Science of the Total Environment 613–614 (2018) 1117–1129

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Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Coal-water slurries containing petrochemicals to solve problems of air

pollution by coal thermal power stations and boiler plants: An
introductory review
Margarita A. Dmitrienko, Pavel A. Strizhak ⁎
National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk 634050, Russia

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Research enables the assessment of the

prospects of power plants switching to
CWSP.
• CWSPs are more economically and envi-
ronmentally efficient than coals or fuel
oil.
• Charges at TPSs required for switching to
CWSP pay off within several years.
• The greater the fuel consumption and en-
ergy output, the shorter the payback peri-
od.
• By varying the type of waste in CWSP, one
can change the power plant performance.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This introductory study presents the analysis of the environmental, economic and energy performance indicators of
Received 10 August 2017 burning high-potential coal water slurries containing petrochemicals (CWSP) instead of coal, fuel oil, and natural gas
Received in revised form 16 September 2017 at typical thermal power stations (TPS) and a boiler plant. We focus on the most hazardous anthropogenic emissions
Accepted 18 September 2017
of coal power industry: sulfur and nitrogen oxides. The research findings show that these emissions may be several
Available online 23 September 2017
times lower if coal and oil processing wastes are mixed with water as compared to the combustion of traditional pul-
Editor: D. Barcelo verized coal, even of high grades. The study focuses on wastes, such as filter cakes, oil sludge, waste industrial oils,
heavy coal-tar products, resins, etc., that are produced and stored in abundance. Their deep conversion is very rare
Keywords: due to low economic benefit. Effective ways are necessary to recover such industrial wastes. We present the cost as-
Air pollution sessment of the changes to the heat and power generation technologies that are required from typical power plants
Anthropogenic emissions for switching from coal, fuel oil and natural gas to CWSPs based on coal and oil processing wastes. The corresponding
Sulfur and nitrogen oxides technological changes pay off after a short time, ranging from several months to several years. The most promising
Thermal power stations and boiler plants components for CWSP production have been identified, which provide payback within a year. Among these are filter
Coal combustion
cakes (coal processing wastes), which are produced as a ready-made coal-water slurry fuel (a mixture of flocculants,
Coal water slurries containing petrochemicals
water, and fine coal dust). These fuels have the least impact on the environment in terms of the emissions of sulfur
and nitrogen oxides as well as fly ash. An important conclusion of the study is that using CWSPs based on filter cakes
is worthwhile both as the main fuel for thermal power stations and boiler plants and as starting fuel.
© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Abbreviations: ASW, ash and slag waste; CWS, coal water slurry; CWSP, coal water slurry containing petrochemicals; SLCF, synthetic liquid composite fuel; TPS, thermal power station.
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mad2@tpu.ru (M.A. Dmitrienko), pavelspa@tpu.ru (P.A. Strizhak).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.189
0048-9697/© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1118 M.A. Dmitrienko, P.A. Strizhak / Science of the Total Environment 613–614 (2018) 1117–1129
Nomenclature
Ad ash level of dry sample, %
Cdaf fraction of carbon in the sample converted to a dry ash-
free state, %
Hdaf fraction of hydrogen in the sample converted to a dry
ash-free state, %
Ndaf fraction of nitrogen in the sample converted to a dry
ash-free state, %
Odaf fraction of oxygen in the sample converted to a dry ash-
free state, %
Sdt fraction of sulfur in the sample converted to a dry ash-free
state, %
Tg air temperature, K
Tf flash temperature, K
Tign ignition temperature, K
Vdaf yield of volatiles of coal to a dry ash-free state, %
Wa humidity, %
Qas,V heat of combustion, MJ/kg
ρ density, kg/m3
td ignition delay time, s
τb duration of combustion, s
1. Introduction
Energy providers bear the primary responsibility for the accelerating
environmental degradation in the world. Despite the extensive use of
gas, oil, and uranium, the share of coal in the global electricity generation
is an impressive 35–45% (Lior, 2008; Kontorovich et al., 2014; Coal Facts,
2014; International Energy Agency, 2016; BP Statistical Review of World
Energy, 2016). The annual growth of coal consumption by energy
providers results from the increased demand for inexpensive heat and
electricity. BP Statistical Review of World Energy (2016) states that the
coal consumption in 2015 was as follows: China 1920.4 million tons,
India 283.9 million tons, the USA 455.2 million tons, Australia
275 million tons, and Russia 184.5 million tons. According to forecasts
(International Energy Outlook, 2016; Liu et al., 2017; Kucukvar et al.,
2017), these numbers are most likely to increase. In particular, the average
coal production in China will reach 5.5 billion tons by 2020 (Liu et al.,
2017). With its 210 GW, India is the fifth largest electricity producer in
the world. Coal-fired power stations account for 66% of the power-
generating sector in this country (Kucukvar et al., 2017; Guttikunda and
Jawahar, 2014).
The states with developed coal power industry (China, India, Japan,
Russia, the USA, and Australia) register a high air pollution level on
their territories every year. Coal combustion does not only provide ener-
gy but also produces hazardous substances and their mixtures (Deng
et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2015; Noli and Tsamos, 2016): anthropogenic
emissions (COx, NOx, SOx); ash and slag waste; fly ash with high content
of heavy metals (As, Cr, Ba, Sr, Zn, Pb, Mo, etc.); and toxic radionuclide-
contaminated water. The world academic community is well aware of
the massive detrimental effects of these wastes on the environment
(Chen et al., 2013; Yuan et al., 2014; Adiansyah et al., 2017; Pan et al.,
2017). In particular, sulfur and nitrogen oxides combine with the mois-
ture in the atmosphere and oxidize to form weak solutions of sulfuric
and nitrous acids, which cause acid rains (Ge et al., 2016). Increased
concentrations of nitrogen oxides catalyze the depletion of the ozone
layer, which protects the earth from ultraviolet radiation. Moreover,
combustion products contain fluorine, chlorine and their derivatives,
toxic and carcinogenic compounds, as well as carcinogenic hydrocar-
bons (Chen and Xu, 2010). Energy providers do not only affect the glob-
al environment by emissions of the above oxides but also of carbon
dioxide and water vapors. These enhance the greenhouse effect and
cause climate change (Chen et al., 2013; Yuan et al., 2014; Adiansyah
et al., 2017; Pan et al., 2017).
The world's major economies place special emphasis on developing
technologies to reduce air pollutant emissions by energy providers and
to advance the living standards (Meylan et al., 2015; Fan et al., 2015;
Ma et al., 2016). Industrial nations are often enforced to reduce the emis-
sions or stabilize their increment rate (Kyoto protocol, 1998; International
Energy Outlook, 2016; Facing Climate Change, 2016). Nevertheless, coal
combustion accounts for no less than about 45% of the world СО2 emis-
sions (International Energy Agency, 2016; Trends in Global CO2
Emissions: Report, 2016). The USA, China, India, the European Union,
and Russia are the leaders in this aspect (Abas and Khan, 2014). In
China, 70% of all ash particle emissions come from coal power plants
(Chen and Xu, 2010). The situation is similar with other hazardous sub-
stances: coal-burning power plants are to blame for 90% of all sulfur diox-
ide (SO2) emissions, 67% of nitrogen oxides (NOx), and 70% of carbon
dioxide (CO2) (Chen and Xu, 2010). Many states, including the Brazil,
China, India, USA, South Africa, and Russia, cannot restrict the coal
power generation for a number of reasons (Rodriguez-Iruretagoiena
et al., 2016; Civeira et al., 2016a, b; Agudelo-Castañeda et al., 2016;
Schneider et al., 2016; Saikia et al., 2016; Sehn et al., 2016; Dalmora
et al., 2016; Ramos et al., 2017; Fdez-Ortiz de Vallejuelo et al., 2017;
Agudelo-Castañeda et al., 2017). Therefore, the ecological impact can
only be reduced by improving the coal-burning technologies.
Vast amounts of hazardous anthropogenic emissions do not only
lead to serious environmental consequences but also have adverse ef-
fects on human health (Oliveira et al., 2014a). For example, Indian
coal-fired power plants annually emit over 110 thousand tons of ash
particles, 43 million tons of SO2, and 1.2 million tons of NOx (Oliveira
et al., 2014a). Study (Guttikunda and Jawahar, 2014) shows that expo-
sure to solid ash particles and coal dust caused 115 thousand premature
deaths and about 21 million of asthma cases in this country between
2010 and 2011.
A significant share of mined coal is washed when prepared for ex-
port. Wet high-ash wastes (filter cakes), which are formed as a result,
are annually accumulated in the amount of tens of millions of tons
(Glushkov et al., 2016a). Currently, Russia, China, and India are thinking
of involving coal filter cakes in the power industry (Glushkov et al.,
2016a). The coal concentration in CWSs and filter cakes usually ranges
from 40% to 60%, so wet filter cakes per se are ready-made coal-water
slurries (Glushkov et al., 2016a).
Using CWSs as the main fuel (for example, instead of coal or fuel oil)
will help energy providers to reach a number of goals: reduce anthropo-
genic emissions into the environment, recover coal processing wastes,
free vast territories of the corresponding disposal areas, and lower the
rate of coal mining and development of new deposits (Saikia et al.,
2015; Sanchís et al., 2015; Tezza et al., 2015; Wilcox et al., 2015;
Sindelar et al., 2015). Moreover, there are other issues related to the
lamination of the slurry (settling of solid particles or sedimentation).
This complicates the pipeline transportation of CWSs as well as their
long-term storage and subsequent combustion (Glushkov et al.,
2016a). To prevent lamination, one can add liquid flammable plasti-
cizers to slurries and thus obtain the so-called coal water slurries con-
taining petrochemicals (Glushkov et al., 2016a). These are also known
as synthetic liquid composite fuels.
Using CWSPs will not only reduce the emissions and smooth the way
for effective waste recovery, but also expand the scope of raw materials
for fuel production from the corresponding wastes and improve the
combustion efficiency of low-rank coals. Boilers have already been op-
erationally tested for burning CWSPs based on coal cakes at Barzas sta-
tion in Kemerovo region, Russia (Glushkov et al., 2016a). The power
industry will benefit greatly from a comprehensive analysis of the pros-
pects of CWSP usage in terms of environmental, economic and energy
performance.
The purpose of this introductory study is to analyze the sustainabil-
ity and energy performance prospects of thermal power stations and
 M.A. Dmitrienko, P.A. Strizhak / Science of the Total Environment 613–614 (2018) 1117–1129 1119

Table 1 Table 3
Proximate analysis of dry filter cakes. Analysis of filter cake characteristics in the initial state.

Grade of coal Ad, % Vdaf, % Qas,V, MJ/kg Grade of coal Mass fraction of dry coal, % Qas,V, MJ/kg

C 26.46 23.08 24.83 C 87.20 5.090

F 57.67 45.24 20.9 F 73.16 4.999
G 33.82 43.11 22.16 G 75.12 4.638
L 50.89 30.16 15.23 L 87.47 5.039
N 21.20 16.09 26.92 N 90.13 4.255
FL 36.99 41.47 19.24 FL 73.27 4.904

boiler plants using coal water slurries containing petrochemicals in-
stead of coal and fuel oil, which are hazardous in terms of anthropogenic
emissions.
2. Research into environmental performance indicators of CWSPs
2.1. Materials
To prepare CWSPs, we used typical coal processing wastes (filter
cakes) of different coal grades: C (coking coal), L (low-caking coal), F
(fat coal), N (nonbanking coal), G (gas coal), and FL (flame coal). Coal-
processing factories produce these wastes, when washing coal with
water and surface-active substances (Glushkov et al., 2016a). Solid par-
ticles in filter cakes are approximately 100 μm in size. Tables 1–3 pres-
ent the results obtained from the proximate and ultimate analysis of
the filter cakes under study. The methods for determining the main
properties (see Tables 1–3) are listed in the paper by Glushkov et al.
(2016b). In particular, the authors explain how international standards
ISO 562–2010, ISO 1928–2009, ISO 2592–2000, ISO 3733–1999, ISO
6245–2001, ISO 1171–2010, ISO 11722–1999, ISO 17246–2010, ISO/TR
13097–2013, ASTM D240–92(1997)e2, ASTM D5373-14e1, and ASTM
D5291–10-2015 were used to explore the properties of liquid and
solid fuel components of slurry fuels (Tables 1–4). Similar analytical
procedures were previously reported (Dias et al., 2014; Saikia et al.,
2014; Cutruneo et al., 2014; Oliveira et al., 2014b; Martinello et al.,
2014; Arenas-Lago et al., 2014; Osório et al., 2014; Garcia et al., 2014;
Pérez et al., 2014).
We studied the environmental performance indicators of the follow-
ing CWSP (mass concentrations of components in the mixture): filter
cake of the corresponding coal grade (89%), combustible liquid (10%),
and plasticizer (1%). Used turbine oil and fuel oil served as the combus-
tible liquids. Glushkov et al. (2016b) and Strizhak and Vershinina
(2017) ascertain that fuel oil is the optimal liquid fuel component for
retaining stable CWSP properties, whereas the best energy performance
indicators are obtained by adding used turbine oil. Table 4 presents the
results obtained from the analysis of CWSP liquid fuel components. To
prolong the CWSP structural stability, we added the Neolas plasticizer
(Glushkov et al., 2016b; Strizhak and Vershinina, 2017).
Coal-water slurries containing petrochemicals were prepared using
an MPW–324 homogenizer according to the technique from (Strizhak
and Vershinina, 2017). The average duration of the stable state (without
significant lamination) of the CWSPs under study ranged from 10 to
14 days. Therefore, all the experiments were performed within one
week. The viscosity of all the fuel slurries was determined using an
EAK-1M rotary viscometer. The effective viscosity varied from
0.168 Pa·s to 0.273 Pa·s.
Table 2
Ultimate analysis of dry filter cakes.
Grade of coal Cdaf, % Hdaf, % Ndaf, % Sdt , %
2.2. Experimental setups
To study the environmental and energy performance indicators of
CWSPs, we used two setups described in (Strizhak and Vershinina,
2017; Dmitrienko and Strizhak, 2017; Lyrshchikov et al., 2016). In
particular, the setup (Fig. 1) and techniques from (Strizhak and
Vershinina, 2017) were applied to determine the combustion heat of
the fuel slurry as well as the delay times and minimum temperature of ig-
nition Tmin
g . Environmental performance indicators – anthropogenic emis-
sions – were determined using the setup and method from (Dmitrienko
and Strizhak, 2017) and ash residues (their mass and ultimate analysis)
of CWSP combustion, using the method from (Lyrshchikov et al., 2016).
A stainless-steel mesh brazier (mesh size 0.5 × 0.5 mm) with a fuel
sample was placed in a combustion chamber (0.3 m wide, 0.28 m high,
and 0.25 m deep) through a cylindrical hole (0.1 m in diameter). The
focus is on anthropogenic emissions, since they are in the crosshairs of
the world scientific community. The weight of a fuel sample (1 g) was
controlled in each experiment using the ViBRA HT 84RCE analytical bal-
ance as described in (Dmitrienko and Strizhak, 2017). The fuel batch
was placed in a hollow ceramic heating tube of a muffle furnace. The lat-
ter was used to make the ignition conditions as close as possible to those
in power boiler furnaces in terms of radiative heat fluxes (Dmitrienko
and Strizhak, 2017). The modular probe of the gas analyzer was fixed
on a positioning mechanism, which automatically moved it to the muffle
furnace. During the experiment, the hole, through which fuel was placed
in the furnace, was sealed hermetically by mineral heat insulation material
to prevent the air inflow. The heating temperatures ranged from 600 to
1100 °C in the experiments. It was controlled by the integrated regulator
and a type S (Pt + Rh) − Pt thermocouple (maximum operating temper-
ature 1350 °C, maximum allowable deviation ±1 °C). Since the furnace is
a single-zone one, the required temperature mode with minimum errors
(±1 °C) is provided in the central part of the tube. The sensor of the mod-
ular probe detected the flue gas flow from the combustion of the fuel. After
that, the collected sample went to the measuring sensors through a dura-
ble gas sampling hose connected to the gas analyzer case (Fig. 1). The sen-
sors then measured the emissions (СО2, СО, SOx, NOx). See Table 5 for the
main specifications of the gas analyzer for each of the listed components.
An in-built membrane pump automatically maintained the constant
flow of the flue gas to the sensors. The gas analyzer was connected by a
USB cable to the personal computer. The EasyEmisson software record-
ed the emission concentrations (CO, CO2, SOx, NOx) in real time.
2.3. Anthropogenic emissions
Our experiments helped us ascertain the ranges of anthropogenic
emissions (CO2, CO, NOx, SOx) from the combustion of CWSPs (Table 6).
Table 6 clearly shows that the concentrations of CO2 and CO emis-
sions from the combustion of the CWSPs based on the same filter cake
Odaf, %

C 87.20 5.090 2.05 1.022 4.46 Table 4

F 73.16 4.999 2.60 0.645 18.60 Analysis of CWSP liquid fuel components.
G 75.12 4.638 0.02 0.226 19.99
Component ρ at 293 K, kg/m3 Wa, % Ad, % Tf (K) Tign (K) Qas,V, MJ/kg
L 87.47 5.039 2.15 0.444 4.77
N 90.13 4.255 2.31 0.441 2.77 Used turbine oil 868 – 0.03 448 466 45.1
FL 73.27 4.904 0.02 0.218 21.59 Fuel oil 1000 6.12 4.06 438 513 39.4
1120 M.A. Dmitrienko, P.A. Strizhak / Science of the Total Environment 613–614 (2018) 1117–1129
Fig. 1. Scheme of the experimental setup (Dmitrienko and Strizhak, 2017): 1 – combustion chamber; 2 – tray; 3 – fuel batch; 4 – analytical balance; 5 – compressor; 6 – air heater; 7 –
thermocouple; 8 – recorder; 9 – modular probe; 10 – gas analyzer; 11 – connecting cable; 12 – personal computer; 13 – control panel.
but with different liquid fuel components (used turbine oil or fuel oil)
may differ quite significantly. The general pattern, however, corre-
sponds to the combustion physics: if the concentrations of CO2 are
higher, then the CO emissions are lower. Table 6 shows that slurries
based on Filter cake G with used turbine oil produced higher concentra-
tions of CO2 (and lower concentrations of CO) than the same slurries
with fuel oil. The results for slurries based on Filter cake L are the oppo-
site. In the experiments with slurries based on other filter cakes, the
concentrations of CO2 and CO could be lower or higher for fuel oil
than for used turbine oil. The proportions of CO2 and CO concentrations
were different for these slurries at temperatures of 700 °C and 1000 °C.
For example, the CO2 concentrations are lower (and the CO concentra-
tions are higher) for slurries based on Filter cake F and used turbine
oil at temperatures of 700 °C and 800 °C, whereas at 1000 °C, the corre-
lations are opposite: the CO2 emission is lower for fuel-oil-based slur-
ries. These aspects result from the combustion temperatures of the
slurries. When using cakes of different ranks as well as fuel oil and
used turbine oil, these temperatures differed significantly as a result of
Table 5
Gas analyzer specifications.
Gas measured Measurement
range
O2 0–25 vol% %
CO 0–10,000 ppma
NOx 0–4000 ppm
SOx 0–5000 ppm
CO2 (derived from О2 measurement) 0–CO2max
a
ppm is a concentration unit (1 ppm = 0.0001%).
changes in the air temperature. Strizhak and Vershinina (2017) state
that the concentrations of combustible vapors and volatiles decisively
affect the maximum combustion temperature of a fuel sample. These
parameters depend on the vaporization rates of the liquid fuel compo-
nent (oil or fuel oil) and thermal decomposition of the solid fuel compo-
nent (filter cake). If the air temperature grows, the rates of these
processes increase almost exponentially. When gaseous products of
solid fuel component thermolysis mix with vapors of combustible and
non-combustible liquid components (oil and water, respectively), the
diffusion processes also play an important role. These processes are ex-
tremely complicated. The main results of their research can be found in
the paper by Strizhak and Vershinina (2017).
Fig. 2a, b shows the maximum concentrations of CO2 and CO emis-
sions from the fuel combustion at different temperatures in the furnace
(700–1000 °C). Dmitrienko and Strizhak (2017) state that the maxi-
mum values of anthropogenic emissions can be used when performing
a comparative analysis of environmental performance indicators of dif-
ferent coal-based fuels.
Accuracy
±0.2 vol%
±10 ppm or ±10% of measured value (0–200 ppm)
±20 ppm or ±5% of measured value (201–2000 ppm)
±10% of measured value (2001–10,000 ppm)
±5 ppm (0–99 ppm)
±5% of measured value (100–1999 ppm)
±10% of measured value (2000–4000 ppm)
±10 ppm (0–99 ppm)
±10% of measured value (100–5000)
±0.2 vol%
 M.A. Dmitrienko, P.A. Strizhak / Science of the Total Environment 613–614 (2018) 1117–1129 1121

Table 6
Emissions from CWSP combustion.

Emissions СО2, % СО, ppm SОx, ppm NОx, ppm

Components Tg, °С Fuel oil Used turbine oil Fuel oil Used turbine oil Fuel oil Used turbine oil Fuel oil Used turbine oil

Filter cake L 700 7.34 7 474.8 415 30 29 282 453

800 9.2 9.23 412.8 360 66 50 411 601
1000 10.2 9.88 327.2 280 118 88 520 753
Filter cake N 700 5.85 4.98 380 361 12 10 140 60
800 6.42 6.42 323.6 310 42 20 238 110
1000 7.96 8.68 256.2 239 78 50 450 286
Filter cake C 700 4.47 6.83 387 411 21 18 180 189
800 6.81 8.66 339 337 45 47 280 420
1000 9 9.27 210 182 100 72 480 669
Filter cake G 700 5.2 6.25 341.7 350 25 8 230 365
800 6.5 7.39 310 306 30 19 360 453
1000 8.4 9.18 205 220 33 60 580 653
Filter cake FL 700 6.39 3.74 457.7 441 6 5 105 70
800 7.98 5.62 380 380 40 14 214 186
1000 8.58 8.42 261.1 299 87 48 300 301
Filter cake F 700 5.5 1.5 588 650 37 16 110 181
800 7 3.4 296 300 80 65 318 231
1000 12.3 13.5 60 20 300 148 750 653

Test results (Glushkov et al., 2016b) show that all the filter cakes
under study are ignited consistently at temperatures above 500 °C.
Therefore, the temperatures in Fig. 2а,b are significantly higher than
the minimum possible (limit) combustion temperatures.
The experimental dependences presented in Fig. 2 show the follow-
ing pattern: a decrease in temperature Tg leads to a reduction of СО2
concentrations. However, this entails a significant fuel underburning
and decrease in the total combustion heat, because the higher the max-
imum temperature during the sample combustion, the lower the share
of unburned combustible components in the fuel.
Basing on experimental research findings (Dmitrienko and Strizhak,
2017; Dmitrienko et al., 2017b; Nyashina et al., 2017) as well as the results
presented in this work, we have detected the following pattern. In addi-
tion to fuel combustion temperature Tg, ash content (Ad) of the initial filter
cakes also affects CO concentrations. For instance, filter cake L has a high
ash content (Table 1). The СО emissions from the combustion of CWSPs
based on this filter cake are higher than those from the combustion of
CWSPs based on all the other filter cakes under study (Table 6). This factor
is especially noticeable in the low temperature range of 700 °C to 800 °C.
The pattern can be explained as follows. The ash covers fuel components
and thus prevents their contact with oxygen. As a result, the combustible
matter of the fuel does not burn out. The underburning can be detected by
an increase in the CO concentrations. Other physical causes are possible as
well. This aspect deserves further detailed research. In general, the choice
of the CWSP combustion temperature should factor in the results obtained
from the proximate analysis of the main solid fuel component.
SOx formation from the combustion of coal fuel depends more on the
content of organic sulfur compounds in fuel components. High content
of sulfur leads to increased concentrations of sulfur dioxide SOx in the
combustion products. For example, the sulfur content of filter cakes С,
L, and FL is relatively higher (0.444–1.022%) than those of other samples
under study (0.218–0.441%). This is what determines the maximum SOx
emissions (Fig. 3) from their combustion (Table 6).
The experiments show that the temperature of air-gas flow has a sig-
nificant impact on the dynamic pattern of NOx release during coal com-
bustion (Fig. 4). The formation of fuel nitrogen oxides mostly starts at
temperatures above 600 °С. Such temperatures provide sustainable igni-
tion and subsequent combustion of volatiles. The processed data show
that NOx release depends on the nitrogen content in the initial fuel
(Table 1). The highest nitrogen content according to Table 1 is shown
by filter cakes С, F, L, and N, which cause high NOx emissions (Table 6).
A decrease in NOx and SOx emissions (Figs. 3 and 4) from the com-
Fig. 2. Maximum CO2 and CO concentrations versus CWSP combustion temperature: filter
bustion of coal water slurries containing petrochemicals results from cake 89%, fuel oil 10%, plasticizer 1% (a); filter cake 89%, used turbine oil 10%, plasticizer 1%
the corresponding transformations and reactions with water (Zhang (b).
1122 M.A. Dmitrienko, P.A. Strizhak / Science of the Total Environment 613–614 (2018) 1117–1129
Fig. 3. Comparison of maximum SOx concentrations during CWSP combustion: filter cake
89%, fuel oil 10%, plasticizer 1% (on the left); filter cake 89%, used turbine oil 10%,
plasticizer 1% (on the right).
et al., 2015; Staron et al., 2016; Schnell et al., 1993; Baranova et al.,
2009). The products of such transformations and reactions act as reduc-
ing agents decreasing the content of nitrogen and sulfur oxides in flue
gases (Zhang et al., 2015; Staron et al., 2016; Schnell et al., 1993). Fur-
thermore, the presence of water phase in the slurry reduces the temper-
ature and rate of adiabatic combustion. This leads to a decrease in NOx
formation (Fig. 4). Water in the form of hot vapor in the combustion
zone facilitates a finer distribution of the carbon basis due to
microexplosions of slurry droplets (Baranova et al., 2009).
The concentrations of sulfur oxides are shown to be overall some-
what higher for CWSPs based on fuel oil than for CWSP with used tur-
bine oil (Fig. 2b). This result stems from the chemical composition of
the combustible liquids under study (Quispe et al., 2012; Silva et al.,
2012a, b; Cerqueira et al., 2012; Oliveira et al., 2014b). The sulfur con-
tent in the working quantity of fuel oils ranges from 0.3% to 3.5%, where-
as that of the turbine oils does not exceed 1.1%. Extra sulfur increases the
emissions (Table 7).
When it comes to NOx, it is impossible to say which of the combus-
tible liquids is inferior as the CWSP component. Depending on the rank
of the filter cake that forms the bulk of the slurry, the NOx emissions
from the fuel-oil-based CWSP combustion may be higher or lower
than the corresponding NOx emissions for CWSP based on used turbine
oil (Fig. 4). The integrated data from Figs. 3 and 4 lead to a conclusion
Fig. 4. Comparison of maximum NOx concentrations during CWSP combustion: filter cake
89%, fuel oil 10%, plasticizer 1% (on the left); filter cake 89%, used turbine oil 10%,
plasticizer 1% (on the right).
Table 7
Characteristics of ash residue after CWSP combustion (Lyrshchikov et al., 2016).
CWSP Temperature, °C
460 480 505 685
Underburning, % of fuel
components
89.5% filter cake C, 10% motor oil, 0.5% plasticizer 14.12 – 3.50 1.00
89.5% filter cake C, 10% transformer oil, 0.5% plasticizer 24.72 – 9.77 1.19
89.5% filter cake C, 10% turbine oil, 0.5% plasticizer – 9.36 2.72 2.24
that used turbine oil is a more beneficial component for CWSP than
fuel oil in terms of both the environment and economy.
Experiments (Glushkov et al., 2016b; Dmitrienko and Strizhak,
2017) show that the content of liquid fuel component in a slurry re-
duces the ignition temperature (minimum required oxidizer tempera-
ture) by 40–70 °C, even if the volume concentration of the said
component does not exceed 10%. Consequently, a decrease in the tem-
perature may compensate for a possible growth in the concentrations
of CO, CO2, NOx and SOx emissions resulting from liquid fuel compo-
nents added to the CWSP composition. Adding a liquid fuel component
will also lead to a slight temperature increase in the combustion zone.
Therefore, a potential significant reduction of the CWSP combustion
temperature can improve the environmental performance of heat and
power plants.
For low-temperature combustion (500 °C to 1000 °C) (Fig. 2), the
properties of the filter cake in the CWSP decisively affect the concentra-
tions of anthropogenic emissions. In particular, it has been established
that coal processing wastes with low content of moisture and volatiles
(Dmitrienko and Strizhak, 2017) lead to a growth in NOx and SOx. It fol-
lows from this result that the low-temperature combustion mode is es-
pecially important for the cakes containing a greater organic part of the
carbon residue. In the case of a high volatile content (e.g., cake G), the
combustion temperatures can be set somewhat higher than with
other cakes, since this factor will have no significant impact on the vol-
ume of CO and CO2.
Thus, the low-temperature CWSP combustion mode makes it possi-
ble to significantly reduce the concentrations of all the main anthropo-
genic emissions. We can conclude that coal and oil processing wastes as
well as waste industrial oils have good prospects if the priorities for en-
ergy, environment and economic benefits are set correctly.
2.4. Ash
On average, industrial enterprises and households combined make
use of about 20–25% of the produced ash and slag waste (Blissett and
Rowson, 2012; Ahmaruzzaman, 2010; Yao et al., 2015; Davini, 1995).
Most of it, however, is still dumped in ash disposal areas. This leads to
the pollution of water and air resources, land degradation and changes
in chemical and mineral soil composition (Blissett and Rowson, 2012;
Ahmaruzzaman, 2010; Yao et al., 2015; Davini, 1995). Moreover, ash
dumps are highly radioactive and contain heavy metals. Many scientists
all over the world are searching for rational ways to recover ash wastes
(e.g., Blissett and Rowson, 2012; Ahmaruzzaman, 2010; Yao et al., 2015;
Davini, 1995; Messerle et al., 2017). As a rule, such wastes are used as
raw materials for motor industry in addition to cement, concrete prod-
ucts, and construction materials. Flying coal ash can be used as cheap
absorbent for dry flue-gas desulfurization (Davini, 1995).
The need to make use of ash and slag is driven by both cost efficiency
and environmental protection. CWS and CWSP technologies make it
possible to reduce the formation of ash residue. However, CWSs cause
greater underburning due to lower combustion temperatures
(Nyashina et al., 2017). Using CWSPs solves this problem, even if the liq-
uid fuel component is added in low concentrations (10–15 wt%)
(Nyashina et al., 2017).
 M.A. Dmitrienko, P.A. Strizhak / Science of the Total Environment 613–614 (2018) 1117–1129 1123

Table 8
Specifications of thermal power stations and boiler plant.

Specifications Station No. 1 Station No. 2 Station No. 3 (boiler plant)

Thermal power, Gcal/h 800 780 1.2

Electric output, MW 300 140 –
Fuel type Flame coal, natural gas, fuel oil (as starting fuel) Natural gas fuel oil (backup fuel) Flame coal

Research findings (Lyrshchikov et al., 2016) show how the main
component of CWSP (filter cake) affects the ash level of combustion.
The authors have established that adding 10% of liquid fuel component
(used turbine oil in particular) to a CWSP reduced the share of un-
burned fuel components by 20%. With an increase in the ash content
of the initial filter cakes and a decrease in the yield of volatiles
(Table 1), the total volume of volatiles produced during the thermal de-
composition of the organic matter of coal lowered considerably. The lat-
ter most likely led to the underheating and significant underburning of
fuel. Adding a liquid fuel component to the CWSP compensated for a de-
crease in the amount of volatiles. It is worth noting that the higher the
maximum temperature during CWSP combustion, the lower the share
of unburned fuel components in the ash residue (Table 7).
The share of unburned fuel components reaches 25% at oxidizer
temperatures of 460 °С. However, it decreases nonlinearly with an in-
crease in the oxidizer temperature and reaches 1–2% at a temperature
of 685 °С. The carbon and hydrogen content in ash residues determined
in (Lyrshchikov et al., 2016) is in good agreement with the share of un-
burned fuel components (carbon and hydrogen content up to 30.34%
and 0.936% for ash residue with a 14.12% underburning and up to
3.18% and 0.332% for ash residue with a 0.87% underburning).
3. Economic and energy performance indicators of CWSP usage
Using the methodology described in (Dmitrienko et al., 2017a), we
conducted a performance analysis of power generation facilities
switching to high-potential CWSPs based on coal and oil processing
waste. The study involved two thermal power stations and a boiler
plant (Table 8) located in the Siberian region of the Russian Federation.
The amount of heat and power they generate differs significantly.
Table 9 presents the data on their fuel consumption and energy output.
Let us use the data on the fuel type, energy performance indicators,
cost and consumption to assess the economic effect of the stations and
boiler plant under study switching to CWSP. Here, it is advisable to com-
pare the positive and negative cash flows, which are formed due to cost
reduction or increase. The heat and electricity sales are not considered a
cost recovery indicator of switching to CWSP, since they do not depend
on the type of burned fuel but are determined by the customer needs
and current rates.
The main positive cash flows are the reduction of fuel costs due to the
combustion of cheaper fuel and benefits due to safer production and
reduced emission. Main costs: acquisition of CWSP components and
transporting them to the station; preparation of CWSP (capital expenses
of buying specialty equipment for fuel slurry preparation); fuel storage
with due consideration of the necessary stock; storage and recovery of
ash and slag waste; environmental activities or payment of fines.
3.1. Acquisition costs of CWPS components
Since all the three stations under study use flame coal, we focus on
CWSPs based on this coal and its processing waste (filter cakes). The ac-
cumulated volume of the latter is estimated at tens of millions of tons in
Kuzbass (Glushkov et al., 2016a). The optimal indicators of other CWSP
components are derived from the slurry performance indicators (in ac-
cordance with conclusions made in Glushkov et al., 2016a; Nyashina
et al., 2017; Dmitrienko et al., 2017a): the lowest CWSP cost with the
highest combustion heat, minimum ignition time, maximum duration
of combustion, and availability of the component in the region. See
Table 10 for the CWSP costs (without preparation costs).
The costs of CWSP components are taken with due consideration of
their prospective transportation costs. Since CWSP composition can in-
clude various production wastes, their costs may vary depending on the
supplier. The effective rate of water withdrawal was taken as average
for the Siberian region of the Russian Federation: 4.89 €/thous. m3.
Tables 11–13 compare the actual and prospective fuel consumption
and costs for the uninterrupted operation of the stations under study in
2014–2016. The data in Tables 11–13 can be recalculated for any other
timeframe given the information on the actual expenditures of the cor-
responding stations and boiler plants. The calculation method will re-
main the same. We have determined the value of positive cash flow if
the three stations switch to various CWSPs.
The greatest savings will result from switching to CWSP No.1
(Tables 11–13). This composition has the highest priority in terms of
combustion heat to component cost ratio (Table 10).
3.2. Expenses related to CWSP preparation
Several ways to prepare a CWSP are known today (Glushkov et al.,
2016a) that involve fine grinding of coal and mixing it with water, plas-
ticizers and stabilizers. Techniques using a homogenizer and ball mill
are considered the most widespread and cost-efficient (Glushkov
et al., 2016a).

Table 9
Fuel consumption.

Fuel 2014 2015 2016

3 3
t (m ) TOE % t (m ) TOE % t (m3) TOE %

Station No. 1
Coal 435,305 389,163 45 405,880 362,856 52 447,460 400,029 51
Gas 413,679,000 475,731 55 286,737,000 329,747 48 335,727,000 386,086 49
Total – 864,894 100 – 692,603 100 – 786,115 100

Station No. 2
Fuel oil 10,000 13,570 0.1 10,000 13,570 0.1 10,000 13,570 0.1
Gas 402,416,000 457,144 99.9 344,100,000 390,910 99.9 336,700,000 382.480 99.9
Total – 470,714 100 – 404,480 100 – 396,050 100

Station No. 3
Coal 1016 908.6 100 1060 947.6 100 956.5 855.1 100
Total 1016 908.6 100 1060 947.6 100 956.5 855.1 100
1124 M.A. Dmitrienko, P.A. Strizhak / Science of the Total Environment 613–614 (2018) 1117–1129

Table 10
CWSP composition, specifications, and cost.

No Content, % Components Cost, €/ton Qas,V, MJ/kg Value for money priority Qas,V/cost, MJ/€ td, с τb, с

Based on
experimental
results (Glushkov
et al., 2016a, b) for
1-mm droplets

1 49.5 Coal filter cakes 3.63 20.9 1 7–9 16–18

10.0 Heavy coal-tar products
0.5 ACCP
40.0 Service water
2 49.5 Coal filter cakes 4.06 21.1 2 6–9 14–17
10.0 Oil sediments
0.5 ACCP
40.0 Service water
3 15.0 Heavy coal-tar products 11.26 21.6 3 4–6 12–15
44.5 Coals
0.5 ACCP
40.0 Service water
4 49.5 Coal filter cakes 14.83 21.1 4 5–7 11–13
10.0 Motor oil
0.5 ACCP
40.0 Service water

CWSP preparation involving a homogenizer has several stages cake) to the container with the prepared emulsion. The components
(Glushkov et al., 2016a). In the first stage, we prepare an oil-water are mixed by the homogenizer within a specified time, usually ranging
emulsion. In the second stage, we add a solid component (coal or filter from 6 to 10 min.

Table 12
Table 11 Fuel consumption and cost for Station No. 2.
Fuel consumption and cost for Station No. 1.
Parameter Unit 2016 2015 2014
Parameter Unit 2016 2015 2014
Actual data
Actual data Fuel oil consumption t/year 10,000 10,000 10,000
Coal consumption t/year 447,460 405,879 435,305 Gas consumption m3/year 336,700,000 344,100,000 402,416,000
Gas consumption m3/year 335,727,000 286,737,000 413,679,000 Fuel costs €/year 21,540,000 22,000,000 25,435,000
Fuel costs €/year 26,382,000 22,900,000 31,780,000 Composition of CWSP No. 1 (data from Table 9)
Composition of CWSP No. 1 (data from Table 9) Consumption of CWSP t/year 561,700 574,100 671,400
Consumption of CWSP t/year 946,800 834,200 1122,400 No. 1, including
No. 1, including Filter cakes t/year 278,100 284,200 332,300
Filter cakes t/year 468,700 412,900 555,600 Heavy coal-tar t/year 56,200 57,400 67,100
Heavy coal-tar products t/year 94,700 83,400 112,200 products
ACCP t/year 4700 4200 5600 ACCP t/year 2800 2900 3400
Service water t/year 378,700 333,600 449,000 Service water t/year 224,700 229,700 268,600
Fuel costs €/year 3,398,000 2,993,000 4,027,000 Fuel costs €/year 2,040,000 2,080,000 2,435,000
Economy from switching €/year −22,984,000 −19,907,000 −27,753,000 Economy from switching €/year −19,500,000 −19,920,000 −23,000,000
Composition of CWSP No. 2 (data from Table 9) Composition of CWSP No. 2 (data from Table 9)
Consumption of CWSP t/year 937,000 825,500 1110,000 Consumption of CWSP t/year 555,900 568,100 664,400
No. 2, including No. 2, including
Filter cakes t/year 463,800 408,600 549,800 Filter cakes t/year 275,200 281,200 328,900
Oil sediments t/year 93,700 82,600 111,000 Oil sediments t/year 55,600 56,800 66,400
ACCP t/year 4700 4100 5600 ACCP t/year 2800 2800 3300
Service water t/year 374,800 330,200 444,300 Service water t/year 222,400 227,300 265,800
Fuel costs €/year 3,808,500 3,356,000 4,515,000 Fuel costs €/year 2,260,000 2,310,000 2700,000
Economy from switching €/year −22,573,500 −19,544,000 −27,265,000 Economy from switching €/year −19,280,000 −19,690,000 −22,735,000
Composition of CWSP No. 3 (data from Table 9) Composition of CWSP No. 3 (data from Table 9)
Consumption of CWSP t/year 917,200 808,100 1,087,200 Consumption of CWSP t/year 544,200 556,200 650,400
No. 3, including No. 3, including
Heavy coal-tar t/year 137,600 121,200 163,000 Heavy coal-tar t/year 81,600 83,400 97,600
products products
Coal t/year 408,100 359,600 483,800 Coal t/year 242,200 247,500 289,400
ACCP t/year 4600 4000 5400 ACCP t/year 2700 2800 3300
Service water t/year 366,900 323,200 434,900 Service water t/year 217,700 222,500 260,200
Fuel costs €/year 10,330,000 9,101,000 12,245,000 Fuel costs €/year 6,130,000 6,264,000 7,325,000
Economy from switching €/year −16,052000 −13,799,000 −19,535,000 Economy from switching €/year −15,410,000 −15,736,000 −18,110,000
Composition of CWSP No. 4 (data from Table 9) Composition of CWSP No. 4 (data from Table 9)
Consumption of CWSP t/year 938,300 826,700 1112,300 Consumption of CWSP t/year 556,700 569,000 665,400
No. 4, including No. 4, including
Filter cakes t/year 464,500 409,200 550,600 Filter cakes t/year 275,600 281,600 329,400
Motor oil t/year 93,800 82,700 111,200 Motor oil t/year 55,700 56,900 66,500
ACCP t/year 4700 4100 5600 ACCP t/year 2800 2800 3300
Service water t/year 375,300 330,700 444,900 Service water t/year 222,700 227,600 266,100
Fuel costs €/year 13,916,000 12,260,000 16,500,000 Fuel costs €/year 8,256,000 8,440,000 9,870,000
Economy from switching €/year −12,466,000 −10,640,000 −15,280,000 Economy from switching €/year −13,284,000 −13,560,000 −15,565,000
 M.A. Dmitrienko, P.A. Strizhak / Science of the Total Environment 613–614 (2018) 1117–1129 1125

Table 13 hour to several hours) to prepare a CWSP in a ball mill than using
Fuel consumption and cost for Station No. 3 (boiler plant). homogenizers.
Parameter Unit 2016 2015 2014 Glushkov et al. (2016a) show that CWSPs prepared using these
Actual data
methods have similar properties. For our calculations, we have chosen
Coal consumption t/year 956.5 1060 1016 the CWSP preparation method using a ball mill, since almost all thermal
Fuel costs €/year 18,336,000 20,317,000 19,475,000 power stations and boiler plants have these available. The calculation
Composition of CWSP No. 1 (data from Table 9) makes allowance for the operating costs (for electricity) during fuel
Consumption of CWSP t/year 974.2 1079 1035
preparation.
No. 1, including
Filter cakes t/year 482.2 534.5 512.4 Stations No. 1 and No. 3 use a 287/410 ball mill to pulverize coal.
Heavy coal-tar t/year 97.4 108.0 103.5 The technical specifications of such mills are well known (STO
products 70238424.27.060.01.011-, 2009). The estimated time of CWSP prepara-
ACCP t/year 4.9 5.4 5.2 tion in one ball mill at one fill is taken as 1 h. Station No. 2 uses natural
Service water t/year 389.7 431.9 414.1
Fuel costs €/year 2,915,000 4,370,000 4,370,000
gas as the main fuel, so provisions should be made for acquiring a ball
Economy from switching €/year −15,421,000 −15,947,000 −15,105,000 mill. The total capital costs of a ball mill will amount to €8817.
Composition of CWSP No. 2 (data from Table 9) Currently, the three stations under receive auxiliary power from the
Consumption of CWSP t/year 964.1 1068 1024 grid at a price of €0.02/kW·h. See Table 14 for the data on power con-
No. 2, including
sumption and the corresponding expenditures for producing coal dust.
Filter cakes t/year 477.2 528.9 507.1
Oil sediments t/year 96.4 106.8 102.4 Table 15 presents the calculated annual power consumption and op-
ACCP t/year 4.8 5.3 5.1 erating costs of producing CWSP. Negative values show cash savings
Service water t/year 385.6 427.4 409.8 due to reduced power costs.
Fuel costs €/year 4,370,000 4,370,000 4,370,000
Economy from switching €/year −13,966,000 −15,947,000 −15,105,000
3.3. Fuel storage costs with due consideration of the minimum necessary
Composition of CWSP No. 3 (data from Table 9)
Consumption of CWSP t/year 943.7 1046 1003 stocks
No. 3, including
Heavy coal-tar t/year 141.6 156.9 150.4 According to the Russian Federation energy regulations (Order No.
products
66 (September 4, 2008) “On the organization in the Ministry of Energy
Coal t/year 420.0 465.4 446.2
ACCP t/year 4.7 5.2 5.0 of the Russian Federation of work to approve standards for the creation
Service water t/year 377.5 418.4 401.1 of fuel reserves in thermal power plants and boiler plants”), fuel stock of
Fuel costs €/year 10,195,000 11,650,000 11,650,000 a typical urban thermal power station shall be stored in the amount de-
Economy from switching €/year −7.421,000 −8.667,000 −7.825,000 pending on the actual time required for fuel delivery from the storage
Composition of CWSP No. 4 (data from Table 9)
facilities as well as its loading and unloading. The regulations specify
Consumption of CWSP t/year 965.5 1070 1026
No. 4, including [35] (International Energy Agency, 2016) that the stock of the solid
Filter cakes t/year 477.9 529.6 507.8 fuel transported by rail shall be sufficient for 14 days and that of the liq-
Motor oil t/year 96.5 107.0 102.6 uid fuel transported by road, for 5 days. The first station has an open-air
ACCP t/year 4.8 5.3 5.1
coal storage facility. It is 300 m long, 60 m wide and is meant for a piling
Service water t/year 386.2 428.0 410.3
Fuel costs €/year 14,565,000 16,020,000 14,565,000
height of up to 18 m. This size is quite typical of thermal power stations
Economy from switching €/year −3.771,000 −4.297,000 −4.910,000 and large boiler plants located within the city limits in the Russian Fed-
eration. The second and third stations are similar and have the corre-
sponding fuel storage facilities.
According to Table 3, the annual consumption of the solid fuel com-
CWSP preparation using a ball mill is based on coal cavitation ponent will not change significantly due to switching to CWSPs. This en-
(Glushkov et al., 2016a) in a water medium. The mill consists of a cylin- ables us to assume that no extra storage facilities will be necessary for
der, grinding balls, and specialized rolls. Coal or filter cake is fed to the the solid CWSP component. There will also be no need in separate ser-
cylinder. After that, we add liquid components: water, oil, heavy coal- vice water storage tanks. The boiler plant and stations under study
tar products, oil residues or plasticizer. It takes more time (half an have several steady sources of water supply.
According to the data in Tables 11–13, the annual consumption of
petrochemical production wastes does not exceed 150 thous. t/year.
The plasticizer consumption is under 5.5 thous. t/year. Petrochemical
production wastes will require tanks with a total capacity of up to
Table 14
Power consumption and costs of coal dust production.
2.8 thous. m3 for storage within five days. For plasticizer storage within
five days, a tank will be necessary with a capacity of 90 m3.
Parameter Unit 2016 2015 2014 Fuel oil is almost never used as a starting fuel at the first station.
Station No. 1 Hence, the two containers 600 m3 each, which the station already has
Actual power consumption for kW ∗ h/year 16,400 15,000 16,000 at its disposal, can be used to store liquid CWSP components. The station
producing coal dust
will have to acquire 2 vertical steel tanks, 1000 m3 and 700 m3 (VST–
Actual power costs of producing €/year 233,300 211,650 227,000
coal dust 1000 and VST–700), to store petrochemical production wastes and a
100-m3 tank (HST–100) for plasticizer storage. The other two stations
Station No. 2
under study will require similar changes with due consideration of
Actual power consumption for kW ∗ h/year – – –
producing coal dust their fuel consumption.
Actual power costs of producing €/year – – – A VST–1000 will cost about €41,020. The cost of VST–700 and HST-
coal dust 100 may reach €33,886 and €8917 € respectively. The total capital
Station No. 3 cost of storage facilities for CWSP components will amount to about
Actual power consumption for kW ∗ h/year 36,900 40,900 39,200 €83,823. The third station (boiler plant) requires smaller consumption
producing coal dust of CWSP components as compared to the first two stations, so it will
Actual power costs of producing €/year 500 550 525 need vertical steel tanks of smaller volume. The capital cost of storage
coal dust
facilities for CWSP components will be €14,100.
1126 M.A. Dmitrienko, P.A. Strizhak / Science of the Total Environment 613–614 (2018) 1117–1129

Table 15
Operating costs of CWSP production in a ball mill.

Parameter Unit Station No. 1 Station No. 2 Station No. 3

2016 2015 2014 2016 2015 2014 2016 2015 2014

Power consumption for producing CWSP No.1 kW ∗ 20,400,000 18,000,000 24,200,000 12,100,000 12,400,000 14,500,000 21,000 23,000 22,000
h/year
Power costs of CWSP No.1 €/year 296,203 260,784 339,182 163,117 167,490 195,160 0,02 0,022 0,021
Difference between power costs of producing CWSP No.1 €/year 62,888 49,154 112,201 −11,811 −12,073 −14,113 −220 −233 −233
and actual costs of coal pulverization
Power consumption for producing CWSP No.2 kW ∗ 20,200,000 17,800,000 24,000,000 12,000,000 12,300,000 14,300,000 20,000 23,000 22,000
h/year
Power costs of CWSP No.2 €/year 293,130 258,074 335,657 161,660 166,030 193,701 280 306 306
Difference between power costs of producing CWSP No.2 €/year 59,800 46,430 108,676 −13,515 −13,807 −16,151 −220 −250 −233
and actual costs of coal pulverization
Power consumption for producing CWSP No.3 kW ∗ 21,700,000 19,100,000 24,800,000 11,700,000 12,000,000 14,000,000 20,000 22,000 22,000
h/year
Power costs of CWSP No.3 €/year 286,940 252,627 328,565 158,750 161,660 190,000 280 305 290
Difference between power costs of producing CWSP No.3 €/year 53,610 40,983 101,584 −16,940 −17,302 −20,244 −220 −250 −233
and actual costs of coal pulverization
Power consumption for producing CWSP No.4 kW ∗ 20,200,000 17,800,000 24,000,000 12,000,000 12,300,000 14,400,000 20,000 23,000 22,000
h/year
Power costs of CWSP No.4 €/year 293,538 258,440 336,140 161,660 166,030 193,702 280 305 305
Difference between power costs of producing CWSP No.4 €/year 60,222 46,795 109,145 −13,282 −13,573 −15,875 −220 −250 −233
and actual costs of coal pulverization

3.4. Ash and slag waste storage and recovery costs
Being the most affordable fuel, coal provides greater cost efficiency
for major energy providers as compared to using fuel oil or natural
gas. However, it requires a larger ash and slag waste (ASW) dumping
ground. Switching to CWSPs will not lead to an increase in ASW, since
the share of coal in the fuel balance does not change much. Hence, no
additional expenses will be required for storage and recovery of ash
and slag waste.
3.5. Environmental costs or payment of fines
An increase in the permissible share of coal combustion is limited by
the amount of anthropogenic emissions. Since the stations and boiler
plant under study are located near the residential areas, emissions are
under strict control (Quispe et al., 2012; Silva et al., 2009a, b;
Cerqueira et al., 2012; Oliveira et al., 2014a). Table 16 presents the
rates of maximum admissible emissions (MAE) into the atmospheric
air in accordance with (Permission No. 0159–12 for the release of harm-
ful (polluting) substances into the atmospheric air (with the exception
of radioactive substances) on the basis of the order No. 730 (October
16, 2012) of the Russian Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer
Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing (Rospotrebnadzor) for the
Tomsk Region).
Table 16 shows that an increase in the share of coal combustion will
lead to major environmental fines. Special measures will be necessary to
reduce the atmospheric emissions, for instance, replacement of the
existing burner devices for low-emission ones, recycle gas supply to
the burners, implementation of a two-stage combustion system, and re-
placement of the existing ash collectors for emulsifiers with an efficien-
cy of 99.5%. These measures will involve significant spending. The cost
Table 16
Actual and maximum admissible emissions of harmful substances.
Name of harmful substance Annual hazardous emissions into the atmosphere,
t/year
Actual values MAE before 2016 MAE starting 2017
Ash 2062 2750 2019
Sulfur dioxide, SO2 1750 2491 1829
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2 2344 3962 2909
Nitrogen oxide, NO 380 591 434
of equipment as well as its installation and adjustment may reach tens
of thousands of Euros. Switching to CWSP leads to a negligible increase
in the amount of coal to be burned and the atmospheric emissions will
not exceed the current ones.
One of the environmental problems related to the location of the
thermal power stations and boiler plant under study within the city
limits is coal storage dusting in summer, when it is dry and windy.
With this in mind, measures need to be taken to reduce the dustiness
of the coal storage facility, e.g. construction of an indoor storage site or
using dust suppression systems (involving mist irrigation). All these
measures are also very cost-intensive, whereas switching to CWSP min-
imizes this problem, since coal may be stored wet.
Using coal is fraught with yet another danger – coal dust fire out-
break in boiler bins (flame coals are highly explosive (Glushkov et al.,
2016a). The main reasons for fire outbreaks may be overdried dust
due to increased coal-air temperature; dust deposits in the
pulverized-coal conduit due to design flaws of the conduit; no inert
gas filling the bin when the coal-pulverization system is shut down;
and insufficient insulation of dust bins. It is possible to solve the prob-
lem of coal dust fires in the bins without any additional measures by
switching to CWSP, since the fuel is supplied to the boiler in a liquid dis-
persed state. Table 17 presents the total cost of using the four CWSP
compositions at the three thermal power stations under study. They
are compared with the actual costs of coal and gas mixture combustion.
A cost reduction is marked by a minus sign (−) and an increase, by a
plus sign (+).
Clearly (Table 17), switching from the fuel the stations are currently
using to the CWSPs under study makes economic sense. A composition
of 49.5% filter cake, 40% service water, 10% heavy coal-tar products, and
0.5% ACCP would provide the biggest savings for these thermal power
stations. For small boiler plants, switching from their current fuel to
the CWSPs under study becomes economically feasible after a longer
time. This is because the station has low thermal capacity (Table 8),
low consumption of their current fuel and, hence, relatively low fuel
costs (Table 13). The boiler plant under study does not generate electric
energy at all.
It is noteworthy that Table 17 does not consider major environmen-
tal investments needed when working with coals of different grades,
nor does it make allowance for changes in the energy performance indi-
cators of boiler units analyzed in (Nyashina et al., 2017). If we take into
account heavy environmental fines that energy providers face every
year, the payback period of switching from conventional coal burning
to CWSPs may range from several months to several years. The higher
 M.A. Dmitrienko, P.A. Strizhak / Science of the Total Environment 613–614 (2018) 1117–1129 1127

Table 17
Cash flows when switching to CWSP within three years.

List of expenses, € Actual fuel CWSP composition No. 1 CWSP composition No. 2 CWSP composition No. 3 CWSP composition No. 4

Station No. 1
Fuel costs 85,080,000 11,030,000 12,225,000 44,700,000 51,660,000
Preparation expenses
Capital costs – – – – –
Operating costs 664,120 192,000 190,000 186,000 190,180
Storage costs – 67,700 67,700 67,700 67,700
ASW costs – – – – –
Environmental costs – – – – –
Total costs 85,750,000 11,300,000 12,500,000 33,450,000 49,915,000
Economy from switching – −74,500,000 −73,300,000 −52,350,000 −40,830,000
Station No. 2
Fuel costs 68,160,000 6,480,000 7,186,000 19,490,000 26,260,000
Preparation expenses
Capital costs – 7200 7200 7200 7200
Operating costs 558,250 520,710 515,300 504,400 516,020
Storage costs – 67,700 67,700 67,700 67,700
ASW costs – – – – –
Environmental costs – – – – –
Total costs 68,715,000 7080,000 7780,000 20,070,000 26,850,800
Economy from switching – −61,640,200 −61,000,000 −48,700,000 −42,000,000
Station No. 3
Fuel costs 57,450 11,090 12,280 33,310 45,000
Preparation expenses
Capital costs – – – – –
Operating costs 1570 900 900 900 900
Storage costs – 11,520 11,520 11,520 11,520
ASW costs – – – – –
Environmental costs – – – – –
Total costs 59,020 23,500 27,700 45,700 57,300
Economy from switching – −35,500 −34,300 −13,300 −1800

the fuel consumption, the greater the effect and the more obvious the
benefits of CWSPs. Feasibility studies show that for large thermal
power stations, CWSP usage as the main fuel makes environmental
and economic sense even in the case of extra expenses that were out-
side the scope of this research.
Dmitrienko et al. (2017b) present relative environmental, economic
and energy performance indicators that help to choose the optimal solid
and liquid fuel components of CWSPs. From the experimental findings
in (Dmitrienko et al., 2017b) and those obtained in this paper, it follows
that CWSPs have high potential for any power plants generating heat
and electricity for both industry and private households.
4. Conclusion
1. The findings of our research provide experimental information to up-
date the database for the comparative analysis of environmental,
economic and energy performance indicators of burning high-
potential coal water slurries containing petrochemicals instead of
coals of different ranks.
2. The experiments made it possible to determine the concentration
ranges of typical anthropogenic emissions from the combustion of
all the CWSPs under study: 3.5–10% for CO2, 180–650 ppm for CO,
60–750 ppm for NOx, and 5–300 ppm for SOx. Used turbine oil has
proven to be a more beneficial component for CWSP than fuel oil in
terms of both the environment (75% lower SOx emissions), and econ-
omy (lower cost of components).
3. Our feasibility study has revealed that CWSPs based on coal and oil
processing wastes are much more cost-efficient than even the
highest ranks of coal, with fuel cost savings of €40 to 75 million. De-
pending on the priorities and requirements regarding the anthropo-
genic emissions, fuel cost and energy performance indicators, one
can vary the concentration and type of CWSP components. The
scope of substances and materials that can be used for CWSP produc-
tion is very extensive: filter cakes, oil sludge, heavy coal-tar products,
resins, used oils, etc.
4. Using CWSPs will reduce the production of fly ash by 20%. At the same
time, due to lower CWSP combustion temperatures vs. coal, both the
ash composition and structure differ greatly from the similar parame-
ters typical of fine coal dust combustion at thermal power stations.
5. Many electricity and heat producers are biased against switching
from coal to CWS and CWSP due to high forecast expenditures. How-
ever, the data obtained on three typical thermal power stations indi-
cate that the technological changes required for switching to CWSP
pay off within several years. In China and India, the payback period
may be even shorter due to milder anthropogenic emission regula-
tions as compared to the Russian Federation.
6. CWSPs are a multi-purpose fuel to obtain the required environmen-
tal, economic, and energy performance indicators. By varying the
concentration and type of the waste in the CWSP, one can change
the power plant performance indicators over a wide range. In partic-
ular, the threshold concentrations of anthropogenic emissions (sul-
fur, nitrogen, and carbon oxides) by coal-fired power plants can be
decreased or increased several-fold. Switching to CWSP can reduce
key expense items by 30–40% and ensure high energy performance
indicators of all the boiler equipment. Lower CWSP combustion tem-
peratures as compared to coal allow for a longer no-failure operation
period.
Acknowledgments
Research was performed within the framework of the strategic plan
for the development of National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University
as one of the world-leading universities 5–100.
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