SECTION ONE - GENERAL FACTS + KEY TERMS

Q What are linear plantations (protective forests)?

Ans: Linear plantation refers to the trees planted along the roads,
canals and railway lines. Trees hold the soil and protect against soil
erosion, besides providing shade, reducing pollution and increasing
the afforested area. The photos show social media posts made by the KPK
government on Twitter to share evidence with citizens about linear plantations planted by the
Forest Division alongside the National Highway)

Q What are productive forests?

Ans: The term “productive forest” mainly refers to natural forests.
Productive forests have high tree density, and a high commercial
value, because they are a source of timber and firewood.

Q State two domestic use of wood.

Ans: Timber is used in the construction of houses, for furniture,
doors and windows. Timber is also used for firewood to cook food, warm homes, and heat water.

Q Explain how wood is used in industry and transport.

Ans: Industry: Wood is used as a raw material for furniture making,
paper, matches, and pencils, sports goods like hockey sticks, bats
and rackets. Resin, which is a fluid found in Pine trees, is also used
for making varnishes. Mazri is used for making mats and baskets.
Ephedra is a shrub used in pharmaceutical factories to make
medicines.

Transport: In transport, wood is used in making truck bodies, railway carriages, and railroad
sleepers (wooden planks upon which the steel railroad track sits), animal carts, boats and bridges.
Picture of ladies crossing a wooden bridge in Kalam, near Swat, K.P.K.

Q What is sustainable forestry?

Ans: Sustainable forestry means managing the cutting of
trees in a way that doesn’t deplete or destroy the forest.
Instead, new trees are constantly being planted to
replace the trees that have been cut, and only mature
trees are thinned or harvested. In this way, the forest
remains productive for a long time, the soil is not eroded,
and wildlife habitats are preserved.

Deforestation is the opposite of sustainable forestry and

it has devastating long term effects on the environment, wildlife, economy, and public health.
Q Explain the importance of forests for the conservation of
the environment in Pakistan?
Ans: (1) Forests prevent soil erosion and floods. (2) Forests
add oxygen to the air and reduce air pollution. (3) Forests
provide habitats for wildlife. (4) Forests reduce the overall
temperature and attract rainfall. (5) Forests add to the
natural beauty of Pakistan.

Q What is the difference between afforestation and reforestation?

Ans:
Afforestation means to grow a forest on an area where there was no forest before.
Reforestation means growing a forest on a deforested area, or an area that had forests that were
cut down.

Q Why is afforestation called a long term investment?

Ans: Trees take 10 to 20 years to reach maturity to become economically valuable.

Q Describe the distribution of natural and irrigated (man-made) forests.

Ans: Coniferous forests are found in
the Northern and North-Western
mountains. Gilgit, Chitral, Swat,
Murree, Abbotabad, Mansera,
Nathiagali, and Kaghan. Coniferous
Forest are also found in Waziristan,
Quetta, Pishin and Ziarat. Below
1000 meters sub-tropical dry forests
exist in Rawalpindi/ Islamabad,
Attock, Peshawar, Mardan and
Kohat. Mangroves forest are found in
the Indus and Hab Delta, and along
the Makran Coast. Irrigated forests
are found in Changa Manga,
Khanawal, Taunsa, Bahawalpur,
Guddu barrage and Hyderabad.
SECTION TWO - TYPES of FOREST
Topic: Alpine forests.

Q At what altitude are Alpine forests found?

Ans: Alpine forests are high-altitude forests that grow just below
the snow line, from 4000 to 4500 meters above sea level. Alpine
plants occur in a tundra.

Q Describe the features of Alpine trees.

Ans: Silver fir, pines, junipers and birches are some important
species of trees. These are basically conifers but at high alpine
latitudes, their growth becomes stunted because of extremely cold weather, i.e. they do not
grow to full height. Alpine trees are found in Dir, Chitral, Swat and Kohistan. Alpine forests are not
spread over a great area, they have little economic value. Alpine forests may provide firewood for
local residents.

Q What is a snow line?

Ans: The altitude (height 4500 meters) above which snow remains throughout the year on mountain
peaks, is the snow line. Vegetation cannot grow above the snow line because the ground is icy and
frozen.

Q What is a snowfield?
Ans: A snowfield is a large area covered with snow all throughout the year.

Q Explain why a large part of the Northern Areas is covered with snowfields.
Ans: Snowfields exist over an altitude of 4500 meters because of low temperatures during long
winter months. Heavy snowfall takes place in these areas. During the short summer period, very
little snow melts. The next winter brings even more snowfall, causing the snow to pile up on last
year’s snow, and turning it into hard ice. A snowfield has layers and layers of hard ice formed over a
period of years. These layers never melt completely, forming a permanent snowfield.

Topic: Coniferous forests.

Q At what altitude are coniferous trees found?
Ans: From 1000 to 4000 meters.

Q Name the types of coniferous trees.

Ans: Fir, Silver Fir, Spruce, Birch, Deodar, Pine, Larch and Juniper.
Trees that produce cones (e.g. pine cone) instead of flowers are
conifers.

Q Name the places where coniferous trees are found in Pakistan.

Ans: In K.P.K - Abottabad, Mansehra, Swat
In Punjab - Rawalpindi, Islamabad and Muree
In Balochistan - Quetta and Kalat
Q How have coniferous trees and plants adapted to survive in the climate of the Northern Areas?
Ans: 1) Coniferous trees have thick bark to protect them from low temperatures, 2) they have
needle-like leaves to reduce water loss through transpiration, 3) they have downward sloping
branches to let snow slide-off, 4) they have long shallow roots to provide strength against winds and
absorb water. 5) Confers are known as evergreens, they do not shed and regrow their leaves and
this saves energy.

Topic: Tropical Thorn forests.

Q Describe the features of a tropical thorn forest.
Ans: These are short, thorny hardwood trees, 6-10 m high. They are
also known as Rakh. These trees have long roots so they can live
on a very small amount of water in arid conditions. Acacia and
Salvadora are common types of trees found in tropical thorn forests,
they are used as firewood.

Topic: Sub-Tropical Scrub Forests.

Q Name the places where Sub-Tropical Scrub Forest are found?
Ans: These forests are found in:
Balochistan - Sulaiman Range, Kirthar Range
Punjab - In the foothills of the lower Himalayas (Margalls Hills).
K.P.K in the Western Mountains (Peshawar, Kohat and Mardan).
Hint - these are the forests you see on Trail 3 or the drive to Monal in Islamabad

Q What are the main features of a Sub-Tropical Scrub Forest?

Ans: Sub-tropical scrub forests have broad-leafed thorny trees. They
may be used for grazing cattle (goats and sheep), and they provide firewood. The branches are too
weak and thin to be used for construction or furniture.

Topic: Riverine Forests aka Bela Forests.

Q At what altitude are riverine forests found?
Ans: Below 1000 meters, in the low-land plains, on the banks of
rivers.

Q Describe the features of a riverine forest.

Ans: Riverine forests are found along the banks of the Indus River
and its tributaries locally known as Bela forests. Riverine forests
mostly grow in the fertile soil of the active flood plains on either side
of various rivers. Babul, Shisham, Willow, Darek (Jacaranda) and Jhand are common types of trees
found in Riverine forests. Most of their wood is useful for firewood. Shisham trees can be used for
making furniture or homes.

Topic: Mangrove Forests.

Q Name the types of mangrove trees.
Ans: Avicennia Marina and Red Mangrove are 2 out of 8 mangrove
tree species found in Pakistan - 4 of these are already extinct, and 3
including Red Mangrove, are endangered.
Mangrove trees grow in tidal estuaries, in salt marshes and on
muddy coasts. They have prop roots that “breathe” by rising above the water and allowing air to
enter through small openings (lenticels) so it can pass down to the roots beneath the mud.
Q Why is this type of forest found along coastal areas?
Ans: Mangrove forest grows in coastal areas and wetlands, which
are drained by both fresh river water and salty seawater. These
trees can live in salty seawater. The roots of Mangrove trees can
filter the salt. These trees have stunted (slow) growth due to water
pollution. Mangrove trees can grow up to 8 meters in case of
favorable (good) conditions. Mangrove forests provide a safe zone
for fish to lay eggs, they protect the land from harsh waves, and are
very valuable for the environment.

Q Name the areas where Mangrove forests are found.

Ans: Indus Delta and Hub Delta, along the Makran Coast in Ormara,
Gwadar, and Jiwani.
In terms of area Pakistan has 0.6 million hectares of mangrove ecosystem,
probably the tenth largest in the world. They are distributed along the coast of
Sindh and Baluchistan.

Q What are advantages of Mangrove trees?

Ans: (1) Mangrove trees are a breeding ground for shrimp, crabs, lobsters and other valuable
marine fish that are captured by fishermen for trade, hence mangroves are important for economic
activity. (2) Mangroves are a wildlife habitat for fish, plants, crutaceans, birds, mammals, reptiles
and amphibians. (3) Mangroves protect the coastal land from erosion by seawater and strong tidal
waves and sea breezes, (4) Mangroves add oxygen to the atmosphere, trap carbon dioxide and
reduce pollution, (5) Mangrove forests are a shelterbelt against cyclones, (6) Locals use mangrove
leaves to feed livestock and make medicine, (7) Mangrove wood is very valuable because it is
resistant to rot and insects, (8) Mangrove forests have been harvested for pulp, woodchip, and
charcoal production, but should be protected from commercial activity.

Q Why has the area covered by Mangrove forests decreased in recent years?
Ans: Commercial development of coastlines, diverting of freshwater from the Indus, careless cutting
of trees for firewood and timber, overgrazing, oil spills and water pollution (factories and city waste
from Karachi and other areas) have damaged the mangrove forests and associated wetlands.
SECTION THREE - HUMAN INTERVENTION
Topic: Irrigated Forests.

Q Why does Pakistan need to increase the area of its

irrigated forests?
Ans: In Pakistan, less than 5% of the national landmass
is covered with forest. There is a shortage of wood and
timber in Pakistan. There is not enough rainfall to support
natural forests in the lower Indus plains. To ensure a
steady supply of firewood and timber, people have dug
canals and water channels to irrigate man-made forests.
Irrigated forests are sustainable and commercially
valuable. They also improve the environment.

The textbox below shows a Wikipedia entry about Changa Manga, Pakistan’s largest man-made forest. Changa Manga was created by
the British to ensure a steady supply of firewood to fuel the 5 daily trains travelling on the Lahore-Karachi railway line in the 1860s. You
don’t need to write about this in your exam, but it will certainly improve your understanding of both History and Geography. Introducing
water to this thorny scrub jungle was the key to transforming this landscape. The British were excellent planners and developers.

Q Describe the main features of an irrigated forest.

Ans: Irrigated forests are planted with high-value trees that will yield a profit. Trees like Shisham,
Babul, Jhand, and Euclyptus are grown to provide firewood and timber.

Q Name the places where irrigated forests are being grown.

Ans: Irrigated forests are common in the lower Indus plains aka Punjab: Changa Manga near
Lahore, Chichawatni, Khanewal, Bahawalpur, Taunsa Barrage and Ghuddu Barrages.

Q Explain the advantages and disadvantages of developing more irrigated plantation in the Indus
Delta?
Ans: Advantages: Irrigated forest areas will (1) Provide timber for furniture and construction, as well
as firewood, (2) provide fruit and medicinal ingredients for people, (3) provide fodder for animals, (3)
support bees, birds and wildlife. (4) The forest floor adds fertility and nutrients to arid and degraded
soil, this happens because leaves fall and decompose turning into “humus”. (5) Forests also prevent
soil erosion by wind, rainwater or extreme weather, (6) add to the natural beauty of a place, (7)
reduce pollution, (8) and extract/ remove toxins and even radioactive waste from the soil - storing it
in their trees and branches.

Disadvantages: Irrigated forest areas are (1) expensive, high-cost investments that take up money
and property, (2) they are long-term investments that do not provide a product for 10-20 years
(unlike cheaper crops that are ready for harvest in a few months), (3) they need irrigation and a
man-made water supply.

Q Why is irrigation necessary for new forest plantations?

Ans: (1) In the Indus plain, there is not enough rainfall, and the rate of evaporation/transpiration is
high due to the hot temperatures, without irrigation, the forest will not have the water it needs to
grow properly. (2) The rainfall is seasonal and does not provide a yearlong supply of water. (3)
Irrigated soil is wetter and heavier, it cannot be easily eroded by strong winds and dust storms.

Topic: Deforestation.

Q State the causes of deforestation.

Ans: (1) Deforestation is caused by the cutting down of trees, motivated by the need for firewood,
the desire to sell the valuable trees for timber, and the need for wood to build homes. (2) Sometimes
trees are cut to clear a piece of land for farming crops. (3) Forested areas are destroyed in order to
build homes, roads, mines, housing societies and dams. (4) factories may cut trees to access raw
material below the land, or to use as raw material (6) Droughts, landslides, flash floods, forest fires,
and violent storms can damage forest areas, (7) as can overgrazing by livestock such as goats and
sheep, which can strip the bark of trees in the winter.

Q How does deforestation cause soil erosion?

Ans: Soil is exposed due to deforestation and
there are no tree roots left to hold the soil in
place. Therefore the soil is easily washed
away by rain. Nutrients in the soil are washed
away making the soil infertile and dry like dust,
which cannot support healthy plant growth.

Q How can soil can be preserved in deforested areas?

Ans:
(1) By using hill terracing (top picture): Steps are cut into the slope
of a mountainside or hillside, then the edges or ‘risers’ of terraced
fields are lined with stone walls to hold the soil.
(2) Terracing on gentler slopes (picture 2) uses tall grasses and
crops, grown on the edges of fields to reduce erosion.
(3) Strip farming (picture 4 - bottom left) is another method for
preventing soil erosion on flat land - a shorter crop (wheat or
vegetables) is grown between long strips of a taller crop (fruit trees)
to keep soil protected from wind and rain.
(4) Afforestation also helps to check soil erosion, this is done by
planting trees at the edges of fields (picture 3 - bottom right).
Q What problems are caused by deforestation in mountain areas for (a) communication (b) farming
in valley (c) hydro-electricity?
Ans:
Communication: Deforestation causes landslides which can knock down
electricity, telephone, and mobile towers. Landslides can block or
destroy roads and access to mountain areas, making communication
impossible. Landslides are a direct result of deforestation which
removes the tree roots that hold the soil in place. Without the binding of
tree roots and vegetation, the soil on a mountain slope absorbs rain or
river water, and becomes a muddy slurry, which collapses into a river of
mud that slides down taking rocks, boulders, and structures with it.

Valley farming: Deforestation means that rainwater running of bare and tree-less mountain slopes
becomes muddy. This muddy water filled with eroded minerals is unfit for drinking (by humans and
animals), and cannot be used for farming in fields. Farms in mountain valleys are adversely affected
by deforestation of mountain forests.

Hydro-electricity: Dams are built to store a large amount of water, and then release it at high
pressure to operate turbines, which create electricity. Water flowing down from deforested areas
carries a high level of eroded soil. When the water flows into the dam, the eroded soil is deposited
at the bottom of the lake. High levels of eroded soil and rocks entering the lake, reduce a dam’s
water storage capacity, block outlets, and damage machinery. It is very costly to remove sediment
deposits from a dam.

Q Explain why the dry climate of Balochistan increases the risk of soil erosion?
Ans: The land of Balochistan has an arid climate with very little rainfall, which means plant growth is
scarce. To make matters worse, overgrazing is common and re-growth of vegetation is slow. Having
barely any plant roots to hold down the soil, and no leafy cover or grasses to protect the soil from
the wind, the soil is turned over, again and again, losing moisture, microbes, nutrients and minerals.
Due to this manner of wind erosion, the soil becomes like lifeless dust.

Q Where does eroded soil go?

Ans: Wind blows it into sand dunes or foothills, water takes it into rivers or ditches. It may drain into
a dam or lake and settle there.

REFERENCES
The following notes have been created by using the following resources:

1. Pakistan Studies 2 O Level Notes by Sir Bilal Sarwar from DMC Faisalabad (03228659670),
(https://www.facebook.com/615640275567702/posts/forest-unit-4by-sir-bilal-sarwar-from-dm
c-fsd-03228659670q-what-are-linear-plant/615650102233386/)
2. Wikipedia.com
3. The Open University (open.edu)
4. Brittanica.com
5. www.WWF.org.pk