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Model Aeronautic Encyclopedia Vol 1
Model Aeronautic Encyclopedia Vol 1
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MOOEl AERONAUTIC
encyclopedia vol. 1
BY FRANK ZAIC
FULL SIZE PLANS
the
DIGITAL LIBRARY
project
For further information
write to
FULL SIZE PLANS
1640 N Kellogg Street
Galesburg, Illinois 61401
USA
or
check our web sites at
www.fullsizeplans.com
or
from Aeromodeller Dec 1952 www.digitekbooks.com
used with permission
Edited By
?~1ate
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FOREWORD
One of the greatest tools of scientific men is the record of
past discoveries. cxperi men ts and inventions . Just think of
I
the number of hou rs . effort and money that are saved in ~
January. 1947
New York . N. Y.
Copyright, 194 7
by
MODEL AERONAUTIC PUBLICATIONS
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
LOW SPEED AERODYNAMICS
•·,; The goal of the c0ntes t model builder is to have his modelB re -
main in the air for the longest possible time. To obtain maximum
duration from the pure merits of the model, he must know just how
the air acts on moqels at their relatively low speeds. By knowing
just how the air behaves at low speeds he can pattern his model to
conform to a shape most efficient for 16w speeds. The results of
such procedure will be the possibility of flying models very econom-
ically, which in turn will prplong their limited power.
One of the best pro ofs that we cannot accept the present airfoil
chart val~es for model worki without modifications, is presented by
the followiQ.g photographs from an article appearing in the Journal of
Aeronautical· Sciences, Aug., 1936, prepared by H. C. H. Townend, Nat -
ional "Physical Laboratory, England. The light lines showing the air
flow are streams of electrically heated air which were photographed
threugh the use of certain optical properties of heated air.
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Spe ci al note should be mad e of the fact that by judgin8 from the
spacing of the spark dot~, the air 5pe<:!d in Photoe;raphs· 5. and 6. is
3bout three times th a t of Photographs 1. anQ 2. Also note 'that t he
a11g1e of attack is ioo in Photo g raph 2 ., 18° in Phot".Qgraph 4 ., and
28 in Photograph 6.
It has also been proved that the lift coeff i c ient is much small-
er at low speeds than at high. Therefore we can assume a i rfoil
characteristics for mo~el work to be approximately ae ~how n in Fi6.A
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The drag will nLso be f ound to be actually greater for models
thnn that ca l culated from the standard drag coefficients. This can
also be explained by the photographs. Since the drag is the result
of disturbing the airflow, and the airflow is easily disturbed at
low speeds, the drag coefficients are much greater for low speeds
than for higher speeds. See Fig. B. for the coefficient difference
and also Fig. A. which shows the drag curve assumed for model work.
These pr_o ofs should convince the most sceptic&l that it pay l! to
streamline ot low speed. We should not use the record list as a ba-
sis for an ·ar gumerit against streamlining as . the record flights were
almost all made with the aid of thermal currents. What we want is a
much higher average flight. The chances of getting a ten minute
flight are about 1 in 50, and a five minute flight, about l in 20.
The odds a»e getting better yenr by year, as we pay more heed to low
speed aerodynamics.
Just where does the dreg come in on all this? Well, the point
ts that if, for example, it requires 2 oz. of thrust to fly a model,
~t least one oz. of t his thrust is used up in overcoming the drag of
the fuselag e, landing gear, and tail. If we did not have all theee
things, it would be possible to fly the model twice as long for the
3ame power, thereby doubling our duration in calm air, es well as
doubling our chances of catc hing a thermal. With this in mind, let
us remember how the airflow behaves at low speeds, so that we may
pattern the mo del t o conform to t he shape most suitable for low dr&g.
The b e st possible shape for each part, as well as the effect of
streamlining on stability, will be considered under their own head-
ings.
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AIRF·O ILS
The first ste p 'in desi gn i n g a contest model is to decide upon
the size desir'ed. ·After t h i s is done an approximation of the weigh t
should be made. From the we i ght estimate, the a rea of the wing
should be determined. Bef ore the final decision is made, remember
that the performance of the model depends a great deal upon its wing
loading, so crowd in as much area as the rules allow . . The next and
perhaps the most important step is to select the airfoil.
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One way of increasing the lift without the add.ition of too nruch
drag is . to use an undercambered airfoil. The reason that the under-
CaJnbered section develops more lift than a similar section with a
flat bottom is that the airflow acts at a greater angle against tme
lower portion of the airfoil. See Fig. 1. Thus we c an increase the
angle of attack of the lower portion of the airfoil, without increas-
ing t he ang l e of the upper portion. (Remember that it is the air go-
ing over the upper camber whic h burbles at high angles of attack.)
This increase of lift be comes especially prominent at angles greater
than o0 . Since w~ usually s et the airfoil at about 3° positive we can
use the under c amber . advantage ously. The undercamber. may be quite
deep, but we nrust k eep in mind that too much of it will caus e apprec -
iab~e drag by the edd1 behind the l e ading edge. Se e Fie.z. From
this diagram we c an se e t h a t the highly undercambered section should
have the maxinrum heigh t at about 40~ of the chord to minimize the ed-
dy tendencies. 'l'he under camber ed sections have a greater center of
pres sure travel and al so a lowe r lift-drag ratio. However, these
points shou l d . not be used. as criterions in selecti ng the airfoil.
What we went is enough lift, even at the expense of a bit of addi-
tional drag (which is very small in comparison with the rest of the
model). The center of pressure travel is taken care of by the abnor-
mal s ize of stabiliz er used on models.
Every so often someone asks w ~y a stable section like an M-6
should not be used instead of an RAF :32. Then the fact that the RAF
32 l if ts a.s much at o0 , as the M-6 does at 7° is p o inted out. 11 But
why don't you set the M-6 at 7ti and get the same lift a.s t he RAF 32,
and get the advantages of a more stQble section?" --Well, the fal-
lacy here is that most sections stall within a few degrees of each
other. ·The M-6 with 70 set t ing will stall nruch sooner than the RAF
32. For example; if the M-6 stalls at 20° it has 13° leeway, and if
the RAF 32 stalls at 18° it has 18° leeway. These figures, by the
way, are for full size work. The stalling angle is much lower for
model ~izes-- pos$ibly half of the above figure~, and the leeway is
~hat much smaller.
In choostng the airfoil, the structural requirements of the par-
ticular model nnist be kept in mind. The best · airfoil is useless if
the wing does not keep its shape, or if it breaks at the . slightest
.' Collision. In fact, all the advantages of the finest airfoil can be
spoiled by poor balance, improper incidence, and high total drag.
After considering structural re~uirements of airfoils, the fol-
lowing standard sections will be found suitable for model work: RAF
32, Eiffel 400, u. s. 358, Gottingen 392, Eiffel 431, Gott. 496,
Gott. 529, ISA 923b, and Clark y, . (Also see sections developed by
model builders.) The specific recon:nnendation is made under the
individual report. On these reports you will also find tl'E approx-
imate values for model work. Use them and check their accuracy.
The Editor believes tha t the best practical section . is the RAF
32 which was introduced to use on models by him several Jears ago.
Its characteris~ics are very good, a.s it has all the desirable poin12.
It may be used in thinner or thicker form for light or heavy models.
The Eiffel 400 almost matches it in characteristics, but the thin
trailing edge, and the comparatively high leading edge place it sec-
ond.
'l'he lift over drag ratio is an indicator of how much th& lift is
greater then the drag. Remember the L/D line ~hould not . be the only
deciding factor in the selection of an airfoil.
When we have cha rt s for low speed work, we will be able to find
out the minimum speed at which the win12. wi lJ. lift the we ight of the
model. The calculation of tot!'ll dra g c e.n be base d on tllis speed,
and once the drag is known, · the pro per design of the propell e r can
be easily selected. When we ':1i l l make mod els in this way, vre re a lly -
will be abJ 0 to say without blushin~ that we d e~ign models .
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STABl.LITY
The stabilit~ of a model may be divided into several divi~ions:
longitudinal or up and down" ' stability, rolling or r~tating stabil-
ity, and dir.ec tional stability. The longitudinal stability is taken
care of by the proper position of the C. G. and the stabilizer. The
rolling stability is obtained by the proper dihedrai and side area,
plus the correct position of the ·c. Q. The directional stubili ty is
taken care of- by having the center of side area behind the C. G., to
enable the model to swing into the wind in case of sudden gusts.
The ideal stabilizer keeps the model just below the ~talling
point artd has a bi gher stalling angle than the wing, to bring the
mod el level wit hou t loss of altitude after the wing stalls. One way
of raising the s talling angle of the stabilizer is to use a low as-
pect ratio on the stabilizer, with the trailing edge almost straight
and the leading edge s~ept back. In case of a lifting stabilizer,
use an airfoil that stalls later than the wing. Wallace McBride of
Winnep eg, Canada,. re port s that tip rudders help in recovery by pre-
venting the tip ai rf low from spilling over the end of tne ti~s &t
high angles of attack, thereby giving the stabilizer extra high lift
at large ang les, just when it is needed most.
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SPIRAL ST ABILl·T Y
Dihedral and Rudder
The general impressi on among the model builders is that the di-
h.e dral functions as in Fig. 9. This is the old theory, and does not
explain why some models with little dihedral possess certain definite
stability f ·a ctors . . To explain the modern theory, we must realize
that the lift of the wing elements is always perpendicular to the
wing surface, and that the resultant of llft is passing through the
C. G. See Fig. 10. Now if the model is upset · as shown in Fig. 11,
the lift of the wing and the weight of the model produce a side ' force.
This side force induces a side slip, so that the airflow now affects
the wing as shown in Fig. 12. From this figure it c en be easily per-
ceived that the lower wing has more lift than the upper by virtue of
its greater angle of attac k. This tends to raise the model into a
level position. The important point to remember he1•e is that every
such corrective tendency is brought about when the model is side
slipping, and that side slipping affects the surfaces seen in a side
elevation of the plane.
Effect of a High Fin on Stability
Another .method of obtaining stability is to mount the wing on a
fin. The stability is obtained when the model side slips, because
this fin area exerts a leveling force as shown in Fig. lZ. However,
it is not as effe~tive as the normal dihedral which makes use of the
lift to bring the model level. The high fin may be used, in which
case the dihedral msy be decreased, but not entirely eliminated.
When using a fin, remember tha·t it acts as a rudder also, so be sure
to check its position before every flight.
The torque of the motor is the most upsetting force with which we
must contend. It actually transfers the wing loading, so that one
wing m..ist lift more than the other. See Fig. 14 .. If the wing is per-
fectly lined up, and the rudder and thrust line are set at neutral,
the only counter-torque element is the dihedral. The action of the
dihedr3l is as follows: the torque causes the model to roll into a
side slip. As the wing side slips, it produces more lift on one side
and the dihedral tends to straighten out the model. The torque roll
continues, however, until the wing produces enough extra lift to e-
quallze the torque force, thereby producing a balance. The reason
that the model now circles is because the lower wing has rrruch more
drag due to its higher angle of attack. The danger of controlling
the torque by only_ this method is that the rubber torque is so vari-
able that the initial force might be so large that i t will overcome
the dihedr·a1 counter-torque for-ce, and force the model into a spiral
dive. There are ·other mean.s of applying counter-torque, but they all
depend upon having the affected wing produce more lift. The manner
in which this -is accomplished will be discussed in a lat e r paragraph.
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So far, we lmow that the only time that. the dihedral comes intc.
play is ·when we get a side slip and a consequent side airflow. This
side airflow affects the side of the moder; and the reaction of the
model depends upon the _manner in which the side are a is proportioned.
around the center of gravity. It ils apparent tba.t if the areas are
balanced nothing will happen, but the moment that the ba:\_.ance is dis-
turbed, the side that has the most area will tend to swing into its
least re~istance position. See Fig. 16. For 0ur purpose, it is best
to have the tail portion of greater area so that the model will tend
to point into the airflow whenever a side gust occurs. However, it
nrust not be too grea~ or the wing will have but . a small chance to re-
cover by the dihedra l -side slip effect, since the tail portion will
always be trying to point the model into the newly f ormed airflow.,
and so eliminate the needed side flow for the dihedral to take e ff ec~
The ideal situation is that in which ' a sltght side slip does not af-
fect the side area proportion.
Rudder
In a side gust or cross wind the model with a small rudder will
be turned so as to fly with the wind, and the model with a large rud -
der will point into the wind. Of the two ·, the large r lldder is prefer-
9ble; as a gust is liable to upset the small rudder model while it is
turning. See Fig. 16. I n a side slip with its accompanying . side
airflow, the model with a small rudder will tend to increase the side
slip by having the tail port1on drop. It la also possible that such
lowering of the tail portion will increase the angle of attack to a
stalling position in which case the entire model will be out of con-
trol. The larger rudder model will tend to f e.ce the side ail'.flow,
preventing the model from s ide s l ipping, and banking it instead. How-
ever, remember that the rolling tendency due to the torque is still
12res e nt and continues to produce the side slip, forcing the model in-
to a tight banking c ircle, with a consequent spiral dive. A rudder
of the correc t area will allow the wing to have a slight . side slip,
and when that is exceeded 1 •.will bank it into a slippi.ng turn. See
Fig. 17.
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Since the size and shape of the elements other than the r~dder
heve already been determined, we can slowly build up the rudder
while we are calculating. In calculating side area-distanoe, we
should assume a full side view of the propeller, li times that of a
single wheel, li times that of the total dihedral, and a full size
fuselage if a square or d i amond shape is used. A round fuselage, be-
cause of its low drag at various angles, may be considered as a stick,
while the elliptical fuselage should be about 1/2 of its height, and
an octagonal one almost full size. In using this procedure, the rudder,
should not exceed its calculated size for that "just to be on the safe
aide" reason. The above mathematical procedure is simple, but if you
want to, you can make a side view cardboard pattern of the model with
the areas as reconnnended. The rudder portion is left large and bal-
ance is obtained by trimming it cautiously. If the calculations are
exact, you should have the correct rudder area. Chee• by flying the
model, and note if any changes are necessary. The above methods fa-
vor a generously size9 rud~er, prov~ding that the propeller effect is
not greater than its side view. For the average model, assume the
center of s id e area to be a Pew inches behind the C. G.
Requirements for Ideal Spiral Stability
To have• model possess · spira~ stability, we . must have enough di-
hedral to straighten it when it begins to roll or side slip, the rud-
der should be juat large enough to bring the center of side area be-
hind the c. G. and so . alwa7s tend to turn the model into a gu$t, and
the dihedral and rudder should be so proportioned· that they-will work
in harmony. The exact combination is hard to &et, but we·can ·~sily
detect a model without it by the following flight examples .
18
If the rudder area or the area behind the C.'G. is too large or
if the dihedral is too small, a side gust will tend to turn the model
into the wind. As it turns, the outside wing travels faster and pro-
duces more lift with a consequent bank. The momEtnt the wing banks,
we get a side slip in which the whol e side o ~ the model is effected.
The greater Bide area behind the C. G. noses the model still further
into the benk, and thi s is followed by more side slipping until even-
tually the model is in a vertical tu~n, and finally a tight spiral
dive. The above cycle may also be startsd by setting .the rudder fvr
a sharp turn, which is almost equivalent to the side gust effect.
Torque also rolls the ship into a side slip. The conclusion that may
be drawn is that if the c~nter of side area is too far behind the
C. G. and · the dihedral is small, the model will be very unstable or
easily affected by side airflows, snd in great danger of spinning.
The cure for this is to d~crease the rudder are a or the side area be-
hind the C. G. ur to increase the dihedral.
With the present tendency to make all control l ing surfaces extra-
large, it is unlikely that the rudder area will ever be too smell, or
the Center of Side Area in front of the C. G. However, if the model
tends to benk on~ way, and the n the other, ~r if it slips from side
to sida, the indications are that the dihedral must be too large or
that the side area is just on or is in front of the C. G. Check the
side area position, end if it is behind the C. G. decrease the dihed-
ral, · and if it is in front of the C. G., increase the rudder area.
It has been noted that the rudder has a powerful effect and that
it should be so place d and shaped so that its action wLll be gradual
If the rudder is of high aspect ratio and placed above or below the
fuselage, the sl ighte s t side airflow will t-.end to upset the model.
Of the two, the upper position is preferable, as i t . tends to keep the
model on ~n even ke el , whi le the lower design tends to overturn the
model. The logi c al s olu tion to the problem is to make the rudder of
low aspect ratio, and t o divi de th9 area above and below the fuselage
as shown in Fig. 1 9 .
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20
THE THREE CENTERS
The Center of Gravity, the Center of Drag, and the Thrust Line
To enable us to get a good glide while using the power fli}Qlt ad-
justments, we must c onsider· the position and effect of the various
forces. The center of gravity anil the thrust line can be fixed, but
the center of drag keeps wandering with every change in the relative
airflow. It is this varying position which oft en makes adjusting
difficult. The strength of these three forces de p ends upon their re-
lation t o each othe r, as well us upon t~ e flying conditions.
The v ert ical position of the C. G. is usually determined by the
rubb e r motor line, the weight of the wing, Qnd the weight of the
landing g ear. Since the wei ght of the landing gear does nbt often
equal that of the wing, we can assume the c. G. to be slightly above
the r~bber line. The fore and aft position also depends upon the
~enter of the rubber line. Since the weight of the tail ~urface~
usually balances the weight of t he prop, we hav e only to consider
the wing and landing gear. Since these two are i n front of the rub-
ber motor c ent er we can assume the final C. G. to be in front of this
center, wit h the exact position determined by the wei ght of each item.
You may test this premJ se f or yourself bv balancing a completed model.
The thrust line depends upon th~ axi s of the p ropeller shaft, a nd
can be made independe nt of the _rubber line by the use of a suitable
plug. In making these plugs, remember t h at there is side friction at
the rear of the junction of the shaft and the plug, and that this
friction should be minimized by the use of a metal tube, and eyelets
o.nd washers.
The c enter of drag is the point at which the drag of the indiv-
idual parts is balanced . Sinc e the dr ag changes with the speed a nd
shape presented to the airflow, the cent e r keeps shifting under dif-
ferent fl y ing condit ions . On a norma l model , the c. D. is hi~,h be-
cause of ~he high wi ng . 'l'h0 forces on a normal model are as shown
in Fig. 2~ ' , und the act.ton of th o v nrious c enters is as follows:
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During power f.Lying tht3 thrust is the strongest forward force .
Gravity, !::l.Ct ing through the C. G. , cont ributes slightly when the ship
in a di vj ng f•Os i ti on, but it also detracts in a c l imb. The reac-
ti ·:Jn of t he cent er of drag with the thrust line usually de.termines the
posit1on of the model in res pe ct to the flight line. A high center
of drug has a tendency t o incre,ise t he angle of attack, and if no
co~nter acti ng for ce i~ appli a~ will even tually stall or loop the mod-
el. Ho•.rv ove1• , we do have a counteracting for c e in the stabilizer ,
whic h tr:les t o ke ep the ungle of attac k within SRfe bounds and so
pres e rve st3b ility . So e Fi g . 23 . Not e t hat the stabilizer 's cor-
r ectiive force · rrn1 st take cnre of the drag forcB as well a:1 the lift of
t,i·1e wi ng .
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"PROPELLERS
The present tendency or using a s~anaard size propeller for a
particular type of model gives us very little opportunity to learn
exactly how the propell~r operates. Although'the subject is well
covered in technical books, popular explanation still leaves us in
doubt about several important points. 3everal of the most important
are: Wha t determines the slip of the prop? What effect has the air~
foil and what effect has the blade area? When should the pitch be
high or low? How is the angle of attack of the prop determined?
What . pitch-diameter ratio is best? What is the best prop for a par·
l:;icular model?
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The above two examples showed the extreme positions in which the
propeller may be. In both positions, the useful work is nil; in the
first case, the propeller had no load to pull, and in the second case
it was held stationary by a force greater than its thrust or lift.
1
Useful work is accomplished somewhere between these two extremes.
If, for example, the propeller were fixed to a trolley with a
load which requires a force of 10 pounds to start it and keep it in
motion, a one pound thrust will not budge it. To move the trolley
we must either increase the thrust or reduce the load, or perform
some sort of compromise. · Assuming that we comP.romise, and the load
is now 5 pounds and the thrust is also 5 pounds at a specific r.p.m.,
the trolley will still remain stationary as the forces are only neu-
tralized, because the propeller is still spinning with the blade path
at right angles to the center line. Now i{ the speed of th e propel-
ler is increas.ed ever so slightly, the increase of thrust will be
greater than the load, and the trolley wiiI move forward, At the in-
stant that the trolley begins to move forward, the angle of attack is
decreased and the thrust is the same as it was before, when the trol-
ley was at a standstill. The difference is that the r.p.m. are high-
er and that the path of the propeller blades is in a forward cirect-
ion. Consequently, with every prop turn, the trolley advance3 for-
ward. The exact distance it travels forward depends upon the angle
of the path of the' blades, the dismeter of the prop, and the number
of revolutions per minute.
From trJe abo.ve example we can readily see that the thrust or the
propeller always equals the load except at the Moment that the cond-
itions c~ange, that the distance covered in one revolution depends
upon the angle of the blade psth, and that the speed depends upon the
number of revolutions made within a certain time.
To clarify the statement that the thrust and load are almost al-
ways equal, let us explain it by the use of the analogy of the trol-
ley. If the load .is greater than the thrust it will tend t o slow
down the trolley. But as soon as the forward speed is reduced the
angle of attack is increased with its consequ~nt increas€ of lift, .
for the increase of thrust, except that in this case the angle of at-
tack is lowered with an in~rease of forwar~ speed, with a cons e quent
lowering of thrust, until it is equal to the load. The whole thing
may be boiled down to the fa.ct that the propeller blades, in wishing
'to go forward, are hindered by the drag of the model, ano that this
drag nm.st be neutralized by tbe thrust.
24
The aoove are 1'undamenta.l pr1nc iples, a.nd we s hould keep them in
mind when designing .a propell e r. From them we ca n see that a compar-
atively sma.11 propeller mu s t be r e volved a.t h i g h speed, and that a
large propeller may ·go sl ower. Th e choice o f t he p ro pel l er pitc h
rests upon the power avai l able. With ga.s eng i nes we ma y use small
pitch, h igh spe ed props, and for rubber we must u s e t he l a rger pitch,
slowly rotating type . To g et t h e utmost effici e n cy from a propeller,
we must mak e it so that we g et the maximum ou t put f or th e power we
use. To achieve this end we must go into mor e d e t a il e d p ropeller op-
eration de sc ri p ti on.
--'4/Z,t:D./1- PO~
- - --J!.l!SV~rANT.Y
I
.JI"
From the above force diagram and the wing lift fo rJ!1Ulas, we c a n
als o se e that if we inc re a se t h e b l a d e a re a , the thr u st will be in-
cr ease d wi th the c onseque n t incre ased model sp eed , with out incr e a s -
i ng the r.p.m. The blade a rea i n cre a s e will enabl e t h e p rop to d e -
velo p sufficie n t thrust at c omp arativ e l y low a ng les o f attack, so
that the drag coef f icient will b e lower. The ide a l angle of at t a c k
will be at the po i nt whe re the L/D ratio of ·the par tic u l a r section
is t he highest. ~t this p oint the efficiency will be the greate s t
since we get the most lift for the power expended. (It i s quite
oossible that model prop e lJer s do work at t hi s angle when the prop
rota t es at hi g p speed und e r t h e initial burst o f p owe r of the rubber
motor. However, as t h e power sl~ckens, the model sl ows down unti l
there is j ust e n ou gh pow e r to produce the need e d t hrust for flying
speed, and the a ng l e of attack is then qui t'e high ~-n order to pro-
dµce the needed t h rust.) To remain at this ideal angl e of attack
the propeller must con tinue d eve loping ~nough lift to kee p it in that
pos i tion. If t he tot a l drag or lo a d of the mo~el i s hi gh, the thrust
nrust be great, wh ile low d r ag o r streamlined mode l s can fly with a
small er thrust. P'rom this we can conc lude th a t a high drag model re-
quires a larger prop a r ea than d oes the low drag d esign. The exact
areas can be cal c ulat e d if we know the flying speed, the diameter and
pitch of the prop, the drtlg, &nd the power at the cruising point.
However, some of these factors are still incalculable and for the
present we 1IJL1St be c ontent with what experience h ns shown.
25
Pitch and Diameter
. We have seen that the forward speed depends upon the distance
that a segment travels in one revolution of the prop and its relation
to the angle of attack. The forward speed can be increased b_y in-
creasing the distance that the segment travels, as well as by setting
it at .a steeper angle. Both of these are accomplished at the expense
of drag, and of the two, the increase of the distance of segment tra~
el (or diameter) is the most economical. However, if the diameter
becomes exceasive for practical purposes, and we still have power to
spare, we can increa~e the angle or the pitch. These facts become
very useful when we are designing a model. If the m..odel is intended
for high speed, the propeller should be of such diameter and pitch
that the power will revolve it at high speed at the maxiunun efficien-
cy. These conditions call for a prop whose angle of attack would be
such that most of the lift is in the flight direction, and who~e di•
ameter would be as large as the power would allow for the speed.
This means that the P/D ratio should be small (pitch 20 11 /diameterlS",
1.1). See Fig. 32.
If the model is intended ~or cruising then the prop should con-
serve the power for as long as possible. This can be accomplished by
using a large diameter as well as large blade angles. This type of
prop will revolve slowly but it will still give the needed thrust for
the flying speed. In this case the P/D ratio is high (pitch 36"/di-
ameter 18 11 , 2.0). See Fig. 33.
The drag of tne model should also determine the P/D ratio. It
can readily be seen that a streamlined model can have a high speed
with a slow but high pitch prop, since the needed thrust is lpwer
than for the blunter ship. However, the prop does not work at its
best efficiency point, and if it is possible to increase the motor
length, do so by all means, and decrease the pitch of the propeller.
From this text, you should know just what type of propeller will
ibe the .best for your particular conditions. Although a list of stand-
a~d prop sizes is given, keep the following points in mind, and try
to fit the most suitable prop to the model.
1. Thrust equals load. If the drag of the moae".l. is great, the
thrust nru.st be large.
2. The speed of the model depends upon the r.p.m. and the dis-
tance that the prop travels in one revolution.
3. Thrust is the result of the lift force, end a part of the
lift force produces en anti-rotating force.
4. The power required must be equal to the drag of th~ propel-
ler's airfoil at the particular angle of attack, plus the anti-rotat-
ing force produced by the lift.
~
:ws, ,.,, ~- J;;"i,."fo"_,,;~4:/,,;;
26
Blade OUtline a nd Construction Rint s
The elliptical tip blade outl ine seems to be ab out the best. The
blade area should be concentrated at the one half point so as to min-
imize tip losses and high drag at trre hub. In fact it is desirable
to cut the bl nnk so .that the pitch ungle will be about the same at
the hub v1c1ni ty. •rne blan!< lay out, blade out line , and the recommend-
ed sizes of p ro p ell e rs are s h ow n in Fi g . 36.
Very little can be said about carving for the youngsters, exc@pt
that practice makes perfect. However, no trouble should be experi-
enceo if the blank i5 well laid out and carving is done slowly with a
~harp knife.
~
~
~A!.!leSr ~Lr.3'
..r/N/.Sh' ~,P S¥4'TN'
-"ND ,q,..c/..w var
H/6#4Y
"/A
/,,2..../0
/:S-/7
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u Camber
tlE/11.EIYT ArtV'N/~ tCDr.i ·&,,yps
/:at! .-'"~N~ . Y/~~ry
/t'/N.D K/.N'ZI
For Clarification
"The angle of incidence is the angie between the chord line and
i;he thrust line 11 •
"The ,a ngle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the
P$th of relative wind".
The above defini tio:qs are of fie ial for power plane use;' Since
the construction and position of the element-'s of models va!ry greatly
from one design to another we might accept the following definitions
for model work:
"The angle of incidence is the angle between the chord line and
the line drawn from the center of the prop to the rear hook 11 • Let
us make this definition semi-offic i'al, so that we will know what is
meant when we mention "two degre·es downthrus t 11 or "one degree posi-
tive", etc.
"The angle of attack in smooth air is the angle between the chord
ll'ne and the path in which the moo el is moving". Sudden gusts change
the angle of attack until the mode l readjusts it~elf to the new flow~
when it will again bfl; about the same.
30
PRACTICE
OUTDOOR
Fuselaae
The balsa sheet const ruction requires ver-y accurate work and exact
bulkheads and patterns . If the perts are well made, it is a r e r=t.l jo:,'
to see ·everything j ust click into place and the whole fusel a ge s mooth
throughout. Befor e starting to work, decide on the cros s se c ·~ion
shape . desired, makin ~ s ure that 2" sheets can be used thr oughout. A
wider section c alls for joining, as 3 11 stock i s expensive as we 11 8.3
difficult to obtain in the required grain and weight. Now draw the
·side wiew on a piece of 1s tiff white paper, a nd lay out the bulkheads.
The side pattern should be transferred to a temp late or directly to
the balsa. Coat the bulkhead outlines with w n~ &nd begin to assemble
them. There are sever al forms shown, and you c9n use the one most
suitable to your own part icular conditions. Be s ure to make them ex-
act and do not spare the cement.
The assembly is quite simple. Cement the 1md bulkheads first, and
then cement the center to the sides. Be sure to cement them on the ex-
act spots. Aft er all of the bulkheads are in plece, th'e landing g9ar
tubes can be fixed in place. The remaining sides are cemented on
without the ai d o f a pet tern. The surplus is trimmed · off after the
cement is set. In joil\ing the balsa sheets, uGe l°i generous amount of
cement to from s bead along the joint. The final finish is to S8nd
and dope. For super-strengtn, cover with paper.
32
Although the fuselage design can be impro ved a great deal, the Ed-
ito~ believes that we should c onc entra te more on the wing nnd gener a l
layout, for the next few years. By using th e s a me fuselage we can get
a better picture of what occurs with different wings and different ar-
rangements. We can modify the fuselage to a high wing, midwi~, or
10rt wing design, keeping the general shape the same. A good ex ample
of this practise in the connnercial field is the system of the Locl<heed
Co ., which made all of their single engine fuselage jobs on the srune
form and yet worked out numerous designs.
Aerodynamical Notes
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INDOOR 69
The construction arrl the flying proceoure of the indoor model have
been well oovered in the preceding Year Book end in numerous articles
appearing in the model magazines. Therefore only new hints of the
last year have been sketched.
Success in indoor building and flying depends mostly upon the in-
dividual. High"time can only be attained by knowing how to adjust,
as well as how to.make strong models with the minimum weight. Fairly
good duration may be achieved by most builders, providi~ that they
build a smooth steady model and pay particular attention to adjusting
so that the counter forces will be at a minimum.
The most important point to remember when making a model from a
.plan, is to have all parts the same weight as shown on the plan. An
accurate scale is indispensable. But remember, there is a difference
between th:3 contest model and the record model. In most cases, the
record m6del was flown under the most favorable conditions, while a
contest model usually has to overcome many di fficul ties, mainly low
ceilings and drafts. Therefore, the contest model shoµld be bui lt and
designed to meet any expecte4 conditions . Fo.r wintry days, the mod-
el should be strong, so that it can be handled with stiff, cold fin-
gers. For a low ceiling don't forget to let out turns, and use plen-
ty or slack rubber. By keeping in mind that a contest model does not
necessarily have to be a re c ord-breaking one, you should be able to
develop a cup-getter suitable for your particular conditions.
The speediest method of laying out the elli pse is to use the met h-
od shown by J . P. Glass in the 1935- 36 Year Book. Just consider the
final double ellipse as being a combination of two halves of the srune
length but of different widths. It is from t his fact that the name
,double ellipse" is derived.
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70 MICROFILM
A satisfactory microfilm solut ion can be made from standard
good clear lacquer, model dope or a mi ~ture of the t wo, and the ri ght
amount of castor oil 1w tricres yl phos phate. Th e last two mention-
ed are called p l astic isers and a re used to gi ve t he film flexibility.
VH thout flexibilit y, the f' i lrn i s brit t le and bre a ks very easil y and
when a tear is made, it spreads very r ap idly.
Before pouring any solution on the wa ter it is advisable to
check t he following point s :
The film should be made, if 1':'>ssible, in a tank u sed exclusivel y
for mi c ro f ilm. If a bat ht ub is u s e-0, be sur e that it is scrupulously
clean, as t he sli ght est trac e of soap will break up the cohesion of
water molecules. If the a ir is too humid or the wa t er too cold, the
fil m will beco~e smoky, by collecting moisture before drying. A
cold draft will also oaus e this. The water should be of norma l suin-
mer temperature. llot water wi 11 spread the film, and oo ld water will
ret a rd it.
The lifting hoop should be made of 1/8" diameter aluminum wi re.
( Costs about 2¢ pe r foot. )
Have a t least si x inches of cle a red s pa ce a round the hoop, so
that the film spreads evenly over it.
Divide the ta:g.k into small portions f or small s ize f rames. An
unlimited wa ter surface a rea will tend to spread t he film until it
is to o thin f or practical purpose s .
It is advisable to have some way of measuring the amo unt of sol-
uti on use d , as it is p ossible to get film o f t he same color time
after time, provi ding t he same amount of solut ion is used on simila r
space.
Now that we have the pro per equipment we can try our solutions .
The f irst solution should be of just clear lacquer. Pour a short,
ste a dy stream on the water a nd watch the film spre a d . A:fter s while
the e dg e s will be g in t o crinkle and the whole fil m wi ll begin to
contract. This is a s ign that not enough plasticiser is present in
the solution. l1~ ore plasticiser is added in small qua ntities with
trial te st s in b etween. Th e s a tisfactory solution proportion will
b9 reache d when the ed g e s do not contract and the film- is not ta.cky
after 3 m1ns. of drying.
Now t hat we have the s olution we can be~in t o make tbe sheets
which can b e u se d on the mo d e l. · The following t abl e shows the col-
ors of the film whi ch sould be used on differen t classes of models.
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ASSEMBLING PROCEDURE
1. Place the L.E. epa.r ~s ~tlown and hold it in place with pin.
Moisten it so that it will retain its shape when removed.
2. Poeition ·the T.E. spar. Moisten the tip and bend. i t a.round the
form by holding it at the extremity. Always hav1! preasur e on
it or it will kink and spoil the job. Hold it in place with pin.
3. Let the spars dry and cut ribs while waiting. All the ribs can
be of the same chord.
4. Cement the ribs to the 1.E. When set,. trim the ei:xoeaa at the
T.E. with razor or curved scissors. Cement and let dry.
5. Remove the outline and prepare the other blade in s1m1lar manner.
G. Attach the two blades to the center block as shown.
COVERING
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76
Indoor Pu~her ............................. by Jirruny Throckmo r ton
There has not been very much written about pusher model s , and the
hints listed below were found by the tedious but practical 11 t e st and
try" method, during six years of experimenting with indoor pushe rs.
1. Have a sturdy elevator and boom. More ships are erratic and
unsuccessful because of this than from any other cause. The motor
sticks must also be straight and strong , or the ship will almost im-
possible to adjust.
2. It is of the utmost importance to have the Cont e r of Gravity
near the elevator end of the model. This calls for the prop to be as
light as possible. The wing, you will find, can be made li g hter than
a tractor wing, and will still ~tand up.
3. I have seen dozens of pushe rs fly well for a minute or two
and then begin to spin or settle down prop first. I found that by
placing a rudder in front, the flight is normal throughout and is def·
initely improved. The rudder is needed Jn the front to balance the
side areas caused by the wing and prop. The dihedral of the elevator
is usually to small. The rudder in fro~t and below has better con-
trol with less area with a consequent saving in weight and a lowering
of the C. G. A high Center of Gravity is usually the main fault of
most pushers.
4. I balance the torque by offsetting the thrust; line and I get
my turn with the use of the rudder.
I believe that the pusher stands an e qual chancE1 with the tractor.
The mode l shown would tick off 15 minutes consistently. With re de -
signing and the incorporation of the latest ideas, maximum areas, and
a good microfilm prop, the pusher will be able to fly more slowly and
will come into the 20 minute class. I hope to demonstrate this fact
in the Open class, if time permits.
--------AERONUTTICS----------.
COPY Rl<>MT ltj l'fl.P
Poor Chap; so young; calm most of the time but keeps nrut-
tering, "Why[ oh why! did I back stroke! 11
"I owe it all to Assco," said .Mr. Paguin after his first solo.
"All I said was, 1 It looks nice with all that lacquer but
will it fly? 1 Then his eyes went queer."
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78
Doublf"' .. Surfa41•f"'d 'lonos1u1r •' Uif•roftln1
Devel oµ e d b y Sidney Axl0 r od
Sugge s t e d by Cu r l Goldb e rg
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BO FLYING AND APJUSTING INDQOR MODELS
By Carl Goldberg
When launohing an Indoor Tractor, hold th~ model in your natu-
ral writing hand, placing the thumb and the first finger on the spot
where the wire saddle of the rear wing clip encircles the motor stick.
The wire will keep your fingers :from crushing the stick, and at the
same time allow you a firm grip. Inspect the prop shaft to see that
there are no knots of rubber whioh might make the prop wobble in
flight. Usu.ally such knots are present when the mo~or is tightly
wound. Pull them toward the center of the shaft hook and grip the
rubber with your free hand about ~" from the hook. allowing the rub-
ber in front of your fingers to unwind until the knots disappear.
Loosen ytiur grip slowly, letting tlie winds from the I'ear come into
the front part of the motor, allowing the prop to spin meanwhile.
When it is apparent the knot will no longer give trouble, hold the
model up in launching position, which is banked over about loo. in
the direotion in which the model will normally bank, and with the
nose· pointing up at exactly the same angle at which you expect t:Qe
model to climb; then push it gently into the air along the line the
motor stiok is pointing, and at about the speed at which the model
flies.
'.i'he best method for adjusting that I know is to set the wing in
such a po_s i tion that the model glides well, and flies smoothly on a
few hundred turns. Then make a series of test fligh1;s starting with
about 800 winds, and adding 200 to each flight . If the model shows
any stalling tendency on one of the flights bend the bearing slightly
so that the prop leans forward very slightly then try again. on the
same number of winds. If it works all right, on the ~ext flight
again begin acding 200 winds, until you run into more stalling dif-
ficulty, which requires a little more of the same medicine. Event-
ually, by this method you will. approach and reach full winds. If
the model dives then, bend the bearing back towards its original
9osi.tion a trifle and also turn it so that the prop faces just a
shade in the direction in which the ship is to turn.
The writer has been asked a great many times about the advan-
tages of a cambered stabilizer as compared with a flat stabilizer.
When using a camber, as the angle of attack is increased, the lift
developed . is gr~~ter than the lift for a flat section, providing the
areas are equal. For this reason, it is apparent that a oambered
stabilizer will ha ve better "anti-stalling" qu.ali tie.s.
But another, and even more valuable asset of the cambered stabil-
izer is its use in pulling the ship out of a dive. When a cambered
section is set at zero angle or a few degrees negative in the air
stream, the section tends to dive~ A flat section set at negative
angle tends to l?traighten out to zero degrees. So cambered stabil-
izers are made with the leading edge just weak enough so that when-
ever the ship's speed increases, no matter how shallow the dive, the
leading edge will bend down, increasing the negative angle of the
stabilizer, thus slowing down the ship, and bringing it out of the
dive. However, you must be careful to make the leading edge strong
enough to withstand the pressure of diving, and rigid enough to
_m aintain its angle \Wien the ship is in normal flight. The proper
streng~h can be found only by experience, as it must not only be
strong enough to remain at the proper angle in normal flight, but
must also be delicate enough to start assuming a larger negative
angle whenever the ship a bit ~aster due to drafts getting
under the tail, a weak m~ tick,.....§tc.
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Petrol Model Hints
100
by Captain C. E. Bowden
General
The method I have adopted for several years now has proved it-
1elf very satisfactory and has been also used by a number of my
trlepds, with very little damage to their models.
Before describing the actual m~~nod itself, I wou l d like to de-
scribe certain features that I incorporate into all my gas models,
whether they are high WiflS, low wing, or biplane. Thnse features I
consider a help toward testing end stlbsequent flying vrithout dam.age.
All of rrry models have their cantilever wings and t ailple11es at-
tached by rubber bands to wire hooks that protrude fr<>m the f1Uelage.
Tlius the rubber bands hardly show, end yet allow the win.gs, etc. to
be knocked off in the event of a crackup.
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The top portion of the clock's winding key is now replaced with
a pointer made from a nail. A paper dial is next fitted to the three
ply top. See Fig. 4 . which shows the top of the device.
Electrical contacts are also fixed as shown, and the dial is cal-
ibrated with a stop watch fn seconds.
102
~o operate the time switch, the ~op and start lever is raised and
the pointer wound up to the required number of seconds as shown on
the dial. The switch is connected and the engine is started up. Just
before releasing the model, the c.loc1c starting lever is pressed and
the time switch will stop the engine after the correct time as set on
the dial.
,
With this 'device 1t is possible to test out a model with com-
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!lild gradually increasing t~ duration until perfect trim is obtained.
It is also pofisible to fly a lJ'Odel in a small field. Jlr .. Allman,
a former winner of the Wakefield Cup, designed this device. This
clock device can be made detachable and f.i tted into various models.
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1.24 Low Speed Airfoils
by Fred J. Rogerson
Reprint from "Canadian Aviation"
Realizing tha~ we have been handicapped by, lack of data concern-
ing low speed airfoils, I decided to make a series of free flight
tests. I built a weight rule model and a number of wings with iden-
tical plan forms, areas, and weights, but with different airfoil sec-
tions. Then with the aid of a stop watch, a 100 foot tape line, and
plenty of blue sky, I preceded to make some tests.
Early in the experiment, I found tha t the Reynolds number is not
a reliable measure for comparing airfoil sections at low speed. The
rule adopted by the Germans for comparing glider sections seems more
suitable for our purpose, especially since the spe ed of soaring glid-
ers is reasonably slow, and the prime requisite of a model is· to soar
well. This comparison rule is based on tha median line (mean chord
line). The greater the ·arching of this line, the maximum thickness
remaining the same, the slower will be the sinking velocity and great·
er the soari~ ability. See Fig. 1. This I found to.hold true with
the airfoils tested.
The above rule serves gliders very well, since they are continu-
ously gliding down, but for power model work we must consider ot her
factors, mainly, that of getting the greatest he i ght with the limited
power. Although ai-rfoils with a thiclmess relat i on of 1:5 have proved
successf'ul, it would be next to impossible to design a propeller of
reasonable proportions that would fly such a wing to sufficient al-
titude for the mean cAmber to · get in its work. I found that the pow-
er required depends a great deal upon the angle (N) at which the lead-
ing edge meets the air, and also the maximum thickness of t~ airfoil.
See Fig. 2. A "Phillips " entering 'iidge can be used to reduce the
value of N and yet retain the good mean camber. See Fig. 3. In the
tests, pointed leading edges, and those of very $mall radius showed
up r~asonably well for · this purpose. They also provided better stab-
ility at large a ngles of attack. I believe that the reason for this
latter characteristic is that the dividing line between the upper and
lower airflow is determined by the form of tha leading edge·. The
blunter edge will tend to change the C. P. gradually, while t~ point-
ea edge delays the ·shifting, until at; large angles of attack it shifts
suddenly, causing a stable moment.
. The ai~speea af a model airfoil is too•low to build up high pres-
sure at the leading edge, as in commercial practise. The absence of
this condition causes a very heavy boundary layer of tur:tmlent air a-
bout the airfoil which reduces the lift/drag valu e. However, t he
pointed airfoils cut their way cleanly through the air, causing very
little resistance, although the lift value is slightly reduced with
thi s feature.
125
AIRFOIL N in B in ~u. Thick.
Degrees Degrees of Chord
.
St.Cyr 52 Caudron
Gottigen 436
C-72
8.0
9.0
9 .0
3 .5
4.0
4.5
10.
11.08
11.73
G. Light 9.5 5.25 11.7
U.S.A. 40 8.5 4.5 13.72
Dria1Zs 11.0 3.5 13.72
N.A.C.A. 6409 13.0 6.75 9.0
Eiffel 385 - 8.0 3. 5 13.3
Grant 11.5 6.0 13.4
Gottigen 81 16.0 7.0 7. 3
R.A.F. 32 10.4 6.25 12.7
Martin 40 ll.5 6.3 22.1
Clark Y 12.0 5.0 11.7
oy Edward I. Manulkin
You old timers wi],l remember that in the days before 1934, twin
-pushers were wirming almost eve-ry contest, bringing to their build-
ers every sort of prize, from kits to trips to Europe. Usually the
winning flight time was about three minutes. Very fEiw of the pre -
1934 tractors compared well with · twins in performance.
This state continued until about two years ago, when the exper-
ienced builders began to understand more thoroughly the importance
of streamlining, of design, and of proper adjusting. Since the sin-
gle tracto_r wns the easiest to streamline and t .o adjust. the twin ·
pusher was greatly neglected, so that at present most of the records
are held by tractors. You will note that it was the appl+cation of
stre omlining and adjusting that caused the increase of tractor time.
Of the two, probably adj us ting · is the more important ..
Some reasons why the tractor has superseded the s1tandard twin
pusher ~re:
1. The enclosing of the rubber motor, thereby eliminating that
source of drag in glide and flight, as well as eliminating rubber
shifting.
2. The use of soaring airfoils.
3. The use of larger and slower props, permitted because of tm
:iecrease of ·arag.
It can readily be seen that the standard "A" frame with exposed
rubber is a t a disadvantage against the slick tractor· . Such twins
fly by the use of sheer brute power, and it is this. f'ea ture that is
tl;leir downfall, as in the case of all brutes. Howeve1r, new. stream-
lined versions of the twin pusher began to appear early in 1934, but
not very .much at tenq.on was pu id to them in the grond rush to get on
the tractor's bandwagon. T:tiose who did build these new designs were
pleasantly surprised when they found that these streamlined models
would fly with less povrer End larger props, as well as have a flat-
ter glide.
I have been building outdoor twin pushers for about :five years.
I obtained durations of u p to 12 minutes with the orthodox designs,
after patient surface layout and numerous adjustmentB. Howev~r,
when I designed and built my first streamlined twin, my duration -in-
cre a sed tremendously. My first official flight in a contest resulted
in an out-of-sight flight. It was reco~.rered a few days la tar, about
3 miles from the starting point. During the second contest, it climb-
ed like an elevator until ~he power was exhausted and then soared out
o:f sight a f te 1· about 17 minutes. This time :1,:t was rEicovered after I
was informed of its whereabouts by mail. The d1stanqe of this flight
was about 15 miles f_rom the starting point. This fUght s trengthenea·
my belief that tractors were not as superior as some would have us
believe. The combination of a staggered "A" frame and enclosed mot-
ors seems . to point the way toward wresting the durat:ton record from
tractors, especially when the new weight rules are put into effect.
A conservative estimate of the duration of that remaI•kable flight is
two hours or more. The point to keep in mind though, is that every
flight was of top-·n otch quality.
I have never l~d any real difficulties with twin pushers. How-
ever, I have found the following adjusting hints hHndy, and they may
J>rove of value to. other twin pusher flyers.
1. If the model flies well under power but stallE1 in tm glide,
check the relative incidences. The cause is usually excessive incid-
ence. lo negative for the wing and 3° positive for the elevator is
just about ri ght.
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Although 45° ~~agonals are best, tte · angle may be changed if the
chord is too wide. For larger models and gas jobs, the number of
i;ibs. hlpy be increased. The ·Size of the leading am trailing edge
spars should be slightly greater than on a normal multi-spar wing.
The leading edge can also be covered with sheet balsa or stiff paper
to prev~nt sagging at the triangle.
The wing mentioned above had a 1/8" sq. leading edge and a 1/8 11 "
by 1/4" trailing edge. The spanwns- 44" with a 4 11 center chord taper·
ing to a 2 tip.
11
The span of the gas model wing is 15 feet and is
made up of three 5 foot sections. :rhe leading edge is 1/2" square,
and the trailW edge is li" x 3/8". The ril;>s are built up of 1/8"
sq. A capped channel berun l~" x ~ is placed. close behind the lead-
11
ing edge, which is covered with 1/16" balsa sheet. To date, no troub-
le has beAn experienced in covering the undercamber.
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AU-Balsa Wini& s
A sheet of quart e r- s awed, 5 ib./cu. ft., 1/8" thick balsa is need-
ed for t he win g . (If t he e xactly specified wood in unobtainable, use
the be s t you ca n ge t. The width may -be built up by cementing two or
more s h eet s .) Cut to outline and sa nd the bottom free from saw marks.
Ne xt, sand the u p per cambe r to th e desired wing section. In the case
of a ta per e d wing , be sure to taper ·the thickness eve.nly from the cen-
ter to the ti p . A ha.rd balsa leading edge, and a -bamboo tip are ad-
visable in order to save the efficiency of these highly important
edges. They shoul d be cemented in place before the top surfaces are
work e d dow n ~ It is ' n easy job to finish balsa wings if three g rades
of sandpap er are us &u , finishing with ten nought.
The wi ng is made in two halves, and the halves are bent on the
same form, one after the ot lle r. To b end for the lolt'er camber, moist-
en the to p only, and bind the half on the form with 1/2" gauze. It
may be left to dry overnight, or it may be paked in an oven. When
dry, carefully sand the rai~ed grain on the top surface, while the
win g is still o n t he form. Do pe twice with_ thin shrinkless dope,
snndi w, between . c oats, and wr x with Simoniz or a similar wax, exce p t
in the - c e nter wher e a ce ment skin of a.bout l" is ap plied. Make the
other half in the s ame ma n ner.
Before c eme nting t be two halves together, set them at the desired
angle· and car e fully san d the ed ges for a perfect j oint. Cement them
to g ether and hold in pla c e with _pins. When the unit is dry, coat the
joint well with two or three coats of cement. Be sure tha t the init-
ial joint does not lossen with the fres h cement.
If the · work is done c nr e fully, the balsa wing will be more effic-
~.ent and will also stand up better than any paper covered wing of the
sama size. The method has been used on several ships, and has been
t h oroughly te~t e d.
\ I
The torque pr?blem in mod els is very important due to the large
propeller and relatively powerful rubber motor. It is a source of sur-
prise to me to see th a t more model builders are not interested in this
solution of the torque p roble m.
The main drawbacks of c o-axial props are the weight, the difficulty
of making suitable ge nrs, and also th e difficulty of winding the rubber
with a winder when a torque tube in heliocopter form is used. The meth-
od which I have used successfully for over a year is to use a torque
tube, but with modifications, to enable me to wind the motor with a
winder. Incidentally, fli ght results have been more than satisfactory.
The above method may be used on all types of models. The oply change is
in the sizes of the component parts.
The torque tube system is used by provi.d ing a bearing in the front;
and rear nnd a revolving anchorage. There is very little bearing fric-
tion, and the 1 prop pull is taken care of by the ball bearing washer.
Construction: The torque tube is made of 3/64 11 sheet balsa. For ex-
tra powerful models it is advisable to use two or three 1/32" sheets,
rolled one on top of each other. Tl).e front portion consists of plu~ "A"
which fits snugly in , the spinner "S" which is cemented to the tube. Tne
two bearings "B" are made of sheet aluminum. The holes are made to al-
low the tube to rotate freely without vibration. Thd holes should be1
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133
Feat he rin~ Propeller
Developed by Marvin Setzke
Suggested by Carl Goldberg
1. Carve the pI"'Op in usual mann13r. Determine and mark the hinge
point. Cut in 3/32" for the wire and tube . parts. Cut and shape the
needed hardware. · Be sure to sli p the alwninum tubing into the hinge
wire before bending the ends as shown.
2 . Cement the tube to blades nnd wire to the hub. Reenforce
with•staples and tissue or ~ilk covering.
~. Cement the wire stop "A" and reenf o rce it with sta ples and silk.
4. Cut the blades at the pivot points. Cement t he coil spring to
assure positive actiun.
5. Face the prop And equalize the upper a nd lower areas. Fix them
in position temporarily with pins and cement .014 wire sto ps.
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1.34
Finishes and Flying ~ale
by Roger Harmner
by Dick Everett
Thermals utilized by models are mostly of the c onvection type.
Such currents are developed by the differences of air temperature.
As you all know, heated air expands and · increases in volume and so
tends to rise above the. colder air. Such phenome na occur whenever
there are groun6 spots thnt have different rates of heat absorption.
For example, bodies of water require a large amount of he nt to raise
their temperature, while concrete requires a relatively short expos-
ure to the sun before becoming heated and a cting as a mirr or to the
,s urt' s heat • ·
The following ty pes of terrain have a quick heat-saturation pe-
riod, after which the air in illllledia te c·ontac t with the ground is
warmed: ooncrete, asphalt, sand, hard ground, plowed fields with a
hard-crusted surface, ripened grain fields, and t h e like. Bodies
,of water, green'fields, trees, and objects which ke ep on absorbing
the heat, do not heat the surrounding air.
From the above explanation we~can see tha t for best results we
should f~y the model in ~ch thermal-producing areas. On the air-
port, the best spot is in t he center of the runway or the large cir-
cle of concrete or asphalt. The tops of administration buildings
am the concrete aprons in front of the hangars also give u p hot
risers. However, these risers have a limited altitude and it is
best to wait for cumulus clouds if there are any in t h e sky. These
cumulus clouds are the peaks of upward convection currents formed
'somewhere and carried over the cruntryside by the wind. Therefore
our objective is to have the model raised high enough by the local
thermals to have it contact the cloud thermals. The rest is up to
your eyesight and possible horizontal velocity.
If the clouds are high , release the model just when the clouds ·
are ap ~ roaching the field, to enable the model to rise to. its high-
est point just when the cloud is passing over it. For low clouds,
release the model when they are about ncross the field. In this man-
ner the model will not be drawn up into the clouds too fast, as it
will more or less be on the outskirts of the thermal. Thermals can
be found as late as 6 o 1 clock in the afternoon, and on many occasions
we have clocked over 12 mirrutes on risers over Pittsburgh Airport at
this, time.
On windy days there are few ground thermals as the wind cools the
ground and st the same time swe e~ s them away in case they a~e forming.
On such days we s hould also be c nrefui where we l aunch the model. The
behaviour of the wind is such that it provides an upcurrent in front
of a n obs tac le and a down current behind it. (This current rs util- ·
ized by soarers to glide in front of a hil l .) There f ore we should
launch the mode],. away from such obstacles unless the model is a pow-
erful ciimber, in which case. the upcurrent would be r a ther helpful.
This upward deflection of wind can be used advantageously for tow-
line or hand.lvunched gliders .
Gener!:l.l Hints
Place clay on the bottom of your glider wing~ at the C. G. to
get th3 gliders up higher, outdoors. This increases the spe~d which
in turn flattens t he glide c onsider ably. For best result have the
glider highly polished. Dope pro pellers silver for visib i lity. The
shining propeller reflects t he light. Al50 cover the fuselage silv&r
or yellow. Cover the winp; red a1~ "the s tabil1ze-r yellow, 8rD dope
three times to obt a in a c ol ored tra·n~areney.
137
Hand Launebed Gliders
by Tex Rickard
In rrry experiloonts with glide~s, I have found that there are two
types of designs whic~ are dissimilar but which can be made to give
almost identical· performance indoors. The first type and the one most
often used, is the one with a short elevator arm and a long nose. I
have used as high as a 2-1 ratio; that is, a 4" elevator arm and an 8 11
nose length. I find this to be an excellent arrangement for low ceil
1ng flying, although altitudes of up to 100 feet may be obtained with
it if it is adjusted correctly. The second type uses just . the oppos -
ite ratio relation; i.e., an elevator arm of 8 11 and a 5 11 or 6 11 no se.
The tail surfaces can be made nruch smaller because of the l onger mom-
ent arm. Such gliders seem to get u~ higher, a nd also have better
floating tendencies. When using these gliders, it i s necessary to
wash in the elevator. If this is not done, the glider will require
too nruch clay for balancing at the 1/3 chord position.
I still use c·ambered rudders on all my gliders. They give a nruch
more uni'form circle and make adjusting easier during the contest. 'l'he
thicker section also provides a larger cementing surface to take care
of the terrific launching heaves.
I have made several tests with the fuselage sizes, and I find that
1/8" hard balsa stock will stand up better than too 1/4" stock. There
1a very little weight difference, and in practice the hard balsa is . a
bit lighter. I was definitely convinced of this fact when I made two
.46 oz. gliders whose fuselages were of 1/4 11 stock. One shfp lost its
tail portion when lauched and too other flew into a ~ost arrl snapped
the stick. Then I r.ebuilt the gliders using the 1/8 11 stock. The
weights decreased to .44 and .45 ez., showing that .there is some dif-
ference in the weight even though the wood is as hard as oak. The · ~ew
tuselages stood tm lmocks better than any 1/4" stock I have seen. It
seems that the hard wood bends and absorbs the shock much more readily
while the softer but thicker stock shatters.
It takes me aQout 2 or 3 hours to finish a wi~, and I use all the
latest tricks to get the utmost out of the throw. I undercamber the
wing slightly for low ceiling flying an:i use a flat bottom for high
climb. I use three coats of polish until the wing has a smooth glass-
like surface, with intermediated 10 nought sarrlings. I make certain
that the wiqs a1'1 fuselage jum tion is stro~ by applyir:g several lay-
ers of cement until the joint has cement fillets. ·For a final finish
I use Cedar Wax Floor Polish. This is rubbed on the completed model
with a soft cloth. Reioomber that the cement will not hold to waxed
surfaces.
My wing is set at zero incidence but the right wing is p;iven u
.slight washin (wash in the left wing for a left hand throw). The cam-
ber on the rudder is set for a left turn, and th:! trailing edge of the
t,Jtebilizer is wa?'ped d0..Vi1 about 1/:32". This gives the el.e vator a
positive angle which will . .tend to make the model go over the hump at
the peak of the throw ~ithout dipping. The exact warping has to be
determined experimentally. Too nruch of it will dive the model"and too
little will make the model dip and stall. The best launch for this
setting is to launch the glider as straight up as possible without
hank!~ it at all. By launching the glider without much bank, all the
speed arrl momentum are saved for the climb. -It also lessens the strain
ordinarily applied to wings on vertical climbing turns. You cannot
imagine the difference that the positive elevator adjustments wtll
have on your glider untll you have actually tried it out.
138
Frem Expe:Pi·e aee
by Henry Stiglmeier
-
President of the . Centinela M. A. G.
Airfoils
I have t:r-ied all types of ~irfoi.ls ard '1 find that the undercam-
bered type, especially the Eiffel 431, is best for duration models.
I used that airf'oil on a 150 sq. ·in. cabin job which did not fly
less than 20 minutes for three Sundays in a row. H did 46, 32: and
~ minutes and 0VentUally flew out of sight. I find that the Clark
Y is not so good far weight rule models.
In general I use two less strands of 1/8 11 flat i•ubber than the
diameter of the propeller in inches. Large diarnete1•, low pitch props
aean to work ,best for me. A pitch-diameter ratio <>f. li: 1 is good.
(Example: 1611 diameter, 20" pitch.) My props rango in diameter from
42 to 45% of the wing span. I find that a. lt" x 2 11 block is. Vfry
,good for ;t6", 17", and 18" props. I cup the back s ~Lde of a two inch
blade from 1/16" to 3/32" . The prop layout that I use is as shown:.
Pusher v. Tractor
For the average cabin or stick model, I found that rudders hav-
1.ng an area of about 14% of the wing area are very E1atisfactory. A
amall rudder will allow the model to spin wben side thrust is used.
The area of a lifting tail should be about 40% of the wing area, when
the model balances at the trailing edge of the wing .
Aspect Ratio
Dihedral: In genera 1, one inch on each side for every foot of 3pan
is sUff icient.
Stabilizer and Rudder: A lift-section stabiliz.er is excellent in
my opinion. It is very effective and strong. An adjust able rudder
is good, but the tabs nrust not'be too big, or they will be super-
sensitive. Use small screws for settin g the tabs . A moment-arm
length of from 40 to 50:( of the wing span is good.
Covering: Bamboo paper is strong enough and takes pa.int ·11e ll.
Tail Wheel or Skid: I p refer a small doughnut wheel. The tail sup-
ports should be soldered to a sheet of metal before wr appi ng and ce-
menting to the fuselage.
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142
How to Operate a Brown Motor
I always leave the spark lever in the vertical position. Why ad-
vance it unless you have a 10 ft. job? I ad.ius t the needle valve and
forget about it. All I use for adjustment is the chok e nut. When
it is wide open the engine is running f'ull speed for that particular
spark set tire;, and closing the air intake slows the engine d own until
it just chugs over. It runs at any speed between max:lmum and mininrum
depending u pon the choke setting. With this arrangement I can get 23
~inutes on the grouno with a full tank of fuel and the choke nut open.
Start the e.ngine and get i t running perfectly before attemp tir:g
any flights. Set the time r for a 20 second motor run. With the en-
gine running slowly and the model adjusted for what you think will
give a straight flight; shove the ship moderately into the breeze.
In all probability, it won't fly straight. Immediately adjust the
ship for a circle and an even g lide. Make all test flights short
and run the engine slow. If the plane stalls under power it is be-
cause of the · thrust line settirg. By all means, don't allow you
ship to fly under power to the right. Adjust the rudder for a . left
turn and set the thrust line right or left until the ship flies to
the left. I have tested an:l flown five gas models ranging in size
from 4 ft. 8 in. to 8 ft., all with l / 5th H. P. motor s , by this meth-
od. All tests were successful.
Editor's Note: Renry has been buildirvs models since 192S. He,
has made over 192 models, of all types, to date. He has been a CCJ !! -
s is tent' contest winne r . His best duration s are as follow s:
Les s than Wt. Rules Wt. Rules
0abin Model 36 min. - 46 min.
11
11
Sti c k Model 27 19
H. L. Glider 15
Flying Scale 17 " 18
SOME TECHBICAL BOTE~ ON THI: PRBSEl'l' IBDOOR AIRFOIL
143
Being the results of Aerodynamic experiments
with eight single surfaoe airfoils.
by J. Wallace McBride
The National Advisory Committe for Aeronautics (N.A.C.A.) ha.a ·
published numerous reports on the aerodynamic charactaristics of air-
foils, none of which are acceptable to the present indoor expert.
(~.E.F. 1) Endeavoring to remedy this situation the author began in
1931 to test the single surface airfoils of the NSeven Outstanding
Tractors of 1930.M (R.E.F. 2) Work was begun using free flight tests
but the method · was soon abandoned because of the larger number of va-
riables involved. In an attempt to eliminate some of theee a small
windtunnel was built and placed in operation.
Power for the tunnel was suppl ied by a one-sixteenth horsepower,
rheostat controlled, electric fan. Air was forced through a stiff
paper transition piece, goin g f ro m 13 inches in diameter at the fan
to a honeycomb 14 x 5 inches at t he entrance to the working chamber.
One and one- hal f inch lengt hs of soda straw piled and glued on top of
one another formed the honeycoDb , t he purpose of which was to bring
the air into the working chambe r in parallel streams. (See drawing.)
The aerodynamic bal ance mounted on the top of the working chamber
was of t l1e pin jointed paralle·lo gram type. Lift was measured by an old
druggist's balance whic h had the drag balance mounted on one upright
arm. The drag arm was s o mounted that its position could be varied
at will and then locke d in position. The angle of attack which was
controlled by this movement was read off a protractor attached to the
same upright. Thus one could control the angle of the test s eotion
without distru'bing it. (See drawing of t he balance.)
The test s ections were constructed according to current model
building practice. Weight being no objection the sections were built
very substantially . The tis s ue covering was supported _ by, one inoh
spaced, hard balsa ribs fairea into one-sixteenth diameter (being the
mean size of the average indoor tractor spar) pine spars. Sag at the
tips was prevented by airfoil braces similar to those now used in mul-
tiple covered microfilm wings. The venr low aspect ratio a .44 was
necessary in order to get a chord large enough to give a Reynold's
number approaching that of flight.
PAN
PO/NTER
IJ/A<f.fA-4<f OF
Ndili'IOE AERO/)YNAAllC
BALANCE
(}Rll!i/N4L.£Y ,ti ~HVtStSST 4~AlllC£
AOA7'T&O "',-e .VN077.W.f!EL
144 The test sections were mounted inverted on the drag balance clip
arm (1/8 x 1/4, oross section) by Pond type double grip clips. The
lift balance was then counterbalanced for the weight of the section
with the power off. The test section was then tested to see if it was
on the same plane as the top of the test chamber, by taking offset
measurements from . the spars, when the angle of attack indicator read
zero. The power was then turned on and the airspeed obtained. There
being no micro-manometer available the a i rspeed was obtained by moun-
ting a square flat plate normal to the airstream ana t hen recor~ing
the drag. Speed was obtained by solving the equati.on•-Drag•Cd t' S y2
(Use of this type ex:pla.ined later. l with the a rag coefficient <Cd l
taken as 1.040 for a plate 10 ems. square . (REF. 3 & 4) The test
seation was then replaced and its angle of attack again checked.
Readings were taken for lift with the drag arm locked. The procees
was repeated for every two degrees throughout the working range. The
power was then shut off and the incidence of t he hst section again
ohecked, If the test seotion was found to have sb:Lfted the process
was then repeated.
The tests were carried out either in the mid afternoon or about
4 A.M. in an effort to reduce the error resulting f rom variations in
airspeed due to changes in the power loads on the power line. Compa-
rison of the results wit h those of the N.A.C.A. have led the author to
believe that the airspeed of 7 f .p.s. is a little too great. Although
the error may be largely due to the low Reynold's Number. A free
flight test with another single surface airfoil gave a Cl of 1.4 at l~
so the error is probably not great. He, however, hesitates to guaran-
tee the aocuracy and suggest that the reader test his own airfoil in
flight by obtaining speed. It is then poss i ble to calculate the lift
coeffioient for the angle at whioh the wing was flying. With this
data it is only necessary to transpose the lift cur ve so it passes
through the point obtained by the flight test. The drag curve will
also be transposed but the L/D ratio will remain t he same. Should
anyone oarry out such a test the author will be glad to hear the re -
sults or if information is desired as to the method he· will be glad
to be of assistance.
Ray Thompson o.o 2.30 4.00 6.20 7.50 7.75 7.40 6.76 5.,75 4.10 3.60 o.o
Carl Goldberg o.o 2.70 4.60 6.80 s.oo 8.40 s.oo 7.00 6.90 4.30 2.30 o.o
Fay Stroud (tiP. O;O 3.00 4.60 7.00 a.10 s.20 7.90 7.00 6.'70 4.10 .2.30 o.o
L. Hankammer o.o 3.90 4.75 6.80 a.co 7.95 7.so 6.25 4.90 3.50 1.90 o.o
:Ja'ck Fisher o.o 4.25 5.00 7.80 9.00 9.20 e.eo 7.20 5.80 4.00 2.3'6 o.o-
Ernie McCoy o.o 2.70 4.50 6.80 7.90 8.10 8~00 7.20 6.00 4.60 2.75 o.o
McBride B-6 o.o 2.90 5.10 7.40 8.25 8.30 7.90 6.90 5.60 3.90 2.00 o.o
.McBride B-7 · o.o 2,35 4.40 6.70 7.80 8.30 7.90 6.90 5.60 3.90 2.00 o.o
06ttingen 417a 0.6 2.86 4.28 5.70 6.4.8 6.53 6.10 5.38 4.38 3.10 1.60 o.o
Flat Plate 0.5 0,50 o.50 o.5o 0.60 o.5o 0.50 0.50 o.5o o.so o.5o 0.5Q
A , "..
",~
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Angle of Attack in Degrees Angle of Attack in Degrees
Coefficients are Absolute
~
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2. 4 ~ lJ 10 IZ 1-#- 1'
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Angle or Attack in Degrees
6 ~ ,,,, /2 Af: A NJ ~
-- -~
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Angle of Attack in Degrees Angle of Attack in .Degrees
W"/IVOT~..V,YEL l..AYOVT
147
Name of section: McBride B-6 Name of eeotion: McBride B-7
Wind veloci t y: 7 f .p.s. Wind velocity: 7 f .p.s.
A.R. test sec t ion: 3.44 A.R. test section: 3.44
Tested by: M.cBride, March 1 932 Tested by: McBride, March 1 9 3 2
Where te s ted: Winni peg, Can. Where tested : Winnipeg, Can.
050 0.10 IJ.50 ti.Ill
~ ,!'f-
,a
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Angl e of At t a ck in Degrees Angle of Attack in De gree s
Coefficients are Abso l ut e
Name of s ection: G~ttingen 417a Name of se~tion: Flat Plate
Wind velocity: 98. 4 f . p .s. Wind velocity: ? .
A.R. test secti on : 5/1 A.B. te s t section: 5/1
Wher e t ested: GBt ti ngen , 1 926 Where tested: Langley Fie l d
N,A.C.A. Ref. 64 0 N.A.C.A. Ref. 201
,
,, , UP 0.14
l
II
'
' 1. 00 1.ZI t-+-+-+-+-t-+--+-+-+-f-+-+-1--+-+..+--~.P.,
l lol-+--+-f-+-I l.H o..U
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~ 1-+-+J...-+-+-~>-+-+-r+-+--+-+-+-+-+-+-1-+-+-+-++-+-1 ~l-+-+-+~~--u.·~+4-+-IH-+-J.--l-+-1-1--l--+.+-l-+-l--l
ff•~t•lld
t:J;;~ JYOA:'KllV6
C'JIA#.lJER
/IONEYC'tJAIB lfo~
e,eo.ss SECT/ tJIY
J4B
Some of the readers may not be familiar with this system of
coefficients. The system ls that used by the N.A.C.A. and ls known
as the Absolute system. The coefficient of lift la denoted as Cl
and the coefficient of drag Cd.
The lift equation for this system ls: Llft.::s Cl S v2 ·t
The drag equation for this system ls: Drag= Ccl ~ S v2
Where p s .002378. The density of the air.
S = the effective area of the wing, square feet.
V the speed of the air, feet per second . (f.p.s.)
For the benefit of those not acquainte~ with the use of Ab-
solute Coefficient Systems the following design is given.
EXAMPLE 1.
Type of aircraft: Indoor Tractor., weight complete .os oz.
Effective wing area: 100 square inches.
Wing section ie. airfoil: Gattingen 417a.
Angle of attack: e degrees 40 mine.
Note the angle of attack is the angle of incidenee between the
wing and the airflow. The angle of incidence is the angle ot inclina-
tion between the wing and a fixed line in the aircraft usually the
line of thrust.
Lift Coefficient by chart: l.OO=Cl
Air density 0,002378 at 69 degrees F. and 29.92 inches of
mercury.
As the conditions mentioned above are the average of the condi-
tions in the temparate zone one will not be greatly i11 error it den-
sity corrections for change in temperature and preeeure are not made.
Lift=[i.oo x .0012 x 1-W- x v2] = ( L= c1 ~ s v2)
It is assumed that there is no down or up load 011 stabilizer at
this angle of attack.
Therefore- .OS :x .0626=1.00 x .0012 :x .l.QQ x v2
144
( .os os.•weight of the model) (.0626llbe.=-Cd at a0 40')
Solving for V one gets:- v~Root of 6.26 or 2~5
Therefore speed in level flight at 6 degrees 40 mns. is 2.6 f.p.s.
Many model builders will question the -:use of dateL of this kind
in the design of indoor models, and in an endeavor to answer them,
theee last paragraphs are written.
One of the major uses of scientific information of this kind is
that one may oompare wing sections and find the effeot of making small
ehanges. Thus he will know that flattening out a section between O
and 3~ of the chord will, if oarried out within reasonable limits.
1.49
increase lift and efficiency, thus producing a better endurance airfoil
(B-6 and B-7) while humping an airfoil at the 40~ station will in-
crease at the expense of efficiency. (Jack Fisher.) Thus by careful
comparison of the characteristics of section one may finally develop
a very superior airfoil.
Data of this kind is most useful in design work as it is possible
to make preliminary endurance calculations, calculate changes in pos-
sible duration due to changes in wing area, incidence etc. An
example of its use in this kind of work is given below.
EXAMfLE 2.
An indoor tractor of 100 square inchesf!~f area was being flown
at 6 degrees attack. A check of values of -ei1(0ne of the criteria
for an endurance airfoil. Should be a minimum. (REF.5) of the airfoil
has shown that 9 degree is a better angle for the airfoil Would this
setting improve duration?
Area: 100 sq. in. .Cd of stick etc.: 0.0824
Airfoil: G~tt. 417a. (this includes area.)
Flying weight: 0.10 oz. Available energy: 35.0 ft.oz.
6 degrees attack 9 degrees attack
v2- (y.10 x 0.0625 x lOO x 2) v2- (0.10 x 0.0625 x 100 x 2 )
- (o.8 x 144 x 0.0024) - (1.02 x 144 x 0.0024)
V= 2.12 f.p.s. v = 1. 88 f. p. s.
Cl at 6 degrees being 0.08 Cl at 9 Qegrees being 1,02
L/D at 6 degrees is 15.2 L/D at 9 degrees is 14.l
Motor Rud stick drag
2
(u.0824 x 0.0024 x (l.88) 2
(0.0625 x 2)
:0~00578 oz.
Wi ng d rag i s 0.10
14 •1 = .00707 -oz
Wing 0
M..tvc..e
Z-9',(,d,P
/fllo
'l5z. l.3Ra.v.V
Tt/tf!h'~
-----·----------4 g_.~
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154
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1/8 80 64 55 50 44 40 36 34 32
5/32 68 59 50 46 41 38 34 29 24
3/16 60 54 46 42 38 35 32 27 24
1/4 56 44 37 33 29 27 25· 23 21
The tables are for 1/30 Gage Special Brown Rubber (MRL, T56).
A complete tabl e of all numbers of strands and lengths of motors
would require _too 111UCh space. Make your own chart for the motors
which you usually use most, and paste it in your model box. The
1/4 motors of over 14 strands are hard to handle. It is advisable
to wind the motors before begining a design using thls size.
(Extracted from J.P.Glass artiole in 1935-36 Year Book wi~addi-
tions by Edi tor.) "3 : ~""'"~ K/N.DE-e N()lllf'
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RUBBER TENSIONER is a British inven-fiion. Its purpose is to prevent
a long motor from unwinding completely and so prevent shifting.
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INDOORS (No weight restriction) OUTDOORS (Min. Wine; Load. 50 sg. in./ l oz.
STlCK CLA::lS A ( 30 sq. in. or under) STICK CLASS C (100-150 sq. in.
Rise off Ground Hand Launched
Junior: William Wert Philadelphia, Pa. lOm 26,4s
Philadelphia, Pa. 15m 47.4s Junior: Junior Dague Tuls a, Oklahoma 2lm 04 .0s
S enior: Ervin Leshn er
Open : Joseph Matulis Chi cago, Illinois 9m 59.0s S enior : Harry Co rnish Denver, Colorado 6lm 09.0s
Open : Joseph Frady Tulsa, Okl ahorna 27m 07 .Os
Rise off Wat er Rise off Water
Junior: William Wert Philadelphia, Pa. 7m l9.4s Senior: Larry Low New York, N. Y. 2m 00.0i!
Senior: Colman Z ola Brooklyn, N. Y. 7m 41.ls
Open : Beorgevin Becksted Chi::ago,, Illinois 5m 38.2s Hand Launched CLASS D ( 150-300 sq , in~
J u n i or: Fred Skafec Akron, Ohi o 8111 21 .6s
CLASS B (30-100 sq. in.) Senior: Daniel Clini Springfield, Ma~~ . 38:-7: 50.05
He.rd Launc hed
Junior: Johns. Stokes Jr. Huntington Valley, Pa. 18m 12. 2s Open : Chester Lanzo Cleve :).and, Ohio 18m 10.0s
Senior: Wilbur F. Tyler Boston, Mass. 20m 50.ls Rise off Water
Open : Ernest A. Walen Springfield, mas s , lBm 45 .5s Senior: Larry Low llew York, ri. Y . lm 12. 0 s
cD New York, N. Y. (tie) lm 1 2.0s
Senior: Malcom A bzug
~E
0
Rise off Ground
Junior: Johns. Stokes, Jr. Huntington Valley, Pa 17m 19.3s CABIN FUSEIAGE CLASS C
Rise ·off Ground
~i Senior: Hyman Os lick Philadelphia, Pa. 17m 03.8s
17m 42.8s Juni o r: Fred Smith Denver, Colorado 27m 40 . Os
Open : Ernest A. Wale n Springfield, Mass,
Seni or: Robert Cahill Indianapolis, Incl. 3:s10 oo . o s
~O) Senior: Mayhew Webster Philadelphia, Pa. llm 55 .0s Seni o r: Alan Orthoff New York, N. Y. lm 07 .Os
< • Open : William Latour Philadelphia, Po.. 13m 15.0s CU.SS D
< Rise off Ground
...< •
""<
~
o:z:
. Hanl Launched
CLASS C (100 -150 sq. in.)