AT

MlCROFlCHE
REFERENCE
IJBRARY
A project of Volunteers in Asia

.
Work and Hand Pump Mamtenance

By: John van Winden

Published by: TOOL Foundation

Sarphatistraat 650
1018 AV Amsterdam
The Netherlands

Available from: TOOL Foundation

Sarphatistraat 660
1018 AV Amsterdam
The Netherlands

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 RURAL MECHANICS COURSE 1

I I, \
John van Winden

RURAL MECHANICS COURSE I

 -

Fw, inrprzssion1990
Publisher TOOL roundation
Sarphatisuaat650
1018AV Amsterdam
The Netherlands
Author Bra. J. van Winden
Drawings Bra. J. van Winden,J. Hovinghand
R. 0-n
Tratdhon Taalwerktextpertsbv SC%.%
Typesettmg
and lay-out Uitgeverij Jan van Arkel Utrecht
Prinung Krips ReproMeppel

0 Stichting KongregatieF.I.C.. Maastricht.1990

No p‘artof this publication may be reproducedin any
form, by prin!. phomgmphy.micro film, or any other
meanswithout writ&n permissionfrom thepublisher.
Whilst everycarehasbeentakento ensurethe
accuracyof the information given in this publication.
neitherthe publishernor rheauthorcanbe held
responsiblefor any damageresulting from the
applicationof thedescribedmethods.Any liability in
this respeclis excluded.

CIP-GEGEVENSIXXINKLIJKE BIBLIOTHEEK.
DEN HAAG
Winden.Johnvan
Rural mechanicscourse/ [John van Winden; draw.
by dre.author... et al.]. - Amsterdam: Sri&in8 TOGL
1: Generalmetalwork, sheetmetalwork and hand
pumpmainlenance/
[uansl. by: TaalwerkTe-tpeensbv]. - III.. tek.
ISBN 90-70857-14-6
S1S0650.2UDC621.01(075.3)
Trefw.: leermiddelen; mechanischetechnick.
r Prefxe
We have decided to publish this edition of _ ;
Rural MechanicsCoursein responseto the
many requestsfrom peopleinvolved in
training for technical vocationsand in general
developmentwork.
The main aim of this setof booksis to provide
technical training information in
understandablelanguageand with illustrations
suited to the understandingof those involved.
The contentsof thesebooksreflect the rural
developmenttaking placein the agricultural
sectorin particular, wheremany urgent needs
haveto be looked after andsolved in order to
achievesounddevelopmentat ah levels.
This Rural MechanicsCoursehas been
compiled for teachingin Technical Vocation
Centresin addition to a Rural Building Course,
which deals with sltills such ascarpentry and
masonry.
We are grateful to the Stichting Brothers
F.I.C., Stichting ‘I-OOLfor their technical
assistance,Stichting Cebemofor their financial
support and the Gennan Volunteer Service for
so many volunteerswho havecontributed in no
small way to the compilation of thesebooks.
It is our sincere wish that the contentsof these
books may be of assistancein stimulating the
useof appropriatetechniquesto aid agriculture
andgeneraldevelopment.
Bro John van Winden F.I.C.
RURALMECMMCSCOURSE
Introductioll
In many situationsradical dnd urgent changes
are taking place in rural areasin order to
restore land to agriculture, to bring aboutbetter
living conditions and securehealth and
educational facilitif; - the basis for a healthy
economy.
Needsarising from thesechangesare not
always dealt with lxxause many technical
institutions do not provide appropriate
technical training gearedto solving problems
which have goneunnoticed in the past.
It can also be noted thai small co-operative
workshops are being startedthesedays in the
interestsof a&culture and thesetoo may
develop as they deal with the upkeep of small
mechanizedfarm implements and diesel
enginesusedfor water supply or with making
ploughs, handcarts,gardening tools, etc.
Integrated and relevant technical training and
grouping young peopletogether into
co-operative movementsshould be emphasized
to ensuresoundagricultural and general
development.That is why an attempt hasbeen
madeto achieveappropriatetechnical training
for rural mechanics,who will contribute in no
small way towardsthe necessarydevelopment.
Since the technical needsin rural areasare
many but do not on the whole needhighly
specialisedtechniciansto solve them, the rural
mechanic - becausehis training covers a broad
basis- will often be solving problems arising
from the introduction of new implementsor
tools.
The courselastsfour years, almost two years
of which are setasidefor so-called ‘on-the-job
training’. This is practical training provided in
various workshopsunder the guidanceof
qualitied techniciansas well as a centre
instructor who visits the workshop at intervals
to seefor himself how the trainees are
progressing.During ‘on-the-job training’ the
trainee is rewardedfor his work which may
help him later to buy the set of tools he has
usedduring his training, so he can start
working immediately after completing the
coursesuccessfully.
3

Rural mxhanics cciurse
A set of four bookshas beencompiled to
accompanythe four-year coursefor rural
mechanics:
1 - Generalmetal wotk, sheetmetalwork and
handpumpmaintenance
2 - Blacksmithing, welding andsoldering
3 - Maintenanceand repair of stationarydiesel
engines
4 - Technical drawing
While eachof thesebooks coversthe full
material of onecourse,a lot of additional
information neededbesidesthe contentsof one
particular book will be found in anotherbook.
So it is difficult to usejust one of thesebooks
without consulting the others.The text on the
propertiesof metals,for example,is to be
found in the generalmetal work book. But this
information is also neededwhen you are
dealing with other subjects,such asdiesel
engines,blacksmithing etc.
As mentionedabove,this courseis madeup in
such a way that most of the practicalscan be
carried out with a limited set of tools. You wiIl
however notice that extra equipmentor tools
are neededsometimesand thesemust he
available in the Vocational Centre’s workshop.
It is believedandhopedthat Gh the
formation of co-operativestheseaddition&
tools andequipmentwill be a:\Glablein the
workshopsbecause,though they aremore
expensive,they can be owned by the group,
The main aim of this course is that the trainee,
besidesacquiring a good formative
background,will learn to mastersuchskiUsas:
- working with and maintaining all thl: tools
explained
- blacksmithing to such a degreethat he will
be able to shapediKerent metalsto the
required implements,tools, etc.
- Eptig, maintaining and mstallitig hand
waterpumps
- dismantling, repairing and assembling
stationarydiesel engines
- sketchingor drawing simple items in
orthographic,oblique and isometric form;
readingengineor machine manuals.
This set of bookscan be usedpartly in the
classroombut must also be usedduring
workshop practice,where the reality of what
can he seenwill add greatly to the text and
4 RURMMECHAMCSCOUI?SE
--
ihstrations in the books. Praaical exercises
recommendedin the 6bookscan be varied since
thr practical naturr of tnis c,otu~:,alls for
articles to be made which can be useddirectl!.
by people who may order them But care
should be taken that, though production may
be necessaryfor one reasonor another,all the
skills which must be masteredare incorporated
in eachpractic& so as to ensuresoundtraining.
It is very important to study the proposed
timetable given in each book to ensurethat all
skills are given the necessaryattemion. Apart
from the pros,Tessmade by eachtrainee, the
time recommendedfor eachskill may v-j as
well. Someskills take more time to master
than others.
You will note the absencein this course of the
sciencewhich may be impottant in explaining
the diesel engine in particular. Providing this
backgroundtheory is however beyond the
scopeof the course. But if the needarises,the
relevant scienceshould bc included during part
of the relatedsubject time.
This Rural Mechanics Courseis the result of
many years’ obse.rvationandexperimentation
with different t&niques. The contentshave
frequently beenrev&d to serveall those
interestedin rural development,and it is hoped
this coursewill be wed in many technical
vocation centresand communities.It is also
the sincerewish of the founderr of t)iit co’urse
that the traineesshould feel on comp :n of
their training that they ate able to ZG _ ‘ne
persl~nallyto the developmentci the L .ti
areas,which is of such importanceto any
gene& development.
 ---
ra Rural mechanicsmme lay-out Three-year centre thmetabk for trade theorv
a - Gene-a!metal work
and timetable b - Weiding and soldering j 240 hours
c - Blacksmithing
d - Sheetmetalwork I
Fcur year training course e - Stationary diesel engines 220 hours
:a- Full Centre~.ining: workshop practica& f Waterpumpsand supply 20 hours
t :a4ethrory, technicai drawing andrelated
subjects. Two years= 80 weeks Total theory time: 480 hours
b Partly Centretraining: trade theory,
technical drawing, related subjects.
Pmcticalstake place outside the
Vocational Centre. One year= 40 weeks
c - On-the-jobtraining: practicals takeplace
outsideth _Vocatior II Centre.
(Practicalsarehowever contmlled by
ierxe staff and mark ate awardedfor any
progressmade.) One year = 4l, we&s
- -
Total vocational training time
Four years= 160weeks

Weekly timetabLet;~. related subjects and

practicais
a - Trade theory 4 hours
b - Te&nical drawing 1','2hours
c ” Mathematics: 2 hours
d - Language 2 hours
e - Other reiatedsubjects 2’12 hours

Total relatedsubjects 12 hours

Totai hours workshop practice 28 hours

Total training time in centre 40 hours

Four-year timetable, workshop practical.

One full yearreservedfor Centre workshop
practice:
a - Generalmetal work
b - Blacksmithing
c - Welding andSoldering
d - Sheetmetalwork 112Ohours
One fug yearreservedfor Centre workshop
practice:
a - Stationarydiesel engines
b - Agricultural machinery 1XHlhouts
c - Waterpumpsand water supply 120hours
Two full yearsreservedfor on-the-,jobtraining:
a - One year partly practicals 1120hours
b - One year full on-the-job
iraining outsidethe Centre.
(Careshould be taken that
the time is evenly divided
for practical training in
all skills.) 1740hours

I-
RURAL YECHAWS COURSE 5
 -- ---pm

7
.-
General metal work and sheet
metal work
The needsin rural areaswhit!= demand
appropriatetechnical assistanceare becoming
a matterof urgency for sounddevelopment.
Especially thosepeople going into modem
agriculture needhelp - provided by people
who haveundergonethe appropriatetechnical
training.
The Rural MechanicsCourse,cf which this
book is a part, offers technical training which
will answersomeof the current needs.During
the coursethe trainee will haveF limited set nf
tools andequipment.That is why, d&g the
practical exercises.imagination andma&+
should be encouragedin the trainee,as well as
soundjdgcment about when andhow to
repair with the meansavailable and when to
ask for assistancefrom specialistcraftsmen.
As an introduction to the whole Rural
MechanicsCourseit is advisableto follow first
the iutroductions offered in this book, which
cover:
- Metallurgy
- Tools, ,equipmentand their maintenance
- Working with tools andequipment
- Sheetmetal work and tools
- Watersupply and hand pump maintenance
Metallurgy
In metalhtrgy. a lot of attention and practical
work should be devotedfo the identification of
metals,becauseextensive useis madeof scrap
metal andthe original material usedfor
equipmentor machinery to be repairedor
maintainedis not always known.
Fwrthe practical testson metalexplained in
this book it is advisableto haveon hand
original piecesof known identity and
properties.The sound,sparksor appearanceof
the original piecescan then be comparedwith
the piecesto be tested.The scopeof this
coursedoesnot ex,tendto explaining many
different metals,becausespecialmachineparts
can never be madein the xural workshop.
Working with tools and equipment
In rural areasmuch of the work hasto be done
in difficult circumstancesandon a wide range
of articles.As a lot of the implementsor
equipmentusedare of complicatedshapeor
construction,it is essentialthat the trainee
receivesthorough training on how to work
with the twls and equipmentavailable,
8 GENERAL
exploring all the possibilities of what ,-an‘ce
done wilh one and the sametool and how to
ma)..-additional tools to help get the job done.
Though working with a limited range of tools.
must be encouraged,the Centre should have
someadditional tools or equipment. This is
necessaryto show the traineehow to work
with them and thzrsencouragehim to buy
additionnalequipment at a later stage;this may
be possible if he works in a co-operative
workshop, becauseail the membersmay be in
a position to raise enoughcapital between
thern.
Water supply and hand pumps
It is a recognisedfact that the correct
functioning of a wafer pump and supply
systemis essentialfor life and work in rural
areas.Mechanics working in theseareas
should know how to maintain, repair and
install a water pump andunderstandits
operation.
Towards the end of this book the text and
illustrations are gearedto masteriflg the skill of
installation, repair and maintenanceof someof
the most commonly usedhand pumps.
Practical training should include work on a real
borehole,becausedropping the cylinder or
pipe should be experiencedin reality. It is
advisableto have small groups working
together at one time. Onetrainee should be
appointedleader of the group and he alone
gives instructions under supervision of the
instructor in charge.
If the areawhere the Centreis located usesa
different type of water pump from those
explained in this book, it is a good idea to
adaptthe text and illustrations.
To ensurethe supply of clean, uncontaminated
water it is aIso a good idea to invite a medical
practioner to explain the advantagesof ciean
water and show the effectsof using water
contaminatedas a result of carelr;sswork on a
well or a borehole.
METAL
WORK
Tools are aidsfor manufacturing products.A
distinction can be madebetween:
- Hand tools
All possibletools meant for hand useare
called handtools. Hand tools are divided
into tn reducingtools, assemblytools and
auxiliary tools.
- Measuring and marking tools
Measuring andmarking tools areusedfor
measuringandmarking sizesand angles.
We distinguish betweenreadableand
non-readablemeasuringtools. Also included
in this group are tools which are neededfor
marking off the workpiece.
Maintenance of tools
tland tools require little maintenance.
Measuring and marking tools are an exception
to this. Clean them regularly with a little oil to
prevent rust fotination.
Never storemeasuringand marking tools
among other tools. When working at the bench
keep measuringtools apart from other tools.
Safety in tool we
Keep your tools clean and treat them with care.
Always emu-e that the handlesam properly
fitted and are free from splits. Sharpencutting
tools regularly andremove burrs from the
headsof chisels,drifts, centre punchesetc.
This can preventserioushand and eye injuries,

GENEFtAl
METAL
WORK 9
 The rural workshop
Introduction
With the introduction of apprenticeship
training andthen of co- olxrative movements,
many rural workshops are appearingin
villages and medium sized towns to help
peoplewith their needsfor householdand
farming equipment and also with the repair and
maintenanceof their tools.
Co-operativesare uauall:~in a position to set
up a good workshop and certain criteria have
to be followed for a good lay-out of these
..vorkshops.You will %d someof these
criteria below, including workshop
organ&don, storageof materialsand fuels and
safetyregulations.
Orgamisation
Organisationand cleanliness arethe basis of
good, efficient and safe work. All craftsmen
should play an active role in achieving the aim
of having work, tools and equipmentwelI
organisedand keeping everything tidy and
clean. Clear visible signs should makeclients
and visitors awareof the consequences
involved in entexingthe workshop.
Workbench
A rural mechanic’sworkbench consistsmostly
of a steel frame and a wooden top which
should be thick enough to withstand work
pressure,seeFig. 1.
The height of the workbench is usually
between76 cm and 84 cm, but the ideal height
is when the top of the vice (fitted on the bench)
is level with the mechanic’s elbow. SeeFig. 2.
The benchvice must be properly fixed to the
workbenchtop with nuts and bolts. The vice
should project far enough over the edgeof the
benchto allow vertical clamping of
workpieces.SeeFig. 3.
The front edgeof the top has an angle iron
fitted to protect the edge.SeeFigs. 3-A and
4-A.
Always place the tools on top of the bench in a
neat way, easy to pick up andprotectedagainst
damage.SeeFig. 4.
Storage of tools
It is advisableto have a special storefor tools.
In this storethere should be a toolboard on
which the !sy-out and shapeof eachtool is
drawn or painted so that you can see
immediately if a tool is missing. This
toolboard should be checkedafter work. Make
surethe toolstore is locked properly after
leaving the workplace.

lol
10 THE RURALWORKSHOP
Storage of materials
Materials shouid be storedin a dry and S~CUE
place. All materialsshould be well arranged
according to type, size and purpose.Nuts, bolts
etc. should be kept in boxes and electrodesin a
waterproof box.
Partsof equipmentor machinesshould be kept
in special clapboardstogether with the
technical.dataaboutequipment an3 machinery.
A record should be kept of a!1materials
available. This record is valuable for ordering
new materialsin good rime.
Storage af fuels
Fuel should be kept in a separatestoresome
distanceaway from me actual workplace.As
fuels are flammableand explosions are
possible, it is important to have a well
designedfuel storewith enough ventilation
‘xated in a placewhich cannot he reachedby
‘,dshfire. Fuelsshouid be storedoff the ground
in solid containers.

THERURAL
WORKSHOP
Wwkshop lay-out
Yeforedesigning a workshopyou should
consider:durability, workability and safety.
‘Thefollowing are a few guu:’i+ines for
designings workshop.
- The worhnop should be of a convenient
leng:h, width dnd height to be able to handle
long pieces,basedin generalon a length of
600 cm.
- There should be adequatelight and
ventilation.
- Foundation,footing andfloor should be
madeof lasting materialswhich are water
andheat resistant.
- There should be ampleroom for the safe
storageof tools and materials.
- There should he a separatestore for fuel and
c.a .
- % iorkshop should be well sited with due
regardfor prevailing *::indsand rain. TLe
length preferably in the East/Westdirection.
- The roof construction should be resistantto
stormsand rain. Thorough attachmentof the
roof construction to the walls or pillars is a
must and deservesspecialattention.
- Ask for qualified advicp when designing a
workshop.The lay-out shown below may
alsohelp you.

honey comb wall

working space
r

THERURAL
WQRKSHOP
13
 Mined iron ore
Iron ore is mined in various parts 01 the world.
crushing
It containsiron oxide, stones,sandand clay.
Iron oxide is a reaction of pure iron with
washing %w~
To extract the pure iron from iron ore, the
lumps are crushed,washedand heatedto get
roasting rid of all componentswhich can produce gases
at a later stage.SeeFig. 1 for the processflow.
blast furnace
Years ago, many blacksmithsin the north of
Ghanamined their own iron ore, which is
found in small quantities in laterite soil.
cupola

grey cast iron steel

I

14 MElaLLURGY
Blast furnace
The next phasein manufacturingiron is to
extractthe pure iron from the iron ore. This is
donein the blast furnace,a cross-sectionof
*whichyou can seein Fig. 1. The approximate
height of such a blast furnace is 30 metres.
A mixture of iron, coke and limestone is
dumpedinto the furnaceat the top, see
Fig. 1-A. The actual melting zoneof the iron is
in the shadedarea1-B.
The coke provides fuel to maintain Lheheatat
approximately2000 degreesCelsius. At the
sametime however the coke addssomecarbon
to the pure iron. The pig iron produced
thereforecontainssome4 to 4.5 percentcarbon.
Carhonis a componentyou find in coke,
charcoal,pencil leadsetc. It is black and hasa
majorfunction in the production of steel,
which is somethingyou will learn about at a
later stage.
The limestonecombinesall the dirt - such as
sand,clay arid stones- into a iayer called slag.
The slag floats on top of the liquid iron and can
be removedfrom time to time through hole
I-C.
Hot air is blown into *hefurnace with blowers
(shownin 1-D) mountedon the outside of the
furnace.This air is neededto bum the coke and c -----.--
can leavethe furnacetogetherwith ail g<ases
through the top of the furnace.
The liquid iron sinks down to the bottom of the
furnaceand is tappedout through hole 1-E.
The liquid iron is tappedoff and channelled
into pig beds,seeFig. 2.

MErALLURGY 15
 Nature of pig iron
While in the blast furnace, the iron absorbs
among other things an amount of carbon.
Carbon is presentin the coke just as it is in
hmoal and in pencil leadsetc. The carbon
presentin the iron after processingin the blast
furnace may be in its natural stateas~ruphite
and is normally dispersedthroughout the metal
in the form of small flakes, seeFig. I.
It may also be presentin the form of a
chemical composition of iron and carbon
called cementire, see Fig. 2. This depends
mainly on the cooling of the metal. If the
cooling is slow, the carbon will settle between
the crystals asgraphite flakes. If the cooling is
rapid, the carbon is trapped inside the crystals,
so most of it is mixed up and presentas
cementite.
As you will understand,cementite is in a
highly stressedcondition when the carbon is
1 trappedinside it and therefore makesthe metal
very hard andbrittle.
When the metal is cooled normally, the
fracture of the metal has a greyish-f,:zk
appearanceandthe graphite carbon can easiIy
be discerned.This metal is called grey pig
iron, see Fig. 1.
When the metal is cooled rapidly, the fracture
of the metal has a whiter appearance,showing
that there is leasfree carbon and when all or
nearly all the carbon is combined with the iron
the metal is called while pig iron, see Fig. 2.
Cementiteis a very hard substanceandthe
greaterthe amountof combined carbonthe
h.arderthe iron will be.
Observation
If you observeFig. I. you will understandthat
this piece of iron is not strong. A fracture can
occur easily, foilowing the line of the graphite
flakes. Another problem is that the flakes and
2 the iron am both very soft and weak.
Observing the white pig iron in Fig. 2, you see
the carbon is trappedin each crystal.
Cementitemakesthe crystal very hard.

16 MElMLUffiY
Cupola/cast iron
Pig iron asproducedin the blast furnaceis the
crude form uf raw material from which
different gradesof cast iron and steelare made.
Cast iron is madeby a refining processof pig
iron in a so-calledcup&, similar to the blast
furnace, seeFig. I.
A cupola is approximately 8 to 10 metreshigh.
At the top of the cupola there is a platform
from which the cupola is filled, l-A, with
iayers of broken pig iron, coke and limestone.
Somescrapiron and old cast iron are addedto
the mix -e to obtain the correct percentageof
carbon .;uired.
- Pig iron containsapprox. 4.5% carbon
- Scrapmetalcontains approx. 0.2% carbon
- Old castiron contains approx. 3.5% carbon
- The whole new mixture then producesan
iron with approx. 3.5% carbon.
Coke andlimestonehave the samefunction as
in the blast furnace.The hot air is blown in
through the holes 1-B and the slag is removed
through hole 1-C. After the whole mixture has
melted down, the hot liquid entersthe receiver
l-D, from whereit can be tappedoff through
hole 1-E. A pilot hole 1-F in the receiver
makesit possibletc watch the process.
Properties and usesof white and grey cast
iron
Cast iron is a very useful material usedfor
castings.Its main advantagesarethat it is
cheapto produce,has a low melting
temperatureof 1150to 1200 ‘C andcan easily
be filed. cut and shaped.
The fluidity of the grey cast iron, when in
molten condition, makesit possibleto useit
for castingsof parts such as machinebodies
and other components.
Grey pig iron can be converted into white or
grey castIron, the quality dependingon the
speedof cooling and the alloy used.
If for somereasona strong quality of castiron
1srequired,white cast iron can be used
because,through its alloy, it is much stronger
and harderthan the grey cast iron.
Cast iron cannotbe hardenedor resisttension.
You cannotuse it, for example,asa beamfor a
bridge. The pressureon top will createso
much tensionunderneaththat the beamwill
crack. SeeFig. 2.
Cast iron is brittle and may breakwhen you
hammerit or drop it. Cast iron is very useful
for machineparts or componentswherethere
is compressionor where vibration hasto be
absorbed.

METALLURGY 17
 Castings
Castingscan be madefrom steel, aluminium,
cast iron, bronze etc.
Casting can be done in different ways; the
most common is casting in sand.
For example, when you have to cast a product
as shown in Fig. 1, you first have to make a
wooden pattern of this produc!, that should be
slightly larger than the actual product, because
the metal shrinks during cooling.
The pattern is placedin a steel or wooden flask
(the drag), seeFig. 2. The flask is then filled
with sandand compactedand levelled at the
top.
The flask is then carefully turned over and
placed on a board. Another flask (the cope)
filled with sandis placedon top of the first
flask, seeFig. 3-X.
Two taperedholes am madeas shown in
Fig. 3. Hole 3-A is called the sprue and is used
to pour the hot pig iron into the mould.
A secondhole is madein the position shown in
3-B. which is called the open riser. This open
riser is usedto add somemore metal to top up
the mould and to let air and gasesescape.After
making the holes, the cope is taken off again
and a connecting channelis made from the
sprueto the mould; this hole is called the gate,
see3-c.
The wooden pattern is taken out carefully and
the whole inside is cleaned.Then the cope is
replacedand the hot metal poured in.

18 YEMLLURGY
Wrought iron
Wrought iron was probably the first iron
producedlocally. It was producedfor the
blacksmith to enablehim to makeah kinds of
tools neededfor the farm and for hunting.
Wrought iron is the nearestto pure iron and
containsasmuch as 99.9% pum iron. Even
when it is heatedto a high temperature,
wrought iron will not melt but only become
pasty.
Puddling process
The main thing in the manufactureof wrought
iron is the oxidation of nearly all carbonfrom
the pig iron. This is done in a puddling furnace
as shownin Fig. I. As you see,the pig iron
I-A is not in direct contact with the fire l-B,
but is hea!;d by reflection from the specially
shapedfurnaceroof as shown in 1-C.
During this process,the actual hearthis
continuously filled with piecesof pig iron and
a certain percentageiron oxide andmill scale.
Mill scaleis piecesof the outer layer of hot
metal which hasbeenin contact with the
surrounding air (oxygen). Thesepiecespeel c;ff
the metal as scale.
When the metal melts, the puddler stirs the
mixture with a long rake, occasionallyadding
more pig iron, iron oxide or mill scale.Some
of the slag will be removed but not all and
someremainsmixed with the metal.
Through this melting and stirring processthe
carbon oxidizes and ieavesthe chimney as
gases,seearrowsin 1-D.
The processcontinues until the metal becomes
pasty.This pasty metal is taken out in balls of
50 kg. The white hot balls are hammeredto
squeezeout portions of the slag,then rolled
into rough barswith long fibres. During the
rolling moreslag is pressedout of the metal.
The rough barsare then m-heatedto a white
welding heatand a number of batsare then
bundled togetherand re-rolled. which welds
the layerstogether.
A cross-sectionof a piece of wrought metal is
shown in Fig. 2. Notice the layersand the
stretchedpiecesof slag. SeeFig. 2-A. The
presenceof slag gives a fracture of wrought
iron a fibrous appearance.When it is filed or
cut to the surfaceparallel to the direction of
rolling, the slag can be seenas long lines
running along the surface.
Steel converter

You rememberthat the first product of iron ore

is pig ircn, classified into grey pig iron and
white pig iron. We have describedthe
production of castiron from grey pig iron.
White pig iron is usedin the making of steel.
The making of steel
Steel is madein a so-called converter: Sucha
converter is shown in Figs. 1,2 and 3. The
charging position of the converter is shown in
Fig. 1. A certain amount is charged.
The actual processof conversion takesy&e
when the converter is in an upright position as
shown in Fig. 2. Pure oxygen is forced through
a pipe 2-A over andinto the liquid pig iron.
This processdevelopsso much heat that all
carbon is burnedout of the pig iron. Some
scrap metal is addedto cool the maction and
meet the required percentageof carbon.
After this process,the converter is tumed
sideways and the liquid steel is poured into
moulds to make steel blocks. SeeFig. 3. At a
later stagethesesteel blocks are shapedinto
bars,rods, plates,strips, pipes etc.

MEnLLUffiv
 -

Properties of steel
In the previous lessonsyou have learnedabout
someof the propertiesof steel.Something
more.however,hasto be said aboutcertain
propertiesto be able to understandat a later
stagewhet actually happensduring the heat
treatmentof steel.
Structure
The suuctureof pure iron is madeup of
crystals bondedtogether. Groupsof crystals
(1-A) are bondedtogether to form larger units
called grains (1-B). In Fig. 1 you can seea
group of grainsenlarged about 100times. You
can comparethe structure to a carton of sugar
cubesin which the cubes arethe grainsand
eachcubeis madeup of crystals.
Strength
The strengthof a metal lies in its resistanceto
the application of force to the metal- like
compression(shown in Fig. 2-A). tension2-B
or shearforce 2X - without breakingit.
When a metalhas high strength,a great force
is neededto break it. For example,drive chains
and cylinder baits for engineshavehigh
strength,otherwisethey would breakduring
p3fOtlTWlct.

Hardness
The hiarrinessof a metal can be testedfor its
ability to withstand wear, scratching,abrasion
etc., if a body harderthan the metal itseMis
used.SeeFig. 3. Since a ftie itself is madeof
very hard metal, it is widely usedto test the
hardnessof metals.Use the edgeof a smooth 2
file on the metal to be testedand seewhether it
is very easyto scratchthe metal. This is of
importancewhen you have to drill, cut or
shapea metal with which you arenot familiar.
Brittleness
Brittle metal hasthe pro?rty of breakingby
force without much permanentdistortion.
Brittlenessmay be due to the brittlenessof the
grain boundariesoi the crystals(readftrst
lessons).SeeFig. 4.

-
PFwEf?NEsoFsEEi. 21
Plasticity/malleability
Plasticity is the property a metal possessesif
permanentlyextending it in all directions and
pressing,hammering, rolling or shaping it does
not breakit. SeeFig. 1. Somemetals which are
heatedto a bright red heat are very plastic and
usedfor forging (lead, copper,aluminium).
Toughness
Toughnessis the amount of energy a metal can
absorbwhile, for instance,when clamped in a
benchvice, the metal is hit at the end with a
hammeron all sides without breaking it. See
Fig, 2. Branchesof a tree are very tough - not
hard. They can bend in any direction during a
storm without breaking

PROFEFtllES OF STEEL
Identification of metals
AU kinds oi castiron and steel are usedin a
rural workshop,including parts which are
unidentified. Various methodscan be usedto
identify thesemetalsand discover their
properties:
- sound,producedduring a drop test,
- visual inspectionof the metal,
- testing the metal with a file,
- bending or breaking the metal,
- a sparktest on a grinding wheel.
Spark test
To carry out the spark test you needa grinding
wheel with a speedof approximately 1.500‘pm
(revolutions per minute). The wheel should
have a diameterof approximately 150mm.
The sparksproducedduring grinding will tell
you approximatelywhat kind of steelyou are
grinding.
While grinding you should:
- standupright and in line with the streamof
sp=b
- makesurethe light is constant,so that the
colours of the sparkscan bejudged correctly,
- usethe samepressureon the workpiece
during the test. If you increasethe pressure,
the temperatureof the streamof sparkswill
rise, therebychanging the colour and length
of the sparkstream.
In general
When the carboncontent is increased,the burst
of sparksincreasesand the streamshortens.
SeeFigs. 1,2 and 3.
This happensbecausethe carbonin the steel
bums more rapidly and the smzamof sparks
changesfrom light yellow to a white yellow.
Try this test first on various piecesof metal
which havealready beenidentified and
labelled. You can then comparethe sparks
producedwith the sparksproducedfrom the
test pieces.

PROPEfTllESOFSlEEL
 Carbon content
Steelsaregrouped into three different kinds,
dependingon the percentageof the carbon
content:
- Mild steel
- Medium carbon steel
- High carbon steel
Properties
Someworkpieceshave to be madefrom steel
which hasa low carbon content and a tough
structure.Many tools have to be madefrom
steel which has a high carbon content and is
fairly tough at the sametime.
The following table gives an overview of
different testsand indicators for the
identification of different metals.

Metal Dmp tess vhid Sprrk test Filing test Bending or

i~peCl&ll breaking

cast iron Dull sound Dark PY. short slrcam Hard skin, Breaks
* 3.5 % c on impact Roughfinish. of red sparks, easyto file. before
not bright. bending.

mild steel A definite Dark blue scale. slTcamof Easy to file. Bendand
0.1 -0.3 %C metallic ring. Smoolhfinish. long yellow them
sparks. breaks.

medium carbon A clca~and Blue-blackscale. Shortwider Hzdertofde Bends

steel higher pitch Smoothfinish. smam of than mild steel. slightly
0.3 - 0.9 % c ring lhan with light yellow before
mild steel. SW. breaking.

high carbon Still higher Polishblack ShortWide Hardexto ftie Resists

steel pitchring. scale. yellowstream thanmedium bendingand
0.9 - 1.5% c of bright sparks. c&n steel. breaking.

high speed A metallic Rougherthan Strcamof dull Harderto file Resists

steel ring not so cast.w!el. -fFspsrirs. thanmedium bendingand
clear as in O&n painted. carbonsteel. besking.
carbonsteel.

24 PROPERTlES
OFSTEEL
Percentagecarbon Quality AppIicatbn

Mild steel

0.125- 0.20 tough structural steel, generalforging work

0.20 - 0.30 quite tough better gradefor snuctural work machine parts,
agricultural implements.connecting rods

Medium carbon steel

very msh chain hooks, machineparts. gears.axles. shafts

mould boardsfor agric implements
very tough to great, heat treatedmachine parts, agric implements, sometools
little hardness

0.5n -0.60 great toughnes- crow bars, gardentools. gears,shafts, machine parts
somehardness

0.60 -0.70 great toughness tools to be used for hot work, flatters, fullers
fair hardness hot swages

0.70 -0.80 great toughness all general blacksmith tools, hammers,rivet sets.
medium hardness hot sets,gun barrels,screw drivers

0.80 -0.90 very tough cold chisels, hammers,sledges,shearblades,

better than medium large springs, scissors
hardness

High carbon steel

0.90 -1.00 fair toughness wall chisels. knives, punches,taps, anvil faces,
hard wrenches,wo&.vcYting tools

1.00 - 1.10 little toughness drifts, swages.springs,pliers

1.10 - 1.20 greathardness planing tools, axes,saws.wood working tools

1.20 - 1.30 somewhatbrittle shearknives, cutting tools

1.30 -1.50 very to extremely files, drills, tools to cut hard materials
very brittle.

PRoPEFmsoFsTtxl
Nonferrous metals
In the previous lessonsyou have learnedabout
the chief metals: iron and steel.In addition to
these,it is also important to know something
aboutother metaIssuch ascopper,aluminium,
tin, lead and zinc. Thesemetalsarecalled
nonferrous metals. They can bc pure or mixed
with othermetals or alloys.
Aluminium
Aluminium is widely usedin the country in the
form of roof sheeting,cooking pots etc. It is a
white metal producedby an electrical process
from bauxite (aluminium oxide), mined all
over the world. Aluminium meltseasily and
can very well be usedfor castings.
Sincepure alutiium is very soft and weak, it
is mostly alloyed with other metalssuch as
copperand zinc. Other specialmetalsare
sometimesaddedfor the production of engine
Tistons,aeroplaneparts etc.
by judging the fin cry. The louder the cry, the
more tin there is in the solder.
Zinc
Zinc is made from ore which is roasted,mixed
with someform of carbon and melted in a
specially designedfurnace.Zinc is a
bluish-white metal, showing bright smooth
crystals at its fracture. IF its pure state zinc is
usedto cover sheets,called galvanized sheets.
This gahanitig is done by dipping the steel
sheetsor other products into the molten zinc,
thus protecting the steel againstcorrosion.
BrWi?&!
Eronze is an aLoy of 88% copper, 10% tin and
2% zinc. Or 85% copper,5% zinc and 5% tin.
BFXIS
When copper is alloyed with zinc the alloy is
cakd brass.Sometypes of brassare used for
castings,hot and cold forging. cold rolling into
sheetsand drawing wires.

Copper
Copperis a red coloured metal.The ore is
mined and contains some32 percentpure
copper.The copper is extractedfrom the ore by
a melting and refining process.Copperis a
good conductor of heat and is therefq-- L .cd
for soldering bits. It is highly resk,: I’
corrosion by liquids and a ver; g XX.+ !dCtq:
for ele:criciry zs :vell, so it is use: fc :n;
elecarc wire.
Lead
Leadhasa blueish-grey colour andis very soft
and plastic. It is easy to shape,cut and force
cold into moulds or roll into thin &hcers.Since
it is highly resistantto corrosion, it is widely
usedf-r roofing and water supply.
Lead ;. rs a very low melting point, 330 ‘C, and
cartbejoined together by heatingwith a
blowlamp. LRadis mined asore and purified
by a melting and refining process.Lead
alloyed with tin forms solders.
Tin
Tin is obtainedfrom tin-stone by a roasting
and refining process.Tin is silver-white in
colour and its structure is crystalline. It is
harderthan lead and has a melting temperature
of 232 ‘C.
To identify tin, you can bend a small piece and
as it bendsthe metal will producea crinlcbng
soundcalled the rin cry. Tr;nis widely usedfor
coating thin sheetmetal to avoid corrosion. A
tin-lead alloy forms the so-called solders.The
proportion of tin in a solder can be estimated

26 NoNFERi?ouswETALs
Heat treatment of steel which appearon the surfaceof the metal just
after heating and before cooling. Theseare
calkd tempering colours.
During and after the manufactureof a product
madeof steel,it may be necessaryto change Tempering colours
the propertiesof this steel to be able to work All steel, whether it has beenhardenedor not,
on it andgive it a fmal property with a specifk has a layer of oxide on its surface,causedby
hardness.Ways of changing propertiesare: exposureof the steel to the surrounding air
- Hardening (oxygen). When this layer is thick it is called
Steel is hardenedby heating it above720 “C rust or, when the metal is hot, scale.Even after
followed by a rapid cooling in water. polishing the surface of the steel.this layer will
- Tempering form again and be visible.
After hardeningsteel one can reduceits
brittlenessand give the steel any desired The layer of rust on polished steelhas the
hardnessby reheating it ai a lower property of giving colour to hot metal. The
te.mperatureand cooling it slowly. colour changeswhen the temperaturechanges.
- Annealing Various temperatureswith their colours are
Annealing metalsconsistsin heating and shown on the tempering and forging colour
subsequentgradual cooling, by which chart, seenext page.
internal stressesare removedandthe metals Beforetempeti~g, large workpiecescan be
becometough and ductile. heatedin the blacksmith’s forge. To avoid
burning the steel, small workpiecescan be
Hardening steel heatedby placing the material edge way over a
Steel with a carbon content of 0.70 and higher piece of hot steel, from which it will take over
can be hardenedby heating the steelto a the required heat. Tempering is one of the most
temperatureof approximately of 800 ‘C and important, but also very difficult skills in rural
then cooling it very quickly in water,oil or mechanics.It will take you a lot of time to
someother liquid. masterthis skill. After tempering,you can use
The structureof the steel changes&u-ing the sparktest to find out the correct hardness
hardeningandthis must be clearly understood of the steel you have tempered.
to avoid mistakesand disappointments.
For example:the structure of the steelchanges
when you heata piece of steel which has a
carbon contentof 0.70 to 800 ‘C andplunge
this hot piecerapidly into cold water;the outer
layer of the piece of steel cools very fast, with
the result that the inner part of the steelcannct
cool, so the outer layer cracksdue to the
tension of the shrinking taking place.
The fasterthe cooling, the harderthe steel
becomes,dependingof courseon the carbon
content.Cooling should thereforebecontrolled.
Tempering
Tempering is controlled cooling of steelwhich
has beenhardened.When steelhasbeen
hardened,it may have becometoo hard for the
purposeyou needit for. Someof the hardness
obtainedmay have to be taken away to ensure
the correcthardnessof the steel.A special
processcalled tempering is usedfor this
purpose.
Tempering meansheating steelto a certain
temperature- which is far below the hardening
temperature- and then cooling it, not
suddenly, buttin a controlled way.
Since you cannotuse a thermometerto
measurethe temperaturesduring the tempering
process.it is important to observethe co,lours

HEATTREATMENT
OFSTEEL 27
 Annealing
To be able to cut, file or shapesteel or change
the properties of the steel permanently and
relieve the internal stressin the crystals it may
be necessaryto annealthe steel. This is done
by:
- Heating the steel slowly to the required
temperature,seetable.
- Leaving the steel long enough at this
temperatureto enableinternal changesto
take place.
- After thii, letting the steel cool very slowly.
The bestmethodis to stop the forge in
which the steelhas beenheatedand leave
the steeluntil its glow has disappeared.
- Burying the steel in sandor ashesto ensure
a slow cooling process.

---~
i Tempering and forging colour chart
For a display of colours seepage20 of the Blacksmithing volume of the Rural MechanicsCourse.

Hardness Tempe- Colour Purpose

rahire %

Very hard 220 tight straw yellow rasors,scapers

Very hard 230 Straw yellow drills, plannig tools, cutting tools
Hard 240 Dark straw yellow pen knives, drifts, rivetting tools
Hard 255 Brown yellow wood drills, rock drills
Hard 265 Red brown fullers, twist drills
Hard/tough 275 Ruple cold chisels,hammers,set hammers,
table knives
Hard/tough 285 Purple-blue wood chisebqxes, centre punches
Hard/tough 293 Full blue coid chiselsfor steel, knifes
Tough/hard 310 Light blue drills, twin snips, screw drivers, hot chisels
Tough/hard 330 Steel grey wood saws,punches,light springs
600 Dark red forging
700 Dark cherry red forging
800 Cherry red forging
900 Light cherry red forging
1000 Orange forging
1100 Yellow forging
1250 Light yellow forging
1400 White forging and welding

28 HEATTREATMENT
OFSTEEL
Shaping metals
MetaI.sare sold in the form of sheets,bars,
snips, wires andsomeother special shapes.
You should know somethingabout how these
productsIravebeenhot or cold rolled in the
rolling mill or drawn.
Hot rolling
You stJ rememberthat the final product of tit
blast furnace andthe converter consistsof
lumps of steel,called ingots, with an 1
approximatelength of 1.50 m and 0.40 m in
cross-section.
Theseingots are stiil very hot when they leave
the convetter and are immediately rolled
betweenrolls to the desiredshapes.In Fig. 1
you can seehow the hot steel is supportedby
small rollers and rolled betweentwo rolls to a
thinner size.
A pictorial view of a rolling mill is shown in
Fig. 2. The spacebetweenthe rolls differs in
size so the steelcan be rc,A.tceda little at each
stage;seethe shadedareas.
Sometimes,especiallyin the caseof sheet
making, more than one roll is usedto speedup
production, seeFig. 3.
Sometimessmall sizedrolls are usedandthey 2
are supportedby bigger rolls as shown in
Fig. 4.
Cold rolling
The raw material for cold rolling comesfrom
the hot rolling mill and the processof reducing
the cross-sectionalareais similar to hot
rolling, exceptthat the pressurebetweenthe
rolls is much higher since cold steel gives
more resistance.
Before cold rolling can be done, all scalemust
be removedto avoid the risk of the scalebeing
rolled into the steei.Coid roiiing improvesthe
surfaceof the steeland gives a more accurate
shape,which may be required particularly for
productswith a small cross-sectionalarea. c
3

SHAPiffi METALS 29
31
 B
Clamping tools
Bench vice
The bench vice shown in Fig. 1 has a spindle
1-A which, when turned around, moves the
A front jaw 143. The guide piece 1-C gives the
front jaw of the parallel benchvice stability.
Although it is covered,the spindle should be
checkedfor dirt and should be greased
regularly.
Vice jaws ate madeof hardenedsteel. They
have setrations for a bettergrip on the
workpiece. Some vices also have a small anvil
1-D at the back for light hammerwork.
Precautions
- Do not over-tighten the vice by using a
hammeror a piece of pipe.
- Do not file, saw, drill or chisel into the vice
jaws.
- Do not do heavy hammerwork on a bench
vice; use an anvil or a blacksmith’s vice
v instead.
- Clean the vice after use.
- Cover the vice if necessary.
Vice Caps
Hardenedvice jaws can damagethe surface of
a workpiece. When necessary,use vice capsto
protect the workpiece. SeeFig. 2. Vice caps
are madeof soft material such as aluminium,
lead or of a hard material such as steel, when
usedfor clamping parallel surfaces.
Vice capswhich are madein the workshop
may have different shapesaccording to the
3 workpiece to be clamped.
Saw sharpening vice
A special vice is shown in Fig. 3. This clamp
can be usedin the benchvice while special
work is being done. The clamp is tightened by
turning the spindle of the bench vice.
Hand vice
A hand vice is shown in Fig. 4. This vice is
usedto clamp severalpiecesof material
4 together when they haveto be moved or to
hold small piecesduring grinding. A vice grip
can aiso be used for thii purpose,seeFig. 5.

32
Clamping set
A clamping set is usedfor securingmaterial or
a workpiece.Particularly in a machining
operationsuch as drilling the patt to be
machinedmust never rotate with the drill. See
Fig. 1.
Fiil out the clamp plate iti& a block (1-A).
The height must be more or lessequal to the
thicknessof the material to be processedand
the basepLue combined. Tighten the harmner
headbolt which is enclosedin the table or
work bench.This createsenoughclamping
force on the workpiece to preventit from
rotating.
Clamping examples
Always clamp the workpiece in sucha way
that the cutting tool is close to the vice jaws,
otherwisethe workpiece will vibrate and then
it can damagethe cutting tool and accurate
work will be impossible. SeeFig. 2-A showing
the right way and Z-B showing the wrong way.
Someworkpieceswill be distorted when you
clamp them incorrectly in the benchvice. See
Fig. 3. Clamp the piece asshown in Fig. 4. 2A
 Sheetmetal clamp
A specialdevice for clamping sheetmetal is
shown in Fig. 1.
The hand vice can also be usedin combination
with prolonged vice jaw caps,Fig. 2.
h Fig. 3-A you seean incorrect way of
clamping a workpiece. This way the vice will
be damaged.Instead, clamp the workpiece as
seenin Fig. 3-B.
Pipesaredistorted when you clamp them in
the vice asshown in Fig. 4. For clamping pipes
a pipe vice or a pipe clamp is used.See
Figs. 5-A and 5-B.

36 CLAMPINGTOOLS
Measuring and measuring tools
r
Taking care of measuring tools
All measuringtools areprecision tools. You inch mm mm inch
must take good careof them to keep them in
good shapeto maintain their accuracy. 1 25.40005 1 0.039370
When working, get usedto the following: 2 50.80010 2 o.mi740
- Always wrap your measuringtools in a
piece of oily cloth when you put them back 3 76.20015 3 0.118110
in your toolbox after work. 4 101.6Ol320 4 0.157480
Keep thesemeasuringtools in a good, safe 5 127.00025 5 0.196850
place in your coolbox, otherwise they may 6 152.40030 6 0.236220
get damaged. 7 7 0.275590
- High precision instrumentsare always 177.80035
stored in their own boxes, becausedust and 8 203.20040 8 0.314960
dirt will spoil their mechanisms. 9 228.60045 9 0.354330
- Lubricate theseinstrumentsnow andthen 10 254.00050 10 0.393700
with a clean light oil.
- Rub clean all your tools - such astry square,
rule, caliper andfeeler gauges- after work
and oil them lightly. This will prevent
corrosion.
- When you work with measuringtools, it is a
good habit to put them on a piece of cloth in
a safeplace on the workbench so they
cannot be droppedon the ground or
damagedin someother way.
- Never have all your tools on the workbench
but only thoseyou needand keep tools and
workpiecesseparatefrom eachother.
- Use good, correct measuringtools and get to
know which tools to use for a particularjob.
Metric system
For someynarsnow the official measuring
systemhasbeenthe metric system.All
techniciansshould usethis system.Oncein a
while, however,the Rural Mechanic will have
to measurein inches.This is usually in the
context of pipes,nuts and bolts, threadand
repairing old machineryor implements.
Metric units are:
Metre, Centimeue,Millimetre.
Litre, Kilogram, Gram.
In Fig. 1 a rule is shown with explanation of
Imperial units are: the metric division. The table can be helpful
Yard, Foot, Inch. when incheshave to be convertedto
Gallon, Pound. nnlXmetresor the opposite.

1m=10dm=1OOcm=1G#3mm

MEASURING
ANDMEA!SURlNG
TOOLS 35
 Measuring
Measuringis not only checking the length,
width or thickness of an object but also
checking of the shape- things like the
straightness,flatness,roundnessor squareness.
Measuringis a very important skill for the
Rural Mechanic.
Steel rule
The steelrule is a very important measuring
tool in the workshop. Fig. 1 showsa steel rule
for small work with a division in centimetres
and inches.The edge of the rule is divided into
parts of one centimetre (cm). Eachcentimetre
is divided into millimetres (mm).
Questions
- How many cm are there in a metre?
- How many mm are there in a centimetre?
- How many mm are there in a metre?
How to use the steel rule
- Put the rule flat on the object and read the
measurementfrom the tule. If you press
your thumbnail againstthe rule, you can
readthe measurementmore easily, see
Fig. 2.
- Keep the rule at a rightangle to the object,
seeFig. 3-A. What happensif you do not
keep it square,as shown in 3-B?
- Readthe measurementfrom directly above
the rule. What happenswhen you read it
from the side? A try squarecan be helpful,
seeFig. 4.
- if the end of the rule is inaccurate,start
measuringat the 1 cm mark, seeFig. 2. Of
course,you have to subtract 10 mm from the
total reading.

36 MWURING AND MEASUWNGTOOLS

Folding rule
Fig. 1 showsa 1000mm folding rule which is
usedfor larger workpieces.
Tape measure
A thin flexible metal tape is called a tape 1
measure..SeeFig. 2. This tape can be pulled in
and out of its housing and returns by meansof
a spring inside the housing. There is a hook at
the starting end of the tape to hook the tapeup
againstthe objectbeing measured.
This hook can only be usedfor measuringthe
;ength of an o’bject;it cannot be usedfor any
inside measurementsunless it is differently
designed.
This tapeis specially handy when you haveto
measurecurved objects.SeeFig. 3.
Measuring with a spanner
Open-endedspannersare handy for measuring
the outsidediametersof round objects,
especially if the objectsare warm. SeeFig. 4.
The numberon the spannergives the outside
diameterof the object being measured.
Use them only when no proper measuringtools
are available.

37
 Vernier caliper
1
A vernier caliper is usedfor more accurate
measuringthan can be achieved with a
measuringrule. SeeFig. 1.
The parts of a vernier caliper are:
- Main scale (1-A): the main scale is
graduatedin millimetres. This is called the
metric scale.
- Sliding jaw (1-B): this part slides over the
main scale.There is also a scale on the
sliding jaw; this is the vernier graduationor
vernier scale.
- Jaws (1-C): you can measureinside
dimensions with thesejaws, seealso Fig. 2.
- Jaws (1-D): you can measureoutside
dimensions with there jaws, seealso Fig. 3.
- Depth gauge(1-E): you can measurethe
depths of groovesand holes with the depth
gauge,seealso Fig. 4.
When measuringoutsidedimensions, usean as
large as possiblepart of the jaws. Apply only
light pressurewhen measuring.Do not pull the
vernier caliper from the workpiece. Take
notice of the measurementand move the jaws
apart, so that the vernier caliper can be
removed easily and without exessivewear.
Scale
The vernier scalecan have either 10 or 20
divisions.
- If the vernier scalehas 10 divisions, the
caliper can measureaccurately up to 0.1 mm.
- If the vernier scalehas20 divisions, the
caliper can measureaccurately up to
0.05 mm.

Be very careful with the vernier caliper.

Apply a little oil now and then.

38 MEASURINGANDMEASURINGTOOLS
Using the vernier caliper
Fig. 1 showshow to adjustthe vernier caliper
with the thumb.
Measuring
Example A, seeFig. 2.
- Look wherezero is on the vernier scale. 1
- Answer: it is just on the 20 mm mark.
- Wr: .1 jwn:20 mm.

- Seewhich line on the vemier scaleexactly

coincides with a line on the mm scale.
- Answer: The 0 line on the veraier scale.
- Write down: 0.0 mm.

Total measurement is: 20 + 0.0 = 20.0 mm

Example R, seeFig. 3.
- Where is zeroon the vernier scale?
- Answer: it is just pastthe 12 mm mark.
- Write down: 12 mm.

- Which line on the vernier scalecoincides

exactly with a line on the main scale?
- Answer: the 5 line on the vernier scale.
- Write down: 0.5 mm.

Total measurement is: 12 + 0.5 = 12.5mm

MEASUAlNGAND MEASUHlffi TOOLS 39

 ,-

Exercise
Fill in the measuredsizes.
A=.....
B=.....
c=.....
D=.....
E=.....
F=.....

40 WlEASURlKi
ANDMEASUWNGTOOLS
Micrometers
A micrometer hastwo scales.One scaleis
divided in millimeters, seeFig. 1-A. The outer
diameter of the cilinder (1-B) is divided in 50
units. When the cilinder is tumed twice (100
units), the plug (1-A) is transported 1 mm. The
measurementaccuracytherefore is l/100 mm
= 0.01 mm. A slip clutch (1-C) assuresa
continuous measurementpressure.
Examples
- The micrometer in Fig. 2 measuresa size of
14.27mm.
- The micrometerin Fig. 3 measuresa size of
61.5 +0.34=61.85 mm.
1
internal micrometer
Thesetype of micrometersoperatesimilar to
the normal ones.The baselength can be
extendedusing an extensionrod. SeeFig. 4-A.
The measuredsize = value read on micrometer 2
+ length extension rod.

--

4A

41
 Try square
The try squareasseenin Fig. 1 has a blade
(1-A) and a stock.(1-B) which are fixed
together at exactly 90’. The edge of the blade
and the stock am perfectly sharpand straight.
Outside corners
Outside comersare checked with the try
square,seeFig. 2. The try squareshould be
held firmly with the beam againstone side of
/ the object Then it should be lowered untill the
blade touchesthe object. Between the blade
and the objectthere should not be light
anymore,to ensurethe object is absolutely
square.
Inside corners
To check an inside comer, hold the stock of the
try squarefirmly againstone side of the
workpiece andcheck whether there is any light
to be seenbetweenthe blade and the other side
of the object. If so, the secondpiece is not
exactly squareto the basepiece. SeeFig. 3.
Flatness
As you seein Figs. 4 and 5, the flatnessof an
object can be checkedwith the aid of the try
square.Hold the try squarewith the stock
vertical and pressthe blade firmly againstthe
object. Check againstthe light in the directions
5-A-B-C-D-E-F.

42 Y~RlMGANDYEAsURNG?oQLs
Try square and bevel
c
Testing the try square
You can usethe following method to be sure
thetry squarehas an angleof 90’. seeFig. 1:
- Take a metal plate with a straight edge
(1 A-A).
- Placethe stock of the try squarealong the
straight edge (1-B). A A
- Inscribe a line (1 C-C) along the blade over
the metal plate.
- Turn the try squareto position (1-D). The C
inscribed line shouldnow coincide with the 1
blade of the try square.
Sliding bevel
The sliding bevel looks a bit like the try
square.It also hasa bladeand a stxk. The
bladecan be adjustedto w the bevel at any
angle.The bevel is usedfor checking any
angleother than 90’. seeFig. 2. You can useit
to mark out any angle.
If a piece of metal is shapedto an angle, it is
checkedwith the sliding bevel. Move the
sliding bevel along the object to check more
than one place.

Fixed bevel
A fixed bevel can be madewhen a lot of
workpieceshave to be madewith the same
shape,seeFig. 3.

uIELWUNG
B4UYtEASUWNG
TOOLS 43
 Protractor
You can draw any angle with the aid of a
\ protractor,seeFig. 1. But makesure that you
measurethe angle from line 1 A-A and not
from line 1 B-B. The protractor is also usedto
‘%
&J’ setthe angle on a sliding bevel. Supposeyou
, \ / / want to setthe sliding bevel to an angle of 6Q’:
- Draw the angle with the aid of the protractor
2.\ /” /’ on a piece of paper.
- Copy this angle with the sliding bevel.
A H 0
\
A Someprotractorshave an arm which makes
them easierto use. SeeFig. 2.
Universal bevel protractor
Measuring,marking and checking of angles is
donewith an universal bevel protractor, see
Fig. 3.

44 MEAW?R4G
ANDMEASUHNGTOOL$
Feeler gauge
A feeler gaugeis a set of thin steel blades.
They fold into a handle,seeFig. 1. The
thicknessof eachbladeis marked on the blade.
Blade .26 meansthis blade is 0.26 mm thick.
Feelergaugesareusedto measurethe size of
very small gapsbetweentwo piecesof metal.
SeeFig. 2. To measurethe gap, find out which
blade fits into it, hold the blade lightly between
your fingers and move it in the gap. The blade
should not move too tightly but it should not
move too freely either. It takesa little practice
to get the right feeling for measuringgaps.
When using the very thin bladesin particular,
be careful not to pushthe blade too hard or it
will bend and becomecrooked.
Screw pit gauge
A screwpit gaugeis usedto find out the
correct pitch of a screw,bolt or nut. There are
gaugesfor all kind of thread. Placethe thread
gaugeover the threadand seewhich blade fits
exactly over the thread.The numbersstamped
on the blade tell you the correct pitch. See
Fig. 3.
Spirit level
A spirit level is neededfor instancewhen
fitting up or installing machines,seeFig. 4.
Check the surfacein all directions.

MEASURt?G!WDtEASURlNGTOOLS 45
Marking out
Drawing
Marking out means:marking on the metal all
the lines and points neededto makefrom it the
workpiecerequired. Theselines and points are
called the lay-our. The shapeand all the
necessarydimensions are given on a drawing,
seeFig. 1 which is drawn in scale 1:2 mm. The
drawing can lx madeon the blackboardor on a
piece of paper.
Marking on metal
Copy onto the metal (as shown in Fig. 2) the
sameshapeas you seein the drawing. If it is
too difficult to inscribe lines on metal that is
bright and clean, rub the metal first with chalk
or paint, then the inscribed lines are easierto
SfX.

Before drawing a shape,like the one in Fig. 2,

find out how the workpiece can be taken out of
the piece of metal in tire mosteconomical way.
Keep the straight side of a workpiece along a
straight side of the metal. Be economical.
After completing the lay-out, check all the
dimensionsonce more. A small mistakein the
lay-out meansthe actual shapeof the
workpiece will be incorrect.
Fig. 3 showsthe actual shapeof the workpiece
drawn in Figs. 1 and 2.
Common marking tools
The mostcommon marking tools are:
- Rule
- Try square
- Sliding bevel
- Protractor
- Scriber
- Centrepunch
- Dividers
Scriber
You can usea pencil or a chalk stick to mark
lines on metal, but theselines are not very
sharp or clear andthey wear off easily. For
accuratework it is better to use a scriber,see
Fig. 1. A scriber is a kind of steel pencil with a
sharppoint. It is usedto scratchor inscribe. 1
lines on metal. A scriber can easily be made
from an old round or triangular tile.
Scribing lines
To inscribe a straight line, place the steelrule
in the correct position and pressthe rule hard
againstthe workpiect:with the left hand,see
Fig. 2. Hold the scriber with the right handjust
as you hold a pencil and lean it to oneside, so
that the point will draw along the lower edge
of the steel rule. Fig. 3-A showsthe right way.
Scratchone line. If necessary,sharpenthe 2
scriber on the oil stone.
Inscribe a V when you want to mark a point,
becausemarking a point with a single dot is
not very clear.
General rules for scribing lines
- Have a sharpconical point sn tse scriber.
- Pressthe n-ysquareor the steel rule very
hard againstthe workpiece on the correct
points. SeeFig. 4.
- Watch very carefully that the point of the
scriber is againstthe !ower exfgeof the try 3
squareor rule, asshown in Fig. 3-A.
- Draw the line with the scriber in a slanting
position. SeeFig. 5.
- Scratchonly one,firm line.
- If the metal is too hard or shiny, usesome
chalk or paint the surface.
- Mark points with a V.

MARKR‘lG
OUT 47
r Marking off
A measurementcan be marked off in two
ways. You can measurefrom2StoOmm.The
rule is then plact~! on the workpiece in such a
way that the desired measurement(in this case
25 mm) is on the samelevel asthe edgeof the
workpiece. SeeFig. I-A. A line is then drawn
along the front side of the rule with a scriber.
The measurementcan also be madefrom 0 to
1A 25 mm. To do this the rule is placed on the
workpie.cein such a way that 0 is level with
the side of the workpiece.
A V is then drawn at 25 mm. The point of the
V indicatesthe correct measurementexactly.
The marking off is therefore done by the point
of the V. SeeFig. 1-B.
Reference lines

What is a reference line? 1

A referenceline on a workpiece is the lime
from which you am going to take all the
measurements.if you have to make the
workpiece shown in Fig. 1. you usually need r-yg
two referencelines. Thesetwo referencelines
are always at rightanglesto eachother. The / B
sideschosenfor the referencelines are usually
the sideswhich do not have many cuts etc. We /
have therefore chosenthe sides 1-A and 1-B
for the referencelines. A
/
How to make reference lines
lf the metal hasa straight edge,you should use
that side as a referenceline. SeeFig. 2. If the / 1
metal has no straight edge,you have to makea hii:-
referenceline yourself. Supposeyou haveto
makea rectangleasshown in Fig. 3. ‘Thisis
the procedureyou have to follow:
- File one edgestraight; this is the first
referenceline (3-A).
- Fidethe secondedgestraight and at 90’ to
the first edge.This is the secondreference
line (3-B).
- File the third and fourth edgesaccordingto
the given dimensions(3-C).
Symmetrical workpieces
Many workpiecesaresymmetrical, like the
trowel blade shownin Kg. 4. The centre line is
the first referenceline for all symmetrical
workpieces.Measurementshave to be the
sameon both sidesof the centre line.

4
/
i 4 /

/ / B /
LIY..lcl
c C
3

MAJ?KMGOUt 53
 Centre lines
A centreline in a technical draw>rg marks the
centre of a workpiece. SeeFig. 1. A cenue line
is drawn only when the workpiece is
vmmetrical (the sameshapeon both sides).
Round holes
1 Round holes always have two centm lines to
makeit possible to locate the exact centre of a
hole. SeeFig. 2. The r on the drawing gives
you the diameter of the hole to k drilled.
Marking out
The drawing in Fig. 2 showsyou all the
details. On the piece of metal in Fig. 3 you see
only the centre lines. From the drawing you
know the diameter of the drill to be usedfor
the round hole and the slotted hole. AU cenue
lines are markedfrom the referencelines 3-B.
2 Square or rectangular holes
Squareor rectangularholes aredrawn with
four lines. SeeFig. 4. To be able to make this
rectangularhole you needtodrill four holes at
1 the comersof the large hole. The large
rectangularhole is inscribed andfour centre
‘j-. .- points drawn for the four holes. SeeFig. 5. The
+ four holesare then drilled andthe large
i! I rectangleis cut out. SeeFig. 6.

I I 3
1
R

50 MARM OUT
Centre punch
The centre punch is madeof hardenedsteel
andhasa sharpenedtip with a 30’ to 60” cone.
Seefig. 1. The centrepunch is usedto mark
the centre of a hole betoredrilling.
Exercise
- Fit measureout the centresof the holes.
inscribe a long line andsomelines across
1
where the holes should be.
- Placethe centrepunch on the intersections
of the two lines. Carefully place the centre
punch at an angleto ensurebetter vision.
SeeFig. 2.
- Move the centre punch into an upright
position and strike it with a hammer,see
Figs. 3 and 4. The blow must be delivered in
the -5rection of the ctntre punch axis. When
centre punching, always fix your eye on the
tip of the centrepunch.
- Strike the centre punch firmly so the mark
can lodge the small drill, seeFig. 5.
Accuracy
The accuracyof the centrepunch dependson:
- exact marking of the holes, 2
- the ground tip of the centrepoint,
- placementthe centrepunch in the exact
position,
- correct use of the hammer.

Safety
Makesure thatrhe headof thecentrepunchis
free of grease and dirt. See to it that the head
am-i the point have the correct shape.

MAIWNG Ol.iT 51
 Lines on a cylinder
You can use an angle iron as shown in Fig. 1 to
inscribe a line in the length of a cylinder. Press
the angle iron fumly againstthe cyiinder and
inscribe the line. If V-blocks are available, the
cylinder can be placed in the block and
horizontal lines give the cent-mpoti as the
scribe line cylinder is turned.
Centre point on a cylinder
Marking the centre point on a cylinder is
possiblewith the aid of a Centre square. Press
the squarefirmly againstthe side of the
cylinder and inscribe severalshort lines, while
tuming the centre squarein different
directions, seeFig. 2.
Template
It is more economical to makea template if a
lot of workpieceshave to be madeof the same
size and shape,seeFig. 3. A template can be
madeof sheetmetal or any other material and
should have exactly the shapeof the pieces
which have to be made.Mistakes are avoided
by having one example ‘becausethe same
templateis always used.
Round holes are madeon the template as a
small hole through which a centre point is
passedto indicate a centrepoint on the rough
material.
Squareholes are markedat ah four comers
with a centre point. Lines can be inscribed
around these points later.
When marking with the template,make sure
there is ample spacefor the tool to cut the
material.There should be enough space
betweencurved lines in particular to allow the
cutting tool to passthrough.
A templatemakesit easyto make a good,
economical lay-out without much wasteof
materials.
Use your right hand to mark lines with a
scriber and with your left hand pressthe
templatefirmly againstthe rough material, see
Fig. 4.

52 MARKl?GOUl
Dot punching
A centre punch can also be usedto makedots
along an inscribed line, seeFig. 1. This sort of
marking is called dorpunching. Dot punching
is useful becauseinscribed lines can easily
wear off while you are handling the work; dot
punchesmakethem last longer. Dot marksare
smaller than centremarksand a light hammer
is usedfor dot punching.
1
Exercise
- Inscribe a line with a scriber.
- Make dot punchesat regular intervals.
- Cut the material.
- File the work to the exact shape,leaving
half the dots visible. This is important
becauseit showsthat not too much material
hasbeenfiled off.
Dividers
A pair of dividers is a two-legged instrument
with hardenedtips; theselegs are shapedas
shown in Fig. 2.
Exercise
- hscribing circles or parts of circles
Make a centrepunch mark for the centm of
the requiredcircle. Put one leg of the divider
in the centrepunch mark, pressthis leg
firmly in the small hole madeby the centre
punch. Inscribe the circle.
- Marking equal dimnces
Using the divider. scratchthe Fastmark
required. Mark this point again with the
centre punch beforeyou continue to the
secondmark, holding the leg of the divider
in the centrepunch hole you havejust made,
seeFig. 2.
- Measuring distances 2
Openthe divider asfar as necessaryto reach
from one mark to the secondmark (Fig. 3).
Placethe divider carefully on a ruler and
check the distance.SeeFig. 4

r5vMlNGOUT 53
 Dividers
Dividers are usedto scribe circles on material
to be used.The most commonly useddividers
are shown in Fig. 1. During scribing the top of
the dividers is held with the thumb andthe
forefinger asshown.
When madelocally, make sure that the legs of
the dividers are of the samelength and shaped
at the end asshown in Fig. 2.
Beam trammels
A beamtrammel is usedto scribe large circles,
seeFig. 3.
Exercise
- Set the dividers at the correct radius of the
required circle.
- Pressone leg of the dividers into the
punchedhole.
- Hold the compassat the top betweenthe
thumb and the forefinger.
- Turn the compassaround while scratching
the circle into the material, as shown in
Fig. 1.
Approximate large circles
Large circles with an approximate diameter
may be madewith the aid of a wire which is
fixed at the other side to the scriber. The
distance betweenthe scriber and nail or screw
is equal to the required radius. While scribing
the circle hold the wire tight, so thar the
scriber producesthe correct circle. SezFig. 4.
Chalk line
A very long rough cutting line may be made
with the aid of a chalk line. ‘This line is
covered with chalk powder. Fix the line at two
points onto the malerial. Lift the line in the
middle and leave it at once so that it will jump
to the material and so produce the required
line, seeFig. 5.
As said before,this method producesa rough
cutting line only.

54 wuw+GOur
Calltpers

Internal caliiper

External calliper

Measuring internal

Measuring external

Measuring external to internal and internal

to external

CAUlPER5 55
 Hack saw
1
The hack saw is one tif the most useful tools
usedby the rural mechanic. It can cut different
metals in a relatively fast way. SeeFig. I
D Hack saw parts
- Handle, made of wood I-A
- Frame, madeof steel 1-B
- Blade, different sizes and shapesI-C
- Wing nut, to adjust the spigot 1-D
- Adjustable spigor, to fix the saw blade 1-E

All metal hacksawsare shown in Fig. 2.

Hack saw blades
Saw bladesarecommonly available with the
following shapes:
- Coarse: 14 teeth per 25 mm, for thick and
soft metal, seeFig. 3-A.
- Medium: 22 teeth per 25 mm, for medium
work, seeFig. 3-D.
- Fine: 32 teeth per 25 mm, for hard metal,
seeFig. 3-C.
Quality
- Ail hard: the whole blade is tempered.
- Flexible: only the teeth are hardened.
I - High speed steel: special steel.
I
/----- 25 -4 3A Make sure you tighten the blade correctly in
the hack saw frame with the correct tension
- and the teeth pointing forwards.

Cutting action
To ensurechip clearance,the teeth of the saw
I blade aresef asshown in Fig. 4-A. Teeth are
38 i.+--.
25 --+ bent sidewardsto the left and to the right.
Another way of ensuring chip clearanceis to
L have saw bladeswhich are waved, as shown in
Fig. 4-B. The space4-C is the spacefor drip
i clearance.
I I
t-+-- 25 ~------+i 3C
I

48

58 HACKSAW
 How to hold the hack saw
- Hold the handle with your right hand and
hold the front of the framewith your left
hand, seeFig. 1.
- Keep your feet 25 cm apart,the left foot
pointing towards the workbench.
- Pressthe hack saw down on the forwxd
strokesand lift it a little on the backward
strokes.
- Usethe full length of the blade, otherwise
the middle part wearsout instead of the
whole blade.
- Do not make more than 50 strokes per
minute. If you go faster,the blade becomes
too hot and losesits hardness.
Always use a blade of such a shapethat at least
threeteeth cut into the material. Otherwise the
bladeeasily gets damaged.Fig. 2-A shows a
correctly shapedblade and Fig. 2-B shows an
incorrectly shapedblade for this particular
piece of metal.
Clamping the workpiwe
Always clamp the workpiece in the vice so the
cut is madenear the vice jaws. SeeFig. 3; IA
is right, 3-B is wrong.
Starting a cut
Do not start cutting the metal as shown in Fig.
4-A. Working this way you cannot get hold of
the metal and you may damagethe surface.
The method shown in Fig. 4-B is also wrong.
The angle of the saw bladeto the metal piece
is too large, which may result in the teeth
being broken.
The correct way to start is shown in Fig. 4-C.
The angle betweenthe metal and the blade is
not too big. Start with a forward stroke. Cuts
longer than the distancebetweenthe blade and
the frame can be cut asshown in Fig. 5.
Changethe direction of the blade.

HACKSAW 59
Filing a notch
It is a good habit to file a notch at the sharp
edgeof a workpiece. A notch makesit easyto
start sawing exactly on the line and reducesthe
risk of breaking off teeth of the blade. See
Fig. 1.
Sawing tool steel
Be surethat tool steel is annealedbefore
sawing, otherwise the saw blade quickly
becomesblunt. Although annealedtooi steel
can be sawn like ordinary steel, a good way is
to saw only a deepnotch all around the
workpiece and then breakthe material by
clamping it in the benchvice, but in such a
way that the sharp blow falls in the direction of
the fixed jaw. If you are not sure about the
hardnessof the material, first fiie a bit and this
will tell you whether you can saw the metal.
Sawing thin metal
A small piece of thin metal can easily be sawn
by clamping it betweentwo piecesof wood in
a vice and sawing through both the metal and
the wood SeeFig. 2. Larger pieces of thin
metal cannot be held in the vice but can be
clampedto the benchtop with the part to be
cut off projecting over the bench.
Thin pipes can be sawn by cutting through the
metal while turning it round at the sametune,
seeFig. 3.
Sawing wide slots
Sometimesit is desirableto make a wide slot,
in a bolt head for instance.Such a slot is easy
to make,using MO or more hack saw blades
insteadof one. SeeFig. 4.
lf for somereasona very small slot has to be
made,an old hack saw bladecan be used
becausethe setting of the teeth is less than on a
new blade. l
Files
A file is a most valuablecutting tool. Its real
valueis seldomfully appreciatedby beginners.
Unlessa file is properly caredfor and used,it
will do oniy moderatelysatisfactorywork and
filing with it will be tediousand laborious. On
the otherhand when a file is properly caredfor
andused,a good rural mechaniccan often do
fasterand better cutting with it than he can
with a grinding wheel.
Files are madeof tool steeland are covered
with hardenedteeth, seeFig. 1.
Parts of the tile
- Handle
Thehandle is usually madeof hardwood.
SeeFig. 2. But sometimesa handle is made
of steel asshown in Fig. 3. This handle can
tit onto most of the files. Notice how the
handleholds the file.
- Ferrule
The ferrule is a metalring which prevents
thehandle from splitting, see1-A.
- Tang
Thetang is the taperedshapedpart of the
file which fits into the handle, see 1-B.
- Heel
The length of the file is measuredfrom the
heel,see1-C.
- Blade
The blade is the actualfile. It is madeof
hardenedsteel.Teeth areplaced at 70’ and
52’. seePig 2.
- Point
The point is the part to which the length of
thefile is measuredfrom the heel, see1-D.
How to hold the handle
Fig. 4 shows you how to hold the handle of a
file. Th, forefmger should be on top of the
handleto improve the pressure.The round part
of thehandle should be lodged in the hollow of
your hand. Fig. 5 showsa wrong way to hold
thehandle.

61
 Classification of Ales
To identify any particular file it is essentialto
know (seeFig. 1):
- Length of file
- Shapeoffile
- Typeof cut
- Grade of cut
Length of file
The length of a file is measuredfrom the point
to the heel of the file. The most commonly
usedfiles are of lengths from 150to 300 mm.
Shape of file
The shapeof the file is named after its
cross-section,seeFig. 1.
- Flat file 1-A and 1-B
- Round file 1-C
- Squarefile 1-D
- Half round 1-E
- Triangular file 1-F
Type of cut
The singk cut has one set of CU’S.The teeth are
like the edgesof a chisel. SeeFig. 2-A. The
double cut hastwo setsof cuts crossingeach
other. This gives the teeth the shapeof sharp
points. SeeFig. 2-B. The rasp hasteeth which
are not connected.The teeth arejust sharp
points. This raspis usedfor woodwork, not for
metal. SeeFig. 2-C.
Grade of cut
Files are cut with teeth which are grooved at a
certain angle,seeFig. 2-A and 2-B. LXffeient
gradesof file produce finished surfaceswith
different qualities. Most file cuts tre positioned
at anglesof 52’ and 70’. The gradeof cuts on
files varies. The more cuts the smootherthe
file. Comparethe gradesshown in Fig. 2-B and
Fig. 3.
Edge of file
One edgeof the file has teeth, the other does
not. The edgewith cuts enablesyou to file
inside comersof a squarehole, seeFig. 3.

62 FILES
Holding the file
- When filing, standwith your left foot 15 to
25 cm in front, to the tight, and your body
leaning slightly forward from the hips.
- Hold the handle with your right hand, the
point with your left hand, asshown in
Fig. 1-A. For light filing, use the alternative
posi;ions as shownin Figs. 1-B and 1-C.
Filing
- Pressthe file firmly down on the forward
stroke. Lift the file a little on the backward
stroke. Use the full length of the blade.
- Make slow, even strokes.Do not makemore
than 40 cutting strokesper minute.
- When filing a narrow flat surface,usemore
pressureon the front end of the file than on
the handle during the first part of the stroke.
Then asthe file is pushedforward, gradually
easethe pressureon the front end and place
more pressureon the handle.
Cross filing
Crossfiling is shownin Fig. 2 and is usedto
producea smooth,flat surface.
- Move the file forwardsand at the sametime
sidewaysto the left and r&t.
- Changethe direction of strokesregularly as
shown in Fig. 2-A-B-C.
Draw filing
Draw filing is usedto finish long narrow
surfaces.
- Hold the Ne betweenyour fingers as shown
in Fig. 3.
- Use pressureon the forward and backward
stroke when you usea double cut file. Press
only on the forward stroke when you usea
single cut file.
Draw filing wearsout the file fast since only a
srxil part of the file is used.Changethe
position now andthen so that you usethe
-wholefile.

FILES 63
-

Round filing with radius

- Placethe file with the tip in the position
shown in Fig. 1-A. While moving the file to
the positions 1-B. 1-C etc., push tie file
over its lateral axis to enable you to usethe
whole file.
Round filing at right angle
- Place the file with its tip in the position
shown in Fig. 2.
- Pushthe file forward while moving it in
direction 2-A.
- Tum the file slightly as shown in 2-B.
- Move the file in direction 2-C as well.
Internal round surfaces
- Guide the file as straight as for flat filing.
..-- i-s.
- Turn the file at the s-11~ U1le, as shownin
Fig. 3.
- Draw one stroke3-D-E at a time, asshown
in 3-A-B-C.
Internal round filing
- Use the samemethod as shown in Fig. 4.
- Changethe position of the workpiece in the
clamp asnecessary.
- The rotation of the file is very imporiant.
Clamping the workpiece
Clamp the workpiecein such a way that your
file is close to the vice jaws, otherwise the
workpie- startsto vibrate while you arefiling,
seeFigs. P-A(right) and 1.B (wrong).
Obviously, you can never make a proper
squareedgeon a workpiece if the piece is
vibrating. An improperly clamped workpiece
also makesa lot of noise and may damagethe
file.
Filing soft metals
The filings (dust) tend to stick betweenthe
teeth of a file - especially a double cut file -
and makethe file useless.So a single cut file is
generally usedon soft metalslike aluminium,
lead and copper.
C!enning the file
Removethe filings with a wire brush,a piece
of soft metal or a piece of hardwood.If you
usehardwood,rub the file with the endgrainof
the wood. Rub it in the direction the file cuts.
SeeFig. 2
Taking care of files
- Use your files correctly so they will last a
long time.
- Do not allow a file to slip over the work as
this makesthe tile dull. Lift the file on the
backstroke.
- Never . file w:t.
. jaws hardenedsteel. Do not touch the
.,‘i~ ’ h ynt; f&y
- Do not allow files to touch eachother, wrap
them separatelyin a piece of cloth or store
them in a file rack asshown in Fig. 3.
- Never usea file with a broken handle.
 Steel hammers
Hammersare very important for the rural
mechanic.A lot of work is done with them in
the workshop.Since our tool kit is limited, we
deal here with oniy the most common
hammers.
Hammersare madeof hardenedsteel and are
of different shapesand weights. The most
suitable weight for hammersis 400 to 600
1
grammes.
Cross pein and ball pein hammer
The crosspein 1-A and the ball pein 1-B
hammerare shown in Fig. 1. Thesehammers
are usedfor all kinds of metal work which
have to be done in the workshop. The ball pein
hammercan be used for hammering out sheet
metal.
2 Hand hammer
A hand hammeris shown in Fig. 2. This
hammeris commonly usedfor all kinds of
work especially by the blacksmith. Light hand
hammersare also used in sheetmetal work.
Mallet
A mallet is madeof hardwood, plastic, rubber,
lead or any other material, dependingon the
work to be done with it. A mallet (Fig. 3) is
usedwhen a steel hammer is likely to damage
the workpiece.
Hammer shaft
3 The shaft of a hammeris madeof straight
jFpd.4 *q-pn-l
-.-..uTr;c VPN
. we, -imnnnnnt
--=--- -__ that. it is
straight grained. becausetropical wood is
mostly crossgrained and this causesthe shaft
to breakeasily. The shaft is fitted into the
hammerhead.The hole in the hammerhead
has a specialshapeto ensurethe shaft lodges
well in the headand to allow room for
expansionwhen the wedge is fixed. SeeFig. 4.
in dr- areasit is better to wet the shaft now and
then to makesure it will not break andto make
it more flexible, which is necessarywhen there
is heavy work to be done.

6!5 STEEL
HAtWERS
r

Hand chisel
Hand chisels are madeof tool steel.They can
have many different shapesand are sometimes
specially madefor special work. The most
common shapeof the chisel is shown in Fig. 1.
This chisel is called a&r chisel and hasthe
following parts:
- hammeranvil (1-A)
- shank&B)
- face (on eachside) (1-C)
- cutting edge(1-D)
The cutting edgeis ground to an angle of 60’.
The cutting edgeis hardenedand tempered,
that is why it cancut metals softer than the
chisel itself.
ZIow to hold the hand chisel
- The chisel is held in the left hand. Hold it
lightly but with a full grip.
- The hammeris held in the right hand.Use a
1000g hammerfor heavy work.
- Cut thin chips. This is lesstiresomeand
meansyou can work faster.
- Be very careful that the chips do not fly
away.
- When chiselling, look at the cutting edgeof
the chisel andnot at the anvil, seeFig. 2.
Light work
- When doing light work, hold the chisel with
your fingertips. SeeFig. 3.
- Use a light hammerfor light work.
Safety
When the chisel is useda lot, the hammeranvil
becomes mushroom-shaped The hammeranvil
should look like Fig. 4. When you are working,
piecesof steelmay break off the mushroomed
anvil and injure your hand.

HANDCHISEL 67
 Cutting on the anvil
Thicker metal is cut with the hand chisel on
top cfthe anvil. SeeFig. 1. A chisel with a
curved cutting edgegives the bestresults. If
the cutting edge is straight, the comers of the
chisel wear out or break off. Never use the
surfaceplate as a packing block.
Exercise
- Mark the workpiece with the scriber.
- Before cutting, put a plate of mild steel
(packing block) under the workpiece,
otherwise the anvil will damagethe chisel
when going through the workpiece. See
Fig. 1.
- Move the chisel in the direction of the arrow
after each hammerblow.
- Keep the chisel a little tilted as shown in
Fig. 2.
Shearing in the bench vice
The jaws of the bench vice and the flat chisel
can be used together as a pair of scissorsor
,rhears.This method of cutting metal is called
shearing, see Fig. 3.

Exercise
- Inscribe the cutting line on the workpiece.
- Clamp the workpiece in the bench vice. The
cutting line should be just visible above the
vice jaws.
- Take the hammerandchisel and cut the
metal by shearing it off. Keep the chisel
pointed in the cutting direction.
- Make sure during cutting that the face of the
chisel is flat on the vice jaw, to avoid
damaging the vice and to keep cutting along
the cutting line. SeeFig. 4.
- A clean cut should be madewith a
minimum of effort and without damaging
the work.

66 HAND CHISEL
Cutting a steel rod
Barsand rods can generally be cut most easi!y
by nicking them deeply on two or more sides
andthen breaking them by bending them back
and forth. When cutting in the vice, always cut
as closeto the vice jaws aspossible. Always
strike so that the force of the blow is against
the fixed jaw, not againstthe movablejaw.
Whencutting with the cold chisel at the anvil,
alwayswork over the packing block and not
over the face of the amil. seeFig. 1. Hold the 1
chisel firmly. yet loosely enough to easethe
shockof the hammerblows.
Removing rivet heads
SrnzlE
rivets can be cut at once, seeFig. 2.
ijigger rivets may needsomedrilling before
the headis cut. Hold the chise! in such a way
that oneside of the cutting edgeis flush with
the workpiece.See2-X.
2
Cutting large holes
Large holes can be cut in a metal plate witha
specialchisel asshown in Fig. 3. This is called
web chiselling.

Exercise
- Mark out :he shapeof the rectangularhole
with the :,criber.
- Punchthree placeswherethe holes are to be
drilled.
- Drill the holes.
- Cut the holes through on both sideswith tie
chisel.
- File the edgesof the hole until they are
smooth. 3

Cape chisel
Capechisels can be used to cut sheet metal, oil
drums, water tanksetc. The capechisel is
groundto a blunt squareend, slightly thicker at
the cutting end than a little further back. See
Fig. 4. It shearsout a ribbon of steel.

HAND
CHlSEL 69
 Hollow punch
The hollow punch shown in Fig. 1 is usedto
cut thin material such as leather,plastic, lead
and thin sheetmend. The punch is made of
tool steel and the cutting edgeis hardened.The
holes at 1-A should be able to push back the
cut washers.The cutting edgeof this punch is
sharpenedto approximately 60’, seeFig. 2-X.
To protect the cutting edgefrom becoming dull
or damaged,it is good practiceto cut the
washersor rings on ttip of the endgrains of a
piece of wood which can be clamped into the
benchvice.
Cutting gaskets
1 Before cutting, the shapeof the object should
be drawn on the gasketmaterial. An example
is shoiun in Fig. 3 of how a gasketshould be
madefrom a water pump part, Placea piece of
paperon top of the object. With a small
hammeror a piece of metal, tap over the edges
of the object; this leavesa mark on the paper.
Cut the papergasket accordingto the marks on
the paper.Placethe papergasketon the real
2 gasketmaterial and draw the actual shape.Cut
the gasketto shapeas shown in Fig. 4.

70 HAND CHISEL
 Drilling
Drilling meanscutting round holes with a hand
drill and a twist drill. A hand drill is shown in
Fig. 1 andhasthe following parts:
- Breastplate 1-A
- Crank 1-B
- Gear,sometimesmore than one 1-C)
- Chuck 1-D
- Jaws1-E
- Side handle 1-F
- Pinion 1-G
- Bushing and nut 1-H
- Body 1-L
When tightening the twist drill, makesure the
whole shankof the drill is betweenthe jaws of
the hand drill. The diameter of the twist drill is
i E punchedon the shank.
Twist drill
The drill shown in Fig. 2 is called a hvist drill.
The twist drill is the most commondrill used
for drilling metal. Partsof the twist drill are:
- Shank2-A
- Flute 2-B
- Body2-C
- Chisel edge/deadi,entre 2-E)
- Cutting edge2-B
- Margin 2-F
The cutting edgesof the drill cut the material.
To get an rlccuratehole the cutting edges
shouid be equally long and should have the
point exactly in the middle. The margin of the
drill servesas a guide and ensuresthat the hole
is smoothan exactly round. Chips ate removed
via the chip grooves.
The actualpoint of the twist drill is flat and is
called the deud cenrre. This grinds but doesnot
cut, seeFig. 3. It is therefore necessaryto
punch a mark in the metal with the centre
punch so the punched hcle will guide the twist
drill. Always punch the metal to guide the drill.

3
Drilling large holes
Drills with a large diameter have a large dead
centre. A punchedhole would be too small to
take the deadcentre.A pilot hole should
therefore be drilled for holes with a diameter
larger than 15 mm. The pilot drill should have
a diameterat least i/,~of the diameterof the
hole to be drilled. SeeFig. 1.
Reamer
A drilled hole is usually not exactly cylindrical
and completely smooth.If a perfecthole is
needed,you should drill a hole only slightly
smaller in diameter(0.1 - 0.5 mm) than the
diameterrequiredand widen with a reamer,
seeFig. 2. An exactly cylindrical and very
smooth hole will be the result. Usea tap
Hrench tightenedon the squareend of the
reamerto facilitate the turning of this tool.
Ensurethat evenpressureis applied on the
reamerandturn it steadily in the curdng
direction only. Reamersare fairly brittle and
should thereforebe handled very carefully.
Lubricate the reamerwhile cutting.
 Drill sharpening
When a drill tip is blunt it must be sharpened.
Drill sharpeningis usually done by very
experiencedmechanics.Trainees should not
attempt to sharpentheir own drills, before it
has ken explained to them. You should
practise a lot on old twist driIls beforeyou start
sharpeningyour own drills.
Let us repeatthe namesof the twist drill tip,
seeFig. 1:
B - Cutting edgesI-A
- B,ands1-B
- Dead centte I-C
- Heels 1-D
Sharpening
When sharpeninga twist drill you have to
consider the following:
- Sharpeningthe cutting edgesis very
important. It should be done very accurately.
The line of the cutting edgesshould meet at
a11angle of 116’ to each other: the drill
point angle. See Fig. 2-B.
- The other angleof the cutting edgeshould
be 5.5’to the deadcentre, seeFig. 2-A.
116-118'
- The heel should give a clearanceof 6’ to 1W
to the cutting edge.The cutting edgeshould
be sharp.By enlarging the angle to the heel
the cutting edgebecomessharper.But do
not exceed6’ to lo’. Clearanceof the heel is
also neededto prevent the heel from getting
overheated.If the drill overheats,the steel of
the drill burns and becomesuselessand soft.
- The deadcentreshould be exactly in the
centre of the drill and should not be too
large.
28
Sharpening gauge
The drill point angle and the position of the
dead centre can be measuredwith the aid of a
sharpeninggauge,seeFig. 3. The length of the
cutting edges be measuredwith a try square.

74
Cutting edgeswith different
angles
If a drill tip is not sharpenedcorrectly andone
cutting edge(1-A) is shorterthan the other, see
Fig.1, it is clear that only one cutting edge
(1-B) hasto do all the work. You will notice
this becausethe drill producesonly one
shaving insteadof two.
Cutting e2gesof unequal strengtn
A drill which is not ccrrectly sharpenedmay
producea drill with an off-centre point. If you
drill with sucha drill, the workpiece shakes,
the drill may breakand the final result is that
the hole producedis larger in diameterthan the
actualdiameterof the drill. SeeFig. 2. You
can seethat the centreof the hole will be at
2-A and the centreof the drill at 2-B. You can
seein Fig. 3 that the hole is much larger than
the drill diameter.
Drilling exercise
The drilling procedureis shown in Fig. 4.
- Mark the position of the hole on the metal
and punch it.
- hscribe a circle round the centre point equal
to the diameterof the drill (4-A).
- Inscribe anothercircle with a diameter
slightly larger than the circle (4-B).
- Placethe drill in position, pressthe drill
firmly and drill a point, spot drilled (4-C).
- Check whetherthis small hole is exactly in
line with the centrepoint.
- Drill again and seewhether the diameterof
the drill coincides with the first circle (4-D).
- Drill through the metal and you will seethat
the hole exactly matcheswith the second
circle (4-E).
 Post driii

Apart from all the other kinds of drilling

equipment,the post drill is an excellent
drilling machine, becauseelectricity is not
always available in the rural workshop. See
Fig. 1. The whole drilling assemblyof the post
drill can be mounted to a woodenpost (I-A)
againstthe wall. Drills uy,to 13 mm can be
fixed in the chuck with a specialkey (1-B).
The workpiece is clampedon a table. When
handle 1-C is turned, the drill turns round and
at the sametime movesdownwards,regulated
at the top by a ratchet construction 1-D. The
whole axle and drill can be lowered with
handle 1-E. Flywheel 1-F reducesthe power
neededto turn the drill round.
Drills with a diameter larger than 13 mm have
a taperedshank with a fLtt end. SeeFig. 2. The
taperedshank fits into a taperedrecessof the
drill spindle (2-A). To removethe drill with
the taperedshank, you haveto hammerme
drill drift (2-B). into the slot of the drill spindle.
Precautions
A drill shank must be clean and without burrs.
Burrs can be removed with the sharpening
stone.Do not usethe grinding stone or you
may damagethe shank. If there is a burr or dirt
\ on the drill shank, the drill will not fit straight
: I
I I into the chuck, it will start to wobble and may
I I comeout of the chuck.
I I The lower side of the drill drift is flat. Always
I I usethe drill drift with this side turned
t I
I downwards,otherwise the post drill will be
fi II damaged.Use a piece of wood when removing
4 A a drill to prevent it from being damagedwhen
hitting tne table. A special reducing sleeveis
4 availaYe to make i+possiblefor larger drills to
fit in the recessof the drill spindle.

75 DRlLUffi
Drill chuck
A drill chuck is usedfor clamping a drill in
position. SeeFig. 1. This is necessary,for a
loosedrill will rotate, resulting in damageto
the drill (burr formation) andthe jaws of the
drill chuck.Always usean appropriatechuck
key. Ensurethat the drill is exactly cenrred
betweenthe jaws. Keep the drill chuck
thoroughly clean and seethat no dirt gets
betweenthe clamping jaws.
Drilling deep holes 1
Whendrilling deepholes,the drill tip easily
getsoverheated.To preventthii the drill hasto
be takenout of the hole from time to time to
cool off. This also facilitates the removal of the
chips.
Clamping the workpiece
Whena hole is to he drilled the workpiece
shouldhe clampedonto the drilling table by
meansof a drill pressvice (Fig. 2) or clamps
(Fig. 3). These aids both have to be connected
to thedrilling table by meansof T-slot bolts
which fit into grooveson the table (2-A). To
preventthe drilling table or the drill pressvice
from beingdamaged,packingpiecesshould be
used,see2-B. Stepsshould always be taken to
preventa worlqiece from coming up or
startingto turn with the drill.
Lubrication
Whenyou usean electric drill it is aC(isable to
usea lubricant to cool down the driii, make
cutting easier,makework smoothand make
the drill last longer. A lubricant can be made
locally by mixing soapand a little oil. Put the
mixture in ZUIoil can and shakeit before use.
No iubricant is neededwhen you cut cast iron:
the carbonin the cast iron actsas a lubricant. 3
 Pillar drill
Drill diumeter Drili speed Drills can only operateefficiently ap to a
fmmj frpmj certain maximum cutting speed.If the cutting
speedis too high the drill will heat up and
loo0 consequentlybecomedull. If the cutting speed
;: 750 is too low the electric drill operatesbelow its
5 600 capacity with poor quality performance.
6 500 The cutting speedvaries with the diameter of
7 425 the drill, but also with the changing of the
8 375 spindle speed.The spindle speedcan be
9 changedby locating the V-belt on any of the
10 El three stepsof the spindler &riven and motor
275 driven pulleys. seeFig. 1. The various spindle
i:. 250 speedsare often indicated on the electric drill
13 itself in rotations per minute @pm).
15 ?ii It is not allowed to locate the V-belt out of
16 170 level. The belt must be positioned at the same
18 165 height on both pulleys.
The right combination of a certain drill
diameterand a certain spindle speed(in rpm)
I-.-.-- is shown in the table.
Different materials needvarious spindle
speeds.For mild steel Fhetable on this page
can be used.For tool steel a lower spindle
speedis required and soft metalsshould be
drilled with a higher spindle speedtlntn
indicated in the table.

78 DRlWffi
79
 Introduction
Assembly meansputting parts together.
Disassemblymeanstaking parts apart.A rural
mechanichasto assembleand disassemble
engines,pumps,farming machinery, ploughs
etc. Most important in any assemblyor
disassemblyjob is the loosening andtightening
of nuts andbolts. SeeFig. 1. Bolts can have a
left or right thread. Most common is the right
thread.
- A right threaded bolt is tightened: turn it
clockwise, see Figs. 2 and 3-B.
- A left threaded bolt is tightened: turn it
anti-clockwise, see Fig. 3-A.
- A right threaded bolt is loosened:turn it
anti-clockwise.
- A left threaded bolt is loosened:tum it
clockwise.

flow to tighten nuts and bolts

This is difficult to describe.The correct
tightening of nuts and bolts is a matter of
experience.If a bolt is tightened too much, the
thread is stripped off the bolt or the bolt breaks.
Small bolts: 6 to 8 mm are tightened lightly,
using only onehand, becausethesebolts break
easily - be careful!
Medium bolts: 10 to 12 mm am tightened
moderately with one hand.

Large bolts: 16 to 20 mm or more are

tightened a lot. It is almost impossibleto break
thesebolts and you can use both hands.
Practicetightening bolts and check this with
the torque wrench. Ask your instructor for
guidance.

60 ASSEMBLY
TOOL!3
Spanners
Spannersare tools for tightening and loosening
nuts and bolts. They aremadeof special steel.
The length of the handleis such that no extra
extensionof the handle is neededor even
allowed. Spannersareclassified into three
commonranges/sizes:
- Metric spanners for metric nuts and bolts.
SeeFig. 1. 1
- Inch spanners for British madenuts and
bolts.
- Inch spanners for American madenuts and
bolts.
Note: the size is always markedon the
spanner.Special nuts and bobs are sometimes
usedand you may needspecial spannersto
tighten or loosenthem.
Shapeof spanner
There are many differently shapedspanners.
But the most commonare:
- Open ended spanner: mis spannerhas two
U-shapedopeningsto fit two sizes of nuts or
bolt heads.SeeFig. 1.
- Combination spanner: this spanneris a
combination of an openendedand a ring
spanner.Thesespannersare very useful for
the rural mechanic.SeeFig. 2.
- Ring spanner: a ring spannergrips a nut on
six sides,so there is no risk that the spanner
can slip round a nut or bolt head.SeeFig. 3.
A ring spanneris thereforebetter than an
openendedspannerwhen you have to apply
a lot of force. A ring spanneris usually of
double hexagonshape,that meansit has
twelve comers.The double hexagon thus
meansyou can usethis spannerin narrow
placeswhere you canNm the spanneronly
a little. SeeFig. 4.
Useof the spanner
When you apply force on an openended
spanner,make surethat the jaws, which are
positionedat an angleto the handle, are
pointing towardsthe force applied on the
spanner.SeeFig. 5-A (right) and 5-B (wrong).

sPAM4EFis 81
 Set of socket spanners
Socketspannersare shot?rigid steel tubes. On
one end they have a hexagonalor double
hexagonalrecessto fit the nut or bolt. The
other end has a squarehole to fit the handle.
This squarehole is of the samesize for all
spanners.SeeFig. 1. It is betterto buy die
hexagonshapedsocketsbecausethey are
strongerand therefore last longer.
Handles
A set of socketspannerscontainsa variety of
handles:
- Sliding T-handle (Fig. 2)
- Braceor speedhandle (Fig. 3)
- Extension piece (Fig. 4)
- Universal joint (Fig.5)
- Ratchethandle (Fig. 6)
All handleshave squareendswhich fit into the
squarehole in the sockets.On one side of the
squareend a map is madeto ensurethe handle
locks properly into the socket.This snap is a
small ball locked into the metal which has a
spring behind it to make surethe ball locks
after the squareend has beenpushedinto the
socket.
Ratchet handle
The ratchethandle (Fig. 6) allows you to work
fast with short movements.Especially when a
construction doesnot leaveyou much spaceto
move the spanner,it is advisableto use the
ratchethandle becauseyou can leave the
socketon the nut or bolt.
Universai joint
The universal joint, shown in Fig. 5, is used
when a construction is suchthat you cannot
reacha nut or bolt either vertically or
horizontally with the handle.
Precautions
Be very careful when you tighten small nuts or
bolts. You can easily over-righten a small nut.

82 SPANNERS
Box spanner
The box spanneris a piece of metal on which a
hexagon headis pressedon one or two sidesto
allow a nut to enter.The pipe spanneris turned
around with a handlecalled a fommybar. See
Fig. il. With the box spannerYOU can reach
nuts or bolts which aredeeply recessed,lie
spark plugs etc.
Allen keys
Allen keys ate L-shapedbarswith a hexagon
section. SeeFig. 2. Thesebars fit into the
recessedheadof specialbolts.
Adjustable spanners
This spannerhasone fixed jaw and onesliding
jaw, adjustedwith a worm screw for different
nut sizes.SeeFigs. 3 and 4. The sliding jaw is
never rigid, especiallywhen the spanneris
usedfor a long time. so the spannerneverfits
snugly onto a nut or bolt. This spannershould
only be usedwhen no other spanneris
available. When working, position the spanner
as you would an openendedspanner.
Torque wrench
A torque wrenchis a handle which can be used
on a socketspanner.With this handle you can
measurehow much torque you apply to a nut
or bolt. The pansof a torque wrench are
(Fig. 5):
- Squareheadfor socketspanner5-A.
- Pointer to indicate the torque 5-B.
- Torque scale5-C.
- Movable handle5-D.
- Bar fixed to headand handle 5-E.
The torque is always indtcated on machines,
enginesor drawings.Seealso the next page.

SPANNERS
Torque indication Exercise
Take an old engine or a piece of machinery.
Placethis in position and loosen the nuts and
As mentionedbefore,ail the important nuts bolts without tutning the workpiece. Fastenall
andbolts in an engineor any piece of nuts and bolts and check with a torque wrench
machineryhaveto be tightened to the correct the torque you have given thesenuts and bolts.
torque.The torquecan be measuredin Place all nuts and bolts properly. If necessary,
different units of measurement: place them in a certain sequenceon the table or
- Nm (newton metre) on a piece of wood. Clean rusty nuts and bolts
- Kpm or Kgm (kilogram metre) with a wire brush and greasethem a little if
- Lbft (pound foot) necessary.
Rememberwhere you have placed washers,if
The torque wrenchhasdifferent scalesfor my-
different units of measurement.Be sureyou
readthe torqtie on the correct scale.Not every
rural mechanichasa torque wrench in his
toolbox. But a Rural Mechanic Co-operative
shouldhave onein the tool store.
Records
Keepa record of torque values for various
engines.Wheneveryou come acrossa
workshopmanual,copy the imponant torque
figures in a no%book.
Precautions
A good mechanichasthe right ‘feeling’ for
usingspanners.Small nuts need little
tightening, bigger nuts can be tightened more.
This is why a larger spannersize is also longer
andgives more leverage.Make surethat you
turn the correct way. A bolt which’is upside
down can be very confusing. Rememberthe
differencebetweenclockwise and
anti-clockwise.
Make surethe spanneris of the correct size and
fits well, otherwiseit will damagethe headof
the bolt.
Wheneverpossibleyou shouldpull on a
spanner.If you haveto push it, usethe palm of
your hand and keepyour fmgers out of the
way. Never usea piece of pipe to increasethe
leverageof a spanner.The spanneror the bolt
may break.Never usea hammereither.
A very stubbornnut can be loosenedif you
heatit. Usea blow torch or gas welding
equipmentor, if the piece is pot too large, you
can usethe charcoalfire.
Readjust the adjustablespannerto tighten
eachnut or bolt. Usethis spanneronly if there
is no other type of spanneravailable.
Rememberthat the jaws of the adjustable
spanneror the openend spannershould point
in the samedirection asthe force being applied.
Use a torque wrenchwhenevernecessary.
Check the torque loading in the workshop
manual.Keep the torque wrench in the tool
store,not in your toolbox becauseyou may
damageit.

SPAtMEl%
Screwdrivers
E D C B A
Screwdriversare used to tighten and loosen
screws.The screwdriver consistsof different
parts,seeFig. 1.
- Handle: the handle is madeof wood or
plastic. Along the handle somegrooves are
madeto ensurea good grip on the handle
(1-A).
- Tang: the tang is the part of the shankthat
goesthrough or partly through the handle. It
is shapedin such a way that it cannot turn
inside the handle (1-B).
- Shank:the shank is madeof hardenedsteel
and varies in length from 50 to 300 mm
(l-c.).
- Blade: the blade is a widenedpart of the
shankto form the tip (1-D).
- Tip: the tip has a special shapeand is less
hardenedthan the shank and is therefore
more flexible (1-E).
Holding the screwdriver
How to hold the screwdriver is shown in Fig.
2. Keepthe handle in the hollow of your hand,
so that you push the screwdriverforward.
Placethe forefinger on top of the handle or
sometimespartly on the shank,to guide the
screwdriver.Make surethe screwdriver is
exactly in line with the screw.
Types of screwdrivers
- Standard tip screwdriver
This screwdriver has a flat tip. It is usedfor
all kinds of ordinary work. An extra short
screwdriver may be usedfor work in
restrictedplaces.
- Phillips tip screwdriver
This screwdriver has a cross-shapedtip. It is
usedfor screwswith a Phillips head.The
advantageis that the screwdrivercannot slip
out of the slot. SeeFig. 3.
- Offset screwdriver
This screwdriver is usedin placeswhere
you cannot work immediately abovethe
screw.SeeFig. 4.
Sharpening the tip
Fig. 5 showsdifferent shapesof screwdriver
tips:
- The correct tip shapeS-A
- Improved anti-slip shapeS-B
- Phillips screwdriver shapeS-C

SCREWDRIVERS 05
 How to use screwdrivers
- A screwdriver is designedonly to turn
screws.Do not usethe screwdriver as a
wedge or a fever, becausethii will deform
the shank and the tip may break.
- The tip of the screwdriver should fit
correctly into the slot of the screwhead.See
Fig. 1-A.
- The tip of the screwdriver shown in Fig. 1-B
is not correctly shaped,it is taperedand will
1 slip out of the slot of the screw and therefore
out of the headof the screwsor will damage
the headof the screw.
- Never usea flat tip screwdriver as a Phillips
screwdriver.
c - For heavy work you can usea screwdriver
with a squareshank. You can usea spanner
to increasethe turniug force. SeePig. 2.
- Do not hold the workpiece loosein your
hand while you turn a screw. Clamp it in the
vice or put it down on the work bench,
E becausea screwdriver can makewounds
and the dirt on the tip of the screwdriver
may causeinfection. SeeFig 3. For the
samereasondo not carry a screwdriver in
your pocket.
- After sometime you may have to re-shape
the tip of the screwdriver. If you usea
grinding wheel for this, do not pressthe tip
too firmly onto the grinding wheel, because
the tip may overheat and the correct
propertiesof the steel may change.When
sharpening,cool the tip regularly.
- When he tang in the handle of the
screwdriverdoesnot go through the handle,
do nut hammer on the handle of the
screwdriver.The handle may break or it
may be pushedover the shank.
Have different screwdrivers in your toolbox for
4
different types of screws (Fig. 4). If not the
screw headwill be damaged(seeFigs. 1-C to
1-E).

06 SCRfiWDRlVERS
 Bolts
Bolts are madein many different sixesand
qualities. SeeFig. 1. Important dimensionsof a
bolt are:
- Length: the headis not included in the
length of a bolt, see1-A.
0 - Threaded length: the threadedlength is only
I measuredon the actual threadedpart of the
bolt, see1-x.
- Size: the size of the bolt is the sameasthe
major threaddiameter (the outsidediameter
of the thread),see1-O.
Screw thread
The winding groove around a bolt or inside the
nut is called a screw thread, or simply a thread
- Interal thred: is on the inside of a round
hole - for example, a nut. SeeFig. 2-A.
- External thread: is on the outside of a round
object for example, a belt. SeeFig. 2-B.
ln a technical drawing a bolt is drawn as
shown in Fig. 3. The slanting lines indicate the
thread.

2 Bolts and screws

A
Bolts and screwsare representedon a drawing
as shown in Fig. 4. Contrary to the bolt 4-A.
the countersunkscrew length is measured
I including the head,see4-B. The length of the
round countersunkscrew is measured
including half the head, see4-C.
Quality
As mentionedbefore,there are many different
kinds of bolts and also different quabties.
Special nuts and bolts are usedfor engines.
3 Order the right kind of nuts and bolts from the
factory. The tensile strength of a bolt is
indicated on the head of the bolt.

i
4

A B C

90 BOLTS
Various bolts
In Fig. 1-A you see a machine bolt. This bolt is
usedfor commonpurposes.If this bolt is to be
used,makesurethe thicknessof the material to
be fastenedis greaterthan the unthreadedpart
of the bolt.
In Fig. 1-B you seea tap bolt, This bolt is
threadedover the full length and can beusedto 1
fastenthin material like sheetmetal etc.
Fig. 2-A showsa carriage bolt. This bolt is
usedto fastenwood to wood or wood to steel.
The headis round andhas no slot or anything
to hold the bolt while fastening the nut. This is B
why there is a squarepart under the head.This A
squarepart is hammeredinto the wood and
thuspreventsthe bolt from turning when the
nut is being tightened.
A stud bolt is shown in Fig. 2-B. This bolt is
fixed on one side to a construction. Over the
unthreadedpart anotherpiece of the
constructioncan be mountedand a nut tightens
the whole assembly.
Bolt heads
Bolt headscan be of different shapes,asshown
in Fig. 3.
- Hexagonhead3-A
- Squarehead3-B
- Sockethead3-C
Right and left hand thread
In Fig. 4-A you seea right hand threadedbolt.
You can seethis from the fact that the tines
representingthe threadgo upwardsto the right
side.In Fig. 4-B you seea left hand threaded
bolt. You can seethis from the fact that the
lines representingthe threadgo upwardsto the
left side and the headis marked in all comers.
- Right hand thread is tightened clockwise.
- Left hand threadis tightenedanti-clockwise.

A B

-
BOLTS 91
 Bolts, nuts and screws
Bolts, seeFig. 1
- Carriage bolt 1-A
- Squareheadbolt 1-B
- Hexagonheadbolt 1-C
1
Nuts, seeFig. 2
- Wing nut 2-A
- Squarenut 2-B
- Hexagon nut 2-C
2 Screws, seeFig. 3
- Countersunkhead3-A
- Cheesehead3-B
- Metal screw3-C
Socket heads,seeFig. 4
- Recessedcountersunk4-A
- Recessedsockethead4-B
- Recessedround head4-C
3 Wood screws,seeFig. 5
- Roundheadwood screw 5-A
B
C
Self-tapping screws,seeFig. 6
- Counter sunk 6-A
- Round countersunk 6-B
- Round head6-C
Self-tapping phillips head, seeFig. 7’
- Counter sunk 7-A
4 - Round countersunk 7-B
- Round head7-C

A B

B
c
A

92 8OLlS
-
Thread dimensions
1
Types of thread
Four different types of thread are:
- External thread
- Internal thread
- Right hand thread
- Left hand thread
External thread
The bolt shown in Fig. 1 has an external
thread.The thick lirre representsthe major
diameter(outside of thread).The thin lines
representthe inside of the thread,the minor
diameter.
kternz! thread
Fig. 2-A showsthe top view of a subject with a 2
I
threadedhole in it. This thread is an internal
thread.The thick circle representsthe minor
diameter.The thin part circle representsthe
major diameter. /+j+$ 2A
In the crosssection,seeFig. 2-B. you seethe
samethick and thin lines representingthe
major and minor diameter.
Metric IS0 thread M
The metric thread which is measuredin
millimeters is widely used.The thread angle is 2B
60” and the pitch (p) is measuredin
mii!Imeters. SeeFig. 3.
Thread profiles
Six thread profiles areshown in Figs. 3 and4.
- Angular thread with a top angle of 60
(metric and Americanthread). 3
- Angular rhread with a top angle of 55’
(British thread,4-A).
- Trapezoidal thread (usedon lathe machines,
4-B).
- Butressrhread (4°C).
- Round thread (hunp bulbs/threadedrod,
4-D).
- rectangular thread (on vice, 4-E).
 Thread dimensions
Right hand thread
In Fig. 1-A you seea drawing of a bo!t with a
right hand thread.The lines representingthe
slope of the thread are going down towards the
left side asseenon the real thread.
Left hand thread
Fig. 1-B showsa bolt with a left hand thread.
The side of the hexagon head is markedto
show that the bolt has a left hand thread. It is
1 seenalso on the lines which representthe
A B
thread.They are pointing down to the right, as
seenon the real thread. This bolt is tightened
anti-clock wise.

Course thread
British Metric A coursethreador bolt has less pitch than a
bolt which hasa fine thread. The coursethread
is usedfor generalwork. The advantageof
c6urse threadis that it can stand a rough
D
handling well.
Fine thread
A fine threadedbolt has more pith than a bolt
with coursethread.The fine threadis less
s commonthan the coursethread. It is mostly
usedon strongly vibrating engine parts.A
course bolt or nut will shakeloose when it
2 vibrates much, a fine thread standthese
vibrations much better.
Types of thread
Three types of thread are used on bolts or nuts:
- Metric thread, measuredin millimeters.
- Ameriran or unified thread, measuredin
inches.
- British thread, measuredin inches.

British threadis indicated in the numberof

threadsper inch, while metric thread is
indicated by the pitch. Metric thread is
strongerthan British thread due to a larger
minor diameterbecauseof a larger top angle.
SeeFig. 2. Somemajor characteristicsof
thread are:
- Outer diameterof the screw threadin mm
(2-W
- Core diameterof the screw threadin mm
(2-d)
- Number of threadsper inch (2-n)
- Pitch of the thread in mm (2-s)
Although different threadsmight look just
about the same,they should never be
interchanged.After having studiedthe thread
churfs, you should take a variety of bolts and
nuts and identify the thread.

94 THREAD
 Types of thread: metric thread
More and more manufacturersare using metric
thread.In time the metric thread will probably
bxome a worldwide standard.
Note
Metric threadcanbe eitherfine or course.
Major diameterscommonly usedrangefrom
3 to 24 mm.
The threadhasa W V-profile.
The sharpedgesof the V are rounded off.
outside
M8 x 40 means:
- bolt with a major diameter of 8 mm.
- pitch of 1.25mm. 60
- length of 40 mm.
f .m
D' d'
inside

Bolt Metric Course Metric Fine

Diameter Pitch Tapdrill Pitch T2pdrill

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) b-4

6 1 5.0 0.75 5.2

7' 1 6.0 0.75 6.2
a 1.25 6.7 1 7.0
9* 1.25 7.7 1 8.0
IO 1.5 8.4 1 9.0
11 * 1.5 9.4 1 10.0
12 1.75 10.0 1.5 10.5
14* 2 11.8 1.5 12.5
16 2 13.8 1.5 14.5

Note: The thread sizesmarkedwith * are nonsrandard

Normally thesesizesare not used.

--
TYPE!3
OFTHEAD
 Types of thread: American or
unified thread
American threadis mostly usedon machinery
etc. which is manufacturedin America.
American threadis the sameas unified thread.
Note
American threadcan be either American
National Course(A-NC.) or American
National Fiie (A.N.F.)
- Major diametersare measuredin inches.
outside - The threadhasa 60’ V-profile.
- The pitch is given in Thread per Inch
(T.P.I.).
10 T.P.I. means:
- There are 10 threadsper inch.
- The distancebetweentwo threadsis ‘/,o inch.
insic!e

r------
Bolt American National Course American National Fine

Diameter Thread Tapdrill Thread Tapdrill

(inches) (per inch) (mm) (per inch) (mm)

94 20 5.3 28 5.5
%6 la 6.7 24 7.0
‘Ia 16 a.1 24 a.5
l/16 * 14 9.4 20 10.5
'h 13 10.9 20 11.5
9/16 * 12 12.3 ia 13.0
‘la 11 13.7 ia 14.5
3i4 10 16.6 16 17.5

NOW:The thread sizesmarkedwith * are twnsmdard

Normally thesesizesarenot used.
1

96 TW'ESOFMREAD
Types of thread: British thread
rhe British thread is still commonly used. It
L;.okssimilar to the American thread, but with
the difference that the degree of the pitch is
different.

Kate
British thread can be either British Standard
Withworth (B.S.W.) British Standard Fine
(B.S.F.).
- Major diameters are measured in inches
-’ The thread has a 55’ V-profile
- The pitch is given in Thread per Inch (T.P.I.)
Questions
- Which bolts nave afiner pitch, B.S.F. or
A.N.F.?
- For which bolt size do B.S.W. and A.N.C.
have a different pitch?

Bolt British Standard Whitworth Britisch Standard Fine

___-_
Isiameter Thread Tapdrill Thread Tapdrill,
(inch) (per inch) (mm) (per inch) (mm)
-
‘/4 20 5.1 26 5.3
5/16 18 6.5 22 6.8
3la 16 7.9 20 8.3
7/16 * 14 9.25 18 9.7
‘12 12 10.5 16 11.0
9l16* 12 12.1 16 12.7
% 11 13.5 14 14.0
916 * 11 15.1 14 15.5
v4 10 16.5 12 17.0

Note: The thread sizes marked with * are rwmtandbrd

Normally these sizes are not used.

TYPESDFRIREAD
-- -

Tapdrill
Types of ‘IMead: Whitworth
Inside pipe Tha _-iJ
diameter diameter gas thread
(Inch) (per inch) (mm>
The Whitworth gas thread is especia3y used
-‘h 28 8.9 for cuttiug thread En gas or water pipes. The
Whitworth Gas thread has the same top angle
I/4 19 11.8 as B.S.W. but a much higher pitch. This results
3/s 19 15.3 in a larger minor diameter. This type of thread
‘/2 14 19.1 therefore gives good sealing and can be cut on
% 14 21 thin-walled pipes.
- The thread has a 55’ V-profde.
3I4 14 24.6 - The pitch is given in threads per inch
I/ a 14 28.3 (T.P.I.).
1 11 30.8 - G 1” stands for thread on a pipe with an
1‘/a 11 35.5 inside diameter of 1 inch. As the thread is
1% 11 cut on the outside surface the minor and
39.4 major diameter of the thread wiIl
13/a 11 41.8 consequently be larger.
I’/2 11 45.4
P/4 11 51.3
2 11 57.2 55
2% 11 63.3
2’/2 11 72.8
2% 11 79
3 11 85.5
--

TYPESOFTHREAD
Threading
Tapping is cutting thread grooves iu a 1
workpiece with the aid of taps. Threading in
cutting thread grooves around a workpiece
with the aid of a Die.
Taps
Taps are cutting tools made of hardened tool
steel, They are used to cut thread in holes, see
Fig. 1. The top end of the tap is square and fits
into the tap wrench (1-A and Fig. 3). The type
of thread is stamped on the shank of the tap
(1-Bj.
A tap has three or fourflutes to break the chips
produced and make room for withdrawal from
the hole (1-C). On the cross section of the tap
you can see the cutting edges are made at a
certain angle and the heels are set slightly
backwards (1-D).
Set of taps
Fig. 2 shows a set of three taps: c
- taper tap, witi one ring 2-A
- plug tap, with two rings 2-B
- bottmning tap, with three rings or no rings at
all 2-C A
I
Taper tap
This tap starts cutting the thread gradually. It is
2 I
tapered for about the first eight threads. I
Plug tap
This tap takes the second cut. It is tapered for
the first three threads. If the hole goes through
the material, this tap finishes the cutting.
Bottoming tap
When you cut thread in a blind hole, the
bottoming tap should be used in addition to the
two other taps, in order to cut the thread right
down to the bottom of the hole. This tap is not
tapered.
Tap wrench
A tap wrench is shown in Fig. 3. In the centre
there are two jaws, one of which can be
adjusted by turning one handle.

3
 -
I

A die is a cutting tool made of harden&

toolsteel. It is used to cut thread on bolts, see
Fig. 1-A. The type of thread is stamped on the
die. The hole in the die is for holding the screw
that holds the die in place.
Another die is shown in Fig. 1-B. This die can
be adjusted slightly by turning a screw in the
stock. This makes it possible to cut a little over
or under the size.

Die stock
As mentioned before, the die is fixed with a
screw in the die stwk. See Fig. 2. Make stiireit
is tightened well to prevent the die turning
round in the die s~:ock.

Thread gauge
Lf you have to make a nut for a ready-made
bolt, or a bolt for a ready-made nut, then you
have to use the thread gauge to find out the
right pitch. A thread gauge is shown in
Fig. 3-A. There are gauges for all kinds of
thread.
Place the thread gauge over the ready-made
thread and see which blade fits exactly over
the thread (3-B). The number stamped on the
blade tells you the correct pitch (3-C).

Threading tools
If possible, it is best to have different sets of
taps and dies in the rural workshop to meet
demand. Many nuts and bolts on old
machinery have threads other than the metric,
British or American thread.

lwl THREADING
 --

HOWto cut a thread

The procedure for threading a rod or bolt is:
- Cut the rod and check that it is the COKF:M
size and shape. The rod should be perfectly
round and should have the same diameter as
the major diameter of the thread to be made.
- Clamp the rod ve&ally in the bench vice.
Check this with the try square, see Fig. 1.
_- Chamfer the end of the rod with a file at 45’.
See Fig. 2. Place the stock in the correct
position 021top of the rod. See Fig. 3.
- Place the stock in the correct horizontal
position on top of the rod. Press it squarely
on the end of the rod and turn it clockwise to
,-et right-hand thread.
- Step back ;?lcjcarefully inspect whether the
die is posit’oned square. Start again if the
die is not square on the rod. Check this from
all sides. See Figs. 4 and 5.
- After the die has been turned a few times, no
more pressure is needed.
- Easethe die back at regular intervals to
break the chips. Do this as soon as you feel
resistance.Chips which clog in the die can
be removed with a wire.
- Apply some oil after every few turns. This
gives the die a longer life and cools down
the heat oroduced by the friction. See Fig. 3.
- Never fdrce a die. You can easily break the
teeth of the die.
- After work is finished, clean the die and the
wrench and put them back in the box.

5
 --. -
I Cutting thread with a tsp
1
The procedurefor threading a hole with a tap
is asfohows:
- Make surethat the hole hasthe correct
diameterfor cutting thread,The followhg
rule of thumb can be usedfor smaller
diameters:
drill diameter= 0.8 x bolt diameter
- Fii the tapertap in the tap wrench.Hold the
tap wrenchin your right hand andposition it
squarely on the work piece. SeeFig. 1.
- Pressthe tap down and turn it clockwise to
screwthe tap into the hole.
- Check after a few turns whetherthe tap is
squareto the work, using the try square.See
Fig. 2.
- Make a new start if the tap is not square.A
tap which is not squareat the start wiU
break if you continue.
- Apply someoil regulary, seeFig. 3.
- After the tap hasstartedto makethread,no
more pressureis needed.You canturn the
tap with both hands.SeeFig. 4.
- For small tapsand deepholes it is necessary
to removethe tap severaltimes to c!earout
the chips at the bottom of the hole.
- When threadinga blir,d hole, usethe bottom
tap. Cleanthe hole in time.
- Never force a tap.
- Clean the tap and the stock beforeyou put
them backir$the box.
To makethe centrelines of the drilled hole and
the tap cometogether you can clamp the
workpieceon the drilling table andput a centre
in the postdrill. This centre gives guidanceto
the tap, seeFig. 5.

102 THREmlNG
-
Tapping a thread
Whenyou tap thin metal, it is best to hold a nut
with the samethreadover the hole. This nut
guidesthe tap squarelythrough the thin metal.
Tapping blind holes
Takespecialcarewhen you tap a blind hole.
Removethe tap severaltimes to clear out the
chips.Be careful whenthe tap reachesthe
bottomof the k31e.Do not turn any further or
the apwill break.It is very difficult to remove
a brt ken tap from a hole. The materid usedto
makethe tap is so hard that a dril.1cannotbe
used.
Tapping drill
A hole in which you want to tap threadshould
beof exactly the right diameter.
- Ifthe hole is rooobig: It is impossibleto cut a
full thread.
- if the hole is IOOsmall: It is difficult to turn
the tap; it may break.
Thedrill size usedto drill a hole before
rappingis called the rappingdriif. The thread
chairs give the tappingdrill sires for the
varioustypesof thread.A set of twist drills in
stepsof half a millimetre is neededwhen
threadingholes.If the threadchart saysa
tappingdrill of 9.3 mm is needed,you cantry a
drill of either 9.0 or 9.5 mm. A fairly good
methodto find the correcttap drill is to take a
drill andpassit exactly through a new nut of
therequiredthread.
Causesof broken taps
Tapsanddies shouldbe handledcarefully.
They arehard andbrittle and thereforebreak
easily.Small tapsin particular are very
delicate.A tap will breakwhen:
- The diameterof the hole is too small
- The taps arenot squarelyin the hole
- Nooilisused
- The tap is not easedbackto breakthe chips
- The tap is turnedafter reachingthe bottom
of a blind hole
- The tap is droppedon the ground
Repairing thread in holes
Supposethe threadin a hole is damaged,the
bolt now turns loosely in the hole. You can
repairthis by cutting an oversizedthread.This
oversizedthreadwill be a non-s!andard thread.
Non-standardthreadsare: M7, M9, Ml 1 and
M14.
An M7 tap cartrepair a damagedM6 thread.
Whenthe hole is cut oversize& you haveto
makean oversizedbolt which will fit into the
hole.

THREADING 103
 -_ - - _
I__ -----
----- ~_ -.

Lmkbg devices
Somepartsof engines,agricultural machinery
or implementsvibrate strongly. These
vibrations will shakeloose any bolt or nut,
unlessthe bolt or nut is lockelf properly. Some
methodsto lock bolts and nuts in the correct
wx, are asfollows.
Washer
Washersarethin rings made of steel,plastic,
lead, aluminium or copper.They areplaced
under the nut and makethe nut fit flat on the
workpiece.SeeFig. 1.
Spring washer
A spring washer,also called lock washer,
looks like the winding of a spring, see
Fig. 2-A. A spring washeris madeof spring
steel. When a spring washeris usedunder a
nut, the springforce of the washerlocks the
nut, see2-B. A spring washercan also be used
under the bolt head.
Castle nut
This is a nut with six slots on oneend and is
screwedon to a bolt. SeeFig. 3-A. A small
3 hole is drilled through two slots andthe bolt
and a cotter pin is pushedthrough this hole
(3-B). Note how the cotter pin is spliced:one
end is bentupwards,the other end is bent
downwards(3-C). The head of the cotterpin is
insertedin the slot and bent upwards.
Luck nut
A lock nut is a secondnut screweddown on
top of the first nut. SeeFig. 4-A. The first nut
is tightenedin the normal way. Hold this nut in
position with a spanner.Then screwthe lock
nut andtighten it with a secondspanner(4-B).
When you disassaxnblea lock nut, you also
needtwo spanners.Keep !thespanneron the
lowest nut into position and loosenthe first nut
with anotherspanner.Make surethat you turn
both nuts the correct way.

106 LocKlNGDEvlcEs
Nyloc nut
This is a nut with a nylon collar fitted inside 1
thenut. This nut locks itself after being fit to
thebolt, becausethe collar grips the threadof
thebolt, seeFig. 1.
Locking wire
This methodof using a locking wire is often
usedwhen a large numberof small bolts have
to besecured.Every bolt hasa hole drilled in
its head.The wire passesthrough all these
holesandthe endsaretwis:ed together,see
Fig. 2.
Locking plate 2
A locking plate is a pieceof sheetmetal with a
holein ii, seeFig. 3. The bolt passesthrough
this hole, andthe plate is placedunder the head
of the bolt. After tightening the bolt, bendthe
plateagainstthe side of the bolt headand at
theother side passingover the workpiece.
The locking plate mustbe be securedto the
work for otherwiseit may turn round. There
aretwo ways to securethe plate;
- By bendingit over the workpiece, seeFig. 3.
- By using the locking plate for severalbolts,
sothat the one bolt securesthe other bolt,
seeFig. 4.
Screwedlocking plate
Anothertype of locking plate is &own in
Fig. 5. This plate hasa shapewhich grips the
bolt !lead.The locking plate is securedto the
bolt with a small screw.This methodis less
advisablesincethe small screwmay loosen,
and the plate may fall off.
3
Nutscan also be lockedwith locking plates.

4
5

LoCKlffi DEVICES 107

 Pins
Pinsare usedto fastenvariousparts to axles.
Pinsare only usedfor relatively light
connections.For very strongconnectionsa key
is usedinsteadof a pin. Keys are explained on
the next page.
To drive a pin out of a hole. you have to usea
drift punch, seeFig. 1. Sincemost of the pins
protrudeslightly abovethe surface,make sure
that you US the correct drift punch with the
2 samediameterasthe pin. If the drift punch is
too small in diameterthe headof the
protruding pin may widen and it is than
impossibleto drive the pin through.
Beforefixing the pin, pushthe drift punch
through the holes to makesurethat they are all
in line with eachother.
Roll pin
A roll pin is madeof spring steel. it is hollow
andhasa slot along the side,seeFig. 2. The
roll pin tits into a hole with a slightly smaller
diameter,but the slot in the pin allows it to
enterand so the pin will be fir,ed securely in
the hole.
Tapered pin
The taperedpin is not ascommonas the roll
pin. The hole where the pin fits is also taper
shaped,seeFig. 3. Whenyou assemblethe
construction,make surethat the taperedpart of
the axle is also positionedcorrectly. The pin
should be wedgedinto position with a few
light hammerstrokes.If you haveto drive this
pin out, you should do this from the smallest
diameterside.
Cotter pin
The cotter pin is used,for exampie,to securea
castlenut, but it can also be usedfor many
other purposes.SeeFig. 4. Sometimesa nail is
usedinsteadof a cotter pin. This is only
allowed if it cannotcauseaccidents.
5
Dowel pin
Dowel pins areusedto position two piecesof
metal,seeFig. 5. Mostly two pins are used
beforetightening the workpiecewith bolts.

1Oii LOCK046 DEVICES

Circlips
Circlips arethin rings madeof spring steel.
You canopen01cic.z themslightly with
internalor external circlip pliers to fit them
insidethe groove madein me axle and the part
which hasto fit aroundthe axle. Somecirclips
can heopenedwith long-nosedplie,s.
Therearetwo kinds of circlips:
- Theoutside circlip, which fits into a groove
on dulaxle, seeFig 1.
- Theinside circlip, which fits inside a hole,
seeFig. 2.
Keys
A key preventsthe free rotation of a wheel on
an axle.This wheel canbe a gear,a pubey, a
flywheel etc Tne wheeland the axle both need
a keyway:Inwhich the key is located,see
Fig. 3. A key hasto fit accuratelyinto this
keyway.If thereis any play (if the keyway is
too wide)the wheel canrotateslightly and
very sOonthis will causeseriousdatnageto the
key andthe keyway.
Typesof keys
- Gibheadky
This key is slightly tapered.You have to
wedgeit in position with a hammer.When
you haveto take out a gibheadkey usea
taperedpieceof steeland wedgethis
betweenthe hook of the key and the pulley,
to avoiddamagingthe hook. SeeFig. 4.
- Woodruffkey
This key is mostly usedon taperedaxles,
seefig. 5.
- Fearher key
Thegroove for this key can be !ccatedat
anyplacealong the axle.The key is placed
in position fust andthe wheel is then moved
overthe axle andthe key, seeFig. 6,
 Removing a broken bslt
If a piece of the broken bolt is still protruding
you can:
- Try to grip this piece with pliers or a wrench.
- Weld a nut onto it and use a spanneron the
nut, seeFig. 1.
If the bolt is brokeninside the hole, you can:
- Use a hammerandcentre punch to knock
out the bolt bit by bit.
- Drill a hole in the bolt and use a screw
em-actor,seefig. 2.
Removing stud bolts
A stud bolt hasno headon which you can put a
spanner.To get the stud bolt out you can:
- Grip it with pliers if it is an unthreaded
protruding part of the stud bolt. SeeFig. 3-A.
- Make a fock nut, see Fig. 3-B. If only the
threadedpart of the stud bolt is protmding.
Tighten the two nuts with two spanners.Put
a spanneron the lowest nut and unscrewthe
stud bolt in the sameway as a normal bolt.
Removing worn nuts
Sometimeshexagonshapednuts or a bolt head
are worn round. The spannerhasno grip on
such a nut. You can usethe following method
to loosenthis nut or bolt:
- Try to removethe damaged nut or bolt with
the slip joint pliers or with a pipe wrench.
- Take a new nut or bolt when you assemble
the workpieceagain.
- zf no new nut or bolt is available, you may
take the damagedpiece and fde the shapeto
the next smallersize of the spanner.Keep
checking with the spannerto seewhether
you have filed enough.

You are not allowed to use this mzthod on

engine bolts!

110 REMOVINGA BROKENBOLT

 Intmduction
Sharptools are !he mark of a good rural
mechanic.Only a poor craftsmanstruggles
along with a blunt tool insteadof taking time
to sharpenit. Blunt tools may causeaccidents.
Tools can be sharpenedwith:
- Handgrinder
- Electric benchgrinder
- Oil stone
Hand grinder
A handgrinder can easily be fixed on top of a
work benchby meansof a clamp,seeFig. 1-A.
The grinder has a handle with gearwheels
(1-B) anda toolmst (1-C). Two people are
neededto do a good job. Onehasto turn the
wheel towardsthe tool rest andthe other does
the actualgrinding job, holding the tool against
the tool rest in the correct position.
The wheel is fixed to the grinder over an axle
and is tightened with a nut. Make surethat you
placethe washersin correct order.
Electric bench grinder
1 If thereis electricity in the turai workshop it is
advisableto have an electric benchgrinder
which canbe usedfor manyjobs. Electric
benchgrindersare available in many different
sizes.A grinder with two wheelsof 150 x 20
mm will do an excellent job. SeeFig. 2.
The two wheelson a grinder areusually of
different texture. Gne hasa coarsetexture and
is usedfor rough work and the other wheel is
of fine texture for fmishiig work. A steel
guard,2-B. protectsyou from touching the
wheel or from an accidentif the wheel breaks.
A tool rest,2-C. is mountedto let the tool or
the workpiecerest properly. The gap between
the tool rest and the grinding wheel must be as
small aspossible,without the grinding wheel
touching the rest.
If the guardis fitted with a slide, set it so that it
is ascioseto the grinding wheel aspossible
without touching it. To checkthat the wheel
can rotatefreely after adjustingthe tool rest
andthe slide, rotate the wheel a few times by
hand.Checkthe gap betweenthe tool mst and
the grinding wheel at regular intervals.
It is essentialto nse the eye shield, see2-D.
Grainsfrom the abrasiveartificial stonesfly
aroundand are very dangerous.

112 GRIWBGWHEEL
Grindstone dressers - Seeto it that the material doesnot get
overheated.Rememberthat heat changesthe
propertiesof the steel.
While grinding an objectoneshould take care - Cool the material regularly in water.
to movetheobjectgradually from left to right - Never usethe sideof the wheel.
andbackto avoid makinggroovesin the - Switch off the machineafter use.
surfaceof the grinding stone.If for one reason - Never try to sharpenmaterial thinner than
or anothera groove is madeinto the surfaceof 2 mm. It may be pulled betweenthe wheel
the grinding stoneit is advisableto have a and the tool rest.Thii situation can be very
wheel dresserat hand to smoothenthe surface dangerous.
again.
Wheel dresser B
A wheeldresserasshownin Fig. 1 may be
usedto flattenthe surfaceof the grinding stone
again.This wheeldresserconsistof a handle
with a wheelat its end.This wheel is madeof
very hardsteelandspeciallyshaped.It is
movedoverrhe surfaceof the grinding stone
while it is rotating. Make surethat you move
the dressergradually left andright until the
surfaceis smoothagain.During dressingwear
safetygogglesbecauseparticlesof the 1
grinding stonemay fly around.
Insteadof a wheeldressera diamond-point
wheeldressermay be used.At the end of the
bar, shownin Fig. 2, an industrial diamond is
located.With the diamond,being harderthan
any material,the surfaceof the grinding stone
can be smoothened.
Safety precautions when sharpening tools
- Before,+ding adjustthe tool rest very
closeto the grinding wheel and at the
requiredangle.SeeFig. 1. Make surethe
gap betweenthe tool rest(1-A) andthe
wheel is not so big that a workpiececan
wedgebetweenthe tool rest andthe wheel.
This is very dangerous:the wheel may break.
- If necessaryadjustthe eyeshield (1-B) so
no abrasivegrainscan fly into your eyes.
- Put on safetyglasses.
- Never wearglovesor usecotton wasteto
hold theworkpiecewhengrinding.
- Never knock agaixt the wheel, as this may
causebreakage.
- Always standasidewhenstarting the
grinding motor, until the operatingspeedis 2
reached.
- Switch on the machineaF.dwait until it has
reachedfull speed.
- Secureall looseclothing and removerings
or otherjewellery.
- Positionthe workpieceon the tool rest.
- Presstheworkpiecegently againstthe
wheelandmove it left andright over the top
of the wheelto avoid wearingout the wheel
in oneplace.

GRINDINGWHEEL 113
 Mounting a new wheel
If the grinding wheel becomestoo small in
diameterit should be replacedby a new wheel.
Before placing the new wheel on the spindle
ensurethat:
- The maximum number of revolutions of the
sp’kulledoesnot exceedthe value statedon
the wheel.
- The diametersof the spindle and the shaft
hole of the wheel correspond.
- The wheel doesnot show any damage.
Fit test the new wheel for cracks.Hangthe
wheel freely on a rope. The wheel should make
a clear soundwhen you tap it with a mallet, see
Fig. 1. A crackedwheel makesa dull sound.
Never usea crackedwheel,
If the grinding machinehastwo wheels,the
wheel nut on the left side will have a fef hand
thread.This is to preventthe nut loosening
itself during grinding.
Usesafety washersof heavy paperor leather
betweenthe mounting flanges of the wheel.
Large safety washersprevent excessivestress
on the wheel. SeeFig. 2.
Tighten the wheelnut moderately.
When a new wheel is mountedgive it a one
minute testrun. This preventsinjury if the
wheel falls apartdue to a defect that hasnot
beennoticed.
Oil stone
An oil stonefor sharpeningkeen-edgedtools is
indispensablein a good rural workshop.Two
kinds of stonesareavailable:
- natural stones
- artificial abrasivestones
The artificial stonesare generally preferred,as
they are more uniform in structure. A
combination stonewith one side madeof
coarsegrainedandthe other side madeof fine
grained abrasiveis recommended.The coarse
side is usedfor fast cutting during the first part
of the sharpeningand the fine side for finishing
to a keensmoothedge.
Use a light oil, suchaskeroseneandmotor oil
mixed in equal partson an oilstone, to float off
the small cuttings of steel and to preventthe
swface from becomingclogged with dirt.

114 GRINDING
WHEEL
Sharpening the cold chisel
1
A cold chiselshould havea cutting edgeof
60’. Both facesshouldhavethe samelength.
To avoid accidentsthe hammeranvil should be
re-shapedoccasionally.SeeFig. 1-A for a
correctshape.
- Hold thechisel with the right hand. Placeit
on thetool rest.The forefingershould be
againstthe front of the tool rest for
guidance.Two fingers of the left hand
shouldpressthe chisel towards the wheel.
- The chiselshould rest at the correct angle
againstthe wheel,A little experimenting
may benecessaryto find the correct
position.Onceit is found, keepthis hold

I
with your fmgers,evenwhen you dip the
chisel in water or inspectit. The chisel can
then easilybe replacedon the tool rest.
- Pressthechisel gently againstthe grinding
wheel.Swing it from sideto side, pivoting it
over thetool rest. Fig. 2-A.
- Dip thechisel in waferregularly.
- Checkthecorrectangleof the cutting edge
with a sheet metal gauge.SeeFig. 2-B.
0
A
- A 60’4ot can be filed in the sheetmetal
with a triangular file.
Re-shaping a screwdriver
The tip of a screwdrivershouldbe flat. If the
tip is round,it easily slips out of the screwslot.
Figs. 3-A and3-B showthe correctshapeof
the screwdrivertip. Figs. 3-C and3-D show
the wrongway to t-e-shape.
TOgrind a screwdriver:
- Hold it on the grinding wheel asshown in
Fig. 4.
- Move the bladeendwisebackand forth a
little to grind the facea shortdistanceback
from theend.
- Turn thescrewdriverover andgrind the
other facein the sameway.
- Grind theedgesandthe end of the
screwdriverbit.
- Removethe tool andinspectit.

Watchoutfor cwrheating!

SHARPENING
 Sharpening the centre punch
The centrepunch should be sharp and havea
point sharpenedto 60’. Hold the centre punch
in the sameway asthe cold chisel. SeeFig. 1.
Pressthe centrepunch againstthe grinding
wheel and roll it betweenyour fmgers,left and
right. Dip the point in water frequently to cool
it. The grinding marksshould run away from
the point asshown in Fig. 2-B. If the grinding
marksrun acrossthe point of the centrepunch,
the point is weakened.SeeFig. 2-A.
Sharpening the scriber
The scriber is sharpenedin much the sameway
asthe centrepunch.The point should havean
angle of 30’. Be careful, becausethe thin point
will bum easily during grinding. So useonly
light pressureanddip the point in water
2 frequently.
B Sharpening shear blades
When you sharpenthe bladesof the tin snip,
seeFig. 3, or the bladesof the lever shears,
you have to grind only the cutting edgesof the
blades,see3-A. The sharpeningangle should
be lo- 15’, asshownin Fig. 4-A. Ifthe
sharpeningangleis too great, the bladessoon
becomeblunt. Figs.4-B and 5-A show you a
set of wrongly sharpenedblades.If you grind
the steel side of the blades,the bladescannot
cut and the materialto be cut will wedge
betweenthe two bladesassoon as they come
together,seeFig. 5-B.
After sharpening,makesurethat the rivet cf
/, the tin snips is tight enough.If there is too
/ /’
,*‘: much spacebetweenthe blades,the tin snips
4 i’I,,I
cannotcut and material will wedgebetween
p p the blades.Someclearanceis necessary,
however, in order to be able to cut material of
various thicknesses.
10-15
/
With lever shearsit is sometimesnecessaryto
/ add a piece of stiff paperbetweenthe frame
+=Ei
A 3iiiEl 0 and the blades,when adjusting them, to ensure
that the bladespasseachother correctly.

116 I&ARPENING
r How to sharpen twist drills
Twist drills are sharpenedon a medium coarse 1
grinding wheel. As mentionedbefore,it is
difficult to sharpentwist drills and it takesa lot
of practiceto masterthis skill. The procedure
for sharpeninga twist drill is:
- Studythe drill tip andcheckthe shape.If the
drill is damaged,somerough sharpeningcan
be done.
- Takethe drill in your handand place your
finger on top of the tool rest on which the
drill will be supported.SeeFig. 1-A.
- Makesurethe axis of the twist drill is at an
angleof 59’ degreesto the face of the
grinding wheel. SeeFig. 2. It is a good idea
to file a 59’-guide on the tool rest.
- Hold onecutting edgeexactly horizontal
againstthe grinding wheel.SeeFig. 1-B.
- Pressthe cutting edgegently againstthe
grinding wheel andslowly lower your right
handwhile gr!nding.
- Do not stop while lowering your hand, but
makeone stroke.
- Repeatthe grinding strokeasmany times as
necessary.
- Dip the drill in waterfrequently and at the
sametime inspectthe shapeof the cutting
edgeandthe correctangles.
- Grind the other cutting edge,regularly
checkthe gaugefor the correct anglesand
theshapeof the two cutting edges,including
thedeadcentre.
Note: Study Fig. 3-A; you will seethe shapeof
the cuttingedgeis somewhatrounded.This is
necessarybecauseif you sharpenit straight the
clearanceanglewill be too wide, seeFig. 3-B.

3
 Twist drill sharpening gauge
it is advisableto makea sharpeninggauge
yourself for sharpeningtwist drills, seeFig. 1.
The gangeshownis madeof sheetmetal with a
thicknessof 2 to 3 mm. The three sidesoi tie
gaugehave different shapes,with the required
anglesfor:
- An angle of 118’ for both cutting edgesof
59’. see1-A.
- An angleof 6 to 8’ for the clearanceangle
of the two cutting edges,seeE-B.
- The deadcentreangle of W, see1-C
Checking different angles
- Marks on the gaugeshown in Fig. 2 makeit
possibleto checkthe drill point angleand
the lengthsof the cutting edges.Spacesof 1
to 3 mm aremarkedon both sidesto
measurethe length of eachcutting edge.
The length of the deadcentre can alsobe
measured.
- Fig. 3 showsthe correct angle of the dead
centre to the cutting edges,which is 55’. if
the deadcentreis not exactly in the centreof
the drill, the drill wobbles during operation
and producesa larger hole than the actual
diameter.
- In Fig. 4 you can seethe gaugein position
to check the clearanceangle, which may be
between6 and8’.
Clearance angle
The harderthe materialto be drilled, the less
the clearanceangleof the drill tip should be. If
the clearanceangleis too wide, the drill will
chop too much material at once, with the result
that you cannotmakea smoothhole, the drill
3 vibrates andthe cutting edgesvery soon
becomeblunt.

SHARPENING
- __ _ -~- ____-

Sharpening scissors
A pair of scissorsis very useful in the rural
workshop,becausewashersmadeof leather,
plastic, mbber or paperhave to be cut. Many
peopleoutsidethe workshopmay askfor your
help by sharpeningtheir scissors,becausethey
do not have the meansto do this themselves.
To sharpena pair of scissorsyou haveto iolow
the following proce4brre:
- Clamp the scissorsbetweenthe benchvice
and usea pair of soft vice clamps.
- File the bevellededgescarefully at the
original angle- seealso the procedurefor
sharpeningtin snipsand Fig. 1.
- If the materialof the scissorsis too hardto
file, usethe grinding stone.
- While grinding, hold the blade at an angle
acrossthe grinding face of the wheel,with
the back of the bladetilted just enoughto
grind at the desiredangle.SeeFig. 2.
- Move the bladebackand forth slowly across
the wheel.
- After the bevellededgesare renewed,finish
the sharpeningby whetting on the ftne side
of the oil stone.
Note: Ifthe scissorsare not blunt, the bevelled
edgesmay be renewedby first whetting on the
coarseside of the oil stoneand later on the fine
side of the oil stone.
Be careful to keepthe bladesperfectly flat
when whetting the flat side (Fig. 3) andat the
correct anglewhen whetting the bevelkzd
edges(Fig. 4). Study the drawings properly
and observethe position of the handsandthe
fingers. This is very important for a goodjob.

SNARPENtNG 119
 Testing the sharpnessof a knife
1 Probably the bestway to tell whether or not a
knife is sharpis to feel the blade with your
thumb. Hold the bladewith the cutting edge
upwardsin the openhand and, with very light
pressure,move the thumb lengthwise along the
edge.SeePig. 1. Be careful, do not press
againstthe edge.
If the knife takeshold or pulls on the calloused
skin of the thumb, it is sharp.If it doesnot take
hold or feels slick andsmooth,it is blunt.

of the tin snip or

lever shearblades,which have a keenedgeon
one side of the blade:,the knife has the cutting
edgein the middle of the blade. Fig. 2-A
showsthe cutting edgeof the lever shearblade
and 2-B the cutting edgeof a knife.
Sharpening a knife blade
- Use a medium or fine grinding wheel.
- Placethe bladeagainstthe wheel at the
required angle.The tip of the blade should
be somewhathigher than the handle, see
Fig. 3.
- Move the bladeover the wheel, pressingit
gently.
- Keep an eye on the tip of the blade; this will
quickly overheat.
- Dip the bladein water regularly to cool it.
- If one side is sharpened,turn the bladeand
sharpenthe other side of the cutting edge.
- Usethe samepressureon both sidesto make
sure the cutting edgeis exactly in the middle
of the blade.
- To producea keenedge,whet the bladeon
an oil stone,moving the blade as shownin
Figs. 4-A and4-B. Turn the blade after
every stroke.
Fine keen edge
A very fine keenedgeis producedwith the aid
of a piece of smoothleather. Move the blade
over the leather,turning it after every stroke.
Make sure you usepulling strokeswith the
cutting edgeir oiling not leading.

12G !SHARPENIffi
Axes
1
Sometools havespeciallyshapedcutting
edges.So it is alwaysnecessaryto study the
shapebeforesharpeninga tool.
In the caseof an axe,the cutting edgeis
slightly roundedoff in the length and on both
sides.SeeFig. 1-A. After sharpeningasshown
in I-B, a keenedgecanbe madewith the aid
of an oil stone,using first the coarseandthen
the fine side of the stone,see1-C.
Thin metal toots
Thin metal tools which arenot too hard CM be
sharpenedwith a file. Sometools, like the
shovel, are sharpenedon oneside. Other tools,
like the chopping knife, aresharpenedon two
sides.SeeFig. 2.
If for somereasona file is not available, thin
metal tools can be sharpenedwith the aid of a
small rounded-off anvil anda hammer.See
Fig. 3-A. Placethe tool in a convenient
position on top of the anvil. Hammerthe metal
towardsthe edgewith the pein of the hammer 2
so thzt it takeson the shapeshown in 3-B.
Wheny3u hammer,a burr is producedwhich
should be taken off with the oil stone.
Keen edge
A keenedgeon hammered-outtools is
producedwith an oil stone.Use:
- Coarsestone
- Medium stone
- Fine stone
Sharpening steel
The sharpeningsteelis a long round tool that is 3
madeof hardenedsteel.Along the length of
the tool very tiny groovesaremadewhich
straightenthe actualkeenedge.SeeFig. 4.
When using the sharpeningsteel,tilt the blade
slightly so the cutting edgeis in contactwith
the steel.Quickly draw it down with sweeping
diagonal strokes.Strokethe other side in the
sameway andcontinuestroking, first oneside
and then the other sideof the blade.

StiARPENlNG WI
 ^-
123
--
 How to bend a pipe
Steel pipes can be bent in the rural workshop
while the pipe is hot. Hot-bending galvanised
pipes must be avoided,becausethe heatbums
the zinc coating which protectsthe pipe against
mst. Before bending,rememberthat the bend
must never be lessthan three times the
diameterof the pipe to be bent.
Bending Procedure
- Mark the length of the bend on the side of
the pipe wherethe welding seamis. The
seammust alwaysbe cn the inside of the
bend.
- Close one end of the pipe with a wooden
plug, hammeringit in firmly.
- Fill the pipe with clean,dry sandto avoid
flattening the pipe during bending. Make
surethe sandis very dry and high-grade.
Moist sandcontainswater that turns into
steamwhen the pipe is heated- the steam
may force out the wooden plug violently.
- While filling, shakethe pipe and gently tap
the pipe wall continuously to makesureno
voids are left. SeeFig, 1-A.
- After filling the pipe, close it with another
1 wooden plug. SeeFig. 1-B.
- Heat the inside of the benda little morethan
the outsideto avoid wrinkles on the inside
of the pipe bend.
- Heat a short length of the pipe eachtime and
bend it, Repeatthis until the whole bendis
made.
A - Bending can be doneover a jig or according
to a templatemadeof sheetmetal.
- While bending,watch the cross-sectionof
the pipe very carefully to seethat it remains
round. SeeFig. 2.
- Bendscan only be made50 cm or further
,
--L-
from the end of the pipe. Never attemptto
make a bendat the end of a pipe, it is then
/,
impossibleto keepthe pipe round in shape.
,‘. %

x.
‘.

i ‘\
-i
\
IAL
I -

\I 2

PIPE BENDINGAND Ffl-TNG

Pipe wrenches
A pipe wrench,shownin Fig. 1, can be
adjustedwith a screw1-A. pipe wrenchesare
sold in different lengthsand are suitablefor
pipes with a diameterof ‘/2 to 1 inch andof 1
to 2 inchesor larger,dependingon the
adjustmentsmade.It is advisableto buy pipe
wrenchesin pairs becauseyou always need
one to hold the pipe in position and anotherto
tighten or loosenthe pipe.
Chain pipe wrenches,shown in Fig. 2, areused
to tighten or loosenpipeswith large diameters.
When you want to tighten or loosena pipe,
turn the wrenchesin the direction of the arrows
in Figs. 1 and 2. While moving the wrenchesin
thesedirections, thejaws grip correctly over
the pipe. While tightening or loosening,do not
damagethe galvanisedsurfaces.
Pipe vices
It is impossibleto clamp a pipe securelyin an
ordinary benchvice. When you tighten the
vice, the pipe is tlattened.To avoid damaging
the pipe, you can usea pipe vice as shownin
Fig. 3. If you do not havea pipe vice, you can
makea pipe clamp asshown in Fig. 4. With
this pipe clamp you canc!ampthe pipe in the 3
benchvice. Designa clamp vice for different
commonsize pipes.If you do not havea pipe
clamp or a pipe vice, you can clamp the pipe
loos~:y in the benchvice -just hand tight.
To prevent rotation of the pipe, clamp a pipe
wrench on the pipe asshown in Fig. 5. Make
surethe handleof the wrench restsagainstthe
edgeof the work bench.Positioning the pipe
wrench takessomepractice.Placethis tool in
such a way that it tightensby itself andthe
teeth do net damagethe galvanisedsurface.

PIPEWRENCH
 Pipe fitting
Large villages and institutions like schoolsand
hospitals often have a drilled boreholewith a
diesel poweredpump and a big overheadtank
to provide storageand pressure.The water
from the overheadtank is carried through pipes
to the different buildings. It is important for the
rural mechanicto know about pipe
connections,pumpsand stationary diesel
engines,to be able to maintain and repair these
installations which are of vital importanceto
the community. SeeFig. 1.
Pipe
Besidescoppertubing, galvanisedsteelpipe is
also commonly usedfor water supp!y.Since
galvanisedsteelpipes can stand moreforce,
they are widely usedin rural areas.Galvanised
meansthe pipe is coveredwith a thin layer of
zinc. This zinc protectsthe pipe against
corrosion. You canrecognizegalvanisedpipe
from its bright greyish colour.
Pipe is sold in lengthsof 6 metresanddifferent
pipe diametersare available. At present,pipe
sizesare still measuredin inches and the size
of the pipe refersto the inside diameterof the
pipe, seeFig. 2-A.
Make sureyou get the correct size when you
buy pipe of: l/z” - 3J/ - 1” - l’/z” - 1%” - 2”.

Pipe fittings
When thereis threadon the end of a pipe, the
pipe can be screwedinto a pipe fitting. Pipe
B fittings areusedto makeconnectionsbetween
pipes. Pipe fittings have the samesizesas
pipes. For example,a 1”-pipe is connectedto a
I”-fitting. Thereare fittings for many
purposes.Fig. 3 showsthe most commonly
usedfittings in rural water supply systems:
- coupling1A
C - reduced coupling 3-B
- tee3-C
- elbow 3-D
- streetelbow 3-E
- knee3F
- union 3-G
- nipj4e 3-H
- cap31

G I

126 PIPE BENDINGAND KITING

Pipe die C

A pipedie is usedto c*lt threadon a pipe.

Fig. 1 showsa die stock I-A with a set of pipe
dies 1-B. For every sizeof pipe there is a die.
The die stock hasa ratchetmechanismwhich
canbesetto turn clockwiseor anti-clockwise,
see1-I).
Sincethe pipe thread2-C is tapered,the
threadsin the die arealsotapered.SeeFig. 1
2-A. Usually a pipe die hasa collar. This D
collar, 2-B and l-C, fits just aroundthe pipe
andguidesthe die squarelyonto the pipe.
How to use the fixed pipe die
- Selectthe correctdie andput it in the die
stock.
- Placethe die on the endof the pipe, at the
sametime tuming the handleof the die
stock.SeeFig. 3.
- Whenthe die startsto cut, it screwsitself
ontothe pipe andno morepressureis
needed.
- Apply someoil at regular intervals to the
pipenearthe die.
- TLXIIthe die backa little at regular intervals
to cut and removethe chips madeby the die. 2
- Continueto turn the die until one thread
projectsthrough *hedie.
- Turn the die back.
Whenthe threadingis finished. get the metal
chipsfrom the die andcleanthe die and the
stockwith a cloth. Beforeyou storethe tools,
oil ail partsa little to preventthem from
corrosion.

TNREAmG 127
 Adjustable pipe die
In the rural workshopthe adjustablepipe die is
HG ABC D more often usedthan the fixed pipe die. The
advantageof the adjustablepi die is that it
can cut threadson pipes from T/2 to 2 inches.
Partsof an adjustablepipe die are shownin
Fig. 1:
- die 1-A
- die plate 1-B
- flange ring 1-C
- knurled ring 1-D
- eccentriclever 1-E
- collar lever 1-F
- locking lever 1-G
- die block 1-H
Nure: There arethree setsof dies for:
1/2wto 3/4”-pipe
1” to 1l/z”-pipe
11t2w to 2”-pipe
Each setconsistsof 4 pieceswhich are
numberedon top l-2-3-4. Fig. 2-A shows
piece no.4 of the die that cuts I to l’/b”-thread.
Mounting the die (Fig. 3)
- Turn the die plate so that lines 3-A coincide.
Now the die can be exchanged.
- When you insert the dies, makesureyou put
every piecein the correct slot: the numbers
are markedin circles on the die plate. See
Fig. 3-C.
- The slots in the dies should faceupwards.
Threading with the adjustable die
- Turn the die plate so the pipe sizenumber
3-B coincideswith line 3-O. Tighten the
locking lever.
- Turn the eccentriclever clockwise.Placethe
die stock on the pipe and adjustthe collar.
- Turn the eccentriclever anti-clockwiseand
start the threading.Do not forget to apply oil
from time to time. Break the metalchips
whennecessary.
- Usethe knurled ring to adjustthe ratchet
mechanism.
- Do the threadingin two steps.First adjust
the die plate to cut a bit oversize.
A x..

-
128 THREADMG
Cutting a pipe
A simplemethodof marking a pipe before
cutting is shown in Fig. 1. Take a piece of
paperwith a straight edge.Fold the paper
roundthe pipe, making surethe straight side
coincidesall over its length round the pipe.
Mark the pipe with a pencil or cha&
You cancut the pipe with a hack saw,see
fig. 2. Use a fine blade,becauseif the blade is
too roughthe teeth may breakoff during
cutting. It is very importantthat you cut the
pipe squareand straight,otherwiseit will be
difficult to start threadingthe pipe at a later
stage.After cu*--nq,removethe burr on the
insideof the pipe with a half round file.
Pipe thread
The threadon water pipe is known asBrirish
StandurdPipe thread(B.S.P.).Pipe thread is
different from threadon bolts, becauseit is
tapered,seeFig. 3.
Why is this pipe threadtapered(Fig. 4)?
Becausethis gives a watertightjoint when the
pipe is screwedasfar aspossibleinto the pipe
fitting.
 Cutting and threading
Pipe is often threadedin the workshopbut
assemblyis doneon the spot. When measuring
pipes which must fit in a certain place,do not
forget the length of the thread that is screwed
into the fittings. SeeFig. 1.
----a Sometimesthe required pipe fittings arenot
available. You can make someyourself. A
locally madeelbow is shown in Fig. 2. When
making this elbow, be sure there is enough
length on both sidesto makethe thread2-X. A
reducing coupling can be madeby welding two
piecesof pipe together. Apply somepaint on
the inside andthe outside of the socket.See
1 Fig. 3-A. Insteadof using a cap, a pieceof pipe
can be hammeredflat and welded togetheras
shown in Fig. 4. Other parts can also be made
locztlly. It is left to your imagination how to
makethem.
Since the galvanisedlayer which protectsthe
pipe againstrust may be damagedwhile these
parts are being made,paint dl partsinside and
outside beforeassemblingthem.
Bury a pipeline deepenoughto avoid damage
by ploughing, hoeing etc. SeeFig. 5. At road
crossingspipesshould be laid deepenoughin
the ground andcovered with concrete.Before
assembly,checkall pipes for dirt andinsectsor
animals. Put a plug in the open end of a pipe
line when the work stops.

concrete
 --- -

Assemblingpipes and fittings

Whenyou work with galvanisedpipes you
shouldbe very careful not to damagethe layer
of zinc that protectsthe pipe againstrust. But
you cannot avoid taking off somel>,fthe zinc
whencutting a threadon a pipe. Thts is why 1
rust will appearfirst at the threadedjoints. To
protectpipe joints againstcorrosion andmake
themwatertight, you cando the following:
- Wrap somesealingtape aroundthe pipe
thread,seeFig. 1.
- Apply somesealingcompound- for
instancebituminouspaint on the pipe
thread,then wind somehemp round the
thread.Be carefui not to usetoo muchhemp
or tightening will be very diicult andyou
may not be ableto tighten the whole thread
inside the pipe fitting. SeeFigs. 2 and3.
When you screwa pipe joint, you needtwo
pipe wrenchesasshownin Fig. 4. Turn the
pipe wrenchonly in the direction in which the
jaws are pointing. If you turn it the other way,
the wrenchhasno grip on the pipe. Keepa
firm grip on the wrenches.If they slip too often
they damagethe layer of zinc on the pipe. The
openingbetweenthe two legs of the pipe
wrench should bejust large enoughto suit the
size of your hand.
Installing valvesand taps on a pipe
Valves andtapsaremadeof soft brassand
havehexagonends,so it is possibleto tighten
them. Do not usea pipe wrench on theseparts
as this will damage the surface.Always usea
spanner.When you screwa valve onto a @pe,
put the spanneron the nut nearestto the pope,
seeFig. 5-A.
If you usethe othernut S-B, you will probably
damage and distort the whole valve.
Repairing leaks
Small leaksin a pipe (Fig. 1) can be repaired
with a pieceof sheetmetal. Preparea piece as
shown in Fig. 2. Apply somesealing
compoundaroundthe leak. Clamp the sheet
round the pipe and tighten the nuts. For larger
leaks you haveto replacethe pipe.
- Close the valve to shut off the water
pressure.
- Cut the pipe with a hack saw, seeFig. 3.
- Unscrewthe two pipe sections.
- Cut new threadon the two pieceswhich
have beencut a secondtime exactly to the
requiredlength, seeFig. 4.
- Fix a union with sealing tape.
- Fix the two pipe sectionsand tighten the
union.
Before using the samepipe, makesurethe leak
is not the result of rust. If that is the case,you
had bettterusea new piece of pipe.
Polyvinyl chloride pipes
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a kind of plastic
that can be usedto makepipesfor water
supply. As you will understand,PVC pipesare 1
cheaperto producethan galvanisedsteelor
copperpipes. Pipesaremadewith the same
inside diametersasthe galvanisedsteelpipes.
On requestyou can obtain a catalogueof all
fittings madefor the useof PVC pipes.
Rememberthat PVC materialsextremely
polute the environmentwhen theseare burnt.
2
Specialfittings may be neededto connectPVC
pipe to galvanisedpipe. A threadedPVC
coupling is shownin Fig. 1. A union with one
end madeof PVC andthe other madeof
galvanisedsteelis shownin Fig. 2.
PVC fittings areglued insteadof screwed.
Specialglue is usedfor this. Readthe
instructionson the tin very carefully before
you start using this glue. PVC pipes can be
benteasily over a charcoalfire. Like all pipes,
they should be filled with very fine, dry sand.
During heating.the flamesshould not touch
the pipe, otherwisethey burn the PVC. After
heating, bendthe pipe while rubbing it with a
piece of cloth to smoothout the bend.
You do not needto usespecially made
connectorsto connectpipestogether.You can
insteadexpandthe end of eachpipe andglue
them together.To expandthe end of a pipe,
you canheatthe end of the pipe. Carefully
pressa taperedwoodenblock, shown in Fig. 3,
into the pipe andturn it around.SeeFig. 4.
Removethe block andglue the pipes together.
A PVC pipeline shouldbe buried at least 3
60 cm deepin the ground,otherwisethe pipe
becomestoo hot during daytime and too cold
during the night. This makesthe pipe expand
andshrink. which causesleakageat thejoints.
Do not exposethe PVC directly to sunlight
becauseit will becomevery brittle.

PVCPips 133
 Main valves
Fig. 1 showsa cross-sectionof a gate valve.
Gate valves aremostly usedin main pipelines,
becausein main pipelines the water should
flow easily andthe valves are rarely closed.
Partsof a gatevalve are:
- Hand wheel 1-A
- Packing unit 1-B
- Packing ring 1-c
- Packing box 1-D
- Spindle 1-E
- Gate 1-F
When you turn the hand wheel, the spindleand
the gate move up or down. When the gateis
down, the watercannotflow and the gateis
closed, seeFig. 2. When the gate is up, the
water can passandthe valve is open,we Fig. 3.
1 Remember:Turn the wheel clockwise to close
the valve. Turn the wheel anticlockwise to
openthe valve.
Disadvantage of gate valve
The disadvantageof the gate valve is that it
cannot be rep&d. When the gate is worn out
2 the valve hasto be replaced.
Packing box
The packing box, l-D, is a very important part
of the gatevalve. Most valves and pumpshave
a packing box. The packing box preventswater
leaking around the spindle. When ycu tighten
the nut, the packingring 1-B is pressedround
the spindle on top of seat1-C. Do not
over-tighten the nut. It should be just tight
enough so that no water can leak. Replacethe
packing ring when it is damaged.

134 VALVES
Globe valve
The globe valve in Fig. 1 is more common
than the gatevalve. Someparts arethe samein
both valves:
- Packingnut 1-A
- Packingring 1-B 0 A
- Packingbox 1-c E c
- Spindle 1-D
Other partsare:
- Rubberwasher/metalwasher1-E
- Seat1-F
D
The valve is closedwhen the rubber washeris
presseddown. The valve is open whenthe
rubber washeris positionedupwards.See
Fig. 2.
On the outsideof the globe valve you seean
arrow pressedinto the metal. Connectthe F
valve so that the water flows in the direction of
the arrow.

Tap
A tap is a wateroutlet. It works in the same 1
way asa globe valve. Most tapshave l/r” or
Y/-thread which can be screwedinto a
correspondingfitting.
Replacing the rubber washer
When a globe valve or a tap leaks,it usually
meansthe rubberwasheris worn out. If no
washeris available,it may help to turn over
the old rubberwasher.
The correctshapeof a seatis shownin
Fig. 1-F. Whenthe seatis rough or pitted, the
tap or valve will leak. In that casesmooththe
seatwith a specialseatreameror a pieceof
sandpaper.
fmporfant: makesurethe spindle is turnedup
when you assemblea valve or a tap. Whatcan
happenif you do not do this?

VALVES 135
137
Introductions
More water is neededevery day for the
growing humancommunity. But we cannot
increasethe quantity of water on the earth.We
can only conserve,protect and makebetteruse
of what we have(from World Neighboursin
Action).
Water takenfrom pondsor rivers shouldnot be
usedfor humanconsumption.Many diseases
are causedby dirty drinking water, so it is
better to useclean water from a handpump.
Every rural mechanicshould feel responsible
for the water pumpsin his areaand maintain
them regularly.
Pump valves
Every water pump has valves. Thesevalvesare
very important partsof the pump. Beforeyou
can understandhow a pump works, you first
have to understandthe purposeof the valves
and how they work. A pump valve is a
one-waypassagefor water. Water can flow
through a valve in one direction. But assoonas
the water wantsto flow in the other direction,
the valve shutsoff the water flow, seeFig. 1.
Types of pump valves
Three typesof valves arecommonly used:
- Flap valve, seeFig. 1
- Ball valve, seeFig. 2
- Poppetvalve, seeFig. 3
Flap valve
This is a rubberor leather flap. A metaldisk is
attachedto the flap to help close off the water
passage.This type of valve can easily be made
or repairedin the rural workshop. SeeFig. 1-A.
Ball valve
This is a very simple valve. The water flow is
shut off when the ball is pressedon the valve
seat.Dirt or corrosion may causethis valve to
leak. SeeFig. 2-A.
Poppet valve
Here the watefflow is controlled by a disk. The
disk hasa stemto guide its movement.This
valve is very sensitiveto dirt and corrosion
which can block free movementof the stem.
SeeFig. 3-A.

HAND PUMPMAINTENANCE
Types of pumps
Threetypes of waterpumpsareexplained
below:
- Suctionpump
- Suction/pressurepump
- Lift pump
The srrction pump
The suction pumpgot its namebecauseit
sucksthe water out of a well or a borehole.It is
importantto rememberthat this type of pump
cannotsuck waterif the water level is more
than8 metresbelow ground level. Fig. 1 shows
a suctionpump with a separatepump piston.
Fig. 2 is a diagramof the suction pump andthe
pumppiston.
Partsof the suctionpump are:
- Pumpcylinder 1-A.
- Suctionpipe 1-B.
This pipe goesdown into the welI or the
borehole andreachesbelow water level.
- Pumphandle 1-C.
- Pumprod 1-D.
The pump rod movesthe piston up and
downinside the cylinder,
- Piston1-E.
In the middle of the piston is a hole with a
valve.
- Pistonseal 1-F.
Around the piston is a leatheror rubber seal,
sealingoff the gapbetweenthe piston and
thecylinder.
- Pistonvalve 1-G.
This is the valve in the hole of the piston.
- Footvalve 1-H. This is the valve at the
bottomof the cylinder.

THESUCTlONPlJMP 139
 How the suction pump works
In Figs. 1 to 3 you can seeagain a diagramof
the suction pump.When you pump water, you
move the handleand thus also the piston up
and down. The movementsof the piston are
called srroki?s.
Suction strokes
Pushingthe handledown makesthe piston
move up andthe cylinder volume 1-A becomes
larger. Becauseof this, water is suckedinto the
cylinder through the footvalve 1-X. At the
sametime the water at 1-B is lifted by the
piston andflows out of the cylinder through
the water outlet.
#-

-- i-
.---
Return strokes
Lifting the handle(Fig, 2) makesthe piston
move down andthe cylinder volume 2-A gets

----4,
--ti--
smaller. Now the water is pressedout of the
cylinder through the piston valve 2-Y. No
water flows out of the water outlet (spout) of
1 the pump during the return stroke.
Priming the pump
When the foot valve closesperfectly, thereis
always water in the pump and in the suction
pipe. But in tropical countries therewill be no
water if the pump is not usedregularly,
becauseof evaporationthrough heat.In that
caseyou haveto pour somewater on top of the
piston to makethe leather piston sealwet. This
is calledpriming the pump.
Summary
Refer to Fig. 3.
- Primedsuction stroke %A.
- Return stroke3-B.
- Suction stroke3-C.

I
- Return stroke(half) 3-D.
- - Return stroke(full) 3-E.
- Suction stroke3-F.

----
----
1Fh--Y--
3

A B C D E F

140 TMESUCTIONPllMP
The suction/lift pump
1
Figure 1 showsa suctionIlift pump. This pump
got its namebecause:
- It suckswater out of a well or borehole
which cannot bedeeperthan 8 metresbelow
ground level.
- At the sane time i! can lift the water to a
higher level, for exampleto an overhead
tank.
Parts of the suction/lift pump
- Pumprod 1-A
- Packingbox 1-B
- Pumphandle 1-C
- Pumpcylinder 1-D
- Suction pipe 1-E
- Riser pipe 1-F
- Priming cup 1-G
- Piston M
- Foot valve I
How the suction/lift pump works
There is only one importantdifference
betweenthe suctionpump andthe suction/lift
pump - this is the packingbox. The packing
box is the sameCEin tapsand valves. The
suction/lift pump works in exactly the same
way asthe suction pump.It is possibleto
connecta riser pipe to the spout of the pump.
With the riser pipe you can pump the waterup
to a higher level. If therewere no packing bcx,
the water could neverbe pumpedup in the
riser pipe. Insteadit would leak along the
pump rod.
Figure 2 showsa diagramof the suction/lift
pump. Write all the correctletters m :“p
correctcircles.

THE SUCWN’UFT PUMP

 The lift pump
As we have seenbefore, the suction pump and
the suction pressurepmmpare easyto repair
becausethe pump cylinders are locatedabove
the ground.The disadvantageof thesepumps
is that they cannotsuck water deeperthan 8
meuesbelow ground level. When the water
level is deeperthan 8 meuesit is necessaryto
use a lijpump. This is the casewith almost all
boreholcs,becausethe ground water level in
theseboreholesis deeperthan in wells.
How a lift pump works
The working of a lift pump is similar to other
pumps,but with the difference that the pump
cylinder is loweredinto the boreholeasseenin
Fig. I. Becausethe cylinder is underwater, it
is not necessaryto prime the lift pump. If there
is trouble with the cylinder piston or valves, it
is necessaryto lift the riser pipe in orderto
bring the cylinder to the surface.
How to maintain and repair a lift pump
As mentionedabove,it is sometimesnecessary
to raise eachcylinder to the surface.In the next
lessonsyou will learn how to do this.
Parts of pump stand assembly
Refer to Fig. 1-R.
- Pin 1-A
- Coupling 1-B
- Rumprod 1-C
- Cap 1-D
- Spout 1-E
- Fulcrum 1-F
- Pin 1-G
- Handle 1-H
- Standbase1-I
Parts of connecting assembly
Refer to Fig. 1-S.
- Drop pipe 1-J
- Pumprod 1-K
Parts of cylinder assembly
Refer to Fig. I-T and detail.
- Drop pipe 1-L
- Cylinder cap 1-M
- Dischargevalve 1-N
- cups 1-o
- Suction valve 1-P
- Cap1-Q

142 THELIFTPUMP
Lifting the riser pipe
When you haveto repair the pump cylinder of
a Lift pump, it is necessaryto lift the riser pipe
with the cylinder out of the borehole.A riser
pipe is quite heavybecauseit is filled with
water. Somefirms in chargeof topairing
pumpsus: a hoisting winch, which is mounted
on a vehicle. Howeverwith a few strongmen
it is possibleto lift the riser pipe by hand.
When a hoisting winch or a tripod with a
wheel and ropeis usedto lift the pipe, you
needan eye coupling to connectthe winch to
the pipe. SeeFig. 4.
Equipment needed
The following equipmentis neededto lift the 1
riser pipe by hand:
- Two pipe wrenches,seeFig. 1
- Two vice grips, seeFig. 2
- Two pipe clamps
- Two piecesof timber, 3 metreslong
- Pipe.coupling
Lifting the riser pipe by hand
A rural mechanicshould know how to lift a
riser pipe by handbecausesomevillages
cannotbe reachedby car in the rainy season
andthe hoisting vehiclesare not alwayson the
road.
Procedure
- Fii a clamp asshown in Fig. 3.
- Insert the two piecesof wood on either side 2
of the pipe underthe clamp.
- Raisethe riser pipe as far aspossible.
- Fix a secondclamp again.
- Repeatthe procedureagain until the whole 4
riser pipe andthe cylinder are out of the
bore hole.
- For safetyreasons,fix the eye coupling at
the end of the pipe eachtime. Then the pipe
can not slip through the clamp.

----II_
ASSEMBLY
ANDDISASSEMBLY 143
 How to lift the riser pipe
Whenthe riser pipe is being lifted, it is clear
that only one man should give the commands
to avoid mistakesand accidentsduring this
work. The first job is to removethe pump
head.The pump basemustremain bolted on
the concretebase.How you haveto remove the
pump headwill be explained later on.
As shown in Fig. 1, put a pipe clamp on the
riser pipe. The pipe clamp is usedto Lift the
riser pipe with the aid of two piecesof wood of
about3 m. Also fix a pipe coupling on top of
the riser pipe. This coupling is for the sakeof
safetyif the riser pipe slips through the clamp.
With the two piecesof wood, lift the riser pipe
asfar aspossible.Then fix a secondclamp
round the riser pipe. Lift the pipe again with
the two piecesof wood until you reachthe end
of the first section. Fix a clamp asshown in
Fig. 2. Usetwo pipe wrenchesto disconnect
the first pipe section. Lift the pipe section a
little asshown in Fig. 3. Keepthe pipe in a
steadyvertical position. If you do not keep the
pipe vertical, you bendthe pump rod.
USPtwo ,@p wrenchesto disconnectthe pump
rod. 1 akc carenot to drop the pump rod into
the riser pipe or into the borehole after
disconnection.&peat the procedureuntil the
whole pipe and cylinder are out of the borehole.

As mentionedabove,oneman gives the

commandsand the othersfollow his
instructions. Make sure that all helpers know
their position and their work.

144 ASSEMELYAND DISASSEMBLY

Transporting pipes and rods
Thereis somerisk that the threadsof pipes and
rods will ‘bedamagedwhile they are being
transported.Couplingsshouldthereforebe left
on theendsof the pipesandnuts on the endsof
rods.In this way at leastoneend of eachpipe
androd is protected.During transport,rods are
kept inside pipesso that they cannotbend.See 1
alsoFig. 1.
Beforeinstallation
Beforeinstalling the riser pipe and the pump
rod, makesurethat:
- Everypipe hasa coupling on oneend.
- Everyrod hasa coupling on one end.
- Thereis one rod in every pipe.
- Thecoupling end of the pipe and the rod are
at oneand the sameside.
- The length of eachpipe plus coupling equals 2
thelength of the correspondingrod plus
coupling.
Installation of the riser pipe
The procedurefor installing the riser pipe is
the reverseof the procedurefor lifting the riser
pipe.If the threadis damaged,you haveto
restoreit at the work site. The thread of a
pumprod can be restoredwith a die or a die
nut, seeFig. 2.
British, American andMetric threadsare used
on pumprods,dependingon wherethey come
from. Note that ‘/2nBritish and American
threaddo not havethe samepitch! The pipe
threadcan be restoredwith a smal!triangular
file, seeFig. 3.
Note:During installation, makesurethat yau
applysomebituminouspaint to eachthreadto 3
protectthem againstcorrosion.

ASSEMBLY
AND DISASSEMBLY 145
 Pump maintenance
Refer to Fig. 1.
- Pumprod 1-A:lubricate every week.
- Stuffing box 1-B: check every month.
- Hinge pins 1-C: lubricate every week.
- Exposediron work 1-D: paint.
- Concreteslab 1-E: clean every day.
- Pumprod 1-F.
- Pumprod coupling 1-G.
- Drop pipe 1-H.
- BrasscyImder 1-I: look for symptomsof
wear from time to time.
- Leathers/Leathercup 1-J: look for
symptomsof wear.
- Plunger valve 1-K: check now andthen.
- Suction valve 1-L.
Pump trouble-shooting
In many cases,pump failures are causedby the
breakageof hinge pins, bearings,bolts or
levers at the pump head.Such breakagesam
easily detectedandrepaired, becausethe are
aboveground level. To prevent from breakage,
the hinges andsliding parts of the pump should
be greasedevery week. Bolts and other
connectionsshould be checkedandtightened
every month. Do not over-tighten the mounting
bolts in the concreteslab, becausethe bolt may
break.
If the pump delivers lesswater, this may be
due to worn leathers,leaky valves, blockageof
a foot valve, a leaky riser pipe or the well
drying up.
If the pump handlemoveswithout arty
resistanceit meansthe pump rod is broken.
Spare parts for pumps
If you go to the Water and SewageCorporation
for spareparts,you have to statevery clearly:
- Location of pump.
- Type of pump.
- Serial numberof pump.
- Clear descriptionwith sketch or drawing of
the brokenor damagedpart. If possible,
bring the brokenpart along.

146 MAlNrENNANCE
The monarch pump
The monarchpump is a lift pump with a
cylinder andpiston at the end of the riser pipe.
This type of pump canbe usedwhen the water
level is lessthan 20 metresbelow ground level.
Whenthe water level is deeper,this kind of
pumpshouldnot be usedbecausethe lever
systemis not strongenough.
Parts of the monarch pump
Referto Fig. 1 andcrosssectionof detail.
- Flangebolts 1-A
- Pumprod 1-B
- Pumprod 1-C
- Pumprod coupling 1-D
- YEr pipe flange, screwedto the riser pipe
- Pumpbase1-F
- Borehole lining 1-G
- Concretebase1-H
Dismantling the monarch pump
- Removethe fuur flange bolts at 1-A.
- Lift the pump headfrom the pump base.
- Usethe vice grip wrenchesto grip the pump
rod at 1-B and 1-C.
- Unscrewcoupling 1-D andremovethe
pumphead.
- Lift the pipe flange 1-E which is connected
to the riser pipe.
Assemblingthe monarch pump
4ssemblingthe pump is the sameas
dismantlingtn reverse.Beforeassembly,check
all parts,cleanthem andusebituminous paint
for all connections.
India Mk II pump
3
Referto Figs. 1 t;; 3.
- Inspectioncover 1-l
- Chain l-2
- Handle l-3
- Sealedbearingl-4
- Connectingrod check nut l-5
- spout l-6
- Pumpstandl-7
- Pistonrod l-8
- Front plate 2-9
- Chain 2-10
- spout 2-11
- Pi 2-12
- Bracket2-13
- Handle2-14
- Chain, guide 2-15
- Chain 2-16
- Coupling 2-17
- Tee 2-18
- Nipple 2-19
- Reducer2-20
- Pipe 2-21
- Rod 2-22 1
- Nut 2-23
- Side cover 3-24
- Greasenipple 3-25
- Baseplate3-26

1213 14

2
3

148 CORQlllloN
USEDPUMPS
Robbins & Meyers pump
The R&M lift pumpis a specialdesign,see
Fig. 1. The pump rod doesnot move up and
down; it turns round.The pump rod is driven
by a gearboxin the pump head.Look at Fig. 2.
The pump rod 2-U tums the rotor 2-V inside a
rubber szator2-W. This rubber statoris bound
to the inside of the pipe.
The rotor screwsthe water upwardsassoonas
the pump rod is turnedround. As you cansee,
this pump hasneither a piston nor a cylinder.
Maintenance C
The R&M lift pump requireslittle or no
maintenance.Every threeyearsthe greasein
the greasebox hasto be replaced.Removethe
four bolts at 1-A andpack the gearboxhair full
with the correctgrease.
After severalyearsof use,the pump capacity
may fall. If that happens,the stator is worn out
andhasto be replaced.
How to dismantle the R&M pump
- Usean Allen key to removethe four socket
bolts at 1-A. 1
- Lift the pumpheadfrom the base1-B and
fix a pipe clampas seenat 1-C.
- In mostcasesthe riser pipes are fitted into
the pump headwith an adaptorbushing1-D.
- Removethe drive shaft coupling 1-E from
the gearbox.This coupling is recessedin the
pump headandis difficult to reach.
- Lift the riser pipe out of the borehole.
The last sectionis madeof Y-pipe.
Note: Do not attemptto repair the rubberin the
StatOr.Lf the rubberstatoris worn out or
damaged,it mustbe replacedby a new one. v

COwuNusEoPUMPs
 Making a leather cup
Beforemaking a cup, study the shapeof the
1 old cup. Make a sketch with all dimensions
andfind a good piece of leather.SeeFig. 1.
Constructa wooden mould asshown in Fig. 2.
Reinforcethe wood with someclamps,see
2-C. The hole in the mould should be 1%
greaterin diameterdue to shrinkageof the
leatherduring the drying process.
Cut the leatherto roughly the right shape.
Placeit in water to makeit soft. Placethe
leatherover the hole in the mould. Placedisk
2-B exactly over the centre.Clamp the mould
betweenthe jaws of the benchvice. Tighten it
gradually until the leathercup is formed. See
Fig. 3.
Heatup stear%e,a candle wax, to 90 ‘C. Take
the cup out of the mould andplace it in the hot
stearine.Do not soakthe leathertoo long in the
stearinebecauseyou may bum it. Replacethe
cup at oncein the mould andcool it rapidly in
cold water.Take out the cup and finish the
shapingwith a sharpknife. SeeFig. 4.

LEATHERCUP
161
 Sheet metal work
When you werea young boy, you madecars,
lorries, etc. from old tins. This is a very nice
exampleof sheetmetal work. The metal of
usedtins can also be reused to make
householdimplementssuch as boxes,drinking
mugs, funnels, measuringcontainersetc.

1 Sheetsteel is light in weight and easyto form.

It thereforeoccursin many different shapes.
Shaping andassemblingsheetmetal to
finished productsinvolves:
- Design
- Making developments
- Marking sheetmetal
- Cutting/bending/shaping
- Joints andseams
- Riveting andsoldering
2 - Finishing
Design
Before the actualdesign is made,you should
know somethingaboutshaping sheetmetalin
such a way that it can stand and carry forces.
A piece of sheetmetal as shown in Fig. 1
cannot standmuchforce in the direction of the
arrow and bendseasily.
3 But if you takethe samepiece of sheetmetal
n-n-!! and shapeit asshown in Fig. 2 it can stand
more force in the direction of the arrow.
Look aroundandnotice products madeof
sheetmetal andyou will seethat most of the
sheetmetal is shapedto gain strength.
Roofing sheetsasshown in Figs. 3-A and3-B
are corrugatedto makethem stronger.
Fuel or oil drumsare not madesquarebut
round to avoid bulging. The side is sometimes
shapedto gain strength.SeeFig. 4.
Neither is the door of a car or lorry madeflat
but is designedwith various curvesto make
4 the door stronger.SeeFig. 5.
Zngeneralsheetmetal products should be
designedin sucha way that the metal acquires
ROE strength.

13 SHEETYEfAL WORK
Sheet metal development
To makean objectlike the metal box shownin
Fig. 1 you needa drawing showing all views if
the material from which the box is to be made 1
is heavy andcannotbe bent. SeeFig. 2.
If the samebox is to be madefrom thin sheet
metal, a lay-out is drawn directly on the sheet
metal or on a pieceof paperfirst. This lay-out
is called a development.
More information on developmentscan be ,
found in the drawing book of the Rural
MechanicsCoutse. 2

Template IJI
If you have to makemorethan one of the same
development,it is advisableto makea
temp!atefirst. A templatecan be madefrom
any hard material,seeFig. 3.
A templatemusthaveexactly the sameoutside
dimensionsasthe objectto be made.If
required,notchescan be filed at the edgesof
the templateor holesdrilled in it to mark the
folding lines. Then placeth, templateon the
sheetmetal andscribethe outline firmly.
When using the template,be sureto leave
enoughspacebetweenthe objectsto allow for
cutting the material.
Fig. 4 illustratesincorrect marking. At X there
is no room for you to cut with the tinsnip.
Fig. 5 showsa marking method wherewasteof
matelial is minimal, seethe shadedarea.
Fig. 4 showsanothermarking methodwherea
lot of material is wasted.

DEVElBPHENl 153
 Marking
On a developmentcutting lines arescribed
with a firm, full line.
Folding lines are thinner and dottedin order to
----- avoid mistakesin cutting the material.Before
scribing the developmenton the sheetmetal,
draw a referenceline I-A asshown in Fig. 1.
----- Scribe a secondline 1-B perpendicularto this
line. You can draw the developmentof the
-A object betweentheselines.
Bending lines and cutting lines can be
indicated by drawing them with a pecil
(Fig. 2-A) or with a hard metal scriber
(Fig. 2-B).

2A The indication of a middle point is called

centring. This can be done with a centrepunch.
Ensureyou have a strong, firm baseanddo not
makethe centrehole too deep,seeFig. 3.
Reinforcement and joints
Beforeyou are able to designthe most 1
commondevelopments,you should know
moreaboutthe way sheetmetalcan be joined
togetherand reinforced.Thesejoint seamsand
reinforcementrequiresomeadditional material
which must be shownon the developmentof
eachwotkpiece.
The metai box shownin Fig. 1 is not strong.
The four sidesof the box areliable to bulge out
due to inside pressureandthe solderedbutt
joints (seearrow) at the four comers,which do --_-----
not give a strong structure.Fig. 2 showsa
developmentof this box andit is good to 2 I
comparethis later with the developmentsin I I
-----
Figs. 3 and4.
Flaps and notches
To reinforce the metalbox at the four comers,
flaps are addedon the long or short sidesof the
box, seeFig. 3-A. To avoid sharpcomers,the
flaps are cut off at 45’ on all sides,see3-B.
There is a risk of cutting too deepwhen you
cut the edgeson the flaps.So it is advisableto
<rill small holes of about2 to 2.5 mm at the
corners,see3-C. Theseholesalso help to give 3
the material ampleplay when the flaps are
folded.
Note againthefull cutting lines and the dotted
folding lines.
C
--- I3
Safety edges
The rop edgeof the metalbox is sharpand
thereforedangerous.To avoid accidents,the ----
top edgecan be folded over to a su,&redge,see
Fig. 4-A. The materialfor the safetyedgeis
addedto the height of the box, seeFig. 4-B.
Note also the way the notch andthe safety
edgeare shapedat 4-C.
The safetyedgealsoactsasreinforcement
againstside pressureon the sidesof the box.

C
-
-------

---mm-

DEVELOPMENT 155
Cutting sheetmetal
Tinsnip
A tinsnip is usedto cut thin material suchas
sheetmetal. Hold the tinsnip with your right
hand, placing yollr little finger inside the lower
handle so you KU move the handle up and
down. ‘I& tinsnip shown in Fig. 1 is usedfor
cutting sheetmetal in a straight line. The
dotted lines 1-A and 1-B show how the metal
finds its way during the cutting procedure.
Becausethe jaws of the tinsnip shown in Fig. 2
are at an angle,this tinsnip makesit possibleto
leave the metalflat during cutting. But a small
spaceshould be forged to lodge the lower jaw.
It takesa lot of practiceto find the space
during cutting.
Specially shapedtinsnips are available for
curved work. Tinsnips with an extra lever are
shown in Fig. 3.
Cutting sheetm&al
The besrtool for cutting sheelmetal is a pair of
tinsnipsasshown in Fig. 1. The two eyes at the
endof the handlesmakeit easyto openthe
tinsnip when needed,contrary to someother
straighttinsnips which do not have theseeyes
andthus makeopeningmoredifficult.
Cutting is done along a scribedline, holding
the tinsnip in your right handandthe metal in
your left. Before cutting the whole line, first
makea notch at the beginningof the line.
Openthe bladeswide andinsert the metal all
the way back in the throat, making surethe
cutting edgeof the upperbladeis exactly over
the scribedline. SeeFig. 2. Then squeezethe
handlestogether. ----

It is bestnot to cut all the way 0Litto the tips of

the bladesbut to stop towardsthe end and 2
make a new cut, avoiding the small nicks and
burrsmadeby the end of the bladesif
full-length cuis are made.
Whencutting larger sheets,allow the right part
fo benddown over the edgeof the workbench
andpull the left part up to leavespacefor your
handto operatethe tinsnip. SeeFig. 3.
Heavymetal can be cut by clamping the sheet
betweentwo piecesof angleiron and shearing
it with a cold chisel, seeAg. 4
Fig. 5 showshow you can alsousea straight
tinsnip to cut outsidecurves.First cut away the
excessmaterial andthen trim tha curve,
allowing the wastematerialto curl or roll up.

157
Cutting a large hale
Cutting a large hole in sheetmetal is done with
a curved tinsnip. To be able to enter, pierce a
hole through the centreof the hole, large
enoughfor the tinsnip to passthrough. See
Fig. 1. Cut the material spirally, so that the
wastecomesout in narrow strips. When
cutting with the curvedtinsnip, place a finger
on the inside of the lower handle making it
possibleto openthe tinsnip while cutting.
Cutting action
In Fig. 2 you seea cross-sectionof a cutting
action on sheetmetal. You note that the blades
havecutting edges2-A with anglesto the sheet
metal 2-B. The real angleof the cutting edgeis
determinedby 2-C. You note too that the
bladeshave a clearanceangle 2-D to each
other.
If angle2-B is too large,the bladesam very
sharpbut quickly becomeblunt. If the angle is
too small the bladescannotcut correctly. The
correctangle for B is approximately 8’.
While cutting there is somefriction between
the blades,the clearanceangle 2-D prevents
this friction as far aspossibleand at the same
time gives a better,keeneredge.
If the bladesdo not passeachother correctly as
shown in Fig. 3, the metalto be cut tilts and
squeezesand a cleancut is not possible. See
also Fig. 4.
Beforeusing the tinsnip, check whether the
rivet or bolt holding the bladesin position is
tight enoughfor the bladesto passeachother
correctly. If the bladeshaveto be sharpened,
takethe tinsnip apartandshapeit correctly as
you have learnedin a previous lesson.Do not
attemptto cut heavier material than the tinsnip
is designedfor and do not useit to cut
hardenedsteel wire.
Lever Shears
Levershearsare shown in Fig. 1. Theselever
shearsare very useful in the workshopbecause
you cancut thicker materialwith them. The
cutting action is similar to that of cutting with
a tinsnip, the difference beingthat the jaws are
movedby the lever 1-A.
Working with lever shears
Nevercut material thicker than the pemntted
thickness.Sharpenthe bladeof the shears
regularly so that they remainsharpand less
forceis required when cutting. Always usethe
hold-down,seeFig. 1-B. Thenthe bladeswill
not twist away from eachotherand there will
he no play betweenthe blades.
Sharpenthe blade so that it is slightly ccnvex,
seeFig. 5. A convex blademakesthe cutting
work a little easier.
 Folding bars
Sheetmetal can be bent over the edgeof the
work benchor, if the workpieceis small, in the
benchvice. Larger foldings can be madewith a
specially preparedangle iron, seeFig. 1. The
bar is fixed in the bench vice.
If foldings with a round comerhave to be
made,a hardwood folding bar ca.1be madeto
the shaperequired. SeeFig. 2. It is advisableto
constructthe folding barsin sucha way that
the inside, over the length of the bar, is slightly
hollow to ensurea good grip over the whole
length.
Another way to obtain a round comer is by
clamping the workpiece in the vice around a
metalrod, seeFig. 3. Selectthe diameterof the
rod smallerthan the diameterto be given to the
workpiece.The diameterwill becomelarger in
any casebecauseof the springinessof the
sheetmaterial. The extent of this increasemust
be determinedby trial anderror.
Another folding bar is shownin Fig. 4. As you
can see,one angle iron is fixed at the edgeof
the workbench and anotherangleiron can be
attachedto it with bolts. Make sure you bend
the sheetmetal towardsthe fixed angle iron to
avoid over-straining the attachedbar. Here it is
also advisableto curve the angle iron slightly
towardsthe inside to makesurethe sheetmetal
workpieceis fixed well and firmly.
A device for clamping larger foldings is shown
in Fig. 5. It consistsof a handvice in
combiiation with two piecesof angle iron.
If a vulnerable workpieceis to be bent, as in
Fig. 6, ensurethat the workpieceis protected
againstdamage.Placeclamping plates in the
bendvice. When striking hold a piece of
hardwoodbetweenthe hammerand the
workpiece.

6
Hand hammer and mallet 1

To shapesheetmetal it is advisableto use a

small handhammeror a woodenmallet. See
Figs. 1-A and 1-B. Whenusing the hand
hammer,do not hammertoo heaviIy asthis
makesthe material spreadandmay give the
wrongresults.
Usea woodenor rubbermallet for bending
sheetsteeland for upsetting.A steelhammeris
usedfor stretchingmaterial.It hasgreater
penetratingpower which enablesthe material
to be extendedeasily.
The dolly
The dolly, with a squarebottomend clamped
in the benchvice, is usedfor supportwhen
processingthin sheet,seeFig. 2. Never strike
the hardenedtop surfaceof the dolly with a
steelhammerasdangeroussplinters could fly
off. 2

Pipe stake
A pipe stakeis essentialwhenmaking pipes
bentfromthin metal sheet(for examplefor
stoves).SeeFig. 3. A shortpipe stakeis
clampedinto the benchvice for use.Long
stakesarepushedbelow steelbracketsfitted to
the workbench.The pipe is pushedover the
stakewhich can act asa supportduring 3
forming.The pipe stakecanalso be usedas a
dolly whenmaking a rivetedjoint.
Edge stake
An edgestakecan be usedfor flanging
right-angledfolded seams(asin the caseof
cansor pails). SeeFig. 4. Either a straight or a
round edgestakeis used,dependingon
whetherthe folded seamto be flanged is
straightor circular in shape.
Cylindrical objectsarepre-roundedon both
sides.SeeFig. 5.

5
,i /
4

SHAPING 161
Folding machine
A fozdingmachineis used for deforming sheet
steel by bendingit, seeFig. 1. It is generaLly
not possibleto bend an angle gnxter than 90
to loo’. It is however, possibleto install
cutting edgeswhich permit the bendingangle
to be increased.Note that thesespecialcutting
edgesaremore easily damagedif not correctly
used.
The cross-sectionin Fig. 2 showsthe fixed top
straight edgeand the moving bottomsuaight
edge.The dkrance betweenthe top and bottom
straight edgesmust be the sameasthe material
thicknessof the workpiece.
If the distanceis taken too small the material
will be cut off slightly and if the distance
betweenthe straight edgesis too greatthe
radius for the workpiece will be too large.
Dependingon the material useda spring-back
of severaldegreeswill occur. SeeFig. 3.
Sheetrolling mill
A sheetrolling mill is usedfor bending sheet
material in such a way that cylindrical or
cone-shapedobjectsareformed.SeeFig. 1. To
achievethis the sheetto be rolled is generally
passedbetweenthe threerollers severaltimes.
After every passthe rollers are brought closer
togetheruntil the desiredresult is achieved.
The cross-sectionsin Fig. 2 show how the
sheetrolling mill works.Ensurethat the ends
of the sheetareroundedbeforefeeding the
sheetinto the roller.
The top guide, roller makesit possibleto role
workpiecesuntil they arecompletely
cylindrical and to removethem from the
rolling mill without deformation.seeFig. 3.

SHAPlffi 163
_.
 Stretching and upsetting
material
1
Generally speaking,the stretchingand
upsettingof sheetmaterial aredone on
cylindrical objects.In stretching, we increase
the diameter(seeFig. 1-A) and in upsetting
(seeFig. 1-B) we reducethe diameter.
In both stretching andupsettingit is advisable
always to start oppositethe seamand to work
round on the left andright towards the seam
from thii starting point. only in this way cana
completely closedrim be obtained. SeeFig. 2,
2-A is right and 2-B is wrong. Flange the rim
in severalstages,seeFig. 3.
To stretchrims we usethe pein of a steel
hammer.They must be beatenin such a way
that the outside of the rim stretchesmore than
the inside. Upsetting is done with a rubber or
woodenmallet.
In this casebeatingmust be done in such a
way that the inside of the rim is upset more
than the outside of the rim.
2
Safety edge 1
To achievethe effective height 1-H as seenin
Fig. 1 for a box with a safetyedge,you have to
add1-X to the height of the box on all sides.
To makea safetyedge,you needto fold the
edgeof the metal over to a square.Insert a
pieceof sheetmetal asshownin Fig. 2-A and
fold the sheetmetal completelyover. Finish
off theedgewith a handhammerasshown in
Fig. 2-B.
Wire edge
A wire edgeis shown in Fig. 3. To cover the
wire, you must add materialto the sides,equal
to 2 - 2.5 times the diameter3-A of the wire to
beused,see3-B.
Preparea piece of flat metalwith a thickness
equalto the thicknessof the wire. Fold the
metal over that piece of metalas shown in
Fig. 4. Insert the wire andfold the metal over
thewire asshown in Fig. 5, using a hand
hammer.Sometimesa pieceof wire should be
left sticking out, see5-X. for possible
connectionat a later stage.
A beadingiron can be usedto obtain an
absolutelyround edge,seeFig. 6.
3

--
6tiAPlNG 165
 Hand-operated beading and
corrugating machine
1 A beadingand corrugating machineis usedfor
reinforcing steel sheet.Fig. 1 showsthe
machinewith attachments.The machineforms
the steelsheetin accordancewith the rollers
installed, seeFig. 2-A. Whenthe rollers of a
beadingmachine are in the form of bladesthis
apparatuscan also be usedto cut bottomsand
circles out of steel sheet.The beadingmachiie
can also be usedfor maltingjoints, for example
for fixing bottomsinto cansand similar
products,seeFig. 2-B.
Beadingsprotect the edgesof cansand pails,
which are often sharp,andgive the rim greater
rigidity. SeeFig. 2-C.
Corrugating gives the material greaterrigidity.
It is done in various steps.SeeFig. 3. The
corrugationcan be madeslightly deeperat
eachpassby tightening the top roller. The
shapeof the bottom roller determinesthe
maximum depth of the corrugation.
Drilling in sheetmetal
1
To preventdrills from breakingin thin steel
sheetspecialsheetmetaldrills are often used. f WL
Thesedrills havea shorterbody and a shorter
shankthan normal twist drills. SeeFig, 1.
Thereare also conical sheetdrills with which
holesof various diameterscan be bored in
sheetmetal.The deeperyou drill, the larger the
diameterof the hole. A drill with a centring 2
point can also be used.Always fix the material
firmly in positon, seeFigs. 2,3-A and 3-B.
Whendrilling out thin sheeta double centre
punchis a very good aid when marking. The
distancefrom point to point is equal to the
centre-to-centredistanceof two holes to be
drilled in succession,seeFig. 4.
Whendrilling holesof 2 larger diameterin
sheetit is advisableto placea bundel of paper 3A
(for instancea newspaper)or a thick piece of
cloth betweenthe drilling point and the
materialto be drilled. This permits an exactly
roundhale to be obtained.

---
3B
8

SNAUNG 167
 Sheetmetal joints
Y
Sheetmetalcan be jointed in manydifferent
ways. Frequentlyusedmethodsare:folding,
riveting, pop riveting, spot welding and,of
course,welding and soldering.
1
Lap joint
A lap joint is shown in Fig. 1. If you look at
the jointed piecesof metal in Fig. 1. you see
that piece 1-A is equal in length to 1-Y and
piece 1-B is equal to 1-O. All the samethe
total length, called the e#ecrivelength, is equal
to 1-L. The effective length is very important
in the designof sheetmetal work, because,to
2 obtain the correct effective length you have to
add to piece 1-B a length equal to 1-X.
Folding
Folding is usedto join sheetsteelor to make
bottoms.A folded seamcan be madeas a
single or asa double folded seam.A double
3 folded seamis usedwhen a thorough sealis
I?Xpired.

Folded seam
In Fig. 2 you seea folded seam.To obtain the
effective length for this workpieceyou must
add to piece2-A one times 2-X. And you must
add to piece2-B two times 2-X.
Double over-folded seam
A double over-folded seamis almostsimilar to
the folded seam,with the differenceat 3-O.
4 seeFig. 3. When upsetting at 3-0, you do not
haveto allow additional material becausethe
sheetmetal is very thin.
To makethis seam,fold the two piecesof
sheetmetal over as shown in Fig. 4. Hook
them together,seearrow. A groovedstakeis
usedto tighten an folded seamin sucha way
that a completelyclosedjoint is obtained,see
Fig. 5. Usethe right grooved stakefor the
desiredwidth of the folded seam.
5 Another way to finish this double overfolded
seamistouseamallettoshapetheseam
roughly. Usea hand hammerto finiih thejob.
SeeFigs. 6-A and 6-B.

68

160 JoiNrs
Box seam
For a box seamasshownin Fig. 1, you must
addtwo times 1-X to the bottom part of the
box. You must also addtwo times 1-X to the
sidesof the box.
Someexamplesof seamsam shown in Fig. 2:
- Angle fold2A
- Upright fold 2B
- Upright casingfold 2c
- Upright top fold 2D
- Upright bottomfold 2E

2
 Riveting sheetmetal
When sheetmetal hasto be jointed, rivets can
be usedinsteadof solder the sheetstogether.
Since sheetmetal is thin, it is advisableto use
button headshapedrivets only. A rivet is a
small piece of metal with a body anda head;
the headis not included in the leugth, see
Fig. 1. The length of the body 1-L shouldbe
1 equal to the thicknessof tbe two sheets1-X
plus a length equalto the diameterof the head
1-D.
Riveting pnaxdure
Drill or punch holesin the parts which haveto
be joined. The holesshould fit exactly. It is
bestto clamp the parts together so that you can
drill or punch them at the sametime, seeFig. 2.
Put a rivet through the holes and placeit
upside down on a dolly, seeFig. 3. Usethe
riser in the rivet set to knock the sheetstightly
together.Make surenot to touch the workpiece
with the edgeof the dolly; leave a space.
Use the flat pein of the hammerto spreadthe
body of the rivet a little, seeFig. 4. Shapea
rough round headwith the ball pein of the
hammer,while turning it round so that the
2 headis shapedon all sides.SeeFig. 5. Usethe
rivet snapasshownin Fig. 6 to finish off the
rivet head.
Note: Heavy blows or too many blows will
makethe metal stretch and buckle round the
rivet. If a rivet startsto bend,cut it off, remove
it and insert a new rivet.

5 6

176 JOINTS
Xiveting tools
Punchedholes can be widenedwith the aid of
a handreamer,seeFig. 1. Onetaperedpoint of
the hand reameris square,the other side is
hexagonshaped;the latter is for fine work.
Figure 1 showsan enlargeddetail of the hand
reamer.The comersof the reamer1-A-B-C-D
act asa file, scrapingoff somematerial and
widening the hole.
After the metal hasbeenpunchedor drilled
through,the edgesof the holesshould be
chamferedto allow correctconnectionbetween
the metal and the rivet heads.
For the actual riveting a rivet set,seeFig. 2-A,
is usedin combination with a dolly shown in
Fig. 2-B. The two tools canbe combinedto
makeonetool, as shownin Fig. 3. The hole in
the tool 3-Ais slightly greaterin diameterthan
the shaft of the rivet andequalto the length of
the rivet shaft.
The round shapedhole in the dolly 3-B is
slightly lessthan half the diameterof the
rivethead,to allov+.fora spacebetweenthe
rivetheadandthe metal to bejoined.

A
 Cold riveting -
Rivets are sold with different shapedheads.
The most commonly usedare:
- round head rivet (Fig. 1-A)
- ro!mtersunkrivet (Fig. 1-B)
The length of theserivets is measuredas
shown in Fig. 1.
1-L = length
1-K = face
1-H = grip (thicknessof material to be joined)
Rivets can be usedin different ways as shown
2 in Fig. 2:
- Round headto round head2-A
- Round headto countersunk2-B
- Countersunkto countered& 2-C
Rivet holes in thick material should be drilled.
A c Holes can be punchedin thin sheetmetal, as
shown in Fig. 3. Whenpunching, put a piece of
lead or end grain wood underneaththe
workpiece so that the punch can go through the
material. When it is being punchedthe
material will benddownwards,which should
be correctedat a later stage.

Rivet dimension!; (in mm)

Dia- Length Dia- Length

meter meter

1.8 4 4.9 155

2 4.5 5.3 17.5
2.2 5 5.8 195
2.5 6 6.2 22
2.7 65 6.5 24
3 7.5 6.9 26
3.3 85 7.2 28
3.6 9.5 7.6 30
3.9 11 8 32
4.2 12 8.4 32
4.5 13.5 8.8 36

b
Pop riveting
Another wayof riveting light sheetmetal
togetheris with the so-calledpop rivet. This
pop rivet is fixed with specialpop rivet pliers,
shownin Fig. 1. A specialnozzleis fixed at
1-X. This nozzlehasa hole with a diameter
equalto thediameterof the pin 1-Y.
A speciallyshapedrivet - that can be madeof
duminium, copperor steel- is placedover the
pill.
Riveting procedure
Drill holesthrough the sheetmetal, making
surethe holesareexactly aboveeachother.
with the correctdiameter.Placethe correct
rivet with pin into the nozzleandclose the
handlesuntil you feel someresistance.
Placetherivet in the hole, pressingit down so
that the sheetsare closetogeuicr,seeFig. 2.
While you closethe handlesgently, the headof
the pin widensthe rivet asshownin Fig. 3.
ContinueJosing the handlesand,becauseof
the resistance,the pin breaksoff at once,as
shownin Fig. 4. The foal result is shown in
Fig. 5. Theheadof the pin remainsinside the
rivet or falls off.
Note: Usethe right nozzlefor this work, close
the handlesgently andpressthe sheetmetal
andthe rivet tightly together.
Welding and soldering
Welding andsolderingof sheetmetal are
discussedin volume 2 of the Rural Mechanics
Course:Blacksmithing,weldingandsoldering.

JOINTS 173
 Metal box
____---------
__----A----. B
I
iE 1 I I
&&- _____ --AL -4

_---------- c
L Fig. 2: Cutted and wire edgefolding
Fig. 1: Development

.
.

ig. 3: Folding side C

Fig. 5: Folding sides

over woodenblock

Fig. 7: Inserting wire

Fig. 8: Wiie edge

174 EXERCISES
More metal boxes

----_--_

_I------

Metal box with safety edgesand flaps

-------

Bread tray with wire edgesand flaps

X is the heightof the tray, 0 is the width of the
sides.

Fig. 3: MethodA - paperbasketwith sides

from onepiece.
Fig. 4: MethodB - paperbasketwith seperate
sides.

H is the height of the basket,0 is the length of the sides.

Metal box with lid
The bx (Fig. 1) is madeout of sheetmetal
with a thicknessof 0.5 mm. The hinge is a
wile edgeconsmxtion, seeFig. 2. The lid is
1 mrnmoreinwidthand2mmmoreinlength
themthe box is. Cut the hinge after shaping.
SeeFig. 3.
Charcoal pot

fence 0.8 mm

- lock

-------wire edge 0.6 mm

support (riveiting)

- folded s&m
Fig. 1: Pictorial view Fig. 2: Side construction

I I I
biiiuii 3

Fig. 3: Crosssection Fig. 4: Top’ fence

Fig. 5: Development
----

a 1 ----- I -----
i
I

I ;

bottom
Upsetting

Fig. 2: Shapea cone

Fig. 1: Shapinga cilinder A - Bend both ends with a mallet
A - bendboth endswith a mallet B - Shapecone by hand over round beak
B - shapecylinder by hand

Fig. 4: Shaping the bottomandthe top

Shapeinside and outsidelie a bottle top.
Fig. 3: Shapinga joint Bend in stagesA-B-C.

176 ExERaSES
Drinking mug
After designingthe correctdevelopmentfor
the mug shown in Fig. 1. the outline can be cut
and the safetyedgefolded.To shapethe
cylindrical body you needa piece of pipe with
an outsidediameterslightly smaller than the
diameterof the mug. Shapethe first and the
last part of the body with a mallet. SeeFig. 2.
This shapingcannotbe doneby hand, because
the edgeis very short.
The rest of the body canbe shapedby hand.
Move the metal over the pipe, as shown in
Fig. 3, while pnxsing it gradually down until
the right shapeis obtained.
Shaping the bottom
To shapethe bottomof the drinking mug the
pipe is fixed upright in the benchvice. Place
the bottom piece on top of the pipe, seeFig. 4,
andgradually fold over the edgefor the seam
while turning it round. First hold the bottom
sheethorizontal andhammerthe edgeslightly,
shapingit like a bottle top. SeeFig. 5. In Fig. 6
you seethe edgeis folded over a bit more,
keepturning andhammeringat the sametime.
Fig. 7 showsthe edgefolded 90’ for the seam.
For a tight solderedconnectionit is good to
over-fold the edgeslightly, asshown in Fig. 8.
The other side of the pipe can be usedfor this.
 Stretching

Fig. 2: First shaping

Fig. 3: Shapingby hand

Fig. 4: Result of shaping

the joint to avoid cracks:in the hammeredpart

7’

166 EXERCiSE!3
Upsetting

-
-
-
-
-

~D

3
 -

Developments
b _____-------------
Note: x x D is calculatedfor I
I I I
thin material only. 0 I
I I
* I 1I

4
1

2
--------__

‘-&lY

3
-------------___-
4 I
I ! I
0
I I I I
-------------__ __

182 EXERCISES
Bucket

Fig. 2: Crosssection

Fig. 3: Seam(3-A) and seam/wireedge(3-B)

Fig. 4: Developmentcircle (4-A) andbottom (4-B)

Fig. 5: Attachmentfor the handle

- find stretchedlength

---

Fig. 6: Handle- fmd stretchedlength Fig. 7: Final development

EXERUSES 183
1

I 1
II’
PI
I
184 EXEIEISES
Charcoal pot

fold for riveting

t fire fench support

folded seam

Fig. 1: Dimensions Fig. 2: Crosssection

wire edge

folded seam

Fig. 3: Development

I
185
Contents Rural Mechanics Course 3
&eface
Introduction :
Rural MechanicsCourse 4
Rural MechanicsCourseLay out and
Timetable 5
General metal work and sheet metal work 7
Generalmetalwork and sheetmetal work
Tools t
The tural workshop 10
Storageof materials 11
Workshoplay-out 12
Metallurgy 13
Mined iron ore 14
Blast furnace 15
Nature of pig iron 16
Cupola/castiron 17
castings 18
Wrought iron 19
Steelconverter
Propertiesof steel 57
Plasticity/malleability
Identification of metals ii
Carboncontent
Nonferrousmetals El
Heat treatmentof steel
Annealing ;;I
Shapingmetals 29
Tools and equipment
Clamping tools 3:.
Clamping set
Sheetmetalclamp ;:
Measuringandmeasuringtools
Measuring ii
Folding rule
Vernier caliper ;5
Using the vernier caliper
Exercise 2
Micrometers 41
Try square
Try squareandbevel 1;
Protractor
Feelergauge z
Marking out
Scriber 2
Marking off
Referencelines t;
Centre lines
Centrepunch z:
Lines on a cylinder
g?$~*“h’“g ii
Callipers 2

107
Cutting tools 57 Sharpening tools 111
Hack saw llltrodllction 112
How to hold the hack saw :i Grindstonedressers 113
Filing a notch 60 Mounting a new wheel 114
Files Sharpeningthe cold chisel 115
Classificationof files z; Sharpeningthe centrepunch 116
Holding the file How to sharpentwist drills 117
Round filing with radius iii Twist drill sharpeninggauge 118
Clamping the workpiece Sharpeningscissors 119
Steelhammers 22 Testing the sharpnessof a knife 120
Hand chisel Axes 121
Cutting on the anvil :i
Cutting a steelrod 69
Hollow punch 70 Pipe bending and fitting 123
How to benda pipe 124
Drilling 71 Pipe wrenches 125
Drilling 72 Pipetittillg 126
Drilling largeholes 73 Pipedie 127
Drill sharpening 74 Adjustablepipe die 128
Cutting edgeswith different angles Cutting a pipe 129
Postdrill ;i Cutting and threading 130
Drill chuck 77 Assemblingpipes and fittings 131
Pillar drill 78 Repairingleaks 132
Polyvinyl chloride pipes 133
Assembly tools 79 Main valves 134
Introduction 80 Globe valve 135
Spanners 81
Set of socketspanners Hand pump maintenance 137
Bcx spanner x; ~troductions 138
Torque indication Typesof pumps 139
Screwdrivers it How the suction pump works 140
How to usescrewdrivers 86 The suction/lift pump 141
Pipe wrench 87 The lift pump 142
Lifting the riser pipe 143
Bolts and thread 89 How to lift the riser pipe 144
Bolts 90 Transportingpipes and rods 145
various bolts 91 Pumpmaintenance 146
Bolts, nuts andscrews The monarchpump 147
Threaddimensions ;; India Mk II pump 148
Threaddimensions Robbins& Meyers pump 149
Types of thread:metric thread ;z Making a leathercup 150
Types of thread:American or unified thread 96
Types of thread:British thread Sheetmetal work 151
Types of thread:Whitworth gasthread iii Sheetmetal work 152
Threading Sheetmetaidevelopment 153
Dies 1: Marking 154
How to cut a thread 101 Reinforcementandjoints 155
Cutting threadwith a tap 102 Cutting sheetmetal 156
Tapping a thread 103 Cutting sheetmetal 157
Cutting a large hole 158
Lacking devices 105 Lever Shears 159
Locking devices Folding bars 160
Nyloc nut E Handhammerand mallet 161
Pins 108 Folding machine 162
Circlips 109 Sheetrolling mill 163
Removinga broken bolt 110 Sttetchingand upsetting material 164
Safetyedge 165
Hand-operatedbeadingandcorrugating
machine 166
Drilling in sheetmetal 167

188
Sheetmetaljoints 168
Box seam 169
Riveting sheetmetal i7G
Riveting tools 171
Cold riveting 172
Popriveting 173
Exercises 174
Metal box 174
More metal boxes 175
Metal box with lid 176
Charcoalpot 177
‘Jpsetting 178
Drinking mug 179
Stretching 180
Upsetting 181
Developments 182
Bucket 183
Funnel 184
Tharcoalpot 185

189
190