil bricks by (Yalley & Asiedu, 2013). Some of these wastes giving positive
outcomes such as good thermal and mechanical properties in bricks research
conducted by (Shibib, 2015) and reducing the energy in producing brick research
conducted by (Yalley & Asiedu, 2013).
2.5. Sago (Metroxylon Sagu)

Sago (figure 2.5) can be found from Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand to Micronesia, Fiji,
and Samoa which are located at latitude ranging from 17oS to 15-16oN (Shin Chong &
Collins, 2015). These palms (figure 2.6) can be found generally at low elevations in
swamps. Sago palms are significantly important for over a million of people who use
sago as their primary dietary starch source (Mcclatchey, et al., 2006)

Figure 2.5: Sago palm fruit

Source: (Invasive.org, 2018)

Figure 2.6: Sago palm tree

Source: (Fern, et al., 2019)
 In Sarawak, Malaysia, the sago palm, can be found in freshwater swamps areas
(Jackson, 1976), along the coast of Sarawak especially in the Rejang and Saribas deltas
(Shin Chong & Collins, 2015). Over centuries ago, sago production gained significant
economic importance in Sarawak due to the half of the world’s sago supply produced
in Sarawak. Nonetheless, Sarawak continues to produce sago starch both
commercially with modern techniques and traditionally for local needs (Naim, et al.,
2016).

Figure 2.7: The Metroxylon sagu area of distribution in Sarawak (modified from
Google Map)

2.5.1. Sago Waste

Malaysia currently are the third largest sago producer in the world after Indonesia and
Papua New Guinea which combined produce approximately 94.6 percent of the world
production (Naim, et al., 2016). Out of 67,957 hectares of land cultivated with sago in
Sarawak, 43,426 hectares was planted by small-scale sago farmers and 24,531 hectares
was planted by commercial sago plantation. Sago is deemed as a next viable
commodity crop in Sarawak given the fact that about 1.69 million hectares of peat soil
can be cultivated with this palm (Chew, et al., 1998)
 Table 2.4: Estimated sago hectarage by countries

Country Estimated Sago (ha)

Indonesia 2,942,278

Papua New Guinea 1,020,000

Malaysia 59,000

Thailand 5,000

Philippines 3,000

Other Countries 3,000

Total 4,032,278

Source: Farmer Empowerment to Increase Productivity of Sago Farming (Ahmad,

2014)

During the processing of sago starch, three major by-products are generated,
namely bark of sago trunk, fibrous pith residue, which is also known as hampas, and
wastewater (Figure 2.8). Bark and hampas are classified as solid residues whereas
wastewater is a liquid residue (M.Amin, et al., 2019) (Awg-Adeni, et al., 2010). Sago
wastes consist of non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) or lignocellulosic materials, i.e.
cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. In a day, 15.6 tons of woody bark, 238 tons of
wastewater, and 7.10 tons of fibrous pith residue are generated from approximately
600 logs of sago palm (Ngaini, et al., 2014).

Figure 2.8: Schematic flow diagram of sago starch extraction (M.Amin, et al., 2019)
 Sago waste is simply disposed after extracted the starch, sago waste dumping
at Sarawak alone are about 60 tonnes of sago effluents are thrown away each day,
which affecting environmental issues (Zakaria, 2015). A huge sum of waste is tossed
into the rivers assuming that the fish will eat the waste, but it shows the opposite. This
led to river pollution where the water turns sour due to high sugar content and
proliferation of bacteria in sago waste. This, eventually, leads to rivers turning acidic,
thus threatening the lives of animals and plants surrounding the areas (Zakaria, 2015).

2.6. Compressive Strength of Sago in Brick

Compressive strength is one of the physical tests conducted to identify the strength of
the concrete and its ability to support load transfer onto it without cracks. Compressive
strength is tested using compression testing machine. Based on research by Darwis, et
al., (2016) the optimum result for sample 50mm x 50mm x 50mm of compresive
strength with 2.03 N/mm2 lies within adding up of 10% sago fibre into the mixture.

Table 2.5: Compressive strength performance of cement brick contain sago fibre
(Darwis, et al., 2016)

Compression Strength
% Sago Fibre
N/mm2 Standard Deviation (Sd)

0 0.82 0.20

5 0.90 0.11
10 2.03 0.33
15 0.57 0.17
 Figure 2.9: Graph of fibre composition vs compression strength (Darwis, et al.,

2016)

Table 2.5 and Figure 2.9 shows the result of the research by Darwis at various
percentage of sago fibre. Based on the results, it shows that 10% of sago fibre shows
the highest compressive strength.

2.7. Flexural Strength of Sago in Brick

Flexural strength test is used to determine the flexural modulus or flexural strength of
a material. The material is laid horizontally over two points of contact and then a force
is applied to the top of the material through either one or two points of contact until
sample fails (TestResources, 1999). This test conducted by Darwis (2017) stated that
the maximum reading that was recorded for the flexural strength test is 10% of fibre
sago contained in the mixture of the brick.
Table 2.6: Flexural strength performance of cement brick contain sago fibre (Darwis,
et al., 2016)

Compression Strength
% Sago Fibre
N/mm2 Standard Deviation (Sd)

0 1.17 0.19
5 1.25 0.10

10 3.02 0.13

15 0.89 0.06

Figure 2.10: Graph of fibre composition vs flexural strength (Darwis, et al., 2016)

Table 2.6 and Figure 2.10 shows the result of the research by Darwis at various
percentage of sago fibre. Based on the results, it shows that 10% of sago fibre shows
the highest flexural strength value which correspond to the compressive strength value
data.
2.8. Density Test

Density test is performed to determine the weight of brick over its volume. A higher
density of a masonry block is indicative of closely packed particles. Based on research
by (Husain & Satyarno, 2015) shown in Figure 2.11, it shows that the density decreases
with increasing amount of Sago waste .The decrease in density with 0%, 25%, 50%,
75% and 100% sago waste are 1.986 g/cm3, 1.876 g/cm3, 1.635 g/cm3, 1.334 g/cm3,
and 1.097 g/cm3.

Sago Content vs Density g/cm3

2.5

2
Density, g/cm3

1.5

0.5

0
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Sago Content

Figure 2.11: Density of brick with 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% Sago wate (Husain
& Satyarno, 2015)

2.9. Water Absorption Test

Water absorption test is done to determine the ability of bricks to absorb water that
might enter through gap between particles in bricks. The rate of absorption can be
calculated by dividing the mass of water with actual mass of brick and find the
percentage by multiple the value with 100. This test is conducted with accordance to
ASTM C55, 2011.
 (Husain & Satyarno, 2015) in Figure 2.12 shows that the Sago contained bricks
are higher in water absorption compared with control bricks. This condition is
probably due to porosity condition Sago that enable the water to be absorbed. The
increase in density with 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% sago waste are 10.652%,
13.371%, 14.960%, 22.972% and 32.421%.

Sago Content vs Water Absorption value

35

30

25
Water Absorption value, %

20

15

10

0
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Sago Content

Figure 2.12: Water Absorption value of brick with 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%
Sago wate (Husain & Satyarno, 2015)

2.10. Conclusion

In conclusion, this chapter explained about the result gained from various studies and
researches done before. From their research, the result that will be obtained in Chapter
4 can be compared to check the validation and best results for each test. It is utmost
important to determine the optimum samples in production of brick to ensure that the
brick produced are following the standards and do not harmful for health, safety and
environment.
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction

This chapter explains about the method and procedure that are needed to achieve the
objectives of this study. The method used need to be suitable and applicable for its
use in order to achieve its goal in using Sago Fine Waste efficiently as sand
replacement and to reduce volume of Sago Landfill. It is necessary to explain in
detail about the method used, materials needed, procedure for brick production and
best technique used to gain expected data.

Methodology is very important to ensure the study is carried based on its

procedures so that it shall satisfy the objectives and problem statement. This stage
focuses on laboratory work that is done to obtain data and information needed that
will next be used to analyse and answer the problem stated for this study.

3.2. Flow Chart

Flow chart for the methodology was illustrated as shown in Figure 3.1. The flow
chart were carefully prepared because it shows the overview of this chapter and
ensure the flow of this study is smooth and helps avoiding from any missing steps
 Start

Preparation of Material
Sample preparation

1. 215×103×65mm
Mixing of brick
mould was prepared
2. Total of 216 samples
for testing
Preparation of Sample

Water Curing Process

Testing of Bricks on Day 7, 28, 56 and 90

Density Compressive Water Flexural

Test Strength Test Absorption Strength
Test Test

No
Result

Yes
Analysis

End

Figure 3.1: Flow chart of methodology

3.3. Preparation of Material

In this research, there are few materials needed to produce high quality bricks that must be taken
into consideration. It is utmost important to identify the materials needed such as fine aggregate,
water, cement and sago waste as a replacement for sand according to its proportion. Sago Waste,
in this research was the by-product of sago palm trees, obtained from Mukah, Sarawak.

The purpose of using Sago Fine Waste is to identify its compressive strength, flexural
strength, water absorption and density. These constituents were prepared according to its needs
to ensure the process can run smoothly. The bricks designed in rectangular shape with
dimensions of 215mm × 103 mm × 65 mm.

3.3.1. Ordinary Portland Cement

In this research, the type of cement used is Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) as shown in Figure
3.2. OPC is the commonly used cement in the construction industry as it is can easily be found
and the cost of cement per bag is relatively lower than other type of cement. The reason on why
OPC is the most valuable and workable is because it can set more quickly than other type of
cement where it can achieve 85 of its maximum strength within 7 days.

The cement used in this project complied and meet the quality requirements stated by
Malaysian Standard MS 522: Part 1: 1989, Specifications for Ordinary Portland Cement.
Depending upon the wide variety of raw materials used in the manufacture of cements, the
properties of Ordinary Portland Cement are shown in Table 3.1.
 Table 3.1: Composition of Ordinary Portland Cement (Ibrahimi, et al., 2015) (Patnaikuni,
Venugopal, & Prabhakar, 2018)

Composition Range (%)

Lime, CaO 60.0– 69.0

Silica, SiO2 17.0 – 25.0
Alumina, Al2O3 3.0 – 8.0
Iron oxide, Fe2O3 2.0 – 4.0
Magnesia, MgO 1.0 – 5.0
Sulphur trioxide, SO3 1.0 – 3.0
Alkalis, i.e. soda, Na2O
0.3 – 1.5
Alkalis, i.e. potash, K2O

Figure 3.2: Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

3.3.2. Fine Aggregate

Aggregates is a material including sand, gravel and recycled concrete that varies from fine,
small, medium to coarse grained construction materials. It is used for many purposes such as
concrete, bricks, roads and drainage. Aggregate is divided into two groups which is fine and
coarse aggregates. In production of bricks, aggregates used is fine aggregates. Fine aggregate
comprises of natural, artificial or manufactured sand particle. These small sized aggregates such
as sand and silt need to passed sieving process so that they have nearly similar size to ensure its
compressive strength would not get affected. Sieving process also important to avoid from any
impurities that may affect its strength. Fine aggregate shall retain through sieve sizes of 2
millimeter.

Fine aggregates can easily be found by the seashore, rivers and lakes. In the experiment,
river sand has been used as fine aggregate in concrete mix as shown in Figure 3.4. River sand is
the most preferred choice as fine aggregate material. It is mined from the riverbed where its
function is to fill the air void leave by the coarse aggregate, reduce shrinkage and cracking of
concrete. It also helps in the hardening of cement by allowing the water through its voids and
gives support to the solid that it would fill. The properties of fine aggregate used is as shown in
Table 3.3.

Figure 3.4 Fine aggregate

 Table 3.3: Physical properties of fine aggregates
(Rashad, 2013)

Properties Fine aggregate

Specific gravity 2.64

Fineness modulus 2.29
Saturated surface dry absorption (%) 0.85
Void 34.3
Density (kg/m3) 1680

3.3.3. Water

Water is the utmost important that need to be mixed in brick production to bind between particle
of fine aggregates and cement. It is the least expensive thing used in this research and can easily
found everywhere. Excess water will affect the segregation of the sand and aggregate material
from the cement paste. Furthermore, this may result in internal cracks and visible cracks which
will reduce the strength. Excess water that is not totally hydrated will stay in the brick and may
result to microscopic pores.

3.3.4. Superplasticizer

In this research, additional material which is superplasticizer was used to improved workability
and help in giving strength to the brick mixture at early rate. The usage of superplasticizer also
complied with BS 5075: Part 1: 1982. The amount of this admixture used for one brick was
approximately low, only for about 8 ml per mixture of brick. Figure 3.5 below shows the
superplasticizer used in this research.
 Figure 3.5: Superplasticizer used.

3.3.5. Sieve Analysis Test

A sieve analysis test used to grade the aggregates to have a required size of material used in this
experiment. For this research, sieve analysis was the first step to classify the size of sago fine
waste and sand according to their class. Sieve test was carried out by Sieve Shaker to impart the
necessary shaking, rotating or vibrating motion. Gradation of aggregate need to be done before it
is used. Thus, sieve analysis test is carried out to determine the particle size distribution in a
sample of aggregate.

Figure 3.6 (a) shows the sieve shaker machine. The apparatus of sieve analysis test are
brush as shown in Figure 3.6 (b), sieve analysis set as shown in Figure 3.6 (c), weighing machine
as shown in Figure 3.6 (d), weighing balance as shown in Figure 3.6 (e), bucket as shown in
Figure 3.6 (f), shovel as shown in Figure 3.6 (g) and samples either SFW or sand in Figure 3.6
(h).
Figure 3.6 (a): Sieve shaker machine.

Figure 3.6 (b): Brush.

Figure 3.6 (c): Sieve analysis set.

Figure 3.6 (d): Weighing machine.

Figure 3.6 (e): Weighing balance.

Figure 3.6 (f): Bucket

 Figure 3.6 (g): Shovel

Figure 3.6 (h): Samples of POFA (left) and sand (right)

3.3.5.1. Sieve Analysis Test of SFW

SFW as mentioned earlier is the by-product of sago palm plantation waste. In this study, Sago
waste was collected from sago plantation factory located at Mukah, Sarawak. After collection,
the ash was oven dried for 24 hours under the temperature of 105 oC. After drying, it was sieved
through 300 μm sieve to remove impurities or any big sized ashes. A flow-chart for the
preparation of ash was shown in Figure 3.7.
 Ashes obtained from factory

Oven dried for 24 hours

Sieved using 300 μm sieve

POFA was obtained

Figure 3.7: Flow chart of obtaining and processing POFA

3.3.5.2. Sieve Analysis Test of Fine Aggregate

Fine aggregate such as sand and silt comprises of natural, artificial or manufactured sand
particle. These small sized aggregates have passed the sieve analysis test before in material
preparation, thus it can be used as material for brick manufacturing. River sand, same as POFA,
was sieved too by sieve plate to ensure that they did not consisted of impurities or bigger
particle. But before that, they gone through the process of oven dry for at least 24 hours at the
temperature of 105oC. In this research, the sand have retained the sieve of size 2mm. The
procedures of sieve analysis test based on British Standard BS 1796 are shown as below:

i. Sample was weighted according to its needs.

ii. The sieves size was arranged with the finest sieve is at the lowest part of sieve set but
above the pan and the coarsest sieve at the top of sieve set.
iii. The starting weight for sieving was weighted and placed in the top sieve.
iv. The sieve analysis machine was started and shaken for 10 minutes.
v. After the shaking process completed, each sieve was taken one at a time and this
segment of sample was weighted.
vi. The weight of sample in each sieve was recorded and the percent of sample remaining in
each sieve was calculated.
 To prepare the sand that was used for bricks, a few steps for preparation have been taken
into consideration. The flowchart of the preparation for the sand is shown as in Figure 3.8.

Sand was obtained

Oven dry for 24 hours

Sieve using 2mm sieve

Uniform size of sand is obtained

Figure 3.8: Flow chart of obtaining and processing sand.

3.4. Preparation of Sample

After sieve analysis test were done, the preparation of sample haven taken place. The right size
of aggregate was chosen from the result of sieve analysis test. Mix of samples was prepared
according to the experimental design mix.

3.4.1. Design of Brick Mix

The selection and proportion of material needed to be properly selected as well as met the
specification required. The requirement for brick mix includes requirement based on strength,
flexural strength, water absorption and density. As for sand replacement, SFW will be substitute
at percentage by weight of 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%. The brick mix designed for brick
will be cured for 7 days, 28 days, 56 days and 90 days. Total samples that needed to be moulded
is 216 bricks with size of 215 mm × 102.5 mm × 65 mm. Table 3.4 shows the mix proportion
ratio of brick mix.
 Table 3.4: Mix proportion of brick mix

Mix Proportion
SWF
W/C Super-
Mixture Cement SWF Sand percentage
ratio plasticizer
(kg) (kg) (kg) (%)
(kg) (ml)
1 0.71 0.00 2.14 0.36 8 0
2 0.71 0.21 1.93 0.36 8 10
3 0.71 0.43 1.71 0.36 8 20
4 0.71 0.64 1.50 0.36 8 30
5 0.71 0.86 1.28 0.36 8 40
6 0.71 1.07 1.07 0.36 8 40

The total number of 216 bricks were then divided for four tests which including
compressive strength test, flexural strength test, water absorption test and density test as
mentioned before. Table 3.5 shows the total 30 of the samples were used for density test and next
were used for compressive strength test where 15 samples from 7 days of curing while the other
15 samples from 28 days of curing. Table 3.6 shows that 15 samples were used for water
absorption test. Meanwhile, the remaining of 15 samples were used for fire resistance test as
shown in Table 3.7. For water absorption and fire resistance test, the tests were conducted after
28 days of curing.
 Table 3.5: Specimens for density and compressive strength test.

Compressive Strength
SWF (%)
7 days 28 days 56 days 60 days

0 3 3 3 3
10 3 3 3 3
20 3 3 3 3
30 3 3 3 3
40 3 3 3 3
50 3 3 3 3
18 18 18 18
Total
72 specimens

Table 3.6: Specimens for water absorption & density test.

Water Absorption Test & Density Test

SWF (%)
7 days 28 days 56 days 60 days

0 3 3 3 3
10 3 3 3 3
20 3 3 3 3
30 3 3 3 3
40 3 3 3 3
50 3 3 3 3
18 18 18 18
Total
72 specimens
 Table 3.7: Specimens for flexural strength test

Compressive Strength
SWF (%)
7 days 28 days 56 days 60 days

0 3 3 3 3
10 3 3 3 3
20 3 3 3 3
30 3 3 3 3
40 3 3 3 3
50 3 3 3 3
18 18 18 18
Total
72 specimens

3.5. Brick

Brick is the mixture of water, cement and aggregate that bind together as it will harden as a form
of solid. For this research, brick mixture was poured into its mould after mixing process and left
harden for 24 hours before the mould can be opened.

3.5.1. List of Apparatus and Materials

The material for brick mixture was prepared according to its standard and requirements. The
apparatus and materials needed for the preparation of brick consist of brick mould with size of
215 mm × 103 mm × 65 mm as shown in Figure 3.9 (a). The bricks mould is made from timber
and each set can produced 6 bricks. Fine aggregate which is sand as shown in Figure 3.9 (b) was
sieved and oven dried during the preparation of material. Figure 3.9 (c) shows the Ordinary
Portland Cement (OPC) used in this study while Figure 3.9 (d) shows the Sago Fine Waste
(SWF) that was used as sand replacement. Sago fine waste and sand was sieved, and oven dried
too during preparation of material. Water used in brick manufacturing is as shown in Figure 3.9
(e) with water cement ratio of 0.5.
 Figure 3.9 (a): Brick mould

Figure 3.9 (b): Fine aggregate

Figure 3.9 (c): Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

 Figure 3.9 (d): Sago Fine Waste (SWF)

Figure 3.9 (e): Water

3.5.2. Procedure

The brick mould was cleaned up from of all impurities as shown in Figure 3.10 (a). The inner
brick mould was applied with oil as shown in Figure 3.10 (b) by using brush with purpose to
remove the samples easily at the next day. Cement, water and sand were weighed based on
quantities that have been calculated as in Figure 3.10 (c), 3.10 (d) and 3.10 (e). The SWF also
was weighed according to its proportions in each sample. The materials were mixed properly as
shown in Figure 3.10 (f). After the brick mix was completed, the mixture was filled into the
mould as shown in Figure 3.10 (g) and compacted to minimize segregation, also to avoid
vibration compaction. The brick was pulled out from the mould after 24 hours which the process
known as demoulding the brick as shown in Figure 3.10 (h). Every sample of the concrete brick
was labelled with percentage of SWF.
 Figure 3.10 (a): Brick mould used.

Figure 3.10 (b): Oil applied in inner brick mould.

Figure 3.10 (c): Cement used were weighed.

 Figure 3.10 (d): Water used were weighed.

Figure 3.10 (e): Sand used were weighed.

Figure 3.10 (f): All material were mixed together properly.

Figure 3.10 (g): Brick mix in the mould.

 Figure 3.10 (h): Brick pulled out from mould after 24 hours.

3.5.3. Water Curing and Air Curing

Curing have two method of implementation which are water curing and air curing. Water curing
needed the specimens to be fully immersed in the water tank to ensure that the samples are cured
properly while air curing only needed the samples to be left in open space at room temperature.
In this research, the method of air curing were used and shown in Figure 3.11 and Figure 3.12.

Figure 3.11: Air curing process.

Figure 3.12: Water uring process.

3.6. Laboratory Test

For this research, there were four tests that were conducted in the laboratory including Density
Test, Compressive Strength Test, Water Absorption Test and Flexural Strength Test.

3.6.1. Density Test

Purpose for implementing density test was to determine the weight of bricks with accordance to
the stated standards before it can be used for construction. Density can be calculated by dividing
the weight of sample in kilogram with the volume of sample in millimetre cube. Standard that
complied with this test is ASTM C90-03 and Table 3.8 shows the classification of density
requirement. According to ASTM C90, the density were calculated with the average of three
samples.

Table 3.8: Classification of density requirements (ASTM C90-03).

Weight classification Oven-dry density of concrete, lb/ft 3 (kg/m3)

Light Weight Less than 105 (1,680)

Medium Weight 105 - 125 (1,680 - 2,000)
Normal Weight More than 125 (2,000)

3.6.2. Compressive Strength Test

A compressive test was conducted to determine the compressive strength of concrete brick.
Compressive strength of the block was calculated by dividing the maximum load that the brick
can sustain with the cross section area of brick. This test was performed after 7 days and 28 days
of curing period. For this research, a 215 mm × 103 mm × 65 mm brick size was used to test the
compressive strength using concrete compressive machine at age 7 and 28 days. The apparatus
needed for compressive strength test were compression strength machine as shown in Figure
3.12 (a) and samples of brick after testing in Figure 3.12 (b). Loading was applied on the sample
in a constant loading. After the brick achieved its maximum load, the data was recorded.

Figure 3.12 (a): Compressive strength machine.

Figure 3.12 (b): Sample of brick after compressed.

The procedure of compressive strength start with concrete brick were removed from
water after specified curing time (7, 28, 56, and 90 days) and the excess water from surface were
wiped out. The weight of brick were recorded after drying for few minutes. The surface of the
compressive machine were cleaned from any debris. The concrete brick were placed
perpendicular to plate testing machine and centrally on the base plate of the machine. The
maximum load and the compressive strength of each concrete brick sample was recorded.
According to ASTM C129-11, minimum net area compressive strength requirements are 500psi
(3.45MPa) for an individual unit and 600psi (4.14MPa) average for three unit.

3.6.3. Water Absorption Test

The water absorption test performed on 7 and 28 day of curing process on the bricks to
determine the percentage of water absorption in bricks. The samples were weighed and data
obtained were recorded after the curing process as initial mass. Samples of bricks was placed in
the drying oven and was ensured that each sample not less than 25mm from any heating surface
or from each other. The samples were dried in the oven for 24 ± 2 hour (1 day) with the
controlled temperature at 105 ± 5 ºC as. After samples were removed from oven, each sample
was weighed to determine the dry mass of brick sample. After that, the brick were immersed
completely in the water tank for 24 ± 2 hour (1day). After 24 hour, the samples were taken out
from the water tank and excess water were removed with cloth from the sample surface. Each
concrete brick sample weight were recorded.

The list of apparatus, materials and procedure of the water absorption test was produced
based on BS 1881: Part 122: 1983. The apparatus needed for water absorption test were oven for
drying the brick in Figure 3.13 (a), weighing machine as shown in Figure 3.13 (b), wet samples
of brick in Figure 3.13 (c) and dry samples of brick in Figure 3.13 (d).
Figure 3.13 (a): Oven for drying the brick

Figure 3.13 (b): Weighing machine

Figure 3.13 (c): Wet samples of brick

Figure 3.13 (d): Dry samples of brick
3.6.4. Flexural Strength Test

Flexural strength test is to determine the tensile strength of a concrete brick. The most common
test method used for flexural strength test is ASTM C 293, Standard Test Method for Flexural
Strength of Concrete. In this test, the flexural strength is expressed as Modulus of Rupture (MR)
in psi (MPa) where the MR is about 10% to 20% of compressive strength depending on the type,
size, volume of aggregate used. The arrangement of the specimen for the testing is illustrated in
Figure 3.14. The crack pattern and width will be recorded to measure the modulus of rupture.
The main advantage of a three-point flexural test is the ease of the specimen preparation and
testing. Calculation of MR is given as following:

𝑃𝐿
𝑀𝑅 =
𝑏𝑑

3.7 Conclusion

As a conclusion, this chapter explained about the implementation and procedures of four test
done in this research which comprises of density test, compressive strength test, water absorption
test and flexural strength test. This chapter also explained the total of five mix proportion of
bricks such as 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% of SFW and control sample with the mix ratio of
1:3 (cement : sand).
 CHAPTER 4

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

4.1 Introduction

The chapter will be explained and discuss about the analysis and results outcome from
the laboratory testing that have been done on the cement sand brick with containing of
Sago Fine Waste as sand replacement material. The test that will be discussed in this
chapter is based on the physical test. The value of compressive strength depends on
the percentage’s material of SFW used in samples. The data recorded from the tests
was presented using tables and graphs to be interpreted clearly and simultaneously
with the discussion.

4.2 Preliminary Results

4.2.1 Result for Density

The density of brick is calculated as mass per unit volume. The density of brick is
decrease with the increase of SFW replacement. Based on Table 4.1 below, the density
of each sample was calculated by their weight and the volume which was 1.439 x 10ˉ³
m³ for each sample. The highest density recorded by control sample which contained
0% of SFW is 1932.77 kg/m³ at 7 days and 1779.21 kg/m³ at 28 days. While the lowest
density recorded was brick contained 20% of SFW which is 1209.72 kg/m³ at 7 days
while for 28 days is not yet recorded.
According to ASTM C90-09, there are three classes of concrete masonry unit
which is normal weight (more than 2000 kg/m³), medium weight (1680-2000 kg/m³)
and lightweight (less than 1680 kg/m³). In Table 4.1 shows that the red colour is normal
 46

weight, orange colour is for medium and yellow colour is for lightweight density
classification.

Table 4.1: Data recorded for density of samples at 7 and 28 days for different
percentage of EPS (kg/m³)

Density (kg/m3)
SFW(%)
7 days 28 days

0 1932.77 1779.21

5 - -

10 1287.36 -

15 - -

20 1209.72 -

4.2.2 Discussion on Density of Brick

Generally, the density of brick depends on the types of materials added in the
production. All the difference in density of the samples are show based on Figure 4.1
below.
The data illustrated in Figure 4.1 shows the average density of every mix ratio
brick specimen. Based on the bar graph, it shows that the density of samples decreases
with SFW added in their production because SFW has lower density than sand. All
samples went thought the same compaction rate which was 32 numbers of blows at 3
layers for each sample.
In compliance with ASTM C90-09, SFW0 for 7 days and 28 days of testing
day are considered as medium weight brick as there are between 1680-2000 kg/m³.
Furthermore, for 7 days of curing period, SFW 10 and SFW 20 and for 7 days of curing
period are considered as light weight brick classification as the density is below than
1680 kg/m³. However, for others mixture and 28 days of testing for SFW10 and
SFW20 are not yet to be recorded since it is in still curing period, thus testing cannot
be done at this moment.
 47

4.2.3 Compression Strength Test

Compressive strength test on bricks were carried out to determine the load carrying
capacity of bricks under compression. This test was carried out with the help of
compression testing machine.

4.2.4 Result for Compressive Strength Test

Table 4.2 shows the data recorded for compressive strength for 7 and 28 days of water
curing samples contained in difference percentage of SFW replacements. The highest
compressive strength value recorded for control sample (SFW0) at 7 days which was
8.7 MPa and at 28 days which was 15.49 MPa. While the lowest compressive strength
value recorded was brick that contained 20% of SFW (SFW20) for which 0.4 MPa at
7 days. Table 4.2 shows the full result of compressive strength values for various
percentage of SFW
According to ASTM C129-11, Non-Load Bearing Concrete Masonry Unit,
minimum net area compressive strength required are 500psi (3.45MPa) for an
individual unit and 600psi (4.14MPa) average for three unit. In this preliminary study,
non speciments except for SFW0 have fulfilled the minimum strength in non-load
bearing classification (4.14 MPa).
Table 4.2: Data obtained for compressive strength test of samples 7 and 28 days
(MPa)

Percentage of EPS Compressive Strength (MPa)

(%) 7 days 28 days
0 8.7 15.49
5 - -
10 0.48 -
15 - -
20 0.44 -
 48

4.2.5 Discussion on Compressive Strength Test

Based on the bar graph in Figure 4.2, it shows that the compressive strength value for
the sample with 10% and 20% of SFW has a significant drop compare to control
sample at 7 days. The rate of strength was greater initially and decreased as the age
increased.
In short, with increasing the percentage volume of SFW directly affects the
compressive strength and density of brick. The SFW contain in bricks causes
lightweight and have low strength. This is possibly due to close to zero strength of
SFW particles and high compressibility behaviour which causes formation of micro
cracks at the transition zone of particles and cement paste.

Chart Title
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
SFW 0 SFW 5 SFW 10 SFW 15 SFW 20

7 Days 28 Days

Figure 4.2: Graph of Compressive strength against percentage of Expanded

Polystyrene Beads (EPS) at the age of 7 and 28 days

From Figure 4.2, it is shown that the compressive strength of concrete

increased when the age of concrete also increased. Moreover, the compressive strength
of brick decreased as more sand were replaced by SFW. From the bar graph, for 7 and
28 days of water curing, the brick sample which with 20% of SFW was recorded the
lowest strength with 0.44 MPa among the other samples. While, the highest
 49

compressive strength for 7 and 28 days of air curing, was recorded for control sample
(E0P0) that not added with the SFW as sand replacement.

4.3 Conclusion

In this chapter have discussed the outcome of the experiment preliminary works for
this study. The following observations are made after conducting an experimental
study on density, strength and fire resistance test of lightweight cement sand bricks by
using SFW as partial replacement of sand with different proportions.

The density of the brick decreases with increasing in SFW content.The

compressive strength of the brick increasing due to the increasing of age of curing.
From the data obtained, the compressive strength of bricks decreases with increasing
in SFW content. The maximum compressive strength at 28 days was observed as 15.49
MPa for 0% SFW and minimum compressive strength at 7 days was observed as 0.44
MPa for brick with 20% SFW replacement. Since this preliminary experiment is still
on going, these data cannot yet to be concluded until the experiment is done till the
end.
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