RESEARCH

MODULE
 MODULE #1: NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

Introduction:
Mankind faces different issues and problems each day. It may be between individuals, group or even organization.
These are evident in different disciplines hence it is just natural for people to find solutions to address these
problems. These solutions must not only be well-thought of, planned systematically but must also be based on facts,
and theories. Thus, Research was done to carry these plans out into reality. That way, solutions sought will become
effective.

Learning Objectives:
After studying this lesson, you are expected to to:
1. Define what research is.
2. Point out the similarities and differences of inquiry and research.
3. Identify the goals of research and its importance to the daily life.
4. Distinguish the difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research.

Inquiry vs. Research : An Overview

What is Inquiry?
Inquiry is an approach to learning that involves a process of exploring the natural or material
world, and that leads to asking questions, making discoveries, and testing those discoveries in the
search for new understanding.

Inquiry as an Information Revolution:

Inquiry is not so much seeking the right answer – because there is none – but rather seeking appropriate resolutions
to questions and issues. For educators, inquiry implies emphasis on the development of inquiry skills and the
nurturing of inquiring attitudes or habits of mind that will enable individuals to continue the quest for knowledge
throughout life” (Exline, 2004)

What is Research?
The word research is derived from Middle French
"recherche", which means "to go about seeking", the
term itself being derived from the Old French term
"recerchier" a compound word from "re-" +
"cerchier", or "sercher", meaning 'search'.

Research is the acquisition of new knowledge through a purposive, organized and designed program of activities. It
seeks to find the answers to the problems and generate new information for a better understanding of concepts
under study.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1. Research should be controlled.

It should be controlled because of the relation between two or more variables are affected by each other (whether it
is internal or external). If the research is not controllable, then it will not be able to design a particular research
report.

2. Research should be rigorous.

It should be rigorous because it helps to follow the procedures to find out the answers related questions which are
relevant and appropriate in nature. The research information consists of two types of sciences such as physical and
social sciences.

These two sciences are also varied from each other.

3. Research should be systematic.
Research should be systematic because if a researcher wants to do a perfect research design or process then it will
have to evaluate or obtained the necessary information from the market in a systematic manner. It takes various
steps to do a perfect or systematic research process and all the steps of procedures are interlinked to each other.

4. Research should be valid.

It means the information which is collected by the researcher can be the correct and verifiable by yourself (i.e,
researcher himself). If our collected information is fair or valid, then our research will also be ethical in nature.

5. Research should be empirical.

This means that any conclusion drawn is totally based upon ethical or hard evidence gathered information collected
from observations and real-life experiences.

6. Research should be critical.

Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a research enquiry. The process of
investigation must be fool-proof and free from drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be
able to withstand critical scrutiny.

7. The foundation of knowledge.

Research is the foundation of knowledge for the purpose of knowledge and an important source for providing
guidelines or norms for solving different social, business, or governmental problems. It is a variety of formal training
which enables us to understand the new developments in one’s field in an efficient way.

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

There are different goals as to why research is conducted. Objectives are set for the researcher to know what the
focus of the research is, just so he can determine what to investigate and evaluate.

1. To find out the real facts.

Research is done to know the truth by conducting investigation and obtain information from number of respondents.
A researcher evaluates or finds the real or exact information for our problem-related questions.
2. To achieve the new thoughts.

Research is the process of finding the exact information through proper observation, optimization, and experiment
for the purpose of producing new knowledge.
3. To evaluate the information.

The first aim of the research is to find out the information and then evaluate them in an appropriate or efficient
manner so that they can easily design the research problem and solve them also.
A researcher evaluates the information through various scientific approaches and methods, statistical analysis and
procedures, and another type of tables and graphs.
4. To utilize the new knowledge.

Research has something to do with utilizing the existing knowledge to be able to come up with a solution.
5. To improve the understanding.

In this objective of research, the researcher helps to improve the understanding of a particular topic by asking what
else needs to be evidenced before the research is purposeful, or what knowledge could be assembled from a more
focused investigation, or scrutiny of the existing findings.
Research is a scientific process of collecting empirical data which are intended for drawing conclusion. It consists of
the following steps:

Step 1: Identifying a Research Problem

The Problem – the research usually begins with a problem, it could be real world problem, or a knowledge gap that
needs to be addressed.

Step 2: Exploring Existing Literature about the Problem

The Quest for Knowledge - Next step is to search for existing knowledge about your research problem. This will lead
you to do a lot of reading. It will allow you to also form a hypothesis.

Step 3: Developing the Research Design

The Plan – How are you going to conduct your study? This refers to a part of research wherein your plans on how do
you go about your research are discussed.

Step 4: Collecting Data

The Fieldwork – There are various ways on how to collect data, in quantitative research, these are usually in the form
of surveys and interview.

Step 5: Analyzing Data

The Interpretation– This is the part where you try to make sense of the data; you will look for the similarities and
differences, convergence and divergence and look for themes or patterns,

Step 6: Forming Conclusions, Implications and Recommendations The bigger picture – This include
synthesizing what you have learned.

Step 7: Reporting Findings

The report and presentation – refers to producing written research report and presenting it to a wider audience.

TWO GENERAL TYPES OF RESEARCH

There are 2 basic types of research, namely: basic and applied research. Basic research is also known as pure or
fundamental research. It is motivated by a desire to expand knowledge and involves the acquisition of knowledge for
knowledge's sake. It is intended to answer why, what or how questions and increase understanding of fundamental
principles. Basic research does not have immediate commercial objectives and although it certainly could, it may not
necessarily result in an invention or a solution to a practical problem.

Applied research is designed to answer specific questions aimed at solving practical problems. New knowledge
acquired from applied research has specific commercial objectives in the form of products, procedures or services.

Shown below is the comparison chart of basic and applied research:

BASIS FOR
BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH
COMPARISON

Meaning Basic Research refers to the Applied Research is the research

study that is aimed at that is designed to solve specific expanding the existing
base of practical problems or answer scientific knowledge. certain questions.

BASIS FOR
BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH
COMPARISON

Nature Theoretical Practical

Utility Universal Limited

Concerned with Developing scientific knowledge and Development of technology and technique
predictions

Goal To add some knowledge to the To find out solution for the existing one.
problem at hand.
 DIFFERENTIATING QUANTITATIVE VERSUS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

There are two broad categories of research methodology, namely: Quantitative and Qualitative research. The
research method determines the approach the researcher takes in identifying relevant data for research and
analyzing the information gathered in the research. Qualitative Research relies on verbal data whereas Quantitative
uses statistical data to be able to draw conclusion. Reflected below is the comparison chart of two research
categories.

BASIS FOR
COMPARISON QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Meaning Quantitative research is a research method that is

Qualitative research is a method of inquiry
that develops understanding on human and
social sciences, to find the way people think
and feel.
used to generate numerical data and hard facts,
by employing statistical, logical and mathematical
technique.

Nature Holistic Particularistic

Approach Subjective Objective

Research type Exploratory Conclusive

Reasoning Inductive Deductive

Sampling Purposive Random

Data Verbal Measurable

Inquiry Process-oriented Result-oriented

Hypothesis Generated Tested

Elements of analysis Words, pictures and objects Numerical data

Objective To explore and discover ideas To examine cause and effect used in the ongoing
relationship between variables. processes.

Methods Non-structured techniques like In-depth Structured techniques such as surveys,

interviews, group discussions etc. questionnaires and observations.

Result Develops initial understanding Recommends final course of action

 MODULE # 3: RESEARCH VARIABLES

Learning Objectives:
After studying this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Determine the classification of variables.
2. Differentiate the classifications of variables.
3. Identify which variables you should use for your study.

THE VARIABLES IN RESEARCH

The term ‘variable’ has been mentioned several times so that it is necessary to define it here. In research,
a variable refers to a “characteristics that has two or more mutually exclusive values or properties” (Sevilla and Other,
1988).

Sex, for instance, has two properties which are maleness and femaleness. The ages of different persons have different
values; so with their size, height, weight and income. The phenomenon of variety is what makes life interesting; it is
one of the motivating factors of the research undertaking.

The root word of the word variable is “vary” or simply “can change”. These variables are among the fundamental
concepts of research, alongside with measurement, validity, reliability, cause and effect; and theory. Bernard (1994)
defines a variable as something that can take more than one value, and values can be words or numbers.

A variable specifically refers to characteristics, or attribute of an individual or an organization that can be measured or
observed and that varies among the people or organization being studied (Creswell, 2002).

USES OF VARIABLES IN RESEARCH

1. Classifying. By classifying your data, you are providing all the necessary details that may be critical to your
argument and study. For example, you are conducting a research about a Comparative study on the Stress Level of
Honors and Non-Honor students, you must classify your participant based on their academic performance.
2. Measuring. Variables allow us to measure the frequency, magnitude and impact among others of a
particular subject or concept. For instance, human development can be empirically measured through
conceptualization and operationalization of human development studies, organizations develop an index that
measure different indicators of human development, significantly contributing to practical and theoretical
applications.
3. Explaining. Variables allow one to identify the meaning, purpose, and use of social phenomena (Babbie,
2010). By identifying particular variables and choosing appropriate indicators, you can explain a particular
phenomenon.
4. Assessing Relationships. Quantitative research test theories through assessing the relationships
between variables. Variables are critical elements of the relationship between subject and phenomenon you are
investigating. Through hypothesis testing, we can examine which variables are related to which and how these are
related to one another.

CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES
1. Numeric Variables - These are variables with values that describe a measurable numerical quantity and
answer the questions “how many”, or “how much”. These values are considered as quantitative data.
1.1 Continuous Variables – A variable that can take infinite number on the value that can occur
within the population. Its values can be divided into fractions.

Examples of this type of variable include age, height, and temperature. Continuous variables can be further
categorized as:

a. INTERVAL VARIABLES – It have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of
numbers. It is a measurement where the difference between two values does have meaning.

Examples of interval data include temperature, a person’s net worth (how much money you have when you
subtract your debt from your assets), etc. In temperature, this may illustrate as the difference between a
temperature of 60 degrees and 50 degrees is the same as difference between 30 degrees and 20 degrees. The
interval between values makes sense and can be interpreted.

b. RATIO VARIABLES – It have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of
numbers when there is absolute zero. It possesses the properties of interval variable and has a
clear definition of zero, indication that there is none of that variable.

Examples of which are height, weight, and distance. Most scores stemming from response to survey items are
ratio-level values because they typically cannot go below zero. Temperature measured in degrees Celsius and
degrees Fahrenheit is not a ratio variable because 0 under these temperatures scales does not mean no
temperature at all.

2. Categorical Variable - These variables with values describe a quality or characteristic of a data unit like
“what type” or “which category”.

2.1 DISCRETE VARIABLES – This is also known as categorical or classificatory variable.

This is any variable that has limited number of distinct values and which Cannot be divided into fractions
like sex, blood group, and number of children in family. Discrete variable may also categorize into:

a. NOMINAL VARIABLE – It represent categories that cannot be ordered in any

particular way. It is a variable with no quantitative value. It has two or more categories but does
not imply ordering of cases. Common examples of this variable include eye color, business type,
religion, biological sex, political affiliation, basketball fan affiliation, etc. A sub-type of nominal
scale with only two categories just like sex is known as dichotomous.

b. ORDINAL VARIABLE – It represent categories that can be ordered from greatest to

smallest. This variable has two or more categories which can be ranked.

Examples of ordinal variable include education level, income brackets, etc. An illustration of this is, if you asked
people if they liked listening to music while studying and they could answer either “NOT VERY MUCH”,
“MUCH”, “VERY MUCH” then you have an ordinal variable. While you can rank them, we cannot place a value to
them. In this type, distances between attributes do not have any meaning. For example, you used educational
attainment as a variable on survey, you might code elementary school graduates = 1, high graduates = 2,
college undergraduate = 3, and college graduate = 4. In this measure, higher number means greater education.
Even though we can rank these from lowest to highest, the spacing between the values may not be the distance
between 1 and 2.

c. DICHOTOMOUS VARIABLE - these variables represent only two categories. Some

examples are gender (male and female), answer (yes or no), veracity (true or false).
 d. POLYCHOTOMOUS VARIABLE - These are variables that have many categories,
some examples are educational attainment and level of performance.
3. Experimental Variables

3.1 INDEPENDENT VARIABLES – Those that probably cause, influence, or affect outcomes. They are
invariably called treatment, manipulated, antecedent or predictor variables. This is the cause variable or the one
responsible for the conditions that act on something else to bring about changes.

EXAMPLE: A study is on the relationship of study habits and academic performance of UTNHS senior
high school students. STUDY HABITS is the independent variable because it influenced the outcome or the
performance of the students.

3.2. DEPENDENT VARIABLES – those that depend on the independent variables; they are the outcomes or
results of the influence of the independent variable.
That is why it is also called outcome variable.
EXAMPLE: A study is on the relationship of study habits and academic performance of UTNHS senior
high school students. ACADEMIC

PERFORMANCE is the dependent variable because it is depending on the study habits of the students; if the
students change their study habit the academic performance also change.

3.3 INTERVENING OR MEDLING VARIABLES – Variables that “stand between” the independent and
dependent variables, and they show the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

EXAMPLE: Consider the given below. Even if farm production is good, if the attitude towards payment is
negative, loan repayment would be low, whereas, if the attitude towards repayment is positive or favorable,
loan repayment would be high.

FARM PRODUCTION ATTITUDE TOWARDS LOAN REPAYMENT

REPAYMENT

DV IV DV

3.4. CONTROL VARIABLES – A special types of independent variables that are measured in the study
because they potentially influence the dependent variable. Researchers use statistical procedures (e.g.
analysis of covariance) to control these variables. They may be demographic or personal variables that
need to be

“controlled” so that the true influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable can be
determined.

3.5 CONFOUNDING VARIABLES – Variables that are not actually measured or observed in a study.
They exist but their influence cannot be directly detected In a study. Researchers comment on the
influence of confounding variables after the study has been completed, because these variables may have
operated to explain the relationship between the independent variables and dependent variable, but they
were not or could not be easily assessed.

3. Non Experimental Variable

1.1 PREDICTOR VARIABLES. These Variables changes the other variables in a non-experimental study.

1.2 CRITERION VARIABLES - These variables are usually influenced by predictor variables. Examples:
a. Title of Research: Competencies of Teachers and Students’ Behavior in
Selected Private Schools
Predictor Variable: Competencies of Teachers

Criterion Variable: Students’ Behavior

b. Title of Research: Conduct of Guidance Counselling Programs and Degree of

Absenteeism and Drop-out Rate among Grade 8 Classes

 Predictor Variable: Conduct of Guidance Counselling Programs Criterion Variable: Degree of
Absenteeism and Drop-out Rate

c. Title of Research: The Types of Facilities, Administrator’s Profile and Parents’ Support towards
School Effectiveness among Public Senior High Schools

Predictor Variable: The Types of Facilities, Administrator’s Profile and Parents’

Support
Criterion Variable: School Effectiveness r

5. Variables according to the number being studied:

a) Univariate Study. One Variable is being studied.
b) Bivariate Study. Two Variables are being studied.
c) Polyvariate Study. More than two variables are being studied.
PHYSICS
MODULE
 IMMACULATE CONCEPTION POLYTECHNIC
Sta. Maria, Bulacan, Philippines Inc.
Marian Road, Poblacion, Sta. Maria, Bulacan

MODULE 1
1:1 Introduction to General Physics

1:2 Branches of Physics

1: 3 Application of Physics in our daily life

OBJECTIVES: After going through this module, you are expected to :

1. Define Physics
2. Enumerate and Discuss the different branches of Physics
3. Give examples of some applications of Physics in our daily lives in schools, community, and country as well.

TIME FRAME: 3 HOURS

DISCUSSIONS:

1.2 Branches of Physics

 Physics- deals with the interaction of matter, force, and energy. It is traditionally divided into classical and
modern Physics. Modern Physics started in 1900 with Max Plank’s discovery of blackbody radiation.
 All discoveries, principles, inventions prior to 1900 are considered classical physics, while those beyond
1900 are considered modern physics.
 Classical Physics deals with macroscopic objects moving at speed very small compared to the speed of light
in vacuum. The speed of light in a vacuum is 3 x 10 8 m/s
 Modern Physics- Nuclear Physics, special relativity, particle physics, and quantum mechanics are some of
the major areas in modern physics

1.3 AIN BRANCHES OF CLASSICAL PHYSICS

  Mechanics deals with motion, force, work, energy, and fluids.
 Heat & Thermodynamics deals with the effects of heat when added to or removed from a
system, the methods of heat transfer, and the transformation of heat to mechanical energy
or work and vice versa
 Optics deals with the study of light and its properties
 Electricity & magnetism deals with the phenomena associated with electrical charges
(whether at rest or moving), magnetism and the relationship between electricity and
magnetism
 Wave Motion & Sound deals with properties, transmission, and perception of different types
off waves.

1.4 APPLICATION OF PHYSICS

MODULE 2
In this module, you will learn:

2:1. Define Physical Quantity /Fundamental/ Derived Quantity

2:2. List examples of Fundamental quantities and Derived Quantities
2:3. Define measurement
2:4 Uncertainty & Error Analysis

OBJECTIVES:

1. Describe physical quantities, and enumerate the different units of measurement

2. Explain the need for measurement
3. Differentiate precision & Accuracy
4. Convert from one system of measurement to another
5. Estimating errors & uncertainty
 6. Discuss Scientific Notation & Significant digit
DISCUSSIONS
 Physical quantities are a characteristic or property of an object that can be measured or
calculated from other measurement.
 Physical quantities have a numerical value ( a number ) and an appropriate unit of
measurement
 The seven fundamental quantities in physics according to SI are length, mass, time,
temperature, electric current, luminous & intensity

2. Classification of physical quantities
3. Measurement: involves comparison with a standard.
4. Measurements are never exact. All measurement have uncertainties because of errors.

1. A MEASUREMENT must be represented by two components: (1) a numerical or measured value with the
proper unit that gives the best estimate of the quantity measured and (2) the degree of uncertainty in the
measurement.
2. Uncertainty indicates the range of values within which measurement is asserted to lie with some level of
confidence.
3. Absolute and relative Uncertainties
a. Absolute uncertainty has the same unit as the quantity itself. It show how large the error is.
b. Relative Uncertainty is dimensionless and is obtained by dividing the absolute uncertainty by the
numerical or measured value. The quotient is usually expressed as percentage by multiplying it by 100.
It shows how large the error is in relation to the true value.

Formula:
% unc = ΔA/A x 100%

Sample problem on uncertainty

Example : A grocery store sells 5-kg bags of rice.

You purchase four bags over the course of a month and weigh
them each time. You obtain the following measurements:
Week 1 weight: 4.8 kg
Week 2 weight : 5.3 kg
Week 3 weight: 4.9 kg
Week 4 weight : 5.4 kg / total 20.4 divided by 4 = 5.1 kg

5.1 – 5.0 = 0.10

Hence the average weight is 5.0 ± 0.10
 The weight of the bag of rice is between 4.99 and 5.10
% unc = 0.10 ÷ 5.0
= 0.02 x 100 %
= 2.0%

ACCURACY AND PRECISION:

1. Accuracy – is defined as how close a measured value to a true or accepted value. The measured error is
the amount of inaccuracy
2. Precision – is defined as how good a measurement can be determined. When measurements are
done, precision is the amount of consistency of independent measurements and the reliability or
reproducibility of the measurements,

Accuracy vs Precision

MODULE 3
In this module, you will learn:

3.1 Difference between a scalar quantities and a vector quantities

3.2 How to represent vectors.

3.3 Determine the vector sum of two or more given vectors using:

a. Graphical Method (Polygon method, Head –tail )

b. Analytical method ( Component Method)

OBJECTIVES: After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Compare & contrast a vector quantities from a scalar quantities.

2. Classify various physical quantities as to vectors or scalars.
3. Enhance the cognitive and affective domain of students’ learning in describing how to represent vectors.
4. Develop science process skills in graphing, comparing and interpreting of data and result from the self
evaluation ( addition of vectors)

DEFINITION:
  Scalar quantities are those that can be described completely by their magnitudes and appropriate units
 Vector quantities are those that are completely described by magnitude, appropriate units and directions

VECTOR REPRESENTATION & DIRECTION

 A vector quantity could be represented by an arrow. The length and direction of the arrow represent the
magnitude and direction of the vector quantity

VECTOR ADDITION :

 The sum of two or more vector quantities is called the resultant vector, or simply resultant.
 The resultant is the single vector that, if substituted in place of all vectors to be added, would produce the same
combined effect of these vector. The notation R is usually used to represent the resultant.
 The equilibrant – is the vector equal in magnitude of the resultant but acts in the opposite directio

METHODS OF VECTOR ADDITION

 There are two general methods by which vectors may be added: graphical & analytical
 The graphical methods is further subdivided into ( parallelogram and polygon methods). We are just going to
use the polygon method.
 The analytical method of finding the resultant vector is divided into two: ( 1 )The law of sines & cosines and ( 2)
the component method)
 In vector addition, the laws of sines and cosines are generally used if there are only two vectors to be added.
 The component method is more convenient to use than the laws of sines and cosines if there are more than two
vectors added.

GRAPHICAL METHOD OF ADDING VECTORS USING THE POLYGON METHOD.

1. Given the ff vectors ( A, B, C & D)

2. ( b) head tail rule

ADDITION OF VECTORS : Graphical ( Polygon method)

Example 1
You are out for an early morning walk. You walk 5.0 m, south and 12.o m, east. Then you decided to walk farther and
go 4.0 m, southwest and 6.0 m, west. How far are you now from your starting point and in what direction? B) would
you have arrived at the same spot had you taken the steps in this order: 12.0 m, east; 4.0 m southwest; 5.0m, south
and 6.0 m west. Use the polygon method to determine your answer.

Steps:

1. Represent each vector quantity by an arrow drawn to scale.

2. Starting from the origin, drawn the 1st vector on th rectangular coordinate system, accounting properly its
direction.
3. Connect the tail of the 2nd vector to the head of the 1st vector. Then connect the tail of the third vector to
the head of the 2nd vector. You may continue drawing the vectors head to tail until you draw the last vector
to be added.
4. The resultant will close the figure formed by connecting the vectors. This resultant is drawn from the tail of
the last vector to the head of the 1st vector.
5. Measure the length of the arrow representing the resultant.determine the magnitude of the resultant from
the scale used.
6. Use a protractor to determine the direction of the resultant.
7. If there are only two vectors to be added, the polygon that will be formed is a triangle. In this case, the
polygon method is otherwise known as the triangle method.

ANSWER TO THE SAMPLE PROBLEM:

Resultant : is 8m; 68 0 from the west towards the south

Analytical method of Finding the resultant ( component method)

 The word component means part. Hence, the componnents of a vector means the parts of a vector.A vector
has an x-part and a y-part or an x component or a y-component
 Using trigonometry, a right triangle uses the acronym called SOH- CAH-TOA
 The mathematical definition of sine, cosine and tangent in a right triangle are the following:

opposite sidelength adjacent side length

Sin θ = hypotenuse length ¿ Cos θ =
hypotenuse length
¿

opposite side length

Tan θ =
adjacent side length

Sample problem

Ana runs 4.0m, 400 north of east, 2.0 m east; 5.20m, 30.00 south of west; and 6.50 m, south before stopping for water
break. Find the resultant displacement from where she started?

vectors Horizontal component Vertical component

A = 4.00 m 40.00 north of east Ax = 4.00 m ( cos 400) Ay = 4.0m ( sin 400)
= 3.06 m = 2.57 m
B = 2.0 m, east Bx = 2.00 m By = 0
C= 5.0 m, 30.00 south of west Cx = 5.0 m ( cos 30.00) Cy = -5.20 m ( sin 30.00)
 = - 4.50 m = - 2.60 m
D= 6.5m south Dx = 0 Dy= - 6.50 m
Σdx = + 0.56 m Σdy = -6.53 m

To illustrate the Resultant displacement:it is the length ( d R ) from the origin to end of the dy Solving for the
magnitude of dR of the resultant

Σ ( dx )2 +¿ ¿ = ( 0.56 m )2+ (−6.53 m)2 ¿ = 6.6 m

dR =
√ ¿ √ ¿

Solving for the direction θ of the resultant

Σdy −6.53 m
Θ = tan -1⦋ ⦌ = tan -1⦋ ⦌
Σdx 0.56 m
= 850

Since Σdxis positive and Σdy is negative, the resultant must be in the fourth quadrant. Hence the direction must be 85 0
south of west.

Therefore dR is 6.6 m 850 south of east

Self Evaluation :

Critical Thinking : Find the resultant in the given problem using the graphical

( polygon method) and the analytical ( component method). Compare your answer using the two methods.

1. You found a treasure map and it said: Start at the well, go 00 m straight south, the 30 m, 400 north of west,
then 25 m straight east and finally 45 m, 750 south of east. How far from the well and in what directionis
the hidden treasure?

MODULE 4
In this module you will learn:

4.1 Define terms concerning motion.

4.2 Distinguish the different types of motion.

4.3 Differentiate distance and displacement; speed vs velocity

4.4 Solve problems concerning motion.

OBJECTIVES: After going through this module you are expected to:

1. Define Motion
2. Classify motion as uniform & accelerated
3. Differentiate distance from displacement; speed and velocity
4. Construct motion graphs and determine displacement, velocity, and acceleration from these
graph.
5. Derive formula from distance vs time graph; velocity vs time graph
6. Solve problems on motion

DISCUSSIONS:

1. The study of motion is divided into kinematics and dynamics.

a. Kinematics- describes motion in terms of displacements, velocity and acceleration. It simply describe
“how “ an object moves.
b. Dynamics- is the study of force in relation to motion.. It explain “why” an object moves.
2. Translational is the term used in physics for motion in a straight line. It is often described in terms of the
three quantities: displacement, velocity and acceleration.

3. In our study of translation, we shall consider the origin of the Cartesian coordinate system as the origin of
motion. Position, velocity, and acceleration :directed to the right of the origin are considered positive,
while those that are directed to the left of the origin are considered negative
4. DISPLACEMENT versus DISTANCE

 DISTANCE – refers to the total length of path taken by an object in moving from its initial to final position.
 DISPLACEMENT – refers to the straight line distance between an object’s initial and final positions, with
direction towards the final position.

Δx = x – x0

Where:
Δx represent the change in position or displacement
X = is the final position
Xo = is the initial position

Sample Problem
1. Starting from ICP, a parade has to take the following route: 50m, north; 40m, east; and 60 m north. To
go back, it has to follow the same route but in the opposite direction.
a. What is the total distanced traveled ?
b. What is the total displacement?

ANSWER:

A. TOTAL DISTANCE TRAVELED= 50m + 40m + 60m + 60m + 40m + 50m = 300m
B. The displacement is zero because the parade went back to where it started
2. For his early morning exercise, James jogged 10 times around a circular track at ICP basketball court of
radius 6.5 m. Find:
a. His total distance traveled and
b. His displacement
 SAMPLE PROBLEM :
1. What is the speed of a bus that travels a distance of 400 km in 8.0 h ?
Given : d= 400 km t= 8.0hr
400 km
s= = 50 km/h
8h
2. Determine the time it takes for a turtle to move at a distance of 40.0cm,if its speed is 7cm/s
Given : d = 40.0 cm s= 7 cm/s

From the above triangle:

S 40.0 CM
T= = = 5.71 s
V 7 cm/s
3. Find the distance traveled by an object if its speed is 25m/s in 50 second
Given : s= 25m/s t = 50 s
There
d = st = 25m/s x 50 s = 1,250 cm

SPEED – is the distance traveled by a body in a given time. It is a scalar quantity

d
v= where: v = speed
t
d= distance
t = time

VELOCITY – is the time rate of change in position. It is a displacement of a body in a specified time interval. It is a
vector quantity

x−xo Δx
V = t−¿ ¿ = Δt
¿

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. A car travels with uniform motion from a position of 2.0 km North to a position of 20 km South in
0.5 hours. Solve for the following:
a. Displacement covered
b. Velocity of the car distance traveled by the car
c. Speed of the car

IN THIS CASE (+ ) will be used for north and ( - ) for south

SOLUTIONS :

a. Xo = + 2.0 km
X = -20 km
Δt = 0.5 h
Δx = x – x0 = - 20 km – ( +2.0 km )
= - 22 km or 22 South
−22 km
b. V = Δx / Δt = = - 44km/h or 44 km south
0.5 h
c. The distance traveled by the car is 2.0 km + 20 km = 22 km
d. The speed of the car is:

x 22 km
V= = = 44 km / h
t 0.5 h

ACCELERATION:

To introduce acceleration, graph the following data in a graphing paper.

Velocity ( m/s) Time ( sec )

0 0
10 1
20 2
30 3
40 4
50 5

1. Plot the velocity in the Y –axis and time in the x-axis

2. Determine the slope, using the formula:
Δy y 2− y 1
Slope = =
Δx x 2−x 1

3. What does the slope represent?

Solution:

20 m−10 m
Slope 1 = = 10m/s2
2 s−1 s

30 m−20 m
Slope 2 = = 10 m/s2
3 s−2 s

50 m−20 m 30 m
Slope 3 = = = 10m/s2
5 s−2 s 3s
SINCE THE SLOPE IS CONSTANT OR EQUAL, WE CAN CONCLUDE THAT THE GRAPH REPRESENT A UNIFORM
OR CONSTANT ACCELERATION

ACCELERATION IS THE RATE OF CHANGE OF VELOCITY. BECAUSE VELOCITY IS A VECTOR QUANTITY, A

CHANGE IN VELOCITY CAN BE CHANGE INMAGNITUDE, A CHANGE IN DIRECTION, OR A CHANGE IN BOTH
MAGNITYDE AND DIRECTION
 The simplest type of accelerated motion is a straight line motion with a constant acceleration. In this type of
motion, the velocity changes by an equal amounts in a specified time interval. In an equation form:

Δv v 2−v 1
a= =
Δt t 2−t 1
SAMPLE PROBLEM:

1. What is the acceleration of a motorcycle that accelerates from 5.0 m/s to 15m/s South in 4.0 seconds?
Given :
V1 = 5.0 m/s v2 = 15.0 m/s t = 4.0 s
Unknown : a

Δv v 2−v 1
a= =
Δt t 2−t 1
Subsituting all the given values in the equation :

15 m
−5 m/s 10 m/ s
s = = 2.5 m/s2
4s
4s

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF
DIFFERENT TYPES OF MOTION

DECELERATION VS NEGATIVE ACCELERATION:

 Deceleration always refers to acceleration in the direction opposite to the direction of the velocity.
 Deceleration always reduces speed.

Negative acceleration, however, is acceleration in the negative direction in the chosen coordinate system. Negative
acceleration may or may not be deceleration, and deceleration may or not be negative acceleration.

MODULE 5
In this module, you will learn

5.1 How can the motion of objects be explained by Newton’s Law of motion?

5.2 What are the four fundamental forces

5.3 What is the difference between contact forces and non contact forces 5. 4 Explain
the three laws of motion

a. Law of Inertia

b. law of acceleration

c. Law of Interaction

OBJECTIVES:

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Describe how force influence the motion of objects?

2. Enumerate and differentiate different type of forces.
3. How can the motion of objects be explained by Newton’s three laws of motion.
 4. Discuss:
a. Law of Inertia
b. Law of acceleration
c. Law of Interaction

DISCUSSIONS:

1. FORCE – is a push or a pull exerted by an object on another. It is a vector

quantity because it has both magnitude and direction
2. Force between two bodies that are in contact with each other is called contact
force.
3. Force that acts even if the interacting bodies are separated by a distance is
called noncontact or action- at-a distance force.
4. Examples of contact forces are friction and the force exerted by your muscles
when you lift an object.
5. Examples of non contact forces are : gravitational force, electrostatic force
between charged bodies and magnetic force.

FOUR FUNDAMENTAL FORCES OF NATURE

1. GRAVITATIONAL FORCE : is the attractive force exerted by objects with mass.

2. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE – is the force that hold atoms and molecules
together.
3. STRONG NUCLEAR FORCE- is the force between protons and neutrons in a
nucleus.
4. WEAK NUCLEAR FORCE- plays a role in the radioactivity decay of some nuclei

NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

ISAAC NEWTON WAS CREDITED FOR BEING THE 1ST TO DESCRIBE THE MASSIVE
OBJECTS AND

FORMULATE THE THREE LAWS OF MOTION. ITCONSTITUTE THE FUNDAMENTAL

PRINCIPLES OF DYNAMICS, WHICH DEALS WITH FORCE IN RELATION TO THE
MOTION OF THE OBJECT.

The net force or the resultant force is the

vector sum of all the forces acting on a
body.
 • Mass is a measure of inertia. The greater the mass, the greater the inertia. The
greater the inertia, the harder it is to change the state of motion of a body.
• The law of inertia is concerned with the natural tendency of objects to keep
their states, whether at rest or moving.
• A ball stays in place unless it is kicked. An object in motion will remain in motion
unless acted upon by an unbalance external force.

LAW OF ACCELERATION – The magnitude of the acceleration of a body is directly

proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to its mass.

 Newton’s second law of motion tells us that the acceleration of a body is

dependent upon two variables: the net force F acting upon the body and its
mass m.

a. If an object is pushed with a certain force F and is pushed twice as hard at

another time, the initial acceleration of the car is doubled
b. The greater the mass of a body, the lesser the acceleration.
THE SI unit of force is 1 newton ( N). A force of 1 N is the force that will
give a 1 kg body an acceleration of 1 m/s 2. A smaller unit of force in the
dyne. A force of 1 dyne will give a 1 g of a body an acceleration of 1 cm/s 2

1 N = 1kg. m/s2
1 dyne= 1 g.cm/s2
1N = 105
dynes PROBLEM SOLVING.

1. What is the acceleration of a golf ball with a mass of 50.0 kg if a net force of
20 N is acting on it?
𝐹
a=
𝑚

a=
= 0.40 m/s2
 2. What is thee applied force needed on a10.50 kg block of wood accelerating
at 4.0 m/s2 along a rough table.

F = ma
10.5 kg x 4.0 m/s2 = 42.0 N ‘
MASS AND WEIGHT: Mass and weight are two different physical quantities and are
often misused or interchanged in an ordinary conversation.
The WEIGHT of a body on Earth is the measure of the force of gravity
exerted by earth on it. It is a vector quantity and is always directed toward
the center of the earth.
MASS – is the amount of matter a body contain. It is a scalar quantity
W = mg
LAW OF INTERACTION:
 ETECH
MODULE
 IM MACULATE CONCEPTION POLYTECHNIC
Senior High School

Lesson 1: Introduction to Information and Communication Technologies

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
• Improve the students’ knowledge on how ICT affects their everyday lives and the state of our nation;
• Compare and contrast the differences between online platforms, sites and content;
• Understand the features of Web 2.0;
• Understand the future of the World Wide Web through 3.0; and
• Learn the different trends in ICT and use them to their advantage

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

ICT deals with the use of different

communication technologies such as mobile phones,
telephone, internet, etc. to locate, save, send and edit
information.

When we make a video call, we use internet.

When we send a text or make a call we use a cellular
network. When we run out of load and battery, we use
payphones which use

a telephone networks. Having unified way to communicate is one of the goals of ICT. In terms of economics, ICT has
saved companies a lot of resources (time and money) with the kind of communication technology they use nowadays.
In a similar way, we spend less because of ICT. As it normally costs us a peso to send a text message or SMS, with the
use of internet, we can send multiple messages and only be charge by a fraction.

WEB 2.0: DYNAMIC WEB PAGES

The internet has been a vital tool to our modern lives that is why it is also important to make
the best of the internet.

When the World Wide Web was invented, most web pages were static. Static (also known as flat page or
stationary page) in the sense that the web page is “as is” and cannot be manipulated by the use. The content is
the same for all the users. This is referred to as Web 1.0. (E.g. Apple & Spidergems).

However, the World Wide Web is more than just static pages. Pretty soon, Web 2.0 came into the picture.

Web 2.0 is a term coined by Darcy DiNucci on January 1999. In her article titled “Fragment Future,”
she wrote:

“The Web we know now, which loads into a browser window in essentially static screenfuls, is only an embryo of the
Web to come. The first glimmerings of Web 2.0 are beginning to appear, and we are just starting to see how that
embryo might develop.”

Web 2.0 is the evolution of Web 1.0 by adding dynamic web pages. The user is able to see a website differently than
others. Web 2.0 includes social networking sites, blogs, wikis, video sharing sites, hosted services and web
applications.

The Key Features of Web 2.0 include:

1. Folksonomy – allows user to categorized and classify/ arrange information using freely chosen keywords
(e.g., tagging) Popular social networking sites such as Twitter, Instagram, Facebook, etc. use tags that start
with the pound sign (#). This is also referred to as hashtag.
2. Rich User Experience – content is dynamic and is responsive to user’s input. An example would be a
website that shows local content. In the case of social networking sites, when logged on, your account is
used to modify what you see in their web sites.
3. User Participation - the owner of the website is not the only one who is able to put content. Others are
able to place a content of their own by means of comments, reviews and evaluation. Some websites allow
readers to comment on an article, participate in a poll, or review a specific product (e.g. Amazon.com,
Online Stores).
4. Long Tail – services that are offered on demand rather than on a one-time purchase. In certain cases,
time-based pricing is better than file size-based pricing or vice versa. This synonymous to subscribing to data
plan that charges you for the amount of time spent in the internet, or data plan that charges you for the
amount of bandwidth you used.
 5. Software as a Service – users will subscribe to a software only when needed rather than purchasing
them. This is a cheaper option if you do not always need to use software. For instance, Google Docs is a free
web-based application that allows the user to create and edit word processing and spread sheet documents
online.
6. Mass Participation – diverse information sharing through universal web access. Since most user s can use
the internet, Web 2.0’s content is based on people from various cultures.

WEB 3.0 AND THE SEMANTIC WEB

Semantic Web is a movement led by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). The W3C standard
encourages web developers to include semantic content in their web pages. The term was coined by the inventor of
the World Wide Web, Tim Berners-Lee. Lee also noted that the Semantic Web is a component for Web 3.0.

According to the W3C “The Semantic Web provides a common framework that allows data to be shared and
reused across application, enterprise and community boundaries.” The aim of web 3.0 is to have machines (or
servers) understand the user’s preferences to be able to deliver web content specially targeting the user. For
example, when doing a web search in web 2.0, the top most result is based on the preference of several users who
already searched for the item. The search engine then labels it the most common answer to the search query. The
internet is able to predict the best possible answers to your question by learning from your previous choices.

Web 3.0 is yet to be fully realized because of several problems:

1. Compatibility – HTML files and current web browsers could not support Web 3.0.
2. Security – The user’s security is also in question since the machine is saving his or her preferences.
3. Vastness - The World Wide Web already contains billion of web pages.
4. Vagueness - Certain words are imprecise. The words “old” and “small” would depend on the user.
5. Logic – Since machines use logic, there are certain limitations for a computer to be able to predict what
the user is referring to at a given time.

Trends in ICT

Convergence
Technological Convergence is the synergy of technological advancements to work on a similar goal or task.
Convergence is using several technologies to accomplish a task conveniently. (e.g. Computer and Smartphones, Cloud
Technologies).

Social Media
Social Media is a website, application, or online channel that enables web

users to create, co- create, discuss, modify, and exchange user-generated content.

Six types of Social Media

• Social Networks – These are sites that allow you to connect with other people with the same interest or
background. Once a user creates his/her account, he/she can set up a profile, add people, create groups, and share
content. Example: Facebook and Google+

• Bookmarking Sites – These are sites that allow you to store and manage links to various websites and
resources. Most of this site allows you to create a tag that allows you and others to easily search or share them.
Example: StumbleUpon and Pinteest

C. Social News – These are sites that allow users to post their own news items or links to other
news sources. The users can also comment on the post and comments may also be ranked. They also capable of
voting on these news articles of the website. Those who get the most amount of votes are shown most prominently.
Example: reddit and Digg.

D. Media Sharing – These are sites that allow you to upload and share media content like images,
music, and video. Most of these sites have additional social features like liking, commenting and having user profiles.
Example: Flicker, YouTube and Instagram
 E. Microblogging – These are sites that focus on short updates from the user. Those subscribed to
the user will be able to receive these updates. Example: Twitter and Plurk

F. Blogs and Forums – These websites allow users to post their content. Other users are able to
comment on the said topic. There are several free blogging platforms like Blogger, WordPress, and Tumblr. On the
other hand, forums are typically part of a certain website or web services.

Mobile Technologies

The popularity of smartphones and tablets has taken a major rise over the years. This is largely
because of the device’s capability to do tasks that were originally found in personal computers. Several of
these devices are capable of using high-speed Internet. Today, the latest mobile devices use 4G Networking
(LTE), which is currently the fastest mobile network.

Mobile Devices use different Operating Systems

A. iOS – used in Apple devices such as Iphone and Ipad.
B. Android - an open source operating system developed by Google. Being an open source means
several mobile phone companies use this OS for free.
C. Blackberry OS – used in Blackberry devices.
D. Windows Phone OS - a closed source and proprietary operating system develop by Microsoft.
E. Symbian – the original smartphone OS; used by Nokia devices.
F. WebOS – originally used for smartphones; now used for Smart TVs
G. Windows Mobile – developed be Microsoft for Smartphones and pocket PCs.

Assistive Media
Is a non-profit services designed to help people who have visual and reading impairments. A
database audio recordings is used to read to the user.

Lesson 2: ONLINE SAFETY, SECURITY AND RULES OF

NETIQUETTE
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
• Consider one’s and others safety when sharing information using Internet.
• Consider one’s and others reputation when using Internet.  Determine and avoid the dangers of the
Internet.
• Be responsible in the use of social networking sites; and
• Browse the internet efficiently and properly through proper referencing.

Online Security and Safety

The internet, truly, is a powerful tool. It can be used to promote your business, gain new friends, and stay in
touch with the old ones. It is also a source of entertainment through games, online communities and everything in
between. But most like things in this world, there is always the “other side of the coin”. The internet is one of the
most dangerous places, especially if you do not know what you are doing with it.

Tips to Stay Safe Online

1. Be mindful of what you share online and what site you share it to.
2. Do not just accept terms and conditions; read it.
3. Check out the privacy policy page of a website to learn how the website handles the information you share.
4. Know the security features of the social networking site you use. By keeping your profile private, search engines will
not be able to scan your profile.
5. Do not share your password with anyone.
6. Avoid logging in to public networks/Wi-Fi. Browsing in “incognito mode” a feature of a browser, will not protect you
from hackers.
7. Do not talk to strangers whether online or face to face.
8. Never post anything about a future vacation. It is similar to posting, “Rob my house at this date”.
9. Add friends you know in real life.
10. Avoid visiting untrusted websites.
11. Install and update antivirus software on your computer. Use only one anti-virus to avoid conflicts.
12. If you have a Wi-Fi at home, make it a private network by adding a password.
13. Avoid downloading anything from untrusted websites. You are most vulnerable in peerto-peer downloads (torrents)
the download is most likely not monitored by the site owner.
14. Buy software; do not pirate ones.
15. Do not reply or click links from suspicious emails.

Internet Threats

Malware – stands for malicious software.

a. Virus – a malicious software program designed to replicate itself and transfer from one computer to another
either through Internet and local networks or data storage like flash drives or CDs.

b. Worm – a malicious program that transfer from one computer to another by any type of means. Often, it
uses a computer network to spread itself. For example, the ILOVEYOU worm (Love Bug Worm) created by
Filipino.

c. Trojan – a malicious program that disguised as a useful program but once downloaded or installed leaves
your PC unprotected and allows hackers to get your information.

*Rogue Security Software – tricks the user into posing that it is security software. It asks the user to pay to
improve security but in reality they are not protected at all.

d. Spyware – a program that runs in the background without you knowing it (thus called “spy”). It has the
ability to monitor what you are currently doing and typing through keylogging.

*Keyloggers – used to record the keystroke done by the user. This is done to steal their password or any
other sensitive information.

e. Adware – a program designed to send you advertisement,

mostly as pop-ups.

2. Spam – unwanted email, mostly from bots or advertisers. It can be used to send malware.

3. Phishing – Its goal is to acquire sensitive personal information like passwords and credit card details. This is
done by sending you an email that will direct the user to visit a website and be asked to update his/her username,
password, credit card or personal information.

*Pharming - a more complicated way of phishing where it exploits the DNS. (Domain Name Service) System.

Think before you click.

1. Before you post something on the web, ask these questions to yourself: Would you want your parents or
grandparents to see it? Would you want your future boss to see it? Once you post something on the web,
you have no control of who sees your posts.
2. Your friends depend on you to protect their reputation online. Talk to your friends about this serious
responsibility.
3. Set your post to “private.” In this way, search engines will not be able to scan that post.
4. Avoid using names. Names are easy for search engines to scan.
5. If you feel that a post can affect you or other’s reputation, ask the one who posted it to pull it down or
report it as inappropriate.

Copyright Infringement
If you create something - an idea, an invention, a form of literary work, or a research, you have the right of how it
should be used by others. This is called Intellectual Property.

Tips to avoid Copyright Infringement

1. Understand – Copyright protects literary works, photographs, paintings, films, music (lyrics), choreography, and
sculpture, but it generally does NOT protect underlying ideas and facts. This means that you can express something
using your own words, but you should give credit to the source.

2. Be Responsible - Even if a material does not say that it is copyrighted, it is not a valid defense against copyright. Be
responsible enough to know if something has a copyright.
3. Be Creative - Ask yourself whether what you are making is something that came from you or something made from
somebody else’s creativity. It is important to add your own creative genius in everything that will be credited to you.

4. Know the Law – There are some limitations to copyright laws. For instance in the Philippines, copyrights only last a
lifetime (of the author) plus 50 years. There are also provisions for “fair use” which mean that an intellectual property
may be used without consent as long as it is used in commentaries, criticisms, search engines, parodies, news report,
research, library archiving, teaching and education. If you have doubts that what you are doing does not fall under the
policy of fair use, seek permission first.

Lesson 3: ADVANCE WORD PROCESSING SKILLS

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
• Use some advanced capabilities of Microsoft Word commonly used to increase productivity and efficiency.
• Effectively use these features to help improve the productivity of an organization through maximizing the
potential of Microsoft Word;
• Create form letters or documents for distribution to various recipients;  Create labels and envelopes for
distribution; and
• Create media-rich documents for printing or publishing.

Lesson Discussion

In the professional world, sending out information to convey important information is vital. Because of ICT,
things are now sent much faster than the traditional newsletters or postal mail.
You can now send much faster than the traditional newsletters or postal mail. You can now use the Internet to send
out information you need to share. What if we could still do things much faster – an automated way of creating and
sending uniform letters with different recipients? Would that not be more convenient?

I. Mail Merge and Label Generation

A. Mail Merge

One of the important reasons in using computers per se is its ability to do recurring tasks automatically. But this
ability has to be honed by learning the characteristics and features of the software you use with your computer. After
all, no matter how good or advance your computer and software may be, it can only be as good as the person using it.

In this particular part of our lesson, we will learn one of the most powerful and commonly used features of
Microsoft Word called Mail Merge. As the name suggests, this feature allows you to create documents and combine
or merge them with another document or data file. It is commonly used when sending out advertising materials to
various recipients.

The simplest solution for the scenario above is to create a document and just copy and paste it several times
then just replaces the details depending on whom you send it to. But what if
you have hundreds or thousands of recipients? Would not that take too many hours? What if you
have a small database of information where you can automatically generate those letters?

Two Components of Mail Merge

1. Form Document
The first component of our mail merged document is the form document. It is generally the document
that contains the main body of the message we want to convey or send. The main body of the message is
the part of the form document that remains the same no matter whom you send it to from among your list.

Also included in the form document is what we call place holders, also referred to as data fields or
merge fields. This marks the position on your form document where individual data or information will be
inserted. From our sample document, the place holders are denoted or marked by the text with double-
headed arrows (<< >>) on each side and with a gray background. On a printed standard form, this will be the
underlined spaces that you will see and use as a guide to where you need to write the information that you
need to fill out. In its simplest form, a form document is literally a “form” that you fill out with individual
information. A common example of a form document is your regular tax form or application form.
2. List or Data File
The second component of our mail merged document is the list or data file. This is where the individual
information or data that needs to be plugged in (merged) to the form document is placed and maintained. One of the
best things about the mail merge feature is that it allows data file to be created from within the Microsoft Word
application itself, or it gets data from a file created in Microsoft Excel or other data formats. In this way, fields that
needed to be filled up on the form document can easily be maintained without accidentally altering the form or main
document. You can also easily add, remove, modify, or extract your data more efficiently by using other data
management applications like Excel or Access and import them in Word during the mail merge process.

B. Label Generation

Included in the mail merge feature on Microsoft Word is the Label Generator. It just makes sense that after you
print out your form letters, you will need to send it to individual recipients in an envelope with the matching address
printed directly on the envelope or on a mailing label to stick on. By using virtually the same process as a standard
mail merge, Microsoft Word will print individual addresses to a standard form that it has already pre-formatted.
Simply put, it creates a blank form document that simulates either a blank label or envelope of pre-defined size and
will use the data file that you selected to print the information, typically individual addresses. So even in generating
labels, the two essential components of creating a merged document are present: the form document and the data
file. Only in this case, you did not have to type or create the form document yourself because it was already created
and pre-formatted in Microsoft Word. All you need to do is select the correct or appropriate size for the label or
envelope and select the data file that contains the addresses (data) to be printed. You can also preview your merged
labels before printing if you want to

II. Integrating Images and External Materials

Integrating or inserting pictures in your document is fun and it improves the impression of your document. A
common use of inserting a picture on a document is when you are creating your resume. Though seemingly simple to
do, your knowledge on the different kinds of materials that you can insert or integrate in a Word document and its
characteristics can help you create a more efficient, richer document not only in content but also in physical form. A
better understanding of the physical form of your document as well as the different materials you would integrate in
it would allow you to be more efficient and versatile in using Microsoft Word.

A. Kinds of Materials

There are various kinds of materials Microsoft Word is capable of integrating to make the documents richer,
more impressive, and more informative.

1. Pictures
Generally, these are electronic or digital pictures or photographs you have saved in any local storage device.
There are three commonly used types of picture files. You can identify them by the extension on their file names.

a. .JPG/JPEG

This is pronounced as “jay-peg“ and is the short form of .jpeg or Joint Photographic Experts
Group. Like all the rest of the image file extensions, it identifies the kind of data compression process that it
uses to make it more compatible and portable through the Internet. This type of image file can support 16.7
million colors that is why it is suitable for use when working with full color photographic images.
Unfortunately, it does not support transparency and therefore, images of this file type can be difficult to
integrate in terms of blending with other materials or elements in your document. But if you are looking for
the best quality image to integrate with your document then this is the image file type for you. .JPG does
not work well on lettering, line drawings, or simple graphics. .JPG images are relatively small in file size.

b. .GIF

This stands for Graphics Interchange Format. This type of image file is capable of displaying
transparencies. Therefore, it is good for blending with other materials or elements in your document. It is
also capable of displaying simple animation. Apparently, this may not be too useful on a printed document
but if you are sending documents electronically or through email, or even post documents into a website,
then this could be quite impressive. The downside is that it can only support up to 256 colors so it is good
mostly on logos and art decors with very limited, and generally solid colors. .GIF is much better for logos,
drawings, small text, black and white images, or low-resolution files.

c. .PNG

This is pronounced as “ping“. It stands for Portable Network Graphics. It was built around the
capabilities of .GIF. Its development was basically for the purpose of transporting images on the Internet at
faster rates. It is also good with transparencies but unlike .GIFs, it does not support animation but it can
 display up to 16 million colors, so image quality for this image file type is also remarkably improved. .PNG
allows the control of the transparency level or opacity of images.
.

2. Clip Art
This is generally a .GIF type; line art drawings or images used as generic representation for ideas and objects
that you might want to integrate in your document. Microsoft Word has a library of clip arts that is built in or can be
downloaded and used freely. There are still other clips arts that you can either purchase or freely download and use
that come from third-party providers.

3. Shapes
These are printable objects or materials that you can integrate in your document to enhance its appearance or
allow you to have some tools to use for composing and representing ideas or messages. If you are designing the
layout for a poster or other graphic material for advertising, you might find this useful.
4. Smart Art
Generally, these are predefined sets of different shapes grouped together to form ideas that are
organizational or structural in nature. If you want to graphically represent an organization, process, relationships, or
flow for infographic documents, then you will find this easy and handy to use.

5. Chart

Another type of material that you can integrate in your Word document that allows you to represent data
characteristics and trends. This is quite useful when you are preparing reports that correlate and present data in a
graphical manner. You can create charts that can be integrate in your document either directly in Microsoft Word or
imported from external files like Microsoft Excel. Used to illustrate and compare data.

6. Screenshot
Sometimes, creating reports or manuals for training or procedures will require the integration of a more
realistic image of what you are discussing on your report or manual. Nothing can get you a more realistic image than a
screenshot. Microsoft Word even provides a snipping tool for your screen shots so you can select and display only the
part that you exactly like to capture on your screen.

III. Image Placement

A. In Line with Text

This is the default setting for images that are inserted or integrated in your document. It treats your image
like a text font with the bottom side totally aligned with the text line. This setting is usually used when you need to
place your image at the beginning of a paragraph. When placed between texts in a paragraph or a sentence, it distorts
the overall appearance and arrangement of the texts in the paragraph because it will take up the space it needs
vertically, pushing whole lines of texts upward.

B. Square
This setting allows the image you inserted to be placed anywhere with the paragraph with the text going
around the image in a square pattern like frame.

C. Tight This is almost the same as the Square setting, but here the text “hug” or conforms to the general shape of
the image. This allows you to get a more creative effect on your document. This setting can mostly be achieved if you
are using an image that supports transparency like a .GIF or .PNG file.

D. Through

This setting allows the text on your document to flow even tighter taking the contours and shape of the
image. Again, this can be best used with .GIF or .PNG type of image.

E. Top and Bottom

This setting pushes the texts away vertically to the top and/or the bottom of the image so that the image
occupies a whole text line on its own.

F. Behind Text
This allows your image to be dragged and placed anywhere on your document but with all the texts floating
in front of it. It effectively makes your image look like a background.

G. In Front of Text
As it suggests, this setting allows your image to be placed right on top of the text as if your image was
dropped right on it. That means whatever part of the text you placed the image on, it will be covered by the image.
 Lesson 4: ADVANCE SPREADSHEET
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

• Familiarize the most commonly used functions in Microsoft Excel;

• Use several conditional functions available in Microsoft Excel; and
• Use Microsoft excel as a viable tool in market research and product development

Lesson Discussion

Whether you work in the field of accounting or not, the truth is whatever you do should be accounted for. These
factors could easily be computed using spreadsheet programs like Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets.

Microsoft Excel – a program designed to create spreadsheets which can later be used to analyze statistical data

Analyzing Data using Microsoft Excel

It is now time for us to collect data from our target market. In reality, researchers would also come up with
survey questions before they release the product. The data they gathered would help them to determine if the
product has any chance of succeeding in a target market.

Let us start by a simple average formula to determine the average rating of Quality, Taste, Presentation, and
Product.

The syntax will be =AVERAGE(cells involved).

Example:

Using figure 1, determine the average for Quality;

=AVERAGE(F5:19)

Determine the average for all your criteria and place them at the bottom of your survey results similar to
the screenshot below:

Next, determine how many people said YES or NO if they were satisfied with the product or if they would
recommend it to their friend. For this, we will use the COUNTIF function.

Using the =COUNT function will allow us to count the number of cells that contains something. However, in this
case we just need to count the ones that have YES or NO in them. For this, we have to used the COUNTIF function.

COUNTIF Function Syntax

=COUNTIF(range, criteria)
Range – the cells where the counting will take place

Criteria – the label or value that determines if it is to be counted

Example:

Using figure 1. the formula for getting the number of YES for the criteria is
=COUNTIF(J5:J19,”YES”)

Determine the number of YES answers in both criteria and place them at the bottom of your survey results similar to
the screenshot below:

Example:

Using figure 1:

Result;

With this, we can definitely say that the teachers rated the product higher. In other instance, you may also
want to use the SUMIF function which works. Similarly to the AVERAGEIF function, except it gets the summation
rather than the average.

AVERAGEIF
Using the AVERAGEIF function, we can average a range if the cell beside it equals to
“teacher” and/or “student”.

AVERAGEIF uses the following syntax:

=AVERAGEIF(range, criteria, average range)

Range – the range of cells where you want to look for the criteria

Cells – a value or label that determines if a cell is part of the range to be averaged

Average Range (optional) – the actual range of cells that will be averaged, if omitted, the range will be used instead.

Key Terms

 Accounting Number Format – a number format that is used for accounting

 Orientation – the angle at which a text is displayed
 Count – a function used to count the cells with content in a range
  Sum – a function used to compute for the summation of the number of a range
 Average – a function used to compute for the average of the number of a range
 COUNTIF – a function used to count the cells with a specified content within a range
 SUMIF – a function used to compute for the summation of a range if a certain condition is met
 AVERAGEIF – a function used to compute for the average of a range if a certain condition is
met
 Range – the range of cells where you want to look for the criteria
 Criteria – a value or label that determines if a cell is part of the range to be averaged
 Average Range – the actual range of cells that will be averaged, if omitted, the range will be
used instead

Lesson 5: ADVANCE PRESENTATION SKILLS

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

• use hyperlinks to improve their slideshow(s);

• embed files and data to their slideshow(s);
• maximize slideshow(s) as an effective visual aid tool

Lesson Discussion

There are plenty of tools you can use to present data. Whether it is scientific data, statistical, or a book report, a
presentation tool has you covered.

PowerPoint - is a highly innovative and versatile program that can ensure a successful communication
whether you’re presenting in front of potential investors, a lecture theatre or simply in front of your
colleagues. The following are the five features you should be using-if you aren’t already. Learn everything
about these tips: they will improve your presentation skills and allow you to communicate your message
successfully. The five features of PowerPoint was

1. Adding Smart Art

2. Inserting Shapes
3. Inserting and Image
4. Slide Transitions
5. Adding Animations

Creating an Effective Presentation

1. Minimize – Keep slide counts to a minimum.

2. Clarity – Avoid being fancy and make sure that the font style is also big enough to be read by the
audience.
3. Simplicity – Use bullets or short sentences and summarization.
4. Visuals – Use graphics to help in your presentation.
5. Consistency – Make your design uniform. Avoid having different font styles and backgrounds.
6. Contrast – Use light font on dark background or vice versa.

Hyperlinks in Microsoft PowerPoint

Hyperlink - Definition of this is a link from a hypertext file to another location or file; typically activated
by clicking on a highlighted word or icon at a particular location on the screen. Use to navigate slides
during presentation. If you want to include a web address or email address in your PowerPoint
presentation, you can choose to format it as a hyperlink so a person can easily click it. It is also possible to
link to files and other slides within a presentation. It’s easy to do all of these using two tools: hyperlinks
and action buttons.

Hyperlinks have two basic parts:

1. Address - address of the web page, email address, or other location they are linking to 2.
Display Text - can also be a picture or shape.

Link to Options:
Existing File or Web Page – creates a hyperlink to website or a local file saved in your hard
drive. Just browse your file in the dialog box or type the web address.
 Place in This Document – creates a hyperlink that allows you to jump to a specific slide in
your presentation.

Create a New Document – creates a hyperlink that once clicked, creates a new document on
your specified location.

E-mail Address – creates a hyperlink that opens Microsoft Outlook that automatically adds
your specifies recipient on a new mail.

Adding Hyperlink to your Presentation.

1. Select the image or text you want to make a hyperlink.

2. Go to Insert>Hyperlinks. The Insert Hyperlink dialog box would appear.
3. When done, click OK to apply your hyperlink.

Embedding Objects in Microsoft PowerPoint

Embedding objects is easy using Microsoft PowerPoint. With this option, you can insert an Excel file that would look
like a table to a presentation.

Embedding an Excel file to your Slide Presentation.

1. Go to the Insert tab.

2. On the Text group, click on Object.
3. The Insert Object dialog box would appear.
Options:

a. Create New – creates new file from scratch. You can select on a wide variety of files listed.
b. Create from File – creates a file from an existing file saved on your hard drive; simply browse the file to use it.
4. Once you are done, click OK

Exercise: Adding Hyperlinks to your Presentation.

Improve your presentation using hyperlinks.

1. Insert Action Buttons on your Presentation (action buttons are found in Insert> Shapes).
2. Create action buttons that will navigate to the next slide, previous slide, and first slide.
3. Insert hidden slides at the end of your presentation
IMMACULATE then insert an object
CONCEPTION containing your Excel Files. Create
POLYTECHNIC
hyperlinks to the slide from the slides that contain the charts corresponding to the data.
Senior High School

Lesson 6: IMAGING AND DESIGN FOR ONLINE ENVIRONMENT

Lesson Discussion
Creating a web page is like creating a work of art. There are certain things that you need to consider in
order getting your message across. In the previous lesson, you learned how to create an effective
PowerPoint presentation. Some of those tips can help you in graphics and layout design.

What is an Image?
Image is a representation of the external form of a person or thing in art. Images may be 2dimensional
such as photograph or screen display or; 3-dimensional such as statue or hologram. They may be
captured by optical devices−such as cameras, mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, etc. and natural
objects and phenomena, such as human eye or water.

What is Graphics?
These are visual images or designs on some surface such as wall, canvas, screen, paper, or stone
to inform, illustrate or entertain.
 Example of Graphics
• Photographs
• Drawings
• Line Art
• Graphs
• Diagrams
• Typography
• Numbers
• Symbols
• Geometric Designs
• Maps
• Computer Graphics
• Engineering Drawings or other images

What is Layout?
It is part of graphic design that deals in the arrangement of visual elements on a page.

Basic Principles of Graphics and Layout

BALANCE − the visual weight of objects, texture, colors and space is evenly distributed on the screen.
EMPHASIS − an area in the design that may appear different in size, texture, shape or color to attract
the viewer’s attention.

MOVEMENT − visual elements guide the viewer’s eyes around the screen.
PATTERN, REPITITION AND RHYTHM − these are the repeating visual element on an image or
layout to create unity and the layout or image. Rhythm is achieved when visual elements create a sense of
organized movements.
PROPORTION − visual elements create sense of unity where they relate well with one another.
VARIETY − this uses several design elements to draw a viewer’s attention.

INFOGRAPHICS - Information graphics or infographics are used to represent information, statistical data, or
knowledge in a graphical manner usually done in a creative way to attract the viewer’s attention.

5 Principles in Making an Effective Infographic Design

• Be unique.
• Make it simple.
• Be creative and bold.
• Less is more.
• The importance of getting across.

Image Manipulation Principles

1. Choose the right file format.

2. Choose the right image size.
3. Caption it.
Image Manipulation Techniques

1. Cropping - Cutting parts away to remove distracting or irrelevant elements.

2. Color Balance - The ambience and the tone of light of the picture.
3. Brightness and Contrast - One of the most basic techniques in image editing, making the image darker
or lighter.
4. Compression and Resizing - The higher the quality and the larger the photo is, the bigger the file size
of the picture.
5. Filters - Making the image look sketched, grainy, classic black and white or even let it have neon colors.
This gives your image a twist from its original look.
6. Cloning - Copying or duplicating a part of an image.
7. Changing the background - Adding background to make your image stand out.
8. Removing the color - Removing certain colors in your image or to desaturation the color of the image.
9. Combining Text, Graphics and Image.

Lesson 7: ONLINE PLATFORMS FOR ICT CONTENT

DEVELOPMENT
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
• Differentiate the platforms available for developing web content;
• Understand the purpose of these platforms and know the basics of using them; and
• Enhance one’s knowledge in the world of cloud computing.

Online Platforms for ICT Content Development Social Media Platforms

Websites like Facebook allow you to create not only personal accounts but also pages and groups
where you can share content.

Examples of Social Media Sites

Facebook
Instagram
Twitter

Blogging Platforms
It typically looks like a newsletter where you are given options to change the design to
your liking. Though you can manipulate the design, social media platform’s popularity is still
unrivaled.

Examples of Blogging Sites

Weebly
Pinterest
Tumblr
Wix

Types of Blog Personal Blogs

When blogging began in the late 90’s, the first type of blogger appeared was the online
diary bloggers. These were people who wanted to take their daily journal online to share their
experiences, feelings, and innermost thoughts with an audience.

Business Blogs
Business bloggers are those who blog for their business. That could be a business they
own or company they work for. The business blogger’s goal is to gain more exposure, traffic, and
ultimately customers for their business.
Unlike the personal blogger, their writing is less focused on themselves and more focused on their
business and their industry.

Professional Blogs
Professional bloggers are those who blog to make money online. In other words, their
career goal is to earn a salary through their blogging efforts. Professional bloggers tend to use a
variety of monetization strategies to achieve this goal, including selling display ads, creating
information and digital products, promoting other people’s products for a commission, and similar.

Niche Blogs
Instead of merely focusing on broad topics, niche blogs are very specific! Some of the
niche blog ideas might be food blogging, training programs with your own weight, poems writing, as
well as French bulldog lovers.
 Reverse Blogs
Reverse or guest host blogs are a unique but modern type of blog. Instead of the owner
creating content, the content is supplied by the public. A reverse blog has a team who moderate
posts, prevent unpleasant interactions and promote slow topics for greater interactivity.

Affiliate Blogs
Affiliate bloggers are those that blog to generate affiliate marketing
commissions. Instead of creating their own products, they write blog posts that review
products by others. The
goal is to encourage visitors to purchase those products using the blogger’s affiliate link, allowing
the blogger to earn a commission as specified by the product creator.

Media Blogs
Media blogs are defined by the content they produce. If you enjoy video blogging, then
you’re a vlogger. If you curate content from other websites, you have a linklog. If you post photos or
art sketches on your blog, you’re hosting a photoblog or art blog.

Freelance Blogs
Freelance bloggers are those who are paid for providing services, for example writing
content for other businesses. If you are looking for a way to get paid for writing as a service and
have experience in blogging, freelance blogging is the way to go.

Content Management System

A content Management system (CMS) is a computer application (sometimes online or browser

based) that allows you to publish edit and manipulate, organize and delete web content. CMS is used in
blogs, news, websites and shopping.
COARTS
MODULE
 UNIT 1: INTERGRATIVE ART AS APPLIED TO CONTEMPORARY ART PART 1:
CONTEMPORARY VISUAL ARTS IN THE PHILIPPINES

UNIT I: Integrative Art as applied to contemporary art

The content of this unit is aimed at the students’ having an appreciation of contemporary art forms in the
various regions through an understanding of the basic elements and principles of art.

LESSON 1: ART AND ITS VISUAL ELEMENTS

→ In order to understand how to describe a painting or a sculpture etc., it is important to comprehend first the
visual elements of art.

VISUAL ARTS

• Encompasses a wide range of forms created by Filipinos

• A term used to describe a wide array or artistic disciplines that are appreciated primarily through site.

ARTS AND ITS VISUAL ELEMENTS

LINE

• This refers to a prolongation of a pointing, or a mark on a surface.

The vertical This solid diagonal line

The horizontal Broken lines usually signifies
line signifies suggest lines
ambition line signifies dynamic action, conflict
rest and peace that are hidden or stress
and strength from the viewer
-----------------

SHAPE AND MASS

This element of art refers to an area with boundaries identified or drawn using lines.

GEOMETRICSHAPE
ORGANIC SHAPE
A shape may also be based
Shape may be based on on measured forms which is
natural or living forms and two-dimensional, mass refers
can be irregular or rounded to solid portions of a three -
dimensional object.

COLOR

• This refer to visual perception that allows a person to differentiate objects due to the way various
wavelengths of light are reflected.
• Color is a very important element because it can communicate information and emotion to the viewer

HUE VALUE
Which refers to the Which refers to the
basic or pure color; lightness and
and is represented in darkness of color
the color wheel.

SATURATION
R efers to brightness
and dullness of color.
 ANALOGOUS - This analogous color
COLOR
schemeSCHEME
entails the use of three or four
adjacent colors in the color wheel.

MONOCHROMATIC - This color scheme

entails the same hue but with different
gradients of value.

COMPLEMENTARY - The complementary

color scheme involves the use of a color and
its complementary--meaning the color
located opposite of thefirst color.

SPLIT COMPLEMENTARY - This color

scheme is a close relative to the
complementary color scheme. But instead of
using the colors complement, this scheme
uses the two colors adjacent to the
complement.

TRIADIC - This color schemeuses colors

that are of equal distance with each other.

TETRADIC - Also known as double

complementary color scheme, this uses two
pairs of complementary colors.

VALUE

• This element refers to lightness of darkness of an area. This element is evident in creating shadows for a
two- dimensional object to give an extra illusion of depth.
TEXTURE
 This element refers to the feel or appearance of a surface. Texture may also be described as actual or
implied.

SPACE
 Space refers to the area that is occupied by an object or a subject, as well as the area surrounding the object or
subject.

TIME AND MOTION

 Movement in visual arts can either be an illusion or actual motion.

Time & motion space texture value

 UNIT 1: INTERGRATIVE ART AS APPLIED TO CONTEMPORARY ART
PART 1: CONTEMPORARY VISUAL ARTS IN THE PHILIPPINES LESSON 2:
PAINTING

PAINTING
 Refers to the process of applying liquid color on a flat surface. Forms can be created using a wide
variety of materials such as water color, acrylic, ink, oil pastel and charcoal.

FORMS OF PAINTING

EASEL PAINTING
Is perhaps t he most
common form of painting.
As the name implies, this
involves applying color to a
board or canvas that is
fixed on an upright support
called an easel.

MURALS
Described as a huge wall
sized painting.

TELON PAINTING
Described as a backdrop or
background for the stage.
These backdrops are used
for komedya, sarswela and
sinakulo which are popular
forms of theater in the
country.

JEEPNEY AND CALESA

PAINTING
Is typically painted using
one color. The boarders of
the calesa are decorated
with geometric patterns
repetitive letters, and/or thin
lines.

COLLAGE
This refers to a form of
painting that involves
combine images in a single
artwork. This entails cutting
 as paper, fabric, tin foil and
other relatively flat matters.

THEMES OF PAINTING

GENRE PAINTING

• Portrays people in daily activities. Subject include planting and harvesting rice, a young woman singing in
front of guests, barong barong, vendors and fiestas.

HISTORICAL PAINTING
• Depicts a scene from the past. It often has a lesson concerning national values.

INTERIORS

• This refers to painting of the space inside of a part of a house or a building. This usually reveals the social
class of the family living in that particular house, as well as the traits of the people living in it.

LANDSCAPES

• These paintings portray natural scenery or urban scenes.

PORTRAITS
 • This refers to a painting portraying one or more specific individuals. This usually portrays the physical
characteristic of the subject and seeks to show an understanding of that person’s character.

NUDES

• These paintings that portray the unclothed human figure. Nowadays, a wide variety of materials and styles
can be used in painting nudes.

RELIGIOUS PAINTING

• Common subjects of religious painting include a lone religious image, lives of the saints, and scenes based
from the scripture like the Nativity scene, and the Stations of the Cross.

STILL LIFE

• This refers to a painting that depicts natural or man-made objects that form a composition in a natural
setting.
 UNIT 1: INTERGRATIVE ART AS APPLIED TO CONTEMPORARY ART
PART 1: CONTEMPORARY VISUAL ARTS IN THE PHILIPPINES
LESSON 3: SCULPTURE AND OTHER FORMS OF VISUAL ARTS

SCULPTURE

• Sculpture has three dimensions – height, width and depth.

• It is created by carving, modeling, or assembling parts together.

GENERAL KINDS OF SCULPTURE

FREE STANDING

 It can be independently stand in space. It has a flat horizontal base. All its sides contribute to the overall
form of the sculpture.

SANDUGUAN (BLOOD COMPACT)

LEYTE LANDING MONUMENT NAPOLEON ABUEVA

RELIEF
 It does not have a flat horizontal base. The form is projected on a flat surface.
 BOTANICAL GARDEN

FORMS OF SCULPTURE
ASSEMBLAGE
 It was formed by putting together materials such as found objects, pieces of paper, sponges, wood scraps
and other materials.

KINETIC SCUPLTURE
 It is considered as sculpture in motion because the entire or some parts of the sculpture are moving with
the wind or are vibrating with the surrounding air.

WELDED SCULPTURE
 Involve the process of connecting sheets of metal together by using an acetylene or electric torch.

USE OF GLASS
 These are substantially or wholly made of glass. The glass objects created are intended to make
sculptural or decorative statement.
 SYMBOLIC SCULPTURE
 It is formed with the use of conventional or traditional signs in the representation of divine beings
and spirits.

OTHER FORMS OF VISUAL ARTS

BAMBOO ARTS
 Refers toworks made of bamboo that may be used for everyday purposes or for
decorations or ornaments.

COSTUMES
These are garments, hairstyles and accessories
BASKETRY that are worn by individual members or
groups in a particular society.
 Refers to an art of creating containers by weaving, plaiting or braiding materials into
hollow three dimensional shapes that can either be used for carrying storage and
trapping animals.

FOOD ART
 Involves packaging or presentation of food in a artistic way.
 Food art involves enhancing the food itself or its packaging in a artistic way.
EMBROIDERY
 Refers to an art of stitching ornaments on cloth by hand.

FURNITURE
 These are decorative and functional objectswhich are typically found in a public or
private dwelling or building. These are also known as “MUEBLES” or
“KASANGKAPAN”

KOMIKS AND EDITORIAL CARTOON

 Involves illustration of stories or events.
 Editorial is a single frame illustration that may either makes fun of political leaders
or institutions.
 Komiks multiple frames with conversation of people or animals placed inside.
 PAPER ART
 It involves the process of cutting,
pasting, recycling, and/or constructing of objects
from paper.

PHOTOGRAPHY
 It refers to the process of producing images using light
-sensitive chemical plate or
film.

TEXTILE WEAVING
 Refers to the process of creating
cloth by interweaving a series of parallel vertical
threads with another series of horizontal threads at right angles.

ADVERTISING ARTS
 This refers to using paid space or time in any of the media to inform and influence
the public

LEAF ART

It is used in religious rituals, food wrapping and even as a form of modern artistic
expression.
 MAT WEAVING

 It refers to the art of “plaiting strips of organic fibers into mats.” these mats, locally
known as banig, are cool. Light, and portable compared to fixed beds.

Metal Craft

 It includes all objects made from metal using the processes of brass casting and
blacksmithing, or goldsmithing and silversmithing.
KINDS OF METAL CRAFT
 Brass casting and blacksmithing - this process involves casting and forging pieces
of brass and bronze.
 Goldsmithing and silversmithing - the process that involves the use of gold and
silver in creating objects an ornaments.
 Tinsmithing - can be easily seen in creating jeepneys, kalesas, and cariton or ice
cream cart.

PERSONAL ORNAMENTS
 These are objects that are worn on the human body.

TATTOO ART
 Refers to a body adornment permanently engraved on the skin using a sharp
instrument and plant dyes or inks.
 PRINT MAKING
 Refers to transferring images from a firm surface, such as metal or wood to a
pliable surface such as cloth or paper, using pressure

POTTERY

 It is a general term for decorative and useful objects made from clay and set off at
high temperatures.
TYPES OF POTTERY
 Earthenware or Terracotta - this type of pottery
is made from clay and is usually
fired at 1,700
- 2,100 F.
 Stoneware - this type of pottery is made from clay and feldspar. Stoneware is
usually fired at 2,220
- 2,230 F.
 Porcelain- this type of pottery is made from kaolin, a special type of clay that is
extra fine and white, and feldspar. Porcelain is fired at-2,500
2,700 F.

MULTIMEDIA
 It consist of works that involve the use of other senses in appreciating those works
aside from the sense of vision.

KINDS OF MULTIMEDIA
 Performance art - Is this type of multimedia, as artist converts himself or herself into
an art object in motion and sound.
 Conceptual Art - in this type of multimedia, a visual artist “ideates or set up a
situation, placing philosophical value in the process itself, while negating the
importance of craftsmanship in arriving at a finished art object.
 Conceptual Art - in this type of multimedia, a visual artist “ideates or set up a
situation, placing philosophical value in the process itself, while negating the
importance of craftsmanship in arriving at a finished art object.
 Installation Art- in this type of multimedia, the artist puts together materials and
objects in an exhibition space to cast a new experience or idea.
UNIT 1: INTERGRATIVE ART AS APPLIED TO CONTEMPORARY ART
PART 1: CONTEMPORARY VISUAL ARTS IN THE PHILIPPINES
LESSON 4: ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE

• Architecture is considered to be one of the most functional branches of the visual arts.
• It is considered as the “Art of Inhabit”

FORMS OF CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE DOMESTIC

BUILDINGS

AND HOUSES

APARTMENT- Refers to a
building composed of many
residences called units

BAHAY NA BATO- Is considered

to be a residence of the wealthy
areas during the 19th and 20th
centuries.

BARONG -BARONG - Are

houses of the landless poor that
are built on any land or area.

BUNGALOW- refers to a one-

story house with a wide front
porch and large window.
 ETHNIC HOUSES
 It includes all objects made from metal using the processes of brass casting and
blacksmithing, or goldsmithing and silversmithing.
KINDS OF METALBAHAY KUBO- Is considered
CRAFT
 Brass casting and blacksmithing as an ethnic
- this process involveshouse
casting of
andChristian
forging pieces
peasant
of brass and bronze.families living in the
 Goldsmithing and silversmithing lowinvolves
- the process that land areas.
the use of gold and
silver in creating objects an ornaments.
 Tinsmithing- can be easily seen in creating jeepneys, kalesas, and cariton or ice
cream cart.
HOUSEBOAT- is basically a
boat that also serves as a
dwelling.

ONE-AND-A-HALF STORY
HOUSE- Is characterized by an
upper level or story covering
just a half of the lower area.

SPLIT-LEVEL HOUSE- The

split-level house in the
Philippines has two main levels.
The lower level houses the
kitchen, living and dining areas,
while the upper level has
bedrooms.

TSALET- Refers to a suburban house

that has one story, a two story house
with living quarters on the upper
level, or an elevated one-story house.

FORMS OF CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE

COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

MARKET (Palengke)- refers to

a place or building for buying
and selling goods.

BUILDINGS SUCH AS HOUSE BANKS, BUSINESS

These buildings, especially

those created during the
1950’s, have plain wall surfaces
and large windows.

CAPITOL (Kapitolyo) - refers to

a building of the provincial
government.
 TOWN HALL (Munisipyo) -
refers to a building of the
municipal government.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

SCHOOL (Eskwelahan) - refers

to a place where young people
are educated to become
productive members of the
community.

KAMALIG - A building used for

storing grain.

MASJID - Masjid or mosque

refers to a place of worship of
the muslim.

CEMETERY ( Sementeryo) - is a
place where people bury the
dead.

KIND OF CHURCHES

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH AGLIPAYAN CHURCH

PROTESTANT CHURCH IGLESIA NI CRISTO (INC)

MOVIE HOUSE (Sinehan)- is a

place where people watch films
or motion pictures.

THEATER (Teatro) - Is a
building intended for dance,
musical, and theatrical
presentations.

OTHER FORMS AND STRUCTURES

FORT (Kuta)

These are built to defend a community against

enemies

LIGHTHOUSE (Parola)

• Built on an island, peninsula, or rock to ensure that

ships will be able to pass through a narrow area style.

BRIDGE (Tulay)

It is a horizontal structure that serves as a

passageway between two areas separated by a
body of water, a hallow area, or a road.
CHEMISTRY
MODULE

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1 STEM 600

MODULE 1

TITLE: Introduction to Chemistry

LEARNING COMPETENCY:
1. Define chemistry and describe each of its five major branches.
2. Explain why chemistry is called the central science.
3. Identify and explain the contributions of chemistry to other sciences.
4. Differentiate between science and technology.
5. Demonstrate and explain an experiment using the scientific method template.
6. Manifest appreciation of the role of chemists in academe, government, and industries.
******************************************************************************************************

DEFINITION OF CHEMISTRY

CHEMISTRY is a branch of science that deals with the study of the composition, structure, and properties of
matter, the changes which matter undergoes as well as the laws and principles governing this changes.

Chemistry is all around you. 

Air you breathe

• Food you digest

• Clothes you wear
• Textbook you read
 Chemistry is often said to be the central science.

Branches of chemistry

1. Analytic Chemistry is concerned with the identification of substances through a systematic determination of
their composition.

It is concerned with finding out what is present in a given sample (qualitative analysis) and how much of
something is present (quantitative analysis).

a. Qualitative test – identify possible components of substances based on color reactions, odor,
reactivity but do not determine its amounts.
b. Quantitative test – employ instrumentation methods, like atomic absorption spectrophotometry,
to determine components, concentrations, purities of substances.

Applications: forensics, medicine, science and engineering

2. Organic Chemistry is the study of carbon-containing substance. It involves materials that are derived from
living (or formerly living) organisms.

Early workers coined the term organic because the materials they studied could be derived from
living (or formerly living) organisms. Today the term organic refers to any substance whose primary
component is carbon.

Examples of organic substances: proteins, carbohydrates, fats, petroleum and coal, animal meat,
dairy products, fruits, and vegetables.

Applications: manufacture of rubber, plastics, fuel, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, detergent, coatings,

dyestuff, and agrichemical industries

3. Inorganic Chemistry focused in the study of elements and compounds other than those containing carbon.

Its study concerns with the products of the non-living, soil, air and water and the chemical
changes that can produced in them.

Applications: material science, pigments, agriculture

4. Physical Chemistry is concerned with the laws governing the behavior of matter. It studies the structure,
energy, and transformation of substances from one state of matter to another.

It is the study of the theories that explain the behavior of chemicals. It is the most mathematical in nature
among all the five branches.
 Applications: change of materials, including plastics, stoneware, catalysis, fuel itemizing, therapeutic
diagnostics

5. Bio-Chemistry involves a chemical study of substances and processes that occur in living organism. It is
closely related with the science of Biology.

It relates greatly to the study and understanding of processes that occurs in, organs and the whole
living organism.

Application: In the field of medicine to understand disease processes and to find cures, and in agriculture to
discover ways to improve crop cultivation, storage and pest control.

Chemistry, the Central Science

Chemistry is called the central science because of its role in connecting the

physical sciences, which include chemistry, with the life sciences and applied sciences such as
medicine and engineering.

Contributions of Chemistry to other Sciences

Medicine and Pharmaceuticals

Chemistry's contributions leads to improve health care system from new drugs and patient-care products
that have been discovered, processed, and commercially produced all over the world. These products have
mostly resulted from laborious experiments in the field of chemistry that were later on clinically tested by
doctors.

Examples: antipyretics, analgesics, antibiotics, antibacterial drugs, anticancer drugs, vaccines

Food

Chemical experiments determine chemical structures and reactions that were used to identify nutrients in
different natural foods.

Neutraceutical, study of substances that may be considered as food or part of a food provides medical or
health benefits, including the prevention and treatment of disease.

Examples:

a. Importance, preservation and depletion of components of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins and
minerals.
b. Natural food additives used to delay food spoilage and improved saleable properties of food.
 c. Chemical research enabled this generation to go deeper to the analysis of plants, including fruits and
vegetables, which contain plenty of phytochemicals that help people stay healthy.
d. Improvement in the over-all production of grains, cereal, agricultural and aquacultural supply through
the use of fertilizers, pesticides, animal feeds, and safer organic farming.

Biotechnology

Biotechnology describes the use of organisms and biological processes to provide food, chemicals, and
services to meet the needs of humans. This includes agriculture, horticulture, and many other aspects of applied
biology.

Microorganisms may be undesirable in food industries since they can:  cause the spoilage of raw
materials;

• contaminate foods during processing and cause defects in finished products;

• cause food poisoning; and
• cause diseases in humans and in animals.

Science vs. Technology

How is science different from technology?

Science:

• Experimental investigation and exploration of natural phenomena

• Pursues knowledge for its own sake
• Does not cause change in itself
• Systematized body of knowledge
• Knowledge about or study of the natural world based on facts learned through experiments
and observation

Technology

• The practical application of scientific knowledge

• Leads to change (for better or for worse)
• Technology - the sum total of the processes by which humans modify the materials of
nature to better satisfy their needs and wants.

Examples of science: Examples of technology:  Flu vaccine

• What causes the flu? • Atomic bomb
• How are atoms put together? • Genetic engineering
• How is genetic information stored and transmitted?

Scientific method - a set of procedures used to acquire knowledge and explain phenomena.

Steps in the Scientific Method :

1. Identify the problem, break it into small parts, and carefully plan procedures to obtain information about all
aspects of this problem.
Example: I am sick with stomach ache.

Problem: What is the cause of my stomach ache?

2. Develop a hypothesis
Example: I am sick due to the spoiled food I ate for lunch.

3. Test hypothesis through experiments

Collect data concerning the problem through observation and experimentation.

Example: Ask others who ate the same food for lunch if they got sick.

4. Develop a law.
Analyze and organize the data in terms of general statements (generalizations) that summarize the
experimental observations.

Example: The spoiled food served at lunch makes people sick with stomachache.
 5. Develop a theory.
Theory – explanation why a law exists

- general principles or ideas that is suggested or presented as possibly true but that is not known or
proven to be true

Suggest probable explanations for the generalizations.

Experiment further to prove or disprove the proposed explanations.

GOAL PROBLEM the objective of doing the study

MODEL HYPOTHESIS any and all abstractions of what is being studied or manipulated

DATA EXPERIMENT observations made to represent "nature"

Developing a law (generalization)
EVALUATION CONCLUSION Comparing the model to the data, to decide if the model is okay
REVISION THEORY (for testing) changing the model if it is not okay
Example: It is the bacteria in the spoiled food that makes people ill.

Scientific Method Template

Scientific Method Diagrammatic Representation

Science and Technology Risk – Benefit Analysis

Risk-benefit analysis involves the calculation of a desirability quotient It is a process that leads to the
determination of the effects of science and technology to mankind.

Focus: Determination on how and when benefits outweigh risks

DQ = Benefits

Risks

Where: DQ = desirability quotient

Benefit - anything that promotes well-being or has positive effect

(economic, social or psychological).

Risk - any hazard that leads to loss or injury.

- some of the risks in modern technology have led to disease,

death, economic loss and environmental deterioration.

Examples:

1. Milk

For most people, pasteurized milk is a safe, clean, nutritious beverage. Some people, however, can’t
tolerate lactose, the sugar in milk. For these people, and others who are allergic to milk, drinking milk can be harmful.
In Northern Europe, allergies and lactose intolerance are relatively rare. In these societies milk is generally beneficial,
with large benefits and small risks, resulting to a large DQ. Adults in much of the rest of the world are lactose-
 intolerant and would find that milk has a small DQ. Thus, milk is not always suitable for use in programs to relieve
malnutrition.

For Northern Europeans: DQ = Large benefits = LARGE DQ

Small risks

For other countries with lactose-intolerance:

DQ = Small benefits = SMALL DQ Large risks

2. Thalidomide - cure for morning sickness of pregnant women

In Germany, many pregnant women took the drug in order to prevent morning sickness. But soon
thalidomide was shown to involve an enormous risk. Many malformed infants were born to women who had taken
the drug during pregnancy. For thalidomide, then, there are small benefits, very large risks, and a very small DQ.
Thalidomide was eventually judged to present unacceptable risks and was banned.

DQ = Small benefits = Small DQ

Large risks

Role of Chemists in the Academe, Government and Industry

CHEMIST

ACADEME
GOVERNMENT Instructor/Professor
INDUSTRY
Department of Agriculture Researher:
Research and Developmen t
Bureau of Customs Organic Chemisst
Quality control and Quality Asu
rance
Bureau of Mines Natural Products/Polymer
Sales/Marketing
Manila Water, MWSS Chemist
Trainer
DENR Biochemist
Administrator/Supervisor
NBI Medicinal Chemist
Production Planner
PNP Crime Laboratory Analytical/Instrumental
Plant Manager Chemist
PAGASA
International Branch Represent
atives Inorganic Chemist
Nuclear2Plants
MODULE
DOST
TITLE: MEASUREMENT AND DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Learning Competencies:

1. Explain the need for measurements.

2. Carry out single step and multi-step conversion of units of measurements.
3. Apply dimensional analysis in solving problems involving measurements of quantities in medical or other science
courses.

******************************************************************************************************

MEASUREMENT OF MATTER

Chemistry, being a quantitative science, needs some basic units of measurements. Scientists usually
measure properties of matter such as mass, length, volume, and temperature, thus the need for common units of
measurement.

Measurement includes a number (quantity) and a unit which tells what scale or standard is used to
measure the quantity.

Fundamental Quantities - length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, luminous intensity, and amount of
substance.

Derived Quantities - combination of physical quantities - speed, acceleration, volume, density, concentrations, work,
energy.

SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT:
 Quantities Length Mass time Force
(weight)
F = ma
W = mg

Metric (SI)
cgs centimeter gram second Dyne
mks Meter kilogram second Newton
English
fps Foot pound mass second Pound force
or slug

Units of Measurement

1. Metric System of Measurement - SI units - developed in France and is usually referred to as the c.g.s.
system (centimeter-gram-second) which measures length, mass and time.
- uses fundamental units in multiples or sub-multiples of ten.
Prefixes used in Metric system:

Deci - 1/10 Centi - 1/100 Milli - 1/1000 Deca - 10

Hecto - 100 Kilo - 1000

Meter - fundamental unit of length - distance between two parallel scratches on the bar of platinum-
iridium kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sevres, France.

1 meter = 1000 millimeter = 10 decimeter

Liter - fundamental unit of volume

- the volume that a kilogram of water will occupy at 4°C

= approximately equal to 1000 cubic centimeter (cc) or one cubic decimeter

2. English System - widely used in England and the members of the British Commonwealth Of Nations as well
as in the United States.
- usually referred to as the foot-pound-second system.
Foot - standard unit of linear measure or length

Pound - standard unit of weight

Table of Units of Measurements

LENGTH
1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters (cm) = 1000 millimeters

(mm)

1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters

1 meter = 39.37 inches ( in.)

1 inch = 2.54 centimeters ( cm )

VOLUME
1 liter ( l ) = 100 centiliters (cl) = 1000 milliliter (ml)

1 liter = 1.06 quarts (US liquid )

1 cubic foot (cu. ft.) = 7.48 U.S. gallons (gal) 1 U.S. gallon
= 3.785 liters

MASS
1 gram (g) = 100 centigrams (cg) = 1000
 milligrams (mg)

1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams

1 pound (lb) = 454 grams

1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds

Common Prefixes used in the Metric System

Prefix Symbol Multiplier

giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
micro μ 10-6

Temperature Scales

Temperature of a substance = measure of its hotness or coldness.

Centigrade or Celsius Scale Farenheit Scale

0°C = freezing point 32°F = freezing point

100°C = boiling point 212°F = boiling point

Formula for temperature scale conversions:

°C = 5/9 ( °F – 32 )

°F = 9/5 °C + 32

Density = the ratio of an object to the volume occupied by that object.

Formula: density (d) = mass

volume

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS or FACTOR-LABEL METHOD:

Steps in problem solving:

1. Identify the given quantity and unit.

2. Write a unit plan to change units from the given to the answer unit.
3. Determine the equalities and corresponding conversion factors.
4. Set up the problem. Arrange each conversion factor to cancel the preceding unit. Check that the units
cancel. Carry out the calculations and give a final answer with the correct number of significant figures and
units.

Dimensional analysis template:

Quantity (initial unit) x Conversion factor = Same quantity (new unit)

Conversion of units:
A. From Large to small units - multiply the given number of the large unit by the number of small units contain
in one large unit.
Given: distance, d = 5 km

Required: distance, d = _______m

Solution: km --> m 1 km = 1000 m

5 km x = 5000 m

B. From small units to large unit - divide the given number of the small unit by the number of small units
contained in one large unit.
Given: mass, m = 500 g

Required: mass, m = _______ kg

Solution: g --> kg 1 kg = 1000 g

500 g x = 0.5 kg

Examples:

1. Convert 5 km to m.. Solution:

5 km x = 5,000 m

2. Convert 7,000 m to km. Solution:

7,000 m x 7 km

3. Convert 2.45 cs to s. Solution:

2.45 cs x = 0.0245 s

4. Convert 55.00 km/hr to m/s. Solution:

x = 15.28 m/s

5. Osmium is a very dense metal. What is its density in g/cm 3 if 50.00 g of the metal occupies a
volume of 2.22cm3?

Given: m = 50.00 g v = 2.22 cm³

Required: density Solution:

density = mass = 50.00 g = = 22.52 g/ cm³

volume 2.22 cm³

6. Mercury (Hg) has a density of 13.6 g/cm3. What is the mass in lb of 95 mL of Hg?

Solution:

a) Convert volume to mass:

95 cm³ x = 1292 g

Another solution:

mass = density x volume

 = 13.60 g x 95 cm³ = 1292 g

cm³

b) Convert mass (g) to mass (lb):

1292 g x = 2.85 lb

Volume Displacement - A solid displaces a matching volume of water when the solid is placed in water.

33 mL

25 mL

7. Problem: What is the density (g/cm3) of 48 g of a metal if the metal raises the level of water in a
graduated cylinder from 25 mL to 33 mL? Given: mass = 48 g
volume = 33 mL - 25 mL = 8 mL Required:
density Solution:
density = mass = 48 g = 6 g/cm3

volume 8 mL

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS APPLIED TO MEDICAL and other SCIENCE COURSES:

8. Suppose you have a patient with a weight of 165 lb. in order to give a medication you need to know the
patient’s mass in kilograms.
Given: 165 lb

Required: mass in kilograms Solution:

165 lb x 1 kg = 75 kg. ← Answer

2.2 lb

9. The Daily Value (DV) for sodium is 2400 mg. How many grams of sodium is that?
Given: 2400 mg

Required: DV in grams
Solution:

2400 mg x 1g = 2.4 g of sodium needed daily ← Answer

1000 mg

Clinical calculations using conversion factors:

10. Synthroid is used as a replacement or supplemental therapy for diminished thyroid function. A dosage of
0.200 mg is prescribed with tablets that contain 50μg Synthroid. How many tablets are required to
provide the prescribed medication.
Given: 0.200 mg Synthroid

Required: number of tablets of Synthroid Solution:

Conversion factors: 1 mg = 1000 μg

1 tablet = 50 μg Synthroid

0.200 mg Synthroid x 1000 μg x 1 tablet = 4 tablets

1 mg 50 μg Synthroid
 11. The average human heart pumps blood at the rate of 6.8 fl oz/sec. What is this pump rate in gallons
per hour? Given : blood pump rate = 6.8 fl oz/sec Required: blood pump rate in gallons
per hour Solution:
6.8 fl oz x 1 qt x 1gal x 3600 sec
sec 32 fl oz 4 qt 1 hour

= 191.25 gallons/hr

12. A blood analysis shows a vitamin C concentration of 0.2 mg/100 ml of blood.

How many grams of vitamin C are there in 5.0 liter of this blood?

Given: 5.0 liter of blood

Required: number of grams of vitamin C Solution:

5.0 l blood x 1 ml blood x 0.2 mg vitamin C x 10-3 g vitamin C = 0.01 g
10-3 l blood 100 ml blood 1 mg vitamin C vitamin C Self-Check:

1. Make the following conversions:

a) Change 46 cm to meters c) Change 1.5 L to mL

b) Change kg to grams d) Change 1.23 kg to mg

2. Change 0.250 mi² to square meters (m²).

3. Convert - 38°C to Fahrenheit scale.

4. The density of octane, a component of gasoline, is 0.702 g/mL. What is the mass, in kg, of 875 mL of octane?

5. An antibiotic dosage of 500 mg is ordered. If the antibiotic is supplied in liquid form as 250 mg in 5.0 ml, how
ml would be given?

MODULE 3

TITLE: MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES

LEARNING COMPETENCIES:

1. Recognize that substances are made of smaller particles.

2. Describe and make a representation of the arrangements, relative spacing, and relative motion of the
particles in the three phases of matter.
3. Distinguish between physical and chemical properties and give examples.
4. Distinguish between extensive and intensive properties and give examples.
5. Use properties of matter to identify substances and to separate them.
6. Differentiate between pure substances and mixtures.
7. Differentiate between elements and compounds.
8. Differentiate between homogenous and heterogeneous mixtures.

******************************************************************************************************

MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES

MATTER

"Matter is the physical material of the universe; it is anything that occupies space and has mass."

Matter may either be living or nonliving, has no odor or no odor. It can be detected using our sense -- sight,
hearing, taste, touch, and smell. Matter is what the world is made of. The materials surrounding us, the air we
breathe, the earth beneath our feet, the food we eat, the water we drink, and even the stars of the universe are
forms of matter.

MICROSCOPIC VIEW OF MATTER

 Microscopic view of a Microscopic view of a Microscopic view of a gas. liquid.
solid.

MACROSCOPIC, MICROSCOPIC AND PARTICULATE MATTER

Macroscopic level - matter that can be seen with the human eye. Example: beach sand, trees,
cars, planets, galaxies, etc.

Microscopic level - matter that is too small to be seen by the naked eye, but can be seen under a microscope.

Example: very small plants, individual bacteria, cellular structures, DNA molecule,
semiconductors

Length = 10⁻6

Particulate Matter - matter too small to be seen with even the most powerful optical microscope.
Length = 1 Angstrom (Å) = 10⁻10

STATES OF MATTER

The three main states of are solid, liquid, and gas. Several new studies have come out showing that
plasma is the fourth state and the Bose-Einstein condensate is the fifth. Each of this state is also known as a
phase. elements and compounds can change from one phase to another when special physical forces (not chemical)
are present. One such force is temperature. The phase can change when temperature changes. As the temperature
rise, matter transforms to a more active state without changing its chemical properties. You can see water vapor over
a boiling pot of water. That vapor can condense and become a drop of water again. If you put that drop in the
freezer, it would become ice, which is a solid. No matter what it is in, it is always water. It always has the same
chemical properties.

Plasma is the fourth state of matter. Plasma has neither a definite volume nor a definite shape. It is often
seen in ionized gases. Plasma is distinct from a gas because it possesses unique properties. Free electrical charges
(not bound to atoms or ions) cause plasma to be electrically conductive. Plasma may be formed by heating and
ionizing a gas. It occurs only in lightning discharges and in artificial devises like fluorescent bulbs and neon signs.

Bose-Einstein Condensate - Super Fluid

A Bose-Einstein condensate is a rare state (or phase) of matter in which a large percentage of bosons
collapse into their lowest quantum state, allowing quantum effects to be observed on a macroscopic scale. The
bosons collapse into this state in circumstances of extremely low temperature, near the value of absolute zero.

SatyendraNath Bose developed statistical methods, later utilized by Albert Einstein, to describe the
behavior of massless photons and massive atoms, as well as other bosons. This "Bose-Einstein statistics" described
the behavior of a "Bose gas" composed of uniform particles of integer spin (i.e. bosons). When cooled to extremely
low temperatures, Bose-Einstein statistics predicts that the particles in a Bose gas will collapse into their lowest
accessible quantum state, creating a new form of matter, which is called a superfluid. This is a specific form of
condensation which has special properties.
What is Bose–Einstein condensate?

Bose Einstein Condensates or BECs are also known as super fluids. They have strange properties with many
possible applications in future technologies. They can slow light down to the residential speed limit, flow without
friction, and demonstrate the weirdest elements of quantum mechanics on a scale anyone can see. They are
effectively super atoms, groups of atoms that behave as one.

Properties and future applications

Most research into Bose-Einstein Condensates serves as "basic" research -- that is to say, it is more
concerned with knowing more about the world in general than with implementing a specific technology. However,
there are several potential uses for BECs. The most promising application is in etching.

When BECs are fashioned into a beam, they are like a laser in their coherence. That is to say, both a laser
and a BEC beam run "in lock step," guaranteeing that an experimenter can know how a part of the beam will behave
at every single location. This property of lasers has been used in the past for etching purposes. A BEC beam would
have greater precision and energy than a laser because even at their low kinetic energy state, the massive particles
would be more energetic than the massless photons.

FERMIONIC CONDENSATE

Atoms behave very differently at temperatures near absolute zero depending Fermionic Condensate
on the value of their intrinsic angular momentum or “spin”. Bosons have spins
with integer values in units of the Planck constant divided by 2π, while
fermions have spins of 1/2, 3/2, 5/2 and so on. Fermions obey the Pauli
exclusion principle, which means that they cannot occupy the same quantum
state. However, there are no such restrictions on bosons, so they can all
collapse into the same quantum ground state. This process, known as Bose-
Einstein condensation, is at the heart of superconductivity - the flow of electric
current without any resistance.

WATER AS AN EXAMPLE OF THE THREE STATE OF MATTER

GAS LIQUID SOLID

Water as an example Gaseous water - Liquid Water Solid water - ICE
STEAM
Shape Variable – same as a closed Variable – same as the Constant – rigid, fixed
container bottom of the container

Volume Variable – same as a closed Constant Constant

container
Particle Completely independent Independent beneath the Vibration in fixed position
movement (random); each particle may surface, limited to the
go anyplace in closed volume of the liquid and the
container shape of the bottom of the
container

Self-check 1:
Identify the true statements, and rewrite the false statements to make them true.

a. Particles move more freely in a gas than in a liquid.

b. The volume of a liquid may change, but its shape cannot.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
 One way by which materials are classified is based on the distribution of their properties and composition
throughout the material. If the composition and properties are uniform throughout, the material is said to be
homogeneous. If not, the material is said to be heterogeneous.

An important classification of materials in chemistry is in terms of their composition. It makes a distinction

between one material that is made up of only one substance and another material that contains two or more
substances with their own distinct properties. the former is called a pure substance and the latter, a mixture.

Pure Substance and Mixtures

Substance - a general term used to denote any variety of matter.

Pure Substance - a single chemical with distinct set of physical and chemical properties; cannot be separated by
physical changes. Ex: pure water, pure sucrose (table sugar)

Mixtures - two or more pure substance; properties vary, depending on relative amounts of pure substances;
components can be separated by physical changes.

Ex: salt & pepper, iron and sulfur

Self-check 2:

Specific gravity is a physical property. Three clear, colorless liquids are in beakers A, B and C. the specific gravity of
liquid A is 1.08; of liquid B, 1.00; and of liquid C, 1.12. the beakers are placed in a freezer until a solid crust forms
across the surface of each. The crusts are removed and the liquids warmed to room temperature once again. Their
specific gravities are now 1.10 for A, 1.00 for B, and 1.15 for C. Which beaker(s) contains a pure substance, and which
contains a mixture? Explain your answers.

Elements and Compounds

Elements are substances that cannot be separated into simpler substances. Salt is made up of the elements
sodium and chloride. Water is made up of the elements hydrogen and oxygen.

Oxygen is the most abundant element in the earth's crust, water and atmosphere followed by silicon and
aluminum. It is also the major component (65%) of the human body, followed by carbon (18%).

A compound is a substance formed when two or more elements are chemically joined. Water, salt, and
sugar are examples of compounds. When the elements are joined, the atoms lose their individual properties and have
different properties from the elements they are composed of.

A chemical formula is used a quick way to show the composition of compounds. Letters, numbers, and
symbols are used to represent elements and the number of elements in each compound.

Chemists use symbols to represent elements. A symbol is a letter or picture used to represent something.
Chemists use one or two letters to represent elements. The symbol for aluminum is Al. The symbol for oxygen is O.

A chemical formula is a notation used by scientists to show the number and type of atoms present in a
molecule, using the atomic symbols and numerical subscripts. A chemical formula is a simple representation, in
writing, of a three dimensional molecule that exists. A chemical formula describes a substance, down to the exact
atoms which make it up.

Ex: Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Hydrogen sulfide (H 2S), Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
 The Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius (17791848) was one of the first
European scientists to accept John Dalton's atomic theory and to recognize the need
for a new system of chemical symbols. He was a dominant figure in chemical science.

Atomic Level View of Elements and Compounds

Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Mixtures

A mixture is a combination of two or more substances that are not chemically united and do not exist in
fixed proportions to each other. Most natural substances are mixtures.

A homogeneous mixture is a mixture in which the composition is uniform throughout the mixture. The
salt and water is homogeneous because the dissolved salt is evenly distributed throughout the entire salt water
sample. Often it is easy to confuse a homogeneous mixture with a pure substance because they are both uniform.
The difference is that the composition of the substance is always the same. The amount of salt in the salt water can
vary from one sample to another. All solutions would be considered homogeneous because the dissolved material is
present in the same amount throughout the solution.

Examples: saline solution, juices, milk, vinegar

A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture in which the composition is not uniform throughout the
mixture. Vegetable soup is a heterogeneous mixture. Any given spoonful of soup will contain varying amounts of the
different vegetables and other components of the soup.

A phase is any part of a sample that has a uniform composition and properties. By definition, a pure
substance or a homogeneous mixture consists of a single phase. A heterogeneous mixture consists of two or more
phases. When oil and water are combined, they do not mix evenly, but instead form two separate layers. Each of the
layers is called a phase.

Examples: sand, oil and water, chicken noodle soup, spaghetti, pizza

Self-check 3:

1. Indicate whether each of the following statements is true or false.

a. Both elements and compounds are pure substances.
b. A compound results from the physical combination of two or more elements.
c. For matter to be heterogeneous, at least two compounds must be present.
d. Compounds, but not elements, can have a variable composition.

2. Consider two boxes with the following contents: the first contains 25 ballpoint pens each with its cap on; the
second contains 25 ballpoint pens without caps and 25 ballpoint pen caps. Which box has contents that would
be an analogy for a mixture and which box has contents that would be an analogy for a compound?

3. Consider two boxes with the following contents: the first contains 30 bolts and 30 nuts which fit the bolts; the
second contains the same number of bolts and nuts with the difference that each bolt has a nut screwed on it.
Which box has contents that would be an analogy for a mixture and which box has contents that would be an
analogy for a compound?
PROPERTIES AND CHANGES IN MATTER

Properties are the distinguishing characteristics that we use to identify different samples of matter. We can
recognize our own house among other houses on the same street by characteristics, such as paint, make, and design.
In the same way, we can recognize different substances by their characteristics or properties. Matter has two main
kinds of properties --- physical and chemical.

Changes in matter occur all the time in the natural world --- iron rusts, leaves on trees change color, wood
undergoes combustion in a forest fire, food in our stomach gets digested, rain dissolves limestone rocks, and dead
bodies decompose. Well before the beginning or recorded history, natural substances have been purposely changed
into new products. The changes brought about by humans for their own use include conversion of natural clays into
pottery, limestone rock into building materials, and metals like silver and gold into jewelry pieces.

Controlled chemical change is a major factor in addressing our present needs. The raw materials are
purposefully made to undergo chemical changes. For example, chemical changes convert pineapple juice or buco
juice into vinegar, and grape juice into wine through the process of fermentation.

Basically, there are two types of changes that matter may go through --- physical and chemical.

CHEMICAL VS. PHYSICAL

CHEMICAL PHYSICAL
Change Old substances destroyed New form of old substance
New substances formed No new substances formed
Ex: rusting of metal, burning of sulfur in air forming Ex: melting of butter, solid iron melting in a blast
sulfur dioxide furnace, ice cube changing to liquid water in a glass
Properties List of chemical changes possible Ex: iron combines with Description by senses – color, shape, odor, etc.
oxygen to Measurable properties – density, boiling point, etc.
form ferric oxide;
carbon burns to form carbon
dioxide

Evidence of a Chemical Change

Self -Check 5 :

EXTENSIVE ND INTENSIVE PROPERTIES OF MATTER

An extensive property is a property that depends on the amount of matter in a sample. The mass of an
object is a measure of the amount of matter that an object contains. A small sample of a certain type of matter will
have a small mass, while a larger sample will have a greater mass. Another extensive property is volume . The volume
of an object is a measure of the space that is occupied by that object mass.

An intensive property is a property of matter that depends only on the type of matter in a sample and not
on the amount.
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MODULE 4

TITLE: SEPARATION OF MIXTURES

LEARNING COMPETENCIES:

1. Apply simple separation techniques such as filtration, decantation, distillation, chromatography, etc.

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SEPARATION OF MIXTURES

The Dead Sea

The Dead Sea, also known as the Salt Sea, is a salt lake bordering Jordan to the east and Israel and the
West Bank to the west. It’s a hyper saline lake that is truly one of Earth’s unique places.

The surface and shores of the Dead Sea are 423 meters (1,388 ft) below sea level, making it Earth’s lowest
elevation on land. The Dead Sea’s unusually high salt concentration means that people can easily float in the Dead Sea
due to natural buoyancy. In this respect the Dead Sea is similar to the Great Salt Lake in Utah in the United States.

The Dead Sea is roughly 8.6 times saltier than the ocean. This salinity makes for a harsh environment in
which animals cannot flourish (hence its name). The high salinity prevents macroscopic aquatic organisms such as fish
and aquatic plants from living in it, though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present.

The Dead Sea area has become a major center for health research and treatment for several reasons. The
mineral content of the water, the very low content of pollens and other allergens in the atmosphere, the reduced
ultraviolet component of solar radiation, and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each have specific
health effects.

Sea water is a salty mixture that contains water, salt, sand and other substances.

The Dead Sea is almost six times more salty than the ocean, so nothing is able to live in it and that’s why it
is called “dead”.
This part of the world get plenty of heat. When the water evaporates, it leaves behind all the dissolved
minerals in the Sea, just making it saltier. In fact, it's through the dual action of; 1) continuing evaporation and 2)
minerals salts carried into the Dead Sea from the local rivers, that makes the Sea so salty. The fact that the water
doesn't escape the Sea just traps the salts within its shores.

Ways of Separating of Salt from Salty Water

1. Continuous boiling until salt crystallize.

2. Evaporation
3. Distillation process
4. Reverse osmosis - water is forced through a permeable filter, causing the concentration of salt to increase
as the water is pushed out and can be collected as purified drinking water.

PHYSICAL METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES

Mixtures can be separated into their constituents by using physical methods (i.e. no chemical reaction
involved). Separation techniques are physical methods. Which technique to use depends on the different properties
of the constituents. That is, different states, solubility, boiling and melting points. Below lists some of the most
common separation techniques:
1. Evaporation - is a type of vaporization of a liquid that occurs only on the surface of a liquid. The other type of
vaporization is boiling, which instead, occurs on the entire mass of the liquid. With sufficient heat, the liquid
would turn into vapor quickly. Example: When clothes are hung on a laundry line, even through the ambient
temperature is below the boiling point of water, water evaporates. This is accelerated by factors such as low
humidity, heat, and wind.

Separation of mixture of salt and water by evaporation:

Separation of water and salt by Evaporation

Evaporation is great for separating a mixture (solution) of a soluble solid and a

solvent. The process involves heating the solution until the solvent evaporates (turns into gas) leaving behind the
solid residue.

2. Separation by difference in densities - A mixture of two immiscible liquids are separated using a
Separating Funnel based on the differences in their densities.

Mixture of oil and water is put into a separating funnel, shaken and allowed to settle. The oil and
water form two separate layer. The liquid with higher density, in this case water forms the lower layer. Remove
the stopper and open the tap after standing. The water runs out through the tap. The oil remains in the funnel
and can be run out into another beaker.

3. Simple Distillation - to separate and collect a liquid from a solution of a soluble solid. The solution is heated in
a flask until the liquid boils. The vapor produced passes into the condenser where it is cooled and condenses to a
liquid. The pure liquid (distillate) is collected in a beaker.

The differences in boiling points among the substances in a homogenous mixture are frequently used as a
basis for separating the mixture into its components.

Distillation involves boiling the mixture to vaporize the liquid and then cooling the vapor to condense it,
thereby separating that liquid from the rest of the mixture.

4. Fractional Distillation - This is a special type of distillation used to separate a mixture of liquids. Different
liquids boil at different temperatures. When heated, they boil off and condense at different times. The apparatus
features a fractionating column, which ensures that only the liquid boils at its boiling point will pass into the
condenser.

5. Sublimation - Most of the solids substances when heated changes into liquid and finally into Vapors (or gas).
This vapor on cooling, first forms liquid and finally, solids. On the other hand there are some solid substances
like ammonium chloride which directly changes into vapors on heating and the vapors gives back solid substance
on cooling.
 The change of a solid directly into a vapor on heating and of the vapor into solids on cooling is known as
Sublimation.

6. Separating solids by Magnetism - Magnetism is ideal for separating mixtures of two solids with one part
having magnetic properties. Some metals like iron, nickel and cobalt have magnetic properties whiles gold, silver
and aluminum do not. Magnetic elements are attracted to a magnet.

7. Filtration - Filtration takes advantage of the physical property of the state of matter. A screen lets the
liquid particles through, but traps the solid particles.

To separate an insoluble solid from a liquid.

The solid remains in the filter paper and the liquid goes through the paper into the

Filtering of coffee beaker.

8. Chromatography - To separate different colored dyes. The dyes travel up the chromatography paper at
different distances before they cannot remain in solution. The more soluble dyes move further up than the less
soluble ones, hence separating from each other.
Example: separating dyes in inks, or chlorophyll in plants (ethanol as solvent) - chromatography

This method is often used in the food industry. It is used to identify chemicals (coloring agents)in foods or
inks. For example, if a scientist wants to know how many substances are in a particular blob of ink, paper
chromatography can be used.

Below is an illustration of using chromatography to separate and identify the different chemicals in an ink (mixture)

A blob of ink is smeared on a special paper called filter paper. The paper is placed in a trough of solvent.
The solvent used depends on the chemicals in the ink blob.

As the paper gets soaked upwards, it attracts the various chemicals in the ink blob. Because different chemicals have
different rates of attractions to the solvent, the chemicals will travel upwards in different amounts. Sometimes, a
chemical may not react at all. If a different solvent is used, all the various chemicals may travel at a completely
different rate.
SEPARATING MXTURES IN EVERYDAY LIFE

1. Coarse-sieving threshed rice - Separation of a mixture of various-sized particles, either dry or suspended in
a liquid, into two or more portions, by passing through screens of specified mesh sizes.
2. Sifting - Sifting means to put (flour, for example) through a sieve or other straining device in order to separate
the fine from the coarse particles.
3. Straining - to pass through strainer to separate solids from liquids.

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MODULE 5

TITLE: ATOMS, MOLECULES AND IONS

LEARNING COMPETENCIES:

1. Explain how the basic laws of matter (Law of Conservation of Mass, Law of Definite Proportion, and Law of
Multiple Proportion) led to the formulation of Dalton’s Atomic Theory.
2. Describe Dalton’s Atomic Theory.
3. Differentiate among atomic number, mass number, and isotopes, and which of these distinguishes one
element from another .
4. Write isotopic symbols.
5. Recognize common isotopes and their uses.
6. Differentiate among atoms, molecules, ions, and give examples.

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ATOMS, MOLECULES AND IONS

BASIC LAWS OF MATTER

I. Law of Conservation of Mass: In a chemical reaction, no change in mass takes place. The total mass of
the products is equal to the total mass of the reactant.

Put differently, the amount, or mass, of matter in an isolated system will always be
constant regardless of any chemical reactions or physical changes that take place. (Note that an isolated
or closed system is one that does not interact with its environment.)

This law is important in chemistry, particularly when combining different materials and testing the
reactions between them.

Though many people, including the ancient Greeks, laid the scientific groundwork necessary for
the discovery of the law of conservation of mass, it is French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794)
who is most often credited as its discoverer. This is also why the law is occasionally called Lavoisier’s law.

He formulated this law by describing one of his experiments involving mercuric oxide. He
placed a small amount of mercuric oxide, a red solid, inside a retort and sealed the vessel tightly.He
weighed the system, and then subjected it to high temperature. During the heating, the red solid turned
into a silvery liquid.

This observation indicated that a chemical reaction took place. After which, the setup was cooled and
then weighed. The weight of the system was found to be the same as before heating.

Illustrative examples:
a. Ten grams of mercury II oxide decomposes into 9.26 mercury and 0.74 g of oxygen. The laboratory
results of the decomposition is shown as follows:
Mercury II Oxide → Mercury + Oxygen
orange red powder silver liquid colorless gas
10.00 g 9.26 g 0.74 g
10.00 g reactant 10.00 g products

b. If heating 10.0 grams of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) produces 4.4 g of carbon dioxide (CO2) and 5.6 g of
calcium oxide (CaO), show that these observations are in agreement with the law of conservation of
mass.
Solution
Mass of the reactants = Mass of the products

10.0g of CaCO3 = 4.4 g of CO2 + 5.6g of CaO

 10.0g of reactant = 10.0g of products

Because the mass of the reactant is equal to the mass of the products, the observations are in agreement
with the law of conservation of mass.

When a chemical reaction occurs in the manufacture of a product, the weight of the starting materials is
expected to be almost the same to that of the product yield. There is energy given off or gases that may be
lost during or after the processing, or water that may be distilled from the liquid product. the heat energy
or gases that may not be measured by just given off, or the water distilled from the batch, or the residue
clinging to the sides of the reactor, represent wastes, which explains the less than 100% yield. The
efficiency of production systems is normally never 100%. The waste from the manufacturing process prove
the principle behind the law of conservation of mass. therefore, the mass of the reactants or raw materials
should be equal to the mass of the product or products and wastes.

II. Law of Definite Proportion: A compound always contains the same constituent elements in a fixed or
definite proportion by mass.

The law of definite proportions is a law of science that says that a chemical compound is always made up
of the exact same proportion of elements by mass. So, if a compound is made by combining 1/4 from one chemical
and the remaining 3/4 from another chemical, these proportions will always hold true, regardless of the amount of
chemicals added.

The Law of Definite of Proportions is sometimes referred to as Proust's Law because it was originally
observed by a French chemist named Joseph Proust. In the modern world, this law seems obvious, but in Proust's
day it was a new idea, because some scientists thought that any combinations of elements could make certain
substances, rather than the substance needing to be created by a definite proportion.

Illustrative examples:
a. Water, written as the chemical compound H20, is made up of atoms of hydrogen and oxygen. If one
oxygen atom is combined with two hydrogen atoms, water is created.
b. Salt, written as the chemical compound NaCl, is made up of atoms of Sodium (Na) and Chlorine (Cl). The
exact same proportions of sodium and chlorine must always be combined in order for salt to be created.
c. Sulfuric acid is made up of the individual elements of hydrogen, sulphur, and oxygen. The chemical
compound is written H2SO4. The same proportions of hydrogen, sulphur, and oxygen must be combined
to create sulfuric acid.

III. Law of Multiple Proportions: If two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the
masses of one element that will combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in a ratio of small
whole numbers.
Illustrative Example:
Consider methane and ethylene, both compounds of carbon and hydrogen:

• 12.0 g of carbon combines with 4.0 g of hydrogen in methane (CH 4), a major component of natural gas.
• 24.0 g of carbon combines with 4.0 g of hydrogen in ethylene (C 2H4), a hydrocarbon (compound
composed solely of carbon and hydrogen) that plays an important role in the ripening of fruits.
mass of C combined with 4.0 g H in CH4 = = 12.0 = 1 mass of C combined with 4.0
g H in C2H4 24.0 2

• This small whole-number ratio exists because there also exists the same ratio between the number of
atoms of carbon between the number of atoms of carbon which combine with the same number of
atoms of hydrogen: no. of C that combine with 4H in CH4 = 1 no. of C that combine with
4H in C2H4 2

EARLY IDEAS IN ATOMIC THEORY

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers, the
scientists of their day. In the fifth century BC, Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter was composed of
small, finite particles that they called "atomos", a term derived from the Greek word for "indivisible." They thought
of atoms as moving particles that differed in shape and size, and which could join together. Later, Aristotle and
others came to the conclusion that matter consisted of various combinations of the four "elements" -- fire, earth,
air, and water -- and could be infinitely divided. Interestingly, these philosophers thought about atoms and
"elements" as philosophical concepts, but apparently never considered performing experiments to test their ideas.

The Aristotelian view of the composition of matter held sway for over two thousand years, until English school
teacher John Dalton helped to revolutionize chemistry with his hypothesis that the behavior of matter could be
explained using an atomic theory. First published in 1807, many of Dalton's hypotheses about the microscopic
features of matter are still valid in modern atomic theory.

DALTON'S ATOMIC THEORY

 Dalton’s Atomic Theory, proposed by John Dalton, can be used to explain the laws of chemical change.
This theory is based on the following set of postulates:

1. Elements are made up of very small particles known as atoms.

2. All the atoms of an element are identical in mass and size, and are different from the atoms of another
element. Dalton used the different shapes or figures to represent different elements, as follows:

Oxygen Hydrogen Carbon Nitrogen Sulfur Phosphorus

3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element, combined in definite ratios with whole
number values.

Carbon Carbon Nitric

Monoxide Dioxide oxide
4. During a chemical
reaction, atoms combine, separate, or rearrange. No atoms are created and no atoms disappear.

Carbon
Carbon Oxygen
dioxide

ATOMS AND THE SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES

The development of modern atomic theory revealed much about the inner structure of atoms. It was
learned that an atom contains a very small nucleus composed of positively charged protons and uncharged
neutrons, surrounded by a much larger volume of space containing negatively charged electrons.

Joseph John Thomson was credited with the discovery of the electron while experimenting with cathode
rays. He concluded that cathode rays were negatively charged particles. He proposed a model of the atom that
was often referred to as the plum pudding model.

Ernest Rutherford, in his gold-foil experiment, concluded that an atom was made up of a very dense,
positively charged nucleus surrounded primarily by empty space in which the electrons could be found. He
proposed the nuclear model.

Niels Bohr visualized the electrons as rotating in orbits around the nucleus, like planets rotating around the
sun. He theorized that the energy of the electron was quantized.

Eugene Goldstein was credited for the discovery of the proton, and James Chadwick for the discovery of the
neutron.

The ATOM is the basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical combination. There are three sub-
atomic particles as described by the table below.

Subatomic Symbol Charge Mass (g) Location Discovered

Particles
Electron e⁻ −1 9.110 x 10⁻²8 Outside the nucleus J.J. Thomson (1897)
Proton p⁺ +1 1.673 x 10⁻24 Inside the nucleus Eugene Goldstein (1919)
0 24
Neutron n or n 0 1.675 x 10⁻ Inside the nucleus James Chadwick (1932)

ATOMIC NUMBER, MASS NUMBER and ISOTOPES:

The one characteristic that is common to all atoms of an element is the number of protons in their nuclei.
This is called the atomic number ,(Z). This number is unique to a given element. No two elements have the
same atomic number. No two elements have the same number of protons in the nuclei of their atoms.

Mathematical Computations of the Sub-atomic Particles:

 All atoms can be identified by the number of protons and neutrons they contain the number of protons in
the nucleus of each atom of an element is called the atomic number (Z). In a neutral atom the number of protons
is equal to the number of electrons, so the atomic number also indicates the number of electrons present in the
atom. The chemical identity of an atom can be determined solely by its atomic number.

Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus Number of Protons = number of

electrons Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons

Example:

Nitrogen - N
atomic number = 7
number of protons = 7

number of electrons = 7

This means that each neutral nitrogen atom has 7 protons and 7 electrons. Or viewed another
way, "every atom in the universe that contains 7 protons is correctly named nitrogen."

The mass number (A) is the total number of neutrons and protons present in the nucleus of an
atom of an element.

Exception: Hydrogen, has one proton and no neutrons, all atomic nuclei contain both protons and
neutrons.

Therefore: mass number = no. of protons + number of neutron

= atomic number + number of neutron

number of neutron = mass number - number of protons

or number of neutron = A - Z For Nitrogen:

number of neutron = 14 - 7 = 7

ISOTOPES

ISOTOPES- are atoms of the same element (X) that have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.

Naming Isotopes:

1. NUCLEAR SYMBOL:
Where:

A = Mass number = atomic mass

Z = Atomic number

2. HYPEN NOTATION - Put the mass number after the name of the element.
Examples:

Carbon- 12

Carbon -14

Uranium-235

Isotopes of Hydrogen:

hydrogen deuterium tritium

Isotopes of Uranium:

Example:

Sodium :

Find the following:

• number of protons = 11
• number of neutrons = 24 - 11 = 13
• number of electrons = 11
• Atomic number = 11
• Mass Number = 24
• Name : Na-24

Some uses of Isotopes

Heavy Water

Hydrogen usually has a nucleus consisting of only one proton. An isotope of hydrogen called deuterium has
a nucleus consisting of one proton and one neutron.

When deuterium combines with oxygen, it forms what is called "heavy water" because the deuterium component
of the water is twice as heavy as if it was simple hydrogen. Although the amount of heavy water molecules in
nature is very small (1 part in 3200), it has been concentrated for use in the development of nuclear weapons. Also,
when concentrated, it can be poisonous to plants and animals.

Carbon Dating

Since the Carbon-14 (C-14) isotope is radioactive, the amount of it in an object that was once living can be
used to approximate the date of death. While living, a plant or animal renews carbon in its system. Once the object
dies, the amount of C-14 only changes as it decays into some other material. Since C-14 decays at a rate where half
of it has changed in about 5600 years - known as its half-life - the years since death can be calculated.

Thus, if the object or fossil has only 1/4 of the C-14 in it as compared with living objects, it died around 11,200
years ago.

Of course, since C-14 normally consists of 1/1,000,000,000 of the carbon found in nature, the
measurements can be difficult to make and certainly aren't exact.

Cobalt-60 in Medical Equipment Sterilization and Food Preservation

Cobalt-60, an isotope of cobalt that has one additional neutron in its nucleus compared to stable cobalt-59,
has applications in medicine as well as in food preservation. Due to its additional neutron, cobalt-60 undergoes
radioactive decay releasing gamma radiation. Gamma radiation passes through different materials effortlessly and
is used to sterilize medical equipment (e.g., gloves, syringes, cotton balls, etc.) by destroying harmful bacteria. In
food preservation, gamma rays also destroy harmful bacteria, as well as fungi, molds, and insects, while leaving the
food unchanged. This increases the shelf life of the food.

Other uses of isotopes include their use in smoke detectors, in agricultural applications, food irradiation,
climatology, biological tracing, structural imaging, explosives detection, pest control and in medical applications,
among others.

Atomic masses are so small that an appropriate unit was developed to report them -- an atomic mass unit
(amu). 1 amu = .66 x 10⁻24 g. The atomic mass of the lightest element, hydrogen, was originally taken to be 1 amu.
The modern values of the atomic masses are based on the most common kind of carbon atom, called "carbon-12"
and written as the standard. the mass of is measured in the modern mass spectrometer, NS is
defined to have an atomic mass of exactly 12 amu. On this scale hydrogen has an atomic amss of 1.008 amu.

Elements are almost always found in nature as a mixture of isotopes. the relative abundance of each
isotope is expressed in percentage. Some naturally occurring stable isotopes of some elements are listed in most
of Chemistry text books.

The atomic mass of an element is the relative mass of an average atom of the element compared with ,
which definition has a mass of exactly 112 amu. Thus, since a sulfur atom has a mass of 8/3 times that of a carbon
atom, the atomic mass of sulfur is:

12 amu x = 32 amu

NOTE: A complete list of the modern values of the atomic masses of the elements is given in the Periodic Table
of Elements.
Examples:

1. Chlorine has 2 naturally occurring isotopes:

Isotopes Mass (amu) Percent

Abundance (%)
34.969 75.77

36.966 24.23

Calculate the average atomic mass of chlorine.

Average Atomic Mass = (0.7577)(34.969) + (0.2423)(36.966) = 35.453

2. If an element is only composed of two major isotopes and the molar mass is known, the natural abundances of
the two isotopes can be calculated.

Problem: Iridium (Ir) has two isotopes Iridium-191 and Iridium-193 and has a molar mass of 192.2 g/mol.
Calculate the abundances of its isotopes.

Solution:

Let x = abundance of Iridium-191

1 - x = abundance of Iridium-193

191 x + 193 (1 - x) = 192.2

191x + 193 - 193x = 192.2

- 2x = - 0.8

Therefore: Iridium-191 = 40%

Iridium-193 = 60%

MOLECULES AND IONS

It is rare to find collections of individual atoms. Only a few elements, such as the gases, helium, neon, and
argon, consist of a collection of individual atoms that move about independently of one another. Other elements,
such as the gases hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and chlorine, are composed of units that consist of pairs of atoms.
One form of the element phosphorus consists of units composed of four phosphorous atoms. the element sulfur
exists in various forms, one of which consists of units composed of eight sulfur atoms. These units are called
molecules.

MOLECULE - is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical forces.

H2 H 2O NH3 CH4

DIATOMIC ELEMENTS - contains only two atoms - H2, N2, O2, Br2, Cl2, I2, F2

POLYATOMIC MOLECULE- contains more than two atoms - O3, H2O, NH3, CH4

IONS

An atom that has either lost or gained electrons in its highest energy level is called an ion. Ions formed
from a metal will have a positive charge equal to the number of electrons lost. Ions formed from nonmetals will
have a negative charge equal to the number of electrons gained.
 Positive ions are attracted toward a negatively charged electrode called cathode. Such ions are called
cations. Likewise, negative ions are attracted towards a positively charge electrode, an anode. These ions are
called "anions".

Illustrations:

ION- is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net positive or negative charge.

Cation– ion with a positive charge

If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons

it becomes a cation.

Anion – ion with a negative charge

If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons

it becomes an anion.

A monatomic ion contains only one atom - Monoatomic ions are named based on the
element.

Examples: Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-

An anion are named by the name of the element and modified by the suffix –ide.

Examples: N⁻3 - Nitride

C⁻4 - Carbide
P⁻3 - Phosphide

A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom

Examples: OH-, CN-, NH4+, CO32−,HCO3− , SO42− , PO43−NO3- ,NO2−

The names of common polyatomic anions

• end in ate.
NO3− nitrate PO43− phosphate
• with one oxygen less end in ite.
NO2− nitrite PO33− phosphite
• with hydrogen attached use the prefix hydrogen (or bi).
HCO3− hydrogencarbonate (bicarbonate)

HSO3− hydrogen sulfite (bisulfite)

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MODULE 6

TITLE: IONIC AND COVALENT BONDIN

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CHEMICAL BOND

Bond Formation
 Chemical bonds form to lower the energy of the system, the components of the system become
more stable through the formation of bonds. Everything wants to be more stable - its easy to lie down than
stand up, bonding is Nature's way of allowing the elements to lie down.

Matter does not fall apart spontaneously, except in very rare instances. This is due to the forces
acting at the ionic and molecular level. Atoms tend to attain more stable states at lower chemical potential
energy levels through formation of bonds. These atoms react chemically by losing, gaining, or sharing
electrons. Forces are formed from electron-transfer and electron-sharing interactions. Chemical bonds are
electrostatic forces of attraction that hold atoms together.

TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS

1. IONIC BOND - bond formed by the transfer of electrons

2. COVALENT BOND - bond formed by sharing of electrons

3. METALLIC BOND - combination of ionic and covalent bonding

Types of bonds

There are two types of bonds: ionic and covalent. Ionic bonding occurs between metals and
non-metals. Covalent bonding occurs between two non-metals. (When two metals combine an alloy is
formed. Alloys are unusual substances; we will not concern ourselves with bonding in alloys)

Na + Cl = Ionic H + O = Covalent

(metal) (nonmetal ) (nonmetal) (nonmetal)

Valence Electrons

Electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom are known as valence electrons. These
electrons determine the kind of chemical bonds, if any, the atom can form. Valence comes from the Latin
word valentia, which means "capacity". For atoms, valnce relates to the capacity to form bonds
Element Electronic Configuration Valence electrons Group Number
2 2 6 2
❑
Mg 1s 2s 2p 3s 2 2A
12
❑
Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 7 7A
17
2 2 6 2 6 2 10 4
❑
Se 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 6 6A
34
❑
Ca 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 2 2A
20
❑
S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 6 6A
16
❑ 2 2 6 2 6 2 10 5
Br 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 7 7A
35
2 2 6
❑
Ne 1s 2s 2p 8 8A
10
Valence Electrons - electrons located in the outermost energy level of an atom which are largely
responsible for the chemical behavior of the element.

- located in the shell with the highest shell number n.

Exception: Inner transition and transition elements not included.

Number of Valence electrons from Electronic Configurations and the Periodic Table

Stability of the Noble Gases

Noble Gases, except for Helium, He, all the elements of Group VIIA has 8e⁻ in the outermost energy level.
All other elements, the pattern by which the orbitals of the s, p, d & f sublevels get filled up with e⁻, the
biggest number of e⁻ that occupy the outermost energy level of an atom is generally eight (8).

Stable configuration - atoms with 8e⁻ in the outermost energy level or isoelectronic with the noble gases.

Isoelectronic - having the same electronic configuration to that of a noble gas.

THE GROUP VIIIA ELEMENTS

Elements e⁻ in its shells Electron configuration

 Na +Cl [ Na ]+ [Cl]-
1e
He 2 1s2
Ne 17p+ 2-8 1s+ 2 2s2 2p6
17p
11p+ 2e- 8e- 1e- 11p+
Ar 7e 8e 2e 2-8-18 0 2e 8e 8e 8e 2e
- - - - - - - -
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
12n0 18n0 12n 18n0
Kr 2-8-18-8 [Ar] 4s² 3d10 4p6
Xe 2-8-18-18-8 [Kr] 5s² 4d10 5p6
Rn 2-8-18-32-18-8 [Xe] 6s² 4f14 5d10 6p6

Na Lewis Cl
Electron Dot Structure
[Na]+[ Cl -] or, simply [ Na ]+ [Cl]-
Dots are often used to represent the valence electrons in atoms and molecules. The resulting
structures are referred to as Lewis structure, electron-dot structure, or Lewis electron-dot structure, named
after Gilbert Newton Lewis who is a pioneer in understanding the relationship between electron structure
and chemical bonding.

Gilbert Newton Lewis (American Chemist) formulated the formal theory of chemical bonding,
which involved a pair of electrons stared or held jointly by two atoms . (1916) He developed the symbolism
called Electron – dot structures, Theory of acid and bases or the Lewis acid – base theory. He is the
proponent of “learning by doing” or Problem Set Method and before 1916 he worked as a government
chemist in the Philippines.

Lewis Dot Diagram:

Lewis Dot diagrams are an easy way to display the 4 valence orbitals involved in bonding.  The
element name is abbreviated and dots are filled in around the element based on the number of valence
electrons present.  The electron-dot structure is a representation of an atom that shows each valence
electrons as a dot above, below or beside the symbol of the element.

Rules in Drawing the Lewis Dot Diagrams

 An imaginary box is drawn around the element

 Dots (electrons) are filled in one side at a time, not doubling up until all 4 sides are full

 No more than 2 dots can be present on any side

 Elements with only 2 electrons will have the dots on opposite sides

Cl gains an electron to
become Cl-. Notice that
17p0 2e- 8e- its electron configuration
17p+-- 2e 8e 7e- +18
18n 8e- resembles Ar (the
0 n nearest noble gas). This
follows the octet rule.

Cl [ Cl ]-or, simply[ Cl] - Na loses an electron to become

Na+. Notice that its electron
configuration resembles Ne (the
nearest noble gas). This follows
the ctet rule.

The Octet Rule

The noble gasses do not react with other elements. In other words, noble gasses are very stable.
Let’s look at the electron configuration of noble gasses (note: K is the name given to shell 1, L to 2,
etc.)

Element Shell Noble gasses, except for He, have 8 electrons in their
K L M N O P outer shell. This is a stable configuration.
He 2
Ne 2 8 The Octet Rule
Ar 2 8 8 When atoms form ions or combine in compounds
Kr 2 8 18 8 they obtain electron configurations of the nearest
noble gas (usually this means that there will be 8
Xe 2 8 18 18 8 outer electrons).
Rn 2 8 18 32 18 8
Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonds is the attractive force existing between atoms or groups of atoms or polyatomic ions. When
metals react, they lose their valance electron in order to attain a noble gas arrangement. They form IONS
that have an electrical charge with different number of electrons than protons

Example:

11 Na Na Ion Net charge

II p 11p +

II e valence e 10 e- +11

2-8-1 to obtain 2-8 -10

an octet +1

Sodium Ion: Na+1

12 Mg Mg ion Net charge

12 p 12 p +12

12 e valence e 10 e -10

2-8-2 to obtain 2-8 +2

an octet

Magnesium Ion: Mg+2

Ionic Bonds and Compounds

Ionic bonding is the result of the attraction of oppositely charged ions (atoms) or polyatomic ions
(atom groups).  The attraction acts much like the static electricity that holds hair to a comb on a windy day or
opposite poles of a magnet. 

Rules for ion formation:

 Cations - positively charged ions, usually formed from the metallic (IA, IIA, IB & Al) groups

 Anions - negatively charged ions, usually formed from the nonmetal (VA, VIA & VIIA) groups

 Ionic compounds consist of entirely ionic bonds 

 The ionic compound is electronically neutral (positive charges = negative charges)

 Ions and ionic compounds are frequently more stable than their parent atoms

 The properties of ionic compounds are more similar to the nonmetals than the metals and include:

 High melting points

 Form relatively strong bonds - form a crystalline structure

 Tend to be brittle - exhibits cleavage or fracture

 Most dissolve in water to form electrolyte solutions - a solution that is a good conductor of
electricity
 Poor conductors in the solid state
Ionic Bonding

Ionic Bonding of Sodium and Chlorine

Sodium (2,8,1) has 1 electron more than a stable noble gas structure (2,8). If it gave away that
electron it would become more stable.

Chlorine (2,8,7) has 1 electron short of a stable noble gas structure (2,8,8). If it could gain an
electron from somewhere it too would become more stable.

If a sodium atom gives an electron to a chlorine atom, both become more stable.

The sodium ions and chloride ions are held together by the strong electrostatic attractions
between the positive and negative charges.

The chlorine has gained an electron, so it now has one more electron than proton. It
therefore has a charge of 1-. If electrons are gained by an atom, negative ions are formed.

The sodium ions and chloride ions are held together by the strong electrostatic attractions
between the positive and negative charges.

You need one sodium atom to provide the extra electron for one chlorine atom, so they
combine together 1:1. The formula is therefore NaCl.

Examples:

Magnesium and Oxygen

Formula : MgO (Magnesium Oxide)

Calcium and Chlorine

Formula : CaCl2 (Calcium Chloride)

Potassium and Oxygen

Formula : K2O ( Potassium Oxide)’

Examples of Ionic Compounds and Their Uses

Name of Compound Formula Uses

cleaning agent; ingredient in the
Sodium Fluoride NaF
petroleum industry
Used to make glass, iron or steel;
Calcium Carbonate (limestone, marble) CaCO3
component of cement
 Ingredient of cakes and
Sodium Bicarbonate (baking soda) NaHCO3 softdrinks; stain remover for
china, glass and porcelain
Lithium Carbonate Li2CO3 To treat schizophrenia
Potassium Nitrate KNO3 Explosives; matches
Used for clearing up clogged
Sodium Hydroxide (caustic soda) NaOH
drains; used to make soap

*************************************************************************************

COVALENT BONDING
Cl-1 Na+1 Cl-1 Na+1 Cl-1
Na+1 Cl-1 Na+1 Cl-1 Na+1
At room temperature, sodium chloride is a
Cl-1 Na+1 Cl-1 Na+1 Cl-1
crystalline solid. It has a very high melting point.
Na+1 Cl-1 Na+1 Cl-1 Na+1
In contrast, water is liquid and has relatively low
melting and boiling points. They are different
because they differ in the way the atoms in each Sodium Chloride Crystal NaCl Crystal Schematic
compound are combined. Sodium chloride is an
ionic compound while water is a covalent
molecular compound.

Covalent bonding occurs when two or more elements share electrons. Covalent bonding occurs
because atoms in the compound have a similar tendency to gain electrons. This most commonly occurs
when two nonmetals bond together. Because both of the non-metals will want to gain electrons, the
elements involved will share electrons in an effort to fill their valence shells.

Unlike ionic compounds, covalent molecules exist as true molecules. Because electrons are
shared in covalent molecules, no full ionic charges are formed. Thus covalent molecules are not strongly
attracted to one another. As a result, covalent molecules move about freely and tend to exist as liquids or
gases at room temperature.

Hydrogen gas forms the simplest covalent bond in the diatomic hydrogen molecule. The halogens
such as chlorine also exist as diatomic gases by forming covalent bonds. The nitrogen and oxygen which
makes up the bulk of the atmosphere also exhibits covalent bonding in forming diatomic molecules.

Covalent bond that is formed between H and F:

Bohr-rutherford

1p+0n0 9p+ 10n0

+ 1p+ 9p+
0n0 10n0

Lewis diagram

H +F F Notice that when H and F share

electrons, each is able to
Types of covalent bonds: complete its outer shell.

1. Single covalent bond - two atoms share one pair of valence electrons.
 2. Double covalent bond - two atoms share two pairs of valence electrons.

3. Triple covalent bond - two atoms share three pairs of valence electrons.

BONDING PATTERNS OF TYPICAL NONMETALS IN COVALENT COMPOUNDS

1A 2A 4A 5A 6A 7A

H–

Single bond

| –C– ‫׀‬ F–

–B– | N≡ O– Single bond

Triple bond 4 bonds Triple bonds Double bond

| | |

– Si – –P– S– Cl , Br, I

| Double 1 (3 or 5) bonds

4 bonds 3 ( or 5) bonds ( 4 or 6) bonds

Covalent Bonding Between Atoms of Different Elements

Number of e‾ shared = Number of e‾ needed for octet

Systematic Method of Covalent Bonding of Elements :

1. Determine the number of valence electrons available CO2 : C = 4

2O = 12

Total 16

2. Determine the necessary number of electrons to satisfy the

octet (or duet) rule with no electron sharing.
C = 8

2O = 16

Total 24

3. The difference between the numbers obtained in Step 1 & 2 Req’d. = 24

is the number of bonding electrons. Available = – 16

To be shared = 8

4. *Place the atoms as symmetrically as possible.

O C O
* Note : Central atom = atom with highest valence
Oxygen is usually terminal atom

5. Place the number of electrons to be shared between the atoms,

a pair at a time, at first one pair between each pairs of atoms.
Use as many pairs as remainders to make double or triple
bonds.
O:: C ::O
6. Add the remainder of the available electron to complete the .. .. ..
octets (or duets). There should be just enough if the molecules
or ion follows the octet rule. :O::C::O:

or

.. .. ..

:O═C═O:

POLYATOMIC IONS - more or fewer e‾ are available than the number that comes from the valence shells
of the atoms in the ions.

- the gain or loss of e‾ provides the charge

The following radicals or polyatomic ions are groups of atoms of more than one kind of element attached by
covalent bonds. They do not often come apart in ionic reactions. The charge on the radical is for the whole
group of atoms as a unit.

 (NH4)+ AMMONIUM - Do not confuse with NH3, AMMONIA GAS)

 (NO3)- NITRATE (Do not confuse with NITRIDE (N3-) or NITRITE)
 (NO2)- NITRITE (Do not confuse with (N3-) or NITRATE)
 (C2H3O2)- ACETATE (NOTE - This is not the only way this may be written.)
 (ClO3)- CHLORATE (Do not confuse with CHLORIDE (Cl-) or CHLORITE)
 (ClO2)- CHLORITE (Do not confuse with CHLORIDE (Cl-) or CHLORATE)
 (SO3)2- SULFITE (Do not confuse with (S2-) or SULFATE)
 (SO4)2- SULFATE (Do not confuse with SULFIDE (S2-) or SULFITE)
 (HSO3)- BISULFITE (or HYDROGEN SULFITE)
 (PO4)3- PHOSPHATE (Do not confuse with P3-, PHOSPHIDE)
 (HCO3)- BICARBONATE (or HYDROGEN CARBONATE)
 (CO3)2- CARBONATE
 (HPO4)2- HYDROGEN PHOSPHATE
 (H2PO4)- DIHYDROGEN PHOSPHATE
 (OH)- HYDROXIDE
 (CrO4)2- CHROMATE
 (Cr2O7)2-DICHROMATE
 (BO3)3- BORATE
 (AsO4)3- ARSENATE
 (C2O4)2- OXALATE
 (ClO4)- PERCHLORATE
 (CN)- CYANIDE
 (MnO4)- PERMANGANATE Covalent bonds make real molecules, groups of atoms that are
genuinely attached to each other. Binary covalent compounds have two types of atom in them,
usually non-metal atoms. Covalent bonds can come in double (sharing of two pairs of electrons)
and triple (three pairs of electrons) bonds.

 ********************************************************************

MODULE 7

TITLE: FORMULA WRITING AND NAMING OF CHEMICAL

COMPOUNDS (CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE)

LEARNING COMPETENCIES:

1. Represent compounds using chemical formulas.

2. Give the similarities and differences between the empirical formula and molecular formula of a compound.
3. Name compounds given their formula and write formulas given the name of the compound.
******************************************************************************************************

CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS

Chemical compounds are divided into two groups -- organic and inorganic. Organic compounds are
composed principally of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. These are compounds of life. All other compounds are called
inorganic compounds.

Chemical formulas are shorthand symbols for compounds. They are made from the symbols of their
elements in a pattern that shows the ratios by atoms present in the compound.

Types of Formulas

1. Empirical formula - also called as the simplest formula - gives the composition of the molecule, in terms of
the smallest ratio of the number of atoms present. Examples: CH2O , NaCO2

2. Molecular formula - gives the composition of the molecule, in terms of the actual number of atoms
present.
Examples: C6H12O6 , K3PO4 , Na2C2O4

Molecular Formula Name Empirical formula

C2H4 Ehtylene (ethene) CH2
C3H6 propylene (propene) CH2
C6H12O6 glucose CH2O

Naming of Binary Compounds

Binary compounds - compounds that are made up of two elements .

A. Ionic compounds - made up of a cation and an anion. They are named by giving the name of the cation first,
followed by the name of the anion.

Examples:

1. K+1Cl-1 - Potassium Chloride

2. Mg+2N-3 - Lithium Chloride
3. NH4+1Cl-1 - Ammonium Chloride

*NH4 is a compound ion, polyatomic ion, but can be considered as a single group of atoms acting like a
single atom having a +1 valence.

B. Molecular compounds - Covalent compounds

- made up of two non-metals. They are named by giving the name of the first non metal and then that of the
second nonmetal modified by the ending -ide.

Use of Prefixes Mono, De-, Tri-, Tetra-, Penta-

The prefix indicates the NUMBER OF ATOMS of the element to which the prefix is affixed.

Example: Phosphorus trichloride PCl3

NOTE: The proper name is monophosphorus trichloride but the prefix for the first element is omitted.

Examples:
FORMULA CHEMICAL NAME
AsCl3 Arsenic Trichloride
P2S5 Diphosphorus Pentasulphide
P2O5 Diphosphorus Pentoxide

Systematic Nomenclature:

a.
For names start with element to the left side on the periodic table
add -ide to the second element
b.
use Greek prefixes for number of atoms: mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona,
c.
deca
d. Example:
i. CO carbon monoxide
ii. CO2 carbon dioxide
iii. N2O5 dinitrogen pentoxide
2. Common names: -ous and -ic (-ic has greater charge, OR has fewer atoms). Examples:
C. Ternary compounds - made up of three elements. The naming of ternary compounds follows the same rule as
that of the binary ionic compound: the name of the cation is given first, followed by the name of the anion.

Chemical Formula Name of Compound

NaNO3 Sodium Nitrate
BaCrO4
K2SO4

Naming of Compounds with Variable Valence Ions

Metals that has more than one possible charge and its valences:

Name of element Root of name -ous - ic

Copper (Cu) cupr- +1 +2
Gold (Au) Aur- +1 +3
Mercury (Hg) Mercur- +1 +3
Chromium (Cr) chrom +2 +3
Manganese (Mn) Mangan- +2 +3
Iron (Fe) Ferr- +2 +3
Cobalt (Co) Cabalt- +2 +3
Nickel (Ni) Nickel- +2 +3
Tin (Sn) Stann- +2 +4
Arsenic (As) Arsen (i)- +3 +5
Antimony (Sb) Antimony- +3 +5
Bismuth (Bi) Bismuth- +3 +5
Lead (Pb) Lead +2 +4
With the Stock Method you must indicate which ion using the charge in roman numerals (ie: FeCl 2 Iron (II) chloride).

Examples:

Compound Stock Method

FeF2 iron (II) fluoride

FeF3 iron (III)fluoride

Hg2Br2 mercury (I) bromide

HgBr2 mercury (II) bromide

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FORMULA WRITING OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS

Use of Cross-Chain-Rule

In writing compounds the following steps might be used as an aid until you become proficient in nomenclature.

Example:

Step 1: CaF 1. Write the symbols for the elements, the positive
valenced (oxidation state) element first, the negative valenced (oxidation state)
element second.

Step 2: Ca+2F-1 2. Above each element indicate the valence (oxidation

state) for each element.

Step 3: Ca1+2F2-1 3. Use the Cross-Chain Rule

4. When using this rule the subscripts are written without the + or - signs.

5. If the subscript is one (1), this is omitted because

the elemental symbol represents one mole or one atom.

6. If there is a common factor in the subscripts it may be reduced.

Step 4: CaF2 7. Write the compound.

Examples:

dichromate sulfide chloride sulfite

sodium Na2Cr2O7 Na2S NaCl Na2SO3
silver
ammonium
tin(II)

Naming of Acids

Acids - compounds that yield hydrogen ions in aqueous solutions.

A. Binary acids - composed of hydrogen and another element, usually a nonmetal. The first part of the
name starts with the prefix hydro- followed by the name of the element, modified by the ending --ic. The
second part consists of the word "acid".

Name of acid = hydro + root name of element --ic + acid

Chemical Formula Name of Acid

HCl Hydrochloric Acid
H2S
HI

B. Ternary Acids - made up of hydrogen and an anion, usually containing oxygen. The first part of the name
consists of the root word of the name of the element, modified by the ending --ic. The second part consists
of the word acid. If there is another acid with the same atoms, the suffix ---ous is used to denote the one
with less number of atoms.

Chemical Formula Name of Acid

HNO3 nitric acid
HNO2 nitrous acid
H2SO4
H2SO3
H3PO4

Naming and Writing Formulas of Bases

Bases are substances that react with certain metal to produce hydrogen gas. Bases consist of a metal and a
hydroxide.

Examples: Sodium hyroxide NaOH

Barium hyroxide Ba(OH)2

*
 UCSP
MODULE

LESSON 1 INTRODUCTION TO CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS

Identity
 The distinctive characteristics that defines an individual or is shared by those belonging to a particular
group.
 This can change over the course of time. It is continuously shaped and reshaped.
Why is IDENTITY important?
1. Reflecting on one’s identity enables a person to appreciate what makes him or her different from
other people.
2. It also helps a person to understand that identities are relational and contextual.

 Society’s way of life

 Allows people to understand themselves in relation to others and
provides them a lens through which they base what is considered the “right way” of doing things.

Social, Cultural and Political Change

 People’s individual and collective identities have often time transformed social order and paved
way for lasting change.

Anthropology, Sociology and Political Science

 Social Science
 A branch of science which identity, culture, society and politics are
studied

 The systematic study of the biological, cultural

and social aspects of a man.
 Integrates elements from biological sciences and humanities to fully comprehend the complex
human species.

Famous Anthropologists

Areas of Anthropology

Franz Boa Margaret Mead

 Edward Brunette Taylor
Social Anthropology
o Studies how social patterns and practices and cultural variations develop across societies.
 Cultural Anthropology
o studies cultural variation across different societies and examines the need to understand
each culture in its own context.

 Linguistic Anthropology
o Studies language and discourse and how they reflect and shape different aspects of
human society and culture.
 Biological Anthropology
o Studies the origin of humans as well as the interplay between social factors and the
processes of human evolution.
 Archaeology
o Prehistoric societies by studying their tools and environment.

o Attempts to provide deeper

assessment of individual and group behavior as well as social phenomena, by examining
the interplay between economic, political and social factors.
o Seeks to explain bases of social order and change.

Contributors in Sociology

August Comte Herbert Spencer Karl Marx

Emile Durkheim Max Weber

 o Systematic study of politics
o The activity through which people make, preserve and amend the general rules under
which they live” –Andrew Heywood
o Focuses on the fundamental values of equality, freedom and justice and its processes are
linked to the dynamics of conflict, resolution and cooperation.

Contributors in Political Science

.
Aristotle Plato Jean-Jacques Rousseau

John Locke Karl Marx

 Public Administration
o Explains how the government functions and how decisions and policies are made.
 Political Economy
o Evaluates the interplay between economics, politics and law and its implications to the
various institutions within society
 Comparative Politics
o Compares domestic politics and governance systems across different sovereign states

LESSON 2 UNDERSTANDING CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Society
 A group of individuals sharing a common culture, geographical location and government.

Characterized by:
3. Social Solidarity
4. Shared Identity and Culture
5. Common Language
6. Large ability and the ability to sustain succeeding generations of members
7. Definite geographical area
8. Political, Economic and Social Organization

Types of Societies (How they changed and developed)

1. Hunting and Gathering

 Considered as the first societies

2. Horticultural and Pasturing
 Introduction of agriculture

3. Agriculture Societies
 New methods of farming was introduced
 4. Industrial Societies
 Rise of urban city

5. Post-Industrial Societies
 Knowledge is a commodity and technological innovation is a key to long-lasting growth
and development.

 Refers to the set of beliefs, ideas, values,

practices, knowledge, history and shared experiences, attitudes as well as material objects and
possessions accumulated overtime and shared by the members.
2 Primary Categories

Material Culture
Composed of physical or
tangible objects produced, shared and
utilized within society

Non-Material Culture
Intangible properties and
elements of society that influence the patterns
of action and behavior of its members.

Four Vital Cultural Components Symbol

 Refers to the things that convey meaning more represent an idea.
 Essential in communication, shaping thoughts and ideas and defining society’s culture.
1. Symbols
 Refer to things that convey meaning or represent an idea.
2. Language
 Set of symbols that enables members of society to communicate

3. Values
 Shared ideas, norms and principles that provide members of society the standards that
pertain to what is right or wrong, good or bad and desirable or undesirable.
4. Norms
 shared rules of conduct that determine specific behavior among society members
Kinds of Norms
a) Folkways- can be violated without serious consequences
b) Mores- norms with moral connotations
c) Laws- norms that are legally enacted and enforce

 Refers to the lifelong process of forging identity through

social interaction

Enculturation
 Refers to the
process by
Culture is Dynamic
 Some aspects changed and adapted to the present context.

Society and Culture According to the Three Disciplines

Anthropology

Relativistic Approach
 Considers culture as equal
Ethnocentric Approach
 Belief that one’s nature is superior to other
cultures.
Ethnocentrism
 Diminishes or invalidates “other” ways of life
and creates a distorted view of one’s own
Xenocentrism
 Consider their culture as inferior to others
Cultural Relativism
 This recognizes and accepts cultural
differences among societies.

Sociology

Structural Functionalism
 Operates on the assumption that society is a
stable and orderly system.
Conflict Theory
 Assumes that there is a constant power
struggle among the various social groups and institutions within society

Symbolic Interactionism
 Views individual and group behavior and
social groups and interactions within society

Political Science

Multiculturalism
An ideology that acknowledges and promotes cultural diversity within society

Cultural Sensitivity
 Advances awareness and acceptance of
cultural differences but encourages a critical stance in dealing with issues regarding
diversit
LESSON 3 BECOMING A MEMBER OF SOCIETY

John Locke

 A British enlightenment philosopher, said that the human mind at

birth is nothing but a blank slate or tabula rasa.
 The human mind for Locke acquires information about the outside
world through the senses and this information molds and defines
a person’s awareness and view of the outside world.

 Refers to the lifelong process of social interaction

through which people acquire their identities and necessary survival skill in society
 It prepares new members of society and trains them to think, feel, and act in appropriate ways.
 The process of socialization enables a person to gradually become a self-aware and
knowledgeable human being and learn the ways, values, rules, and culture of his/her society
Internalization
  Refers to the process of accepting the social norms, attitudes, rules, and values transmitted by
people in social groups within society as one’s own.
 Society, for its part, is seem as the primary factor responsible for how individuals learn to think
and behave, this is the view of functionalist like Talcott persons, who explains that if people failed
to play their expected roles or behaved “strangely,” there is incomplete or inadequate socialization.

Four Significant aspect of Socialization

Social Context
 Refers to the particular circumstances of the society and consists of its culture, language and
the social structures that define social class, ethnicity, and gender.

Content
 Refers to ideas, beliefs, behavior, and other information that are passed on by members of
society to the individual.
Process
 Refers to the methods of interaction that enable the content to be given to the person
undergoing socialization.
Results
 Refer to the outcomes of socialization, and our evident when individuals begin to practice the
behaviors, attitudes and values that society considers necessary for them to function effectively as
its member.
 An example of a results is the ability of an individual to speak his/her native language and
understand the comply with basic rules and norms in his/her community
Self-identify,
 which refers to the establishment of unique sense of identity and an awareness of how it relates to
their society and the world.

Agents of Socialization and Enculturation

Family- is the primary agent of Dominant-Ideology Model-

socialization of an individual traces this bias to links Schools- have a critical and
upon birth, throughout infancy, between media and the active role in socialization.
and up to childhood. political and social elite.

Mass media - Includes form of

Peer groups- also reinforce
acceptable behaviors introduced
by the family and school
Pluralist Model- portray media as
an ideological marketplace that
enhances debate and electoral
choice.
Religion and State – both religion
and state are considered as the
ultimate sources of authority, making
the church and government
important agents of socialization
communication such as books,
magazines, newspapers, and other
print materials, radio, televisions,
and movies.
Market Model- suggest that media
reflects the view of the general public, and
that media presents what they think
people want.
Elite Values Model- recognizes media bias as a
product of the personal views of media
professionals such as journalists, broadcasters,
and editors.
Major events and Historical politics
 Events can also be significant socializing forces for an entire generation.

Conformity, Deviance, and Social Control

Conformity
 Refers to the process of altering one’s thoughts and actions to adapt to the accepted behaviour
within his/her group of society
Compliance
 Refers to the outward conformity to social pressure but privately disagreeing with it.
Identification
 Refers to the individual adopting a certain behavior because it enables him/her to have a satisfying
relationship with the members with his/her group.
Internalization or Acceptance
 involve both public compliance and internal acceptance of the norms and standards imposed by
the group.
Deviance
 is defined as a behavior that elicits strong negative reaction from group members and involves
actions that violate commonly held social norms.

Robert Merton relates deviance

to the strain felt by individuals
whenever social norms conflict
with reality.

Structural Strain Theory

 a r g u e s t h a t t h e
them will lead to deviance.
Subcultural View
 points to the emergence of deviant behavior within certain groups in society or subcultures.
Labeling Theory
 which believes that there is actually no deviance in society

Conflict Perspective
 analyzes deviance in the framework of competing interests between social groups and the
maintenance of power among the elites.
Broken Window Theory
 suggests a direct relationship between social disorder and deviance and that maintaining even an
appearance of order is sufficient to discourage deviance.
Social Control
 is defined as any systematic means and practices used to maintain norms, rules, and law; regulate
conflict; and discourage deviant behaviour

 are the most common means of social control and are often
employed to address conflicts and violation of social norms.

Informal Sanction
Formal Sanction
- are most commonly
- are those provided imposed by smaller
for by laws and other societies,
regulations in society. communities, or group
 Human Dignity and Human Rights

Human Dignity
 refers to an idea that a person has the innate right to be valued, respected and treated well.
Human Rights
 are legal, social, and ethical principles that consider the human person as deserving of liberties
and protections by virtue of his or her human dignity.

Characteristic of human Rights

They are
UNIVERSAL
because they belong
to all human beings
regardless of race,
religion, gender and
They are
other characteristic.
They are ABSOLUTE since
INDIVISIBLE as they cannot be
various right are qualified and are
interrelated and given HUMAN RIGHTS considered basic
necessities for living
equal importance.
a genuine life.
They are
FUNDAMENTAL
since they cannot be
taken away from any
human being.
.

LESSON 4 HOW A SOCIETY IS ORGANIZED

Plato
 believed that man is a social animal
“This means human being are
naturally equipped with tools such
as language and reason that enable
them to engage others in
meaningful interactions. “

A collection of individuals who have relations with one another that

make them interdependent to some significant degree.

Interdependence
 It is a necessary condition that exists within social groups because it is what enables its members
to pursue shared goals or promote common values and principles.
Aggregate
 A collection of people within a particular place and time.

Primary and Secondary Groups

Primary Groups
 Small, intimate, and less specialized group whose members engage in face-to-face and emotion-
based interactions over an extended period of time.
Secondary Groupps
 Larger, less intimate and more specialized groups where members engage in an impersonal and
objective-oriented relationship for a limited time.

In-Groups and Out-Groups

Self-Categorization Theory
- It proposes that people’s appreciation of their group membership is influenced by their perception
towards people who are not members of the society.

In-Group Out-group
 Is a group which one belongs  Is a group to which one does not
and with which one feels a sense belong and to which he or she
of identity. may feel a sense of
competitiveness or hostility?

Reference Groups
 Is a group to which an individual compares himself or herself?
 Such group strongly influence an individual’s behavior and social attitude whether he or she is a
member of these group.
Networks
 Refers to the structure of relationships between social actors or groups.
Traditional Societies
 Networks are exclusive, limited and mostly defined by kinship.
Modern Societies
 Redefined the “safe and secure” arrangement provided by traditional networks by allowing the
individual to become part of a more expanded and cosmopolitan network with overlapping circles of
social interaction.
 LESSON 5 LOOKING BACK AT HUMAN BIOCULTURAL AND SOCIAL EVOLUTION

Biological Evolution
 Refers to the process whereby organisms undergo various genetic and physical changes that pave
the way for biological diversity.

is a process of descent with modification.

Lineages of organisms change through
generations; diversity arises because the
lineages that descend from common
ancestors diverge through time” –Francisco
Jose Ayala

Technological Evolution
- People learned how to create tools and equipments for daily
tasks and live together as a society.

Biocultural Evolution
- The mutual interactive evolution of human biology and culture.

The Evolution of Social and Political Institution

Lewis Henry Morgan Three Stages of Development

1. Savage Stage
 Lowest stage of development which exemplified by the nomadic and hunter-gatherer
lifestyle.

2.

Barbaric Stage
 Middle stage of development where people began learning agricultural techniques and the
domestication of animals.
 3. Civilized Stage
 Highest stage of development where people learned writing.

Friedrich Engels Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx

Postulated that the accumulation Came up with the perspective that
of private property paved way for social institutions evolve primarily
the collapse of primitive due to the struggle between the
communities. social classes.

Herbert Spencer
Individual members within societies
engage in a competition for survival
whereby the superior ones dominate those
who are inferior type.

Band-level Societies
 Earliest societies
 Small and nomadic family groups and plainly organized
 Leadership was based on qualities such as strength, intelligence and trustworthiness
Tribe
 Formal and social organization made up of several bands and groups that were connected
through a clan or kinship.

Headman
 Leader

Chiefdom
 Consisted of tribes united under one leader or chief
Industrial Revolution
 This event introduced significant social, cultural and political changes in the lives of people
Effects:
 1. Increased migration
2. Growth of urban populations
3. Changes in lifestyle
4. Increased production
5. Technological advancement
6. Rise of the middle class.

LAISSEZ-FAIRE
 Prices of goods and services are not dependent on government policies and are set freely
based on interaction between supply and demand

Theories on Society and State

Society as a Natural Institution

 Aristotle believed that human beings are by nature social and political animals and those
human interactions fulfill certain basic needs.
Society as a Social Contract
 Social Contract – an agreement by the members of society that defines and influences their
interaction, particularly with those in authority.

Thomas Hobbes John Locke

The agreement was necessitated by the
need to guarantee the security of people.
The main role of the political ruler was to
maintain order and security within society.
Social contract was needed in order to guarantee
the fair and partial enforcement of the law.
The primary function of the state is to guarantee
that individuals exercise their rights to life, liberty
and property.

Modernization Theories
Historical-Materialist Perspective
 Developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
 It asserts that societies evolve in stages in relation to the development of the means of production
and its ownership.
 Society is seen as being in a continuous state of conflict as the different classes within society
attempt to control the means of production.
Rationalization and Bureaucratization
 Max Weber
 More specialized functions have to be performed by social institutions as societies expand
economically.
 State of bureaucracy became larger in size and its agencies became specialized requiring qualified
personnel.
 “Bureau” French word for office “kratos” Greek word for hierarchy
Mechanical Solidarity
 Traditional societies
 Sense of bonding within the community based on similar beliefs, values and activities as well as
kinship ties between its members.
Organic Solidarity
 Division of labor is more specialized

LESSON 6 SOCIAL INSTITUTION

SOCIAL INSTITUTION

• Refers to organized sets of elements such as beliefs, rules, practices, and

relationship that exists to attain social order.
• It also refers to well established and structured relationships between
groups of people that are considered fundamental components of a
society’s culture

ELEMENTS OF SOCAL INSTITUTION

INSTITUTIONAL
APPROACH RELATIONAL
APROACH
Tells us that social Focuses on social
institutions are ordered relation rather than rules,
sets of rules, norms, norms, beliefs or values.
beliefs or values that
organize human behavior

THE FAMILY, MARRIAGE AND KINSHIP

FAMILY
• Consider a vital institution for the continued survival humanity because its
nurtures offspring from childhood into adulthood.
• Family is a group who are related by birth, marriage and a shared
residence.

EXTENDED FAMILY
NUCLEAR FAMILY Are those that are composed of
RECONSTITUTED
Are family that are composed of FAMILY
Are composed of the spouses theand
nuclear family and other
parents and children. relative such as grandparents,
their children from a previous
aunts, uncle and cousins.
marriage.
KINSHIP
• Is a social structure defined by relations among individuals linked by blood
or marriage ties

MATRILINEAL KINSHIP PATRILINEAL KINSHIP

Means that one’s descent is Means the one’s descent is
based on the female line based on the male line.

BILINEAL KINSHIP
Refers to a descent system
based on both male and
female line.

MONOGAMOUS
Which means that a spouse cannot
have more than one spouse.
POLYGYNY
That is a husband POLYANDRY
MARRIAGES
could take many Where wife can have
Is culture specific.
wives many husbands
POLYGAMOUS
Which mean that a person has more
than one spouse

ECONOMY
ECONOMY
• Is an institution that addresses questions regarding limited resources of
society?

PROLETARIT
• Laborer

MARKET FAILURES
• Refers to cases when the market becomes inefficient due to imperfect
competition, imperfect information, imperfect mobility, and the like.

EDUCATIONAL AND HEALTH INSTITUTION

EDUCATIONAL AND HEALTH INSTITUTIONS

• Two institutions that uphold basic human rights are the educational and
health institution.

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
• Ensure that individuals are functionally literate.
• Also transmit culture

HEALTH INSTITUTION
• Ensures individual have access to health services to promote universal
public health.

BINAT
• Refers to the recurrence of the symptoms of a disease due to the
incomplete healing of patient.

PASMA
• Refers to trembling hands or finger.

RELIGION

RELIGION
• is an institution that involves a set of beliefs and practices of a particular
social group.
• May be organized into a group that has universal membership called
church.

MONOTHEISTIC
• Refers to the religion that believe in only one god.

POLYTHEISTIC
• Religion believe in more than one god.

ANIMISM
 Is not consider a religion but rather a belief system that holds that both
animate and inanimate things have a spiritual essence

SECULARIZATION THEORY
• Predicts the decrease in the influence of religion and organized churches
in social affairs.
THEOCRACIES
• State with the governments that are under the power of religious leaders.

LIBERATION THEOLOGY
• Is an interpretation of Christian theology which emphasizes a concern for
the liberation of the oppressed.

SYMBOLS OF THE WORLD’S MAJOR

RELIGION

TAOISM or DAOISM (Yin

Christianity Judaism and Yang Symbol)
(Latin Cross) (Cross of David)
YIN- Negative and
YANG-Positive

Shintoism Bhuddism Baha’I Faith Symbol

(Tori Gate Symbol) (Wheel of Dharma) (Nine Pointed Star)

Jainism
Sikhism (Swastika Symbol)
Islamic Symbol (Indian Religion)
(Muslim)
 PE
MODULE
Lesson 1: Introduction to Dance (week 1)

In this lesson, you will learn about dance includes rhythmical movement patterns; the promotion and
appreciation of Philippine folk dance, indigenous and traditional dances as well as other dance forms.

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

a. Know the definition of Dance and its history

b. Determine the importance of Dance
c. Discuss the nature of the different dances

What is Dance?

Dance, the movement of the body in a rhythmic way, usually to music and within a given space, for the
purpose of expressing an idea or emotion, releasing energy, or simply taking delight in the movement itself.

Dance is also a form of art that is made by purposefully recreating selected sequences of human motion,
which can be imbued with the values of aesthetic and symbolism that are acknowledged by both
performers and observers from within the particular culture. The dance itself can be freeform or can have
predefined choreography that may or may not align with traditions of origin or historical period.

The dance can be performed to serve various functions (social, competitive, ceremonial, martial…) but it
also has two distinct forms – theatrical dance in which dancers perform for an audience and participatory
social dance where dancing in a group is encouraged to anyone. Participatory dances are most commonly
found at weddings, social gatherings, and festivals, and they can be enjoyed with folk music both alone or I
a group (pairs, lines, chains or other forms).

Theatrical dance is known for having more elaborate choreography, planning, costume, scenery
and other elements that make the entire production feel more professional. The performers of theatrical
dance are usually professional “virtuoso dancers”, who practice their craft over the years, and are often
tasked to interpret the musical accompaniment with advanced dance moves or routines.

Nature of Dance

Dance differs from athletics and other daily activities because it focuses primarily on an aesthetic and
entertaining experience.

Brief History of Dance

From the earliest moments of known human history, dance accompanied ancient rituals, spiritual
gatherings and social events. As a conduit of trance, spiritual force, pleasure, expression, performance and
interaction, dance became infused into our nature from the earliest moments of our existence – from the
moment when first African tribes covered themselves in war-paint to the spreading of music and dance
across all four corners of the world. Without a doubt, dancing remains one of the most expressive
communications that we know.

It is said that the first use of dance was as a gesture in order to communicate.

I. Ancient Egypt – as a means of religious expression.

II. Ancient Greece – as an aid to military education.

*Ancient Greeks believed that a man’s grace in dance equaled his prowess in battle, therefore
dance was incorporated in their basic education.

III. Philippines – way of expressing tribal unity and as an approach for courtship.

Benefits of Dance

What is Dance for?

 “Dance is fun! It lifts the spirit, strengthens the body, and stimulates the mind.” – Wayne Sleep

Main Benefits of Dance

Physical
- Develops muscular and cardiovascular endurance
- Improves flexibility, coordination, balance, and body composition
- Enables joint mobility
- Helps prevent osteorporosis
- Lowers risk of cardiovascular diseases

Mental
- Helps keep the brain sharp
- Decreases risk of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease
- Decreases depressive symptoms
- Increases self-esteem and improves body image
- Aids in releasing emotional tension

Social
- Gives sense of togetherness within a group
- Encourages positive social interaction and interpersonal relationship in a group
- Contributes to the individual’s potential for self-actualization in society

Cultural
- Promotes cultural values

Lesson 2: Elements of Dance

In this lesson, you will learn about dance includes rhythmical movement patterns; the promotion and
appreciation of Philippine folk dance, indigenous and traditional dances as well as other dance forms.

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

a. Identify the different elements of dance

b. Know the use of elements in dance
c. Inculcate the importance of elements in dance

Elements of Dance

Elements of dance are the functional concepts and vocabulary that help students develop movement skills
and understand dance as an artistic practice.

BODY

In dance, the body is the mobile figure or shape, felt by the dancer, seen by others. The body is
sometimes changing as the dancer moves in place or travels through the dance area. Dancers may
emphasize specific parts of their body in a dance phrase or use their whole body all at once.

Another way to describe the body in dance is to consider the body systems—muscles, bones,
organs, breath, balance, reflexes. We could describe how the skeletal system or breath is used, for
example.
 The body is the conduit between the inner realm of intensions, ideas, emotions and identity and
the outer realm of expression and communication. Whether watching dance or dancing ourselves,
we shift back and forth between the inner/outer sense of body.

ACTION

Any human movement included in the act of dancing--it can include dance steps, facial
movements, partner lifts, gestures, and even everyday movements such as walking. Dance is
made up of streams of movement and pauses, so action refers not only to steps and sequences,
but also to pauses and movements of relative stillness.

Dancers may use movements that have been choreographed or traditional dances taught by
others who know the dances. Depending on the dance style or the choreographer’s decision.

Movement can also be improvised, meaning that the dancers make it up “on the spot” as they
spontaneously dance. Movement that travels through space is broadly called locomotor
movement in contrast to axial movement, which occurs in one spot.

SPACE

Dancers interact with space in myriad ways. They may stay in one place or they may travel from
one place to another. They may alter the direction, level, size, and pathways of their movements.

Dancers may focus their movement and attention outwardly to the space or inwardly, into
themselves. The line of travel may be quite direct towards one or more points in space or
indefinite and meandering.

Spatial relationships between dancers and dancers between objects are the basis for design
concepts such as beside, in front of, over, through, around, near or far.

TIME
 The keyword for the element of time is When? Human movements is naturally rhythmic in the
broad sense that we alternate activity and rest. Breath and waves are examples of rhythms in
nature that repeat, but not as consistently as in a metered rhythm.

Spoken word and conversation also have rhythm and dynamics, but these timing patterns are
characteristically more inconsistent and unpredictable.

Rhythmic patterns may be metered or free rhythm. Dance movements may also show different
timing relationships such as simultaneous or sequential timing, brief to long duration, fast to slow
speed, or accents in predictable or unpredictable intervals.

Time may also be organized in other ways including:

• Clock Time: The dance is made on units of seconds, minutes, and/or hours. For
example, a certain section of a dance may be assigned a time such as 30 seconds into
which all the choreographed movement must fit. A performance in a public setting may
be set up to repeat continuously between 12:00 Noon and 1 PM.
• Sensed Time: Dancers pick up on each other’s timing such as gradually increasing
from a walking tempo to a running tempo by cueing off each other rather than a music
score. Another example happens when dancers hold a group shape then spontaneously
move out of it based on the group’s organic impulse.
• Event-sequence: An internal or external event signals a change such as repeating a
traveling phrase over and over until everyone arrives at a corner of the stage. You also
see this at sports events when a touchdown triggers a dance cheer.
Dancers may take cues from each other to start the next phrase or listen for music cues.
They may even take cues from an event such as a train whistle during an outdoor dance
performance.

ENERGY

Energy is about how the movement happens. Choices about energy includes variations in
movement flow and the use of force, tension, and weight. An arm gesture might be free flowing
or easily stopped, and it may be powerful or gentle, tight or lose, heavy or light. A dancer may
step into an arabesque position with a sharp, percussive attack or with light, flowing ease. Energy
may change in an instant, and several types of energy may be concurrently in play.

Saying that a dance “has a lot of energy” is misleading. All dances use the element of energy,
though in some instances it may be slow, supple, indirect energy – not the punchy, high speed
energy of fast tempo dance.

Energy choices may also reveal emotional states. For example, a powerful push might be
aggressive or playfully boisterous depending on the intent and situation.

Some types of energy can be easily expressed in words, others spring from the movement itself
and are difficult to label with language. Sometimes differences in the use of energy are easy to
perceive; other times these differences can be quite subtle and ambiguous. Perhaps more so than
the other elements, energy taps into nonverbal yet deeply communicative realm of dance.

Lesson 4: Folk Dance

In this lesson, you will learn about dance includes rhythmical movement patterns; the promotion and appreciation of
Philippine folk dance, indigenous and traditional dances as well as other dance forms.
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

a. Define Folk Dance

b. Enhance the cultural values demonstrated in various folk dances aesthetically, morally, and physically
c. Actively participate in folk dancing for its intellectual, moral, and aesthetic values

Folk Dance

Folk Dance generally, is a type of dance that is vernacular, usually recreational, expression of a
past or present culture. The term folk dance was accepted until the mid-20th century. Then this
and other categories of dance were questioned and their distinctions became subject to debate.

Defining Folk Dance

Folk Dances represent one of the strongest ways these (sometimes truly ancient) traditions of
countries and regions can be showcased to the public. Even though many traditional dances bear
the name of an ethnic dance, not all of them remained folk dances, but all of them try to
emphasize the cultural roots of the particular dance. Some of them morphed over time into
religious dances, and as such, they are not primarily used to showcase tradition but to enhance
religious ceremonies and beliefs. Such dances are often called religious or ritual dances.

Folk dances are usually danced at social gatherings (which can be formed spontaneously or during
yearly celebrations) that can but are not required to have a particular dancing stage and are
almost never have an official governing body that is keeping the development of folk dance in
check. Instead of that, the morphing of the folk dances in their countries and local regions
happens spontaneously by the changes with local traditions.

Modern dances that have developed spontaneously such as hip hop are not regarded as folk
dance, they are often called as “street dances”.

Folk dance is a form of dance developed by a group of people that reflects the traditional life of a
certain country or region. Folk dancing represents the dance forms of the common people as
opposed to those from the upper classes.

Folk dances may emerge spontaneously among groups of people or derive from previous styles.
The style can be free-form or rigidly structures. Once established, folk dance steps are passed
down through generations and rarely change. Usually associated with social activities, some
dances are also performed competitively, and in some regions, folk dancing is even involved in
cultural education.

Different Types of Folk Dance

Some of the most notable folk dances from all around the world are:

1. Ball de Bastons – Weapon dance from Spain and Portugal

2. Ceilidh – Gaelic folk dance originating from Scotland and Ireland

3. Clogging – Folk dance that features beating of heavy footwear on the floor

4. English Country Dance – Traditional English folk dance that is also danced in France and
Germany

5. Fandango – Traditional Spanish couple dance that is accompanied by guitars and clapping
hands or castanets

6. Georgian Folk Dances – They include dances such as Kartuli, Khorumi, Acharuli, Partsa,
Kazbeguri, Khevsuruli, etc.

7. Greek Dances – Rich Greek history has born over 100 traditional folk dances, including a
dozen that was danced at ancient feasts such as Angelica, Carpaea, Cordax and others
 8. Hora – Traditional folk dance of Balkans, danced in Montenegro, Macedonia, Bulgaria and
several other countries

9. Kolo - Folk dance that is danced in South Slavic countries such as Serbia, Bosnia, Croatia,
Macedonia, and Slovenia

10. Irish Dance – Traditional folk dance that has several forms of dancing, including popular
Irish Step Dance

11. Italian Folk Dance - Italy is a home of many popular folk dances such as Tarantella,
Pizzica, Monferrina, Calabrian Tarantella and Ballu tundu
12. Jota – Popular Spanish folk dance

13. Morris Dance – Traditional English dance is originating from the 15th century

14. Polka – Very popular traditional dance from the Czech Republic that is danced today all
around the world

15. Square Dance – Traditional Dance originating from England, it involves four pairs of
dancers

16. Sword (or Weapon) Dances – Genre of folk dances, consisting of dozens upon dozens of
individual dancers from all around the world.

Lesson 6: Different Types of Folk Dance in the Philippines

In this lesson, you will learn about dance includes rhythmical movement patterns; the promotion and appreciation of
Philippine folk dance, indigenous and traditional dances as well as other dance forms.

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

a. Identify the different types of folk dance in the Philippines

b. Know the importance of folk dance in the Philippines
c. Foster patriotism and nationalism through the study of our dances.

Different Types of Folk Dance in the Philippines

The Philippines has many popular folk dances which have evolved and changed as they have been passed
down from generation to generation. Although a particular dance might be performed slightly differently
from one region to the next, its remain true to its roots. Here are some of the most popular dances from
the region.

The Itik-Itik

The best description of the Itik-Itik is that the steps mimic the way a duck walks, as well as the
way it splashes water on its back to attract a mate. According to popular tradition, the dance was
created by a lady named

Kanang who choreographed the steps while dancing at a baptismal party.

The other guests copied her movements, and everyone liked the dance so much that it has been
passed along ever since.

The Tinikling

The Tinikling is considered by many to be the Philippines’ national dance. The dance’s movements
imitate the movement of the tikling bird as it walks around through tall grass and between tree
branches. People performing the dance using bamboo poles. The dance is composed of three
basic steps which include singles, doubles, and hops. It looks similar to playing jump rope, except
that the dancers perform the steps around and between the bamboo poles, and the dance
becomes faster until someone makes a mistake and the next set of dancers takes a turn.
The Sayaw sa Bangko

The Sayaw sa Bangko is performed on top of a narrow bench. Dancers need good balance as they
go through a series of movements that include some impressive acrobatics. This dance traces its
roots back to the areas of Pangapisan, Lingayen and Pangasinan.

The Binasuan

The Binasuan is an entertaining dance that is usually performed at festive social occasions like
weddings and birthdays. Dancers carefully balance three half-filled glasses of rice wine on their
heads and hands as they gracefully spin and roll on the ground. The dance originated in
Bayambang in the Pangasinan province, and though it’s usually performed alone, it can also
become a competition between several dancers.

The Pandanggo sa Ilaw

The Pandanggo sa Ilaw is similar to a Spanish Fandango, but the Pandanggo is performed while
balancing three oil lamps – one on the head, and one in each hand. It’s a lively dance originated
on Lubang Island. The music is in ¾ time and is usually accompanied by castanets.

The Pandanggo Oasiwas

The Oandanggo Oasiwas is similar to the Pandanggo sa Ilaw, and is typically performed by
fishermen to celebrate a good catch. In this version, the lamps are placed in cloths or nets and
swung around as the dancer’s circle and sway.

The Maglalatik

The Maglalatik is a mock war dance that depicts a fight over coconut meat, a highly-prized food.
The dance is broken into four parts: two devoted to the battle and two devoted to reconciling.
The men of the dance wear coconut shells as part of their costumes, and they slap them in
rhythm with the music. The Maglalatik is danced in the religious procession during the fiesta of
Biñan as an offering to San Isidro de Labrador, the patron saint of farmers.

The Kappa Malong-Malong

The Kappa Malong-Malong is a Muslim-influenced dance. The malong is a tubular garment, and
the dance essentially shows the many ways it can be worn. There are men’s and women’s
versions of the dance since they wear malongs in different ways.

The Cariñosa

The Cariñosa is a dance made for flirting. Dancers make a number of flirtatious movements as
they hide behind fans or handkerchiefs and peek out at one another. The essence of the dance is
the courtship between two sweethearts.

The Singkil

The Singkil is originated from the Maranao people who inhabit the shores of Lake Lanao. It is
derived from a story in the Darangen, the pre-Islamic Maranao interpretation of the ancient
Hindu Indian Epic the Ramayana. The name of the dance itself means “to entangle the feet with
disturbing objects such as vines or anything in your path”. It is a popular dance performed during
celebrations and other festive entertainment. Originally only women, particularly royalty, danced
the Singkil, which serves as either a conscious or unconscious advertisement to potential suitors.

The lead dancer, in the role of Putri Gandingan (the Darangen name for Sita), graciously step in
and out of closing bamboos poloes arranged in either a parallel, rectangular, or criss-cross fashion
while manipulating either apir (fans), monsala (scarves), or even just their bare hands. A Kulintang
and agung ensemble always accompanies the dance.

PERDEV
MODULE
MODULE 1
Lecture: Knowing Oneself

At this stage in your life, have you ever asked yourself the questions, “Who am I?”, “Why am I like this?”, “Why do I feel
this way?”, “What is happening to me?”.

These questions have probably crossed your minds, though you might not have satisfactorily answered them for
lack of ideas. In this lesson, we will help you discover some things about yourself and provide you some knowledge
and awareness about the stage you are currently in.

 Personality - according to the Greeks, persona means “mask”. A mask is commonly known by humans as
a device used to disguise themselves from anybody wherever and whenever they go.

according to Ferguson’s (1998), it is the sum of such characteristics as

they impress or tend to impress others.

 Development - according to Ferguson’s (1998), it is the act of developing or the state of being developed.

 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT - refers to the sequential changes in the different aspects of personality.

GOALS OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

1. Self-acceptance - One’s wish to be treated in accordance with who they are at the present. (To feel loved and
belongingness).

2. Self-satisfaction - One’s desire to feel contented and pleased with themselves when they are in the company of
others.

3. Self-confidence - The ability of a person to deal with anybody on different situations without hesitations.

ASPECTS OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

1. Physical Aspect

2. Temperamental Aspect
3. Intellectual Aspect

4. Social Aspect

5. Character Aspect

6. Spiritual Aspect

AGENTS IN DEVELOPING PERSONALITY

Reading: SELF-CONCEPT

Imagine yourself looking into a mirror. What do you see? Do you see your ideal self or your actual self? Your ideal self
is the self that you aspire to be. It is the one that you hope will possess characteristics similar to that of a mentor or some other
worldly figure. Your actual self, however, is the one that you actually see. It is the self that has characteristics that you were
nurtured or, in some cases, born to have.

The actual self and the ideal self are two broad categories of self-concept. Selfconcept refers to your awareness of
yourself. It is the construct that negotiates these two selves. In other words, it connotes first the identification of the ideal self
as separate from others, and second, it encompasses all the behaviors evaluated in the actual self that you engage in to reach
the ideal self.

The actual self is built on self-knowledge. Self-knowledge is derived from social interactions that provide insight into
how others react to you. The actual self is who we actually are. It is how we think, how we feel, look, and act. The actual self
can be seen by others, but because we have no way of truly knowing how others view us, the actual self is our self-image.

The ideal self, on the other hand, is how we want to be. It is an idealized image that we have developed over time,
based on what we have learned and experienced.

The ideal self could include components of what our parents have taught us, what we admire in others, what our society
promotes, and what we think is in our best interest.

There is negotiation that exists between the two selves which is complex because there are numerous exchanges
between the ideal and actual self. These exchanges are exemplified in social roles that are adjusted and re-adjusted, and are
derived from outcomes of social interactions from infant to adult development.
 Alignment is important. If the way that I am (the actual self) is aligned with the way that I want to be (the ideal self),
then I will feel a sense of mental well-being or peace of mind. If the way that I am is not aligned with how I want to be, the
incongruence, or lack of alignment, will result in mental distress or anxiety. The greater the level of incongruence between the
ideal self and real self, the greater the level of resulting distress.

Sources:

http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-self-concept-in-psychology-definitionlesson-quiz.html
http://study.com/academy/lesson/ideal-self-vs-real-self-definition-lesson-quiz.html

“A pen is certainly is certainly an excellent instrument to fix a man’s attention

and inflame his ambition” – John Adams

Module 2:
Developing the Whole Person

Life will give you whatever experience is most helpful for the evolution of your consciousness.-Eckhart Tolle

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. discuss the relationship among physiological, cognitive, psychological, spiritual and social aspects of development, to
understand your thoughts, feelings, and behaviors,

2. evaluate your own thoughts, feelings and actions, and

3. show the connection of your thoughts, feelings and actions to actual life situations.

Getting Started

What is the first thing that comes to mind when you think about being a teenager? Write it down on a small sheet of
paper.

Next, what is the first thing that comes to your mind when you think about other teenagers? Write it down on a small
sheet of paper.

Me as a
Teenager

Other
Teenagers
 Now, go over the words that you wrote on the pieces of paper and spend a few minutes to contemplate your views
about life as a teenager.

Source: Mejorada, Alvin G. & Pasa, Nathalie A. (2016). Growing in Character. A Senior Highschool Textbook on
Personal Development. Quezon City: Brilliant Creations Publishing Inc.
Reading: ASPECTS OF THE SELF
The self-concept is represented by several aspects of the self. It is conceived as collection of multiple, context-dependent
selves. This construct believes that context activates particular regions of self-knowledge and self-relevant feedback affects
selfevaluations and affect. A deeper look on the different aspects of self can identify specific areas for self-regulation, stability
and improvement.

In a nutshell, an individual is composed of three basic but very different aspects of the self. They are the physical or tangible
aspects as they relate to the body, the intellectual and conscious aspects as they relate to the mind, and the emotional and
intuitive aspects as they relate to the spirit. All three aspects of the self work together in perfect harmony when attention is
paid to all three simultaneously.

Many individuals put a strong emphasis on the physical aspect of the self. The body is tangible, obvious, and we respond to it
easily. More time and money is spent on enhancing the physical component than either of the other two aspects. This does not
mean, however, that the body is healthy or strong. The body provides a place to house the spirit (often experienced as feelings)
and the mind (often experienced as thought).

It may be important to some that their mind be prominent and well educated. The mind is important, as it is the part of the self
that directs the other two aspects. The mind learns what to do and communicates the information to the body and the feelings.
What the mind believes, the body manifests or acts on, and the emotions feel, or respond with. People store both healthy and
destructive thoughts and beliefs and responds to life's circumstances in the most prominent manner. The mind provides access
creativity and serenity which are necessary for such processes as prayer, forgiveness, acceptance, and passion.

The human emotions are the most feared aspect of the self, as individuals are reluctant and unprepared to manage them.
Managing feelings is like trying to hold water in the palm of your hand. They are illusive and deceptive. A decision made under
emotional stress and strain usually impacts emotions negatively. Negative emotions that are not managed are stored and
repressed.

For instance, a girl realizes that she is giving much attention on the physical aspects and less attention on her intellectual self. In
this way, she can discover how much money and time spent maintaining her physique and its consequences in her grades. By
this honest evaluation of herself, she can plan effective actions to improve her study habits. She can start seeking for help and
for related books to read or browse articles to help her improve her study habits.

Source: http://www.innerwisdom.com/aspect-of-the-self.html
Lecture: THE POWER TRIAD: THOUGHTS, FEELINGS AND ACTIONS
Have you ever had thoughts, feelings or acted in ways that were unacceptable to yourself but felt
powerless to control? The purpose of this story is to help you find ways to manage your mind so that you can
live your
life more in accordance with what your own judgment says is best for you.

As we grow up, we gradually become aware of the many things in the external world which are largely beyond
our ability to control. These include other people in general and most events in our lives. Initially this is difficult to accept, but a
more shocking realization is that there are many things about ourselves that we seem powerless to control.

Some of these are our own thoughts, feelings, and actions which unfortunately can be the source of much distress. It may be
thoughts such as “I cannot stop hating my teacher for not giving me high grades.” It may involve an emotion e.g. “My girlfriend
left me and I cannot stop feeling sad, lonely and unloved.” It can also be in the form of a behavior such as the inability to control
one's craving for food such as cakes and chocolates.”

But are we indeed really powerless to control our own maladaptive thoughts, feelings and actions? The grandfather’s answer
"The one you feed" is deceivingly simple. The results of psychological research indicate that there are at least four important
concepts or ideas implied by the answer:

1. The mind is not the unitary entity it seems to us but consists of different parts. For example in the story there are the two
wolves and the “you” that chooses between them.

2. These parts of the mind/brain can interact and be in conflict with each other i.e. the two wolves fight for dominance over
our mind and behavior.

3. The “you” has the ability to decide which wolf it will feed.

4. Having made a choice, “you” can decide specifically how to “feed” or nurture the selected wolf.

Source: http://www.psychologymatters.asia/article/65/the-story-of-the-twowolvesmanaging-your-thoughts-feelings-
and-actions.html

The teenage years can be among the best years in life. It is an exciting period where doors and windows open to allow
you to discover what the bigger world outside of you has to offer. It is a time full of opportunities and possibilities for new
experiences.
 Along with the novelty that this period brings, there are also changes and risks. Teenage life can also be an emotional
roller coaster ride, a period of confusion and of serious irreversible missteps with consequences that cannot be undone.

This is the moment to dream about the many tomorrows that await you. As a young person on the threshold of
adulthood, what do you want to be? What kind of life do you want to have? What path do you feel you are called to take?

You only have one life. Live it well now; live it meaningfully. Today is the footstool towards you hoped to have.

MODULE 3:
Developmental Stages in Middle and Late Adolescence

Twenty years from now you will be more disappointed by the things you didn’t do than by the ones you did
do. So throw off the bowlines. Sail away from the safe harbor. Catch the trade winds in your sails. Explore. Dream.
Discover. - Mark Twain

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. Classify various developmental tasks according to developmental stage,

2. Evaluate your development in comparison with persons of the same age group, and

3. List ways to become a responsible adolescent prepared for adult life.

Getting Started
MY PERSONAL TIMELINE

A personal timeline portrays the influential events and happenings of a person’s life so that he can understand where
he has gone wrong and right in the past. It helps to plan the future in a better constructive way.

Using a bond paper, write the major events in your life and the significant people in your life. You may add your age,
specific dates and places. You may draw the timeline horizontally, vertically, diagonally or even using ups and down depending
on your imagination. Be creative in your representations. You may also use symbols, figures and drawings. Think of a title for
your personal timeline.

You may use crayons or art materials depending on the available resources or just a simple paper and pen may be
fine. You can also go for the personal timeline website template samples available online.

The link is https://www.template.net/business/timeline-templates/personaltimeline-template/

Source: http://blogs.psychcentral.com/relationships/2012/08/the-timeline-of-your-life-storyprobing-tocreate-shift-to-
life-liberating-meanings-2-of-2/

Lecture: DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

Human Development focuses on human growth and changes across the
lifespan, including physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual, personality and emotional growth.

The study of human developmental stages is essential to understanding how humans learn, mature and
adapt. Throughout their lives, humans go through various stages of development.

The human being is either in a state of growth or decline, but either condition imparts change. Some aspects of our
life change very little over time, are consistent. Other aspects change dramatically. By understanding these changes, we can
better respond and plan ahead effectively.

Reading: LIVING MINDFULLY

Living mindfully is like being an artist: you need the right tools to practice your craft, and you need to constantly
refine your technique to achieve your creative potential. In the same way, using the present moment tools below will help you
to hone a consistent mindfulness practice that will in time lead to a more aware, compassionate and fulfilling way of life.

Tool 1: Breathe Mindfully. Use your breath as an anchor to still your mind and bring your focus back to the present moment.

Tool 2: Listen Deeply. Listen with intention; let others fully express themselves and focus on understanding how they think and
feel.

Tool 3: Cultivate Insight. See life as it is, allowing each experience to be an opportunity for learning.
Tool 4: Practice Compassion. Consider the thoughts and feelings of others and let tenderness, kindness and empathy be your
guides.

Tool 5: Limit Reactivity. Observe rather than be controlled by your emotions. Pause, breathe, and choose a skillful response
based on thoughtful speech and nonviolence under every condition.

Tool 6: Express Gratitude. Practice gratitude daily and expand it outward, appreciating everyone and everything you
encounter.

Tool 7: Nurture Mutual Respect. Appreciate our common humanity and value different perspectives as well as your own.

Tool 8: Build Integrity. Cultivate constructive values and consistently act from respect, honesty and kindness.

Tool 9: Foster Leadership. Engage fully in life and in community. Share your unique talents and generosity so that others can
also be inspired.

Tool 10: Be Peace. Cultivate your own inner peace, becoming an agent for compassionate action and social good.

Which tools do you use most often? Which tools do you use least often?
Can you think of ways to incorporate those tools into your life? Which one could you try today?

MODULE 4:
The Challenges of Middle and Late Adolescence

A person who never made a mistake never tried anything

new. –Albert Einstein

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. discuss how facing the challenges during adolescence, you may able to clarify and manage the demands of teen years,

2. express your feelings on the expectations of the significant people around you, such as your parents, siblings, friends,
teachers, community leaders, and

3. make affirmations that help you become more lovable and capable as an adolescent.

Getting Started

What are the three most challenging things that you have experienced in the last twelve months? Have you overcome
all of them? If yes, how? If no, how are you dealing with a particular experience that you have not overcome?

 Write a 2-page essay concerning this topic.

 Interview your parents or someone from their generation. Ask them to tell you what their teenage life was like, and
what difficulties they faced when they were teenagers. Ask them too how they overcame these challenges. Write
these down.

Processing Questions:

1. Look at the challenges that the generation of your parents experienced when they were teenagers. What are the
similarities between the challenges faced by teenagers today and those that teenagers faced during their time? What are the
differences?

2. What lessons can be learned from the way the generation of your parents dealt with the challenges that they faced
during their teen years?

Source: Mejorada, Alvin G. & Pasa, Nathalie A. (2016). Growing in Character. A Senior Highschool Textbook on
Personal Development. Quezon City: Brilliant Creations Publishing Inc.

Lecture: The Challenges of a Teenager

What comes to your mind when you hear the word “challenge”? Do you think of something difficult? Do you look
at challenges as synonymous to problems, threats, trials, tests, or something negative? Or do you consider challenges
as opportunities, chances, or spring boards to success – something positive?

In this lesson, you shall try to understand the challenges that confront now or will possibly confront you in
the near future.

You can look t challenges negatively. They can slow you down, make things difficult for you, magnify your
weaknesses, or give you a cause for worry, sadness, or anxiety.

However you can also look at challenges positively. They can help you see your strengths, push you to do more and be
more, develop your resilience, and teach you valuable lessons that you would otherwise not learn in easier times.

Challenges are powerful life-changers. They can either destroy you or build you. However, for you to grow, you must
take the challenges that come your way and transform them into opportunities to learn, develop and build character.

Whatever challenges you may face – they all have the possibility of either destroying or building your character. of
shaping you negatively or positively. Remember the popular line by Aldous Huxley: “Experiences is not what happens
to you; it is what you do with what happens to you.”

Source: Mejorada, Alvin G. & Pasa, Nathalie A. (2016). Growing in Character. A Senior Highschool Textbook on
Personal Development. Quezon City: Brilliant Creations Publishing Inc.

Reading: THE PASSAGE TO ADULTHOOD: CHALLENGES OF LATE ADOLESCENCE

Physical Development
 Most girls have completed the physical changes related to puberty by age 15.
 Boys are still maturing and gaining strength, muscle mass, and height and are completing the development of sexual
traits.

Emotional Development

 May stress over school and test scores.

 Is self-involved (may have high expectations and low self-concept).
 Seeks privacy and time alone.

 Is concerned about physical and sexual attractiveness.

 May complain that parents prevent him or her from doing things independently.
  Starts to want both physical and emotional intimacy in relationships.
 The experience of intimate partnerships.

Social Development
Shifts in relationship with parents from dependency and subordination to one that reflects the adolescent’s increasing maturity
and responsibilities in the family and the community.

 Is more and more aware of social behaviors of friends.

 Seeks friends that share the same beliefs, values, and interests.
 Friends become more important.
 Starts to have more intellectual interests.
 Explores romantic and sexual behaviors with others.
 May be influenced by peers to try risky behaviors (alcohol, tobacco, sex).

Mental Development
 Becomes better able to set goals and think in terms of the future.
 Has a better understanding of complex problem and issues
 Starts to develop moral ideals and to select role models

Source: https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/49326/179_ftp.pdf

READING: BEING HAPPY

You may have defects, be anxious and sometimes live irritated, but do not forget that your life is the greatest
enterprise in the world. Only you can prevent it from going into decadence. There are many that need you, admire you and love
you.

I would like to remind you that being happy is not having a sky without storms, or roads without accidents, or work
without fatigue, or relationships without
disappointments. Being happy is finding strength in forgiveness, hope in one’s battles, security at the stage of fear, love in
disagreements. Being happy is not only to treasure the smile, but that you also reflect on the sadness. It is not just
commemorating the event, but also learning lessons in failures. It is not just having joy with the applause, but also having joy in
anonymity. Being happy is to recognize that it is worthwhile to live, despite all the challenges, misunderstandings and times of
crises.

Being happy is not inevitable fate, but a victory for those who can travel towards it with your own being.

Being happy is to stop being a victim of problems but become an actor in history itself. It is not only to cross the
deserts outside of ourselves, but still more, to be able to find an oasis in the recesses of our soul. It is to thank God every
morning for the miracle of life.

Being happy is not being afraid of one's feelings. It is to know how to talk about ourselves. It is to bear with courage
when hearing a "no". It is to have the security to receive criticism, even if is unfair. It is to kiss the children, pamper the parents,
have poetic moments with friends, even if they have hurt us.

Being happy means allowing the free, happy and simple child inside each of us to live; having the maturity to say, "I
was wrong"; having the audacity to say, "forgive me". It is to have sensitivity in expressing, "I need you"; to have the ability of
saying, "I love you." So that your life becomes a garden full of opportunities for being happy...

In your spring-time, may you become a lover of joy. In your winter, may you become a friend of wisdom. And when
you go wrong along the way, you start all over again. Thus you will be more passionate about life. And you will find that
happiness is not about having a perfect life but about using tears to water tolerance, losses to refine patience, failures to carve
serenity, pain to lapidate pleasure, obstacles to open the windows of intelligence.

Never give up ... Never give up on the people you love. Never give up from being happy because life is an incredible
show. And you are a special human being! Source: https://www.facebook.com/mcspa/posts/10153625162832490

UNIT 2: ASPECTS OF PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT

MODULE 5: Coping with Stress in Middle and Late
Adolescence

Holding on to anger is like grasping a hot coal with the intent of throwing it at someone else: you are the one who
gets burned. - Buddha

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module you will be able to:
1. discuss that understanding stress and its sources during adolescence may help in identifying ways to cope and and have a
healthful life,

2. identify sources of your stress and illustrate the effect of stress on your system, and

3. demonstrate personal ways of coping with stress for healthful living.

Getting Started

Encircle everything that relates to you.

Lecture: The Challenges of a

Teenager
The teenage period is a
stressful stage in one’s life.
It is important to be aware
of the different sources of
one’s stress in order to
develop ways with
which to counteract these
stressors and live a
healthier lifestyle. In this
lesson, you shall discover
the different ways to cope
with common source of
stress for
teenagers.

STRESS
 It is the pressure or tension
that is exerted by a force
of an object.
 Stress can come from any
situation or thought that
makes you feel frustrated,
angry, nervous, worried and tense.
 It is simply a reaction to a stimulus that disturbs our physical or mental equilibrium. In other words, it’s an
omnipresent part of life. A stressful event can trigger the “fight-or-flight” response, causing hormones such as
adrenaline and cortisol to surge through the body.

Stressor - the term used to denote those which cause stress – things, events, situations, or thoughts.

The two faces of stress:

What is eustress? If the idea of positive stress is new to you, you’re not alone. Most of us equate all stress. Clinical
psychiatrist Dr. Michael Genovese says we rarely think of stress as a positive thing, but eustress is just that — positive stress.
“Exciting or stressful events cause a chemical response in the body,” he explained.
Eustress is usually a product of nerves, which can be brought on when faced with a fun challenge. Genovese says this
is important because, without eustress, our well-being can suffer. “Eustress helps us stay motivated, work toward goals, and
feel good about life,” he added.
What is distress? In terms of opposites, distress and eustress are on either end of the spectrum. Unlike eustress,
distress can make you feel overwhelmed because your resources (physically, mentally, emotionally) are inadequate to meet the
demands you’re facing.
Reading: STRESS MANAGEMENT

Dictionary definitions do not quite capture the meaning of stress as it is seen and experienced in the world of work.
One of the Webster’s definitions describes it as an “…emotional factor that causes bodily or mental tension.”
 A practical way of defining stress is the feeling one gets from prolonged, pent-up emotions. If the emotions you
experience are pleasant and desirable – joy, elation, ecstasy, delight – you usually feel free to let them show. They are not
suppressed. Therefore; positive emotions do not usually cause stress. Negative emotions, on the other hand, are more often
held inside. They are hidden. You suffer quietly and you experience stress. Do not confuse positive situations with positive
emotions. A wedding, for example, is a positive situation that often brings about the negative emotions of anxiety and tension.
So stress can exist in great situations.

Causes and Effects of Stress

Just as there is great variety in the range of emotions you might experience, there are many possible manifestations
of stress – in your private life and in your working life. Here are some words that describe the emotions associated (as cause
and effect) with stress.

 Anxiety
 Pressure
 Misery
 Strain
 Desperation
 Tension
 Anger
 Panic

Prolonged stress can be devastating; burnout, breakdown, and depression are some of the potential results of long-term,
unmanaged stress. By wearing a mask, you may expect to hide stress caused by problems in your personal life and not let them
influence your performance on the job. This will probably not work. The more you try to hold your emotions in, the greater the
pressure build-up will be.

Everyday frustrations cause stress build-up.

From the time you wake up until you go to sleep, you may be confronted with a succession of stressful situations.
Managing to get yourself (and possibly a spouse and children) out of bed and ready to face the day can be a challenge to your
patience and ingenuity. Driving to school or work can be harrowing – especially if you’re running late.

You may experience frustration in arranging to get the car repaired. You may face conflicts in school or at work, such as coping
with unrealistic deadlines, equipment failures, or unexpected bad weather. If part of your job is selling, you may experience
feelings of rejection when most of your customers say “no.”

A series of stressful and frustrating experiences throughout the day can cause you to lie awake at night in an
emotional turmoil – unable to get needed rest. You face the next day with less emotional and physical stamina. After another
stressful day and another night without rest, you may have even less emotional strength and stability. Therefore, stress build-
up, if not resolved, continues day after day.

Problems in our personal life can be devastating.

Surviving the normal, everyday stress described above can be difficult. But far more serious and painful circumstances
can create long-term stress. More serious stressful circumstances may include separation from loved ones, personal illness, or
illness of a loved one, death of someone you care about, or conflict with a spouse or close friend. Other major causes of stress
are problems with drug and alcohol abuse, domestic violence, care of children and elderly relatives, chronic mental illness,
injury, physical handicaps, even moving to a new home, if you’ve lived in the same place for more than 10 years. The list goes
on and on. Managing your personal finances can be another stressful experience. This can be a problem no matter what your
income level, but it is especially difficult if you must support a family and do not earn enough to live comfortably. Unpaid bills,
unwise use of credit, and budget limitations can make life difficult.

A common cause of stress is dealing with life’s transitions.

This is especially true when a person must cope with too many transitions all at once. For example, Ellen has just completed a
program in fashion merchandising. She is eager to get started on her new job. Her mother is ill and requires care. Her father
died a few months ago. Ellen’s new job requires that she relocate to a town 100 miles from home. The move, a new career, and
a change in family relationships may cause excessive stress for her. Too many changes have arrived at the same time.

TIPS ON COPING WITH STRESS

1. ENGAGING IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES
2. DOING ACTIVITIES THAT ARE RELAXING
3. ACQUIRING SOCIAL SUPPORT
4. GETTING AMPLE REST AND SLEEP
5. THINKING POSITIVELY
6. LEARNING THE ART OF RESILIENCE
 LESSON 6

The day the child realizes that all adults are imperfect, he becomes an adolescent; the day he forgives
them, he becomes an adult; the day he forgives himself, he becomes wise. – Alden Nowlan

Learning Objectives

At the end of this module you will be able to:

1. discuss that understanding the left and right brain functions may help in improving one’s learning,

2. explore mind-mapping techniques suited to right brain- or left brain-dominant thinking styles, and

3. make a plan to improve learning using both left and right brain development

Getting Started

LATERAL THINKING PUZZLES. Write your answers on a 1 whole sheet of paper.

1. You are driving down the road in your car on a wild, stormy night, when you pass by a bus stop and you see three
people waiting for the bus:

a. An old lady who looks as if she is about to die

b. An old friend who once saved your life

c. The perfect partner you have been dreaming about

Knowing that there can only be one passenger in your car, whom would you choose?

2. Acting on an anonymous phone call, the police raid a house to arrest a suspected murderer. They don't know what he
looks like but they know his name is John and that he is inside the house. The police bust in on a carpenter, a lorry driver, a
mechanic and a fireman all playing poker. Without hesitation or communication of any kind, they immediately arrest the
fireman. How do they know they've got their man?

3. A man and his son are in a car crash. The father is killed and the child is taken to hospital gravely injured. When he
gets there, the surgeon says, 'I can't operate on this boy - for he is my son!!!' How can this possibly be?

Lecture: THE MIND

Most people probably learned in highschool about the difference between the left and right hemispheres of the brain. It
is reasonable of course to expect that this information has been buried deep within the recesses of people’s minds never return
again because they are not brain surgeons in the first place.

It is not critical to anyone’s success to understand the concepts behind how the brain functions. However,
having knowledge about the brain may provide people with a greater sense of confidence in themselves and in their
own ability to develop their skills as a person.

Reading: BRAINPOWER: COMPLEX ORGAN CONTROLS YOUR EVERY THOUGHT AND MOVE
How did you get here?

No, no, no! It's not a question about your conception or birth.

How did you get here? On this page. Reading this story.

The answer is a lot more complex than, "My teacher told me to read it" or "I clicked on it by accident."

The answer involves thought, as in "I want to get on the Internet"; movement — pressing the computer's power
button and grasping a mouse; memory—like recalling how to use a browser or a search engine; and word recognition such as
"Brainpower" and an understanding of its meaning.

In short, the answer involves a wrinkled, pinkish-gray, three-pound organ that is primarily composed of fat and water
and goes by the name of brain. You got to this article because that jelly-like mass topping off your spinal cord fired electrical
signals to your hand telling it how to move.
 You got to this article because your brain stored information about using a computer and the definition of words that
you learned years ago. You got to this article because your brain is working.

Keep reading to find out how it functions, if it repairs itself and if the effects of drug use are permanent.

The power to act.

The brain has three major parts -- the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brain stem. The brain stem connects the
spinal cord and the brain. It controls functions that keep people alive such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure and food
digestion.

Those activities occur without any thought. You aren't telling yourself, "Inhale. Exhale. Inhale." You're just breathing.

Things are different in the cerebellum. That region controls voluntary movement. When you want to lift your fork,
wave your hand, brush your hair or wink at a cutie, you form the thought and then an area in the cerebellum translates your
will into action. It happens so quickly. Think about how little time passes between your desire to continue reading this sentence
and the time it takes your eyes to move to this word or this one. It seems automatic, but it isn't.

Neurons, the basic functional units of the nervous system, are three-part units and are key to brain function. They are
comprised of a nerve cell body, axon and dendrite, and they power the rapid-fire process that turns thought into movement.

The thought moves as an electrical signal from the nerve cell down the axon to a dendrite, which looks like branches
at the end of nerve cells. The signal jumps from the end of the dendrite on one cell across the space, called a synapse, to the
dendrite of another cell with the help of chemicals called neurotransmitters. That signal continues jumping from cell to cell until
it reaches the muscle you need to wave, wink or walk.

The cerebrum is the largest of the three brain sections, accounts for about 85 percent of the brain's weight, and has
four lobes. The lobes-frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital -- each have different functions. They get their names from the
sections of the skull that are next to them.

The parietal lobe helps people understand what they see and feel, while the frontal lobe determines personality and
emotions. Vision functions are located in the occipital lobe, and hearing and word recognition abilities are in the temporal lobe.

A critical age
Because the brain's healthy functioning is essential to living and determines quality of life, doctors emphasize
protecting the organ from injury and chemical abuse.

There is a consensus among researchers that brain cells regenerate throughout life, said Doug Postels, a pediatric
neurosurgeon in New Orleans, but that new growth happens very slowly after a certain age. "The size of the brain doesn't
increase much after 3," Postels explains.

During the first three years of life, the brain experiences most of its growth and develops most of its potential for
learning. That's the time frame in which synaptogenesis, or the creation of pathways for brain cells to communicate, occurs.

Doctors generally accept that cut-off point for two reasons, Postels said. First, in situations where doctors removed
parts of the brains of patients younger than 3 to correct disorders, the remaining brain sections developed to assume the role
of the portions those doctors removed. But when physicians performed the same surgery on older patients, that adaptability
function did not occur.

Second, "We know from experiments that if you deprive people of intellectual stimulation and put them in a dark
room, that it produces permanent changes in the brain," Postels said. "That occurs most dramatically before age 3. After that
age, it's impossible to ethically do a study."

Previous research produced information about the effects of stimulation deprivation, but modern ethical guidelines
prohibit such research on people because of the potentially harmful outcome.

Reading: THE DOMINANT SIDE OF THE BRAIN

Researchers believed that brain dominance determines a person’s preferences, problem-solving style, personality
characteristics, and even career choices. For example, a right-brain individual will quickly get a feeling for a situation, while a
left-brain person will usually ask a lot of questions first. The following chart reflects additional difference between left and right-
brain dominance.
 PERSONAL PREFERENCE
LEFT DOMINANCE RIGHT DOMINANCE
Classical music Popular music
Being on time A good times
Careful planning To visualize the outcome
To consider alternative To go with the first idea
Being thoughtful Being active
Monopoly, scrabble, or chess Athletics, art, or music

There is nothing good or bad about either preference. Both orientations can be equally successful in accomplishing a
single task; however, one may be more appropriate over the other depending on the situation.

The Key to Growing the Brain: Practice!

From the first day they are born, babies are hearing people around them talk—all day, every day, to the baby and to
each other. They have to try to make sense of these strange sounds and figure out what they mean. In a way, babies are
exercising their brains by listening hard. Later, when they need to tell their parents what they want, they start practicing talking
themselves. At first, they just make googoo sounds. Then, words start coming. And by the time they are three years old, most
can say whole sentences almost perfectly. Once children learn a language, they don’t forget it. The child’s brain has changed—it
has actually gotten smarter.

This can happen because learning causes permanent changes in the brain. The babies’ brain cells get larger and grow
new connections between them. These new, stronger connections make the child’s brain stronger and smarter, just like a
weightlifter’s big muscles make them strong.

The Real Truth About “Smart” and “Dumb”.

No one thinks babies are stupid because they can’t talk. They just haven’t learned how to yet. But some people will
call a person dumb if they can’t solve math problems, or spell a word right, or read fast—even though all these things are
learned with practice. At first, no one can read or solve equations. But with practice, they can learn to do it. And the more a
person learns, the easier it gets to learn new things— because their brain “muscles” have gotten stronger! The students
everyone thinks as the “smartest” may not have been born any different from anyone else. But before they started school, they
may have started to practice reading. They had already started to build up their “reading muscles.” Then, in the classroom,
everyone said, “That’s the smartest student in the class.” They don’t realize that any of the other students could learn to do as
well if they exercised and practiced reading as much.

Remember, all of those other students learned to speak at least one whole language already—something that
grownups find very hard to do. They just need to build up their “reading muscles” too.

What Can You Do to Get Smarter?

Just like a weightlifter or a basketball player, to be a brain athlete, you have to exercise and practice. By practicing,
you make your brain stronger. You also learn skills that let you use your brain in a smarter way—just like a basketball player
learns new moves. But many people miss out on the chance to grow a stronger brain because they think they can’t do it, or that
it’s too hard.

It does take work, just like becoming stronger physically or becoming a better ball player does. Sometimes it even
hurts! But when you feel yourself get better and stronger, all the work is worth it!

Source: http://schools.nyc.gov/NR/rdonlyres/C7BD7406-040C-42FA-
B44C2FCF72EB819C/0/GrowYourIntelligenceArticleandActivity.pdf © 2010 Mindset Works

MIND MAPPING is a powerful thinking tool. It is a graphical technique that mirrors the way the brain works, and was invented
by Tony Buzan. Mind mapping helps to make thinking visible. Most people make notes using lined paper and blue or black ink.
Making notes more attractive to the brain by adding color and rhythm can aid the learning process, and can help to make
learning fun. The subject being studied is crystallized in a central image and the main theme radiates out from the central image
on branches. Each branch holds a key image or a key word. Details are then added to the main branches and radiate further
out. Mind maps have a wide variety of uses, for example, note taking, revision planning, planning for writing and problem
solving can all be successfully carried out using the technique. The colors and the graphics used will help children to organize
their ideas and thoughts. They can be very simple or, quite detailed depending upon the age of the children and the complexity
of the subject. Because creating the mind map involves the use of the left and right brain, remembering the information
becomes easier!

Below is an example of a simple mind map linked to the information above:

How to draw a mind map:

1. Turn the page on its side (landscape). Use plain paper.

2. Draw the central image using different colors. The central image should encapsulate the subject of the map.
3. Add the branches representing the subject’s main topics or themes using key words or images.
4. Add detail with more key words and images. Use color.
5. Print the words clearly.
6. Use arrows to connect linked ideas.

MODULE 7: Mental Health and Well-Being in Middle and Late Adolescence

 The human spirit is more powerful than any drug, and that is what needs to be nourished with work, play, friendship
and family. These are the things that matter.
– Robin Williams Learning
Objectives

At the end of this module you will be able to:

1. interpret the concepts of mental health and psychological well-being in everyday observations about mental health
problems during adolescence,

2. identify your own vulnerabilities, and

3. create a plan to stay mentally healthy during adolescence

Getting Started
Adapted from: https://www.albertahealthservices.ca/assets/programs/ps-
7344-body-image-gr7.pdf
MEDIA MOTIVES

1. What type of product or service is featured in your ad?

2. What approach has the advertiser used to promote or sell this product or service? Here are some of the methods that
advertisers use to attract consumer:
Sex Appeal

Join the Bandwagon: Everyone is getting one!

Highest Quality Available

Financial Plans/Installment Incentives

Negative Advertising

Homestyle or Traditional

We Try Harder

Best Value

New & Improved

Name Brands & Logos

Health & Safety

3. What message does this ad give the consumer?

4. How would you define or describe this approach to advertising?
5. Do you think that this approach is effective advertising for the product? Why or why not?
6. In what ways, if any, could any part of this advertisement impact a person’s body image? (e.g. you could take into
consideration: the product itself, the models selling it, the way it is being presented, etc.)
Lecture: Taking Care of your Mental Health
How would you describe a healthy individual? How do you take care of your health? Often, when
people speak about being healthy, they refer to ideas

of being physically healthy – getting about 8 hours of sleep every night, drinking
8 glasses of water, etc. They often disregard a central component of one’s personal health – the mind.

Do people really need to take care of their mental health? Aren’t mental health issues and concerns only
for those individuals who have a diagnosed mental disorder or those who belong to mental institutions?
Unfortunately, people have wrong notion of associating mental health with more serious mental illnesses. They wrongly
attribute the stigma of these illnesses to the concept of mental health. To prevent this situation from happening, you will
explore some key concepts related to mental health and psychological well-being in this lesson.

Reading: CHANGE YOUR MIND ABOUT MENTAL HEALTH

Mental health. It’s the way your thoughts, feelings, and behaviors affect your life. Good mental health leads to
positive self-image and in-turn, satisfying relationships with friends and others. Having good mental health helps you make
good decisions and deal with life’s challenges at home, work, or school.

It is not uncommon for teenagers to develop problems with their mental health. Problems can range from mild to
severe, and can include depression, anxiety, body esteem issues, and suicide, among others.

Unfortunately, most young people with mental health problems don’t get any treatment for them.

Research shows that effective treatments are available that can help members of all racial, ethnic, and cultural
groups.
 If you broke your leg or came down with pneumonia, you wouldn’t let it go untreated. Often however, young people
ignore mental health problems thinking they will “snap out of it,” or that they are something to be ashamed of. That kind of
thinking prevents people from getting the help they need. Sometimes getting help is a matter of understanding mental health
issues and changing your mind about them.

Source: http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/change.aspx

Reading: SELF ESTEEM AND BODY ESTEEM

Does any of this sound familiar? "I'm too tall." "I'm too short." "I'm too skinny." "If only I were shorter/taller/had curly
hair/straight hair/a smaller nose/longer legs, I'd be happy."

Are you putting yourself down? If so, you're not alone. As a teen, you're going through lots of changes in your body.
And, as your body changes, so does your image of yourself. It's not always easy to like every part of your looks, but when you
get stuck on the negatives it can really bring down your self-esteem.

Why Are Self-Esteem and Body Image Important?

Self-esteem is all about how much you feel you are worth — and how much you feel other people
value you. Self-esteem is important because feeling good about yourself can affect your mental health and how you behave.

People with high self-esteem know themselves well. They're realistic and find friends that like and appreciate them
for who they are. People with high self-esteem usually feel more in control of their lives and know their own strengths and
weaknesses.

Body image is how you view your physical self — including whether you feel you are attractive and whether others
like your looks. For many people, especially people in their early teens, body image can be closely linked to self-esteem.

What Influences a Person's Self-Esteem?

Puberty and Development

Some people struggle with their self-esteem and body image when they begin puberty because it's a time when the
body goes through many changes. These changes, combined with wanting to feel accepted by our friends, means it can be
tempting to compare ourselves with others. The trouble with that is, not everyone grows or develops at the same time or in the
same way.

Media Images and Other Outside Influences

Our teens and early teens are a time when we become more aware of celebrities and media images — as well as how
other kids look and how we fit in. We might start to compare ourselves with other people or media images ("ideals" that are
frequently airbrushed). All of this can affect how we feel about ourselves and our bodies even as we grow into our teens.

Families and School

Family life can sometimes influence our body image. Some parents or coaches might be too focused on looking a
certain way or "making weight" for a sports team.

Family members might struggle with their own body image or criticize their kids' looks ("why do you wear your hair so long?" or
"how come you can't wear pants that fit you?"). This can all influence a person's self-esteem, especially if they're sensitive to
others peoples' comments. People also may experience negative comments and hurtful teasing about the way they look from
classmates and peers. Although these often come from ignorance, sometimes they can affect body image and self-esteem.

Activity: SIGNS OF TROUBLE: DEPRESSION

Put a check mark under the Column Yes or No for each of the items below:

Test Your Mood YES NO

Do you feel sad, depressed or down most of the time
Are you unable to enjoy the things that once gave you pleasure
Do you feel tired and/or lack energy most of the time
Do you have trouble sleeping or do you sleep too much
Do you find it difficult to concentrate or make decisions?
Have you had an increase or decrease in appetite or weight?
Have you had feelings of worthlessness or guilt
Have you felt frightened or panicky for no apparent reason at all?
Have you felt restless and found it difficult to sit still?
Have you been feeling anxious or worried?
Have you felt like you just cannot go on or had thoughts of death or dying?
Reading: SUPPORT STRATEGIES/COMMUNITY MENTAL HEALTH RESOURCES
Here are some strategies for supporting someone with mental health concerns:

• Encourage the person to seek help and support from an adult.

• Spend time with the person, listen to his/her concerns.
• Be hopeful; help them feel like their life will get better.
• Stand by them. Invite your friend to things that you are doing; keeping busy and staying in touch with friends will help your
friend feel better, when they are ready.
• Learn as much as you can about mental illness so that you understand what is going on for them.
• If you are a close friend or family member of someone with a mental health problem, make sure that you get help as well.
Talk to someone about what is happening. This will help you be a better support person.
• Put the person’s life before your friendship. If the person mentions thoughts of suicide, don’t keep it secret, even if the
person has asked you to.

Reading: HELP HOW-TO’S

First Step, Reach Out To People You Trust

Sometimes people don’t get the help they need because they don’t know where to turn. When you’re not feeling
well, it can be a struggle to take the necessary steps to help yourself get better.

When dealing with mental health or emotional problems, it’s important not to go at it alone. Healing is a combination
of helping yourself and letting others help you. Comfort and support, information and advice, and professional treatment are all
forms of help.

Think of all the people you can turn to for support. These are people who are concerned about you and can help
comfort you, who will listen to you and encourage you, and who can help arrange for treatment. In other words, find caring
people in your life who can help you.

These people might include:

 friends
 parents and other family members
 someone who seems “like a parent” to you
 other adults whose advice you would value—perhaps a favorite teacher or coach, a member of your church
or other place of worship, or a good friend’s parent.

Research shows that males are more reluctant to look for help and receive it than females are. While some people
may have difficulty reaching out to others they trust, taking the first step in getting help is important for everyone to do.

Second Step, Take Action

The more you know, the easier it is.

Libraries are an excellent source of information about mental health. Bookstores often have “self-help” or
“psychology” sections. For those with Internet access, there are many websites related to health and mental health. Some are
better in quality than others. It is important to know if the information on a site comes from sources you can trust. Use caution
whenever you’re sharing or exchanging information online: there’s a chance that it will not be kept private.

Nothing is worse than nothing.

The consequences of not getting help for mental health problems can be serious. Untreated problems often continue
and become worse, and new problems may occur. For example, someone with panic attacks might begin drinking too much
alcohol with the mistaken hope that it will help relieve his or her emotional pain.

It’s All in the Attitude

There are many reasons why people do not get help for mental health problems. Fear, shame, and embarrassment
often prevent individuals and their families from doing anything. Sometimes being able to get the help, support, and
professional treatment you need is a matter of changing your mind about mental health and changing the way you react to
mental health problems.

Here are some important reminders:

Mental health is as important as physical health. In fact, the two are closely linked.

Mental health problems are real, and they deserve to be treated. It’s not a person’s fault if he or she has a mental health

problem. No one is to blame.

 Mental health problems are not a sign of weakness. They are not something you can “just snap out of” even if you try.

Whether you’re male or female, it’s ok to ask for help and get it.

There’s hope. People improve and recover with the help of treatment, and they are able to enjoy happier and healthier lives.

Source: APA Help Center, American Psychological Association, https://www.apa.or.talking teens

Reading: HEALTHY EATING AND MENTAL HEALTH

Healthy eating nourishes the body, including the brain, and supports mental health through:

 Improved overall health and vitality

 Increased ability to concentrate
 Reduced irritability and mood swings
 Lowered risk of mental illness

There is some evidence that healthy eating may be a factor in lowered risk of depression and improved ability to deal
with stress and anxiety (Healthy U Alberta, 2009).

Physical Activity and Mental Health:

Physical activity can make you feel good physically and build confidence. Evidence suggests that physical activity may
contribute to improved mood and increased self-esteem, self-confidence and sense of control (UK Dept of Health, 2004; Fox,
1999).

Some types of physical activity may provide an opportunity to connect with others and develop supportive
relationships. Getting physically active may (CSEP, 2011):

 Make you feel better physically and feel better about yourself.  Improve your mood.
 Improve self-esteem
 Reduce physical reactions to stress.
 Help you sleep better.
 Give you more energy.

Physical activity may be effective in preventing or reducing symptoms associated with anxiety and depression. How
physical activity improves mood and relieves anxiety is not yet clear. Some theories propose that physical activity (UK Dept. of
Health, 2004; Fox, 1999):

 Increases body temperature, thus relaxing muscle tension.  Releases feel-good chemicals that improve
mood.
 Offers a “time-out” from worries and depressing thoughts.
 Increases self-confidence, feeling of competence and a sense of mastery.
 Provides a sense of belonging and mutual support when participating with others.

Sleep and Mental Health

Most teens need 9-11 hours of sleep every night. Problems from not being fully rested include:

 Irritability
 Difficulty concentrating and learning
 Don’t move information from short-term to long-term memory as well Falling asleep in class
 Mood swings and behavior problems
 More accident prone
 More prone to depression

Suggestions for getting a good night sleep:

 Stay away from stimulants like caffeine in the evening, including chocolate, colas, and other caffeinated
beverages. These delay sleep and increase night waking.
 Do not go to bed hungry, have a light snack.
 Turn off any TV’s, computes, or cellphones, or just do not have electronics in the bedroom.
 Disengage from any stimulating activities like exercise, computer games or talking on the phone for at least 30
minutes prior to bedtime. Reading is much more relaxing and may help you fall asleep.
 Taking a warm bath or shower helps prepare the body for sleep.
 If you are not feeling rested and functioning at your best most days, talk to your parents. You may need to speak
to a doctor if you are having problems sleeping inspite of trying the tips.
 ST
21
CENTURY
MODULE
 LESSON 1 Elements of Literature
For prose fiction, nonfiction prose and drama, these genres may share the same elements like the characters, point-
of-view, plot, setting and themes. On the other hand, poetry may use persona in exchange of the character and most
of the time, it uses figurative languages and sound devices.

◆ Character is the representation of human being in the story. Character can be presented in two ways,
direct where the narrator describes the character or indirect where the characters are describing the others
through character’s speech and reactions.
⚫ Protagonist is the central character of the story, the hero.
⚫ Antagonist is the force working against the protagonist, the villain.
⚫ Static Character remains the same throughout the story, stereotypes. They have one or two
characteristics that never change and are often over-emphasized.
⚫ Dynamic Character (developing) undergoes permanent change. This character has many sided
personalities that change by the end of the story.
⚫ Flat Character is one who does not undergo substantial change or growth in the course or a story.
⚫ Round Character one who is capable of change and evolution throughout the story.

◆ Setting refers to the time and place when and where the story happened. It establishes the historical,
geographical, and physical location. The Setting gives atmosphere and serves as symbol.

◆ Plot describes the structure of the story. It shows the causal arrangement of events and actions within a
story. The plot draws the reader into the characters’ lives and helps the reader understand the choices
that the characters make. Plots can be told in Chronological (the usual flow of the story), Flashback (starts
from the future then go back to the past), or En Media Res (in the middle of things).
Plot Components
⚫ Exposition/Introduction is the start of the story, the situation before the actions start.
⚫ Rising Action is the series of conflicts and crises in the story that lead to the climax. Conflict is the
problem faced by the characters in the story. Types of Conflict
◼ Man versus Himself
◼ Man versus Man
◼ Man versus Society
◼ Man versus Nature
◼ Man versus god
⚫ Climax is the turning point, the most intense part of the story.
⚫ Falling Action consists of all of the action which follows the climax, the part where the problem is
starting to be resolved.
⚫ Resolution/Denouement is the conclusion, the tying together of all the threads.

◆ Point-of-View is the angle of vision, the position of the narrator in telling the story.
⚫ First Person the narrator does participate in the action of the story, the
story is told using the first person pronoun ‘I’.
⚫ Second Person is an emerging type of POV. In this type, the narration
transfers from one character to another to give give a glimpse of diversity in the story.
This POV uses the pronoun ‘You’ in telling the story.
⚫ Third Person Limited the narrator does not partake in the story, he can
only relate/ tell the actions/ behaviors of the characters and not delve into their thoughts.
⚫ Third Person Omniscient the story is told by the narrator using the third person; the narrator’s
knowledge, control, and prerogatives are unlimited, an all knowing narrator. In this POV, the
narrator can tell everything even the thoughts and emotions of the characters.

◆ Theme refers to the underlying message of the story which points out the significant truth about life and
human nature illustrated in the actions of the characters. All stories have themes but not all stories have
morals. Theme is not intended to teach or preach at all times.

Elements of Poetry
◆ Structure and Poetry it has something to do with the overall organization
of lines and/or the conventional patterns of sound. It includes the stanza and form.
◆ Sound Patterns three other elements of poetry are rhyme scheme, meter, and word sounds.
These are sometimes collectively called sound play because they take advantage of the performative, spoken
nature of poetry.
◆ Meaning and Poetry poetry is not always about hidden or indirect meanings, sometimes
it is implied and directly stated or evident in the poem itself.

Literature: Its Genres and Elements

 Literature is a term used to describe written and sometimes spoken material. It is derived from the Latin word
“literature” which means writing formed with letters. It commonly refers to works of the creative imagination, including
poetry, drama fiction, nonfiction, and in some instances, journalism, and song (Lombardi, 2020).

It is a composition that tells a story, dramatizes a situation, expresses emotions, analyzes and advocates idea.
Literature makes us humans. Literature covers a wide variety of text so it was divided in four genres, namely prose
fiction, nonfiction prose, poetry, and drama.

Genres of Literature
◆ Prose Fiction is based on the writer’s imagination and it uses imaginary characters, places, or
events. It uses sentences and paragraph to tell the story of the character.
⚫ Novel is the longest type of prose fiction. Novel gives the writer plenty of time to develop the plot
and characters. There is no exact word count, it is up to the discretion of the author.
⚫ Novella/Novelette shorter than a novel and usually consists of more than 30 pages. Just like the
novel, it also has a room for plot and character development but not that long.
⚫ Short Story has a limited time for character development and usually consists of 3 to 25 pages
⚫ Flash Fiction the shortest among the type of prose fiction, consisting of more than 1,000 but less
than 10,000 words.

◆ Nonfiction Prose is based on facts and evidences and it uses real life situations. It also uses sentences
and paragraphs in presenting the story.
⚫ Personal Narrative tells true stories about events in a person’s
life and is written by the person himself.
⚫ Biographical Narratives are accounts of a person’s life written by
someone else.
⚫ Diary and Journal Entry is a highly personal and private record of
experiences, thoughts, and feelings of the writer.
⚫ Blogs are online journals showcasing the thoughts or feelings of a
certain person towards something.

◆ Poetry is a form of literature usually written in verses or lines that make up stanzas which are designed to
be recited or read aloud. It uses imagery, figurative language, sound devices, melody, and rhythm.
⚫ Lyric Poem are highly musical verses that expresses the observations
and feeling of a single person.
⚫ Narrative Poems are poems that tell a story.
⚫ Dramatic Poem is a verse/s which is/are written to be spoken, usually
by a character invented by the author himself.
⚫ Epics are long narrative poems that celebrate the adventure and
achievements of a heroic figure.
⚫ Ballads are song-like poems that tell a story, often dealing with
adventure and romance.
⚫ Sonnets are poems with 14 lines.
⚫ Haiku is a special type of poem from Japan which consists of 17 syllables.
⚫ Free Verse are poems that do not follow any rhythmical patterns.

◆ Drama is designed to be performed and made up of dialogue and set direction.

The story is presented by the actors and actresses on a stage.
⚫ Comedy is humorous and has a happy ending. Its tone is light and is intended to make the
audience laugh.
⚫ Tragedy is a drama form in which the main character suffers a downfall. Murders, deaths, insanity,
and pain are among the most common ideas in tragedies.
⚫ Tragicomedy is a special kind of drama that combines the features of tragedy and comedy. It
means that such play may be sad but will have a happy ending, or it may be serious with some
elements of humor emerging throughout the whole play.
⚫ Melodrama is a kind of drama in which everything is hyperbolized. Themes depicted are simple
and without any unpredictable plot twists. There are quite a lot of stereotypes in such dramas.

LESSON 2 Literary Approaches

Literary writers, as they write their masterpieces, use several techniques in presenting the story. These approaches
may vary depending on the issues present in the text. Here are some of the approaches used by writers in the 21 st
century.

◆ Formalism operates on the idea that any literary text is autonomous.It rejects the perceived connection
between the text and the author.There have been two influential schools of Formalism - Russian
Formalism and New Criticism.
⚫ Russian Formalism Viktor Shklovsky introduced the concept of
“Defamiliarization.”It means that good literature, through competent use of language, renews our
perception of already familiar things.
⚫ New Criticism is also called as “close-reading” - textual reading that leaves out authorial and other external
influences. Upon analyzing the text, readers may commit mistakes or fallacy because of the given evidence in the
text. Here are two common fallacies committed by the readers.
◼ Intentional Fallacy - mistake of reading a text based on the author's “intended” meaning.
 ◼ Affective Fallacy - mistake of reading a text through the reader's emotions.
A formalist interpretation of a canonical work, let’s say, a sonnet by Shakespeare would center only on the language,
meter, and rhyme scheme among others. The sonnet would be seen as a complete, beautiful, and
literary entity by itself.

◆ Marxism is derived from the name of Karl Marx, a German philosopher and scholar who theorized about society
and history. Marx believes that society is based on an unjust system that privileges capitalism over the working class,
and this system, because of capitalism’s insatiable desire for profit, will inevitably collapse. This approach involves
how the elements of the class struggle - primarily the differences between the bourgeois and the proletariat.

For example, if one is to analyze Rizal’s canonical novel El Filibusterismo through a Marxist lens, he/she will have
to see how social divisions are depicted in the text, say, in the opening chapter entitled “On the Upper Deck.” The
chapter shows that even in the loading of passengers (the Haves on the upper deck and the Have Nots on the lower
deck) class divisions make themselves manifest.

◆ Structuralism is an approach that relates the text to the larger, wider structure through inter-textual connections
or repetitive patterns. A text may be undertaken in different ways using this approach; one is by the revelation of
the binary operations within the text, such as the ever-present tension between good and evil; or the ubiquitous
clashes between men and women. In binary opposition, there is a natural hierarchy with one element being
privileged over the other, say, in the male’s domination over the female.

◆ Post-structuralism: Deconstructionism the term “Deconstructionism” was coined by French philosopher

Jacques Derrida. It rejects the binary opposition of Structuralism, thus it shows that meaning is indefinite and
undecidable. It reverses the hierarchy and relegates speech to an inferior position vis-a-vis writing. For example, a
book, movie or any other media text could be deconstructed by addressing the gaps, say, the absence of strong
women characters or of “voices” from the margins vis-a-vis the dominant characters.

◆ New Historicism (1980) In this approach, history is nothing but a narrative text that is contaminated by people's
personal biases, assumptions, etc., under the influence of the culture in which they belong.One of its proponents is
Michel Foucault. To employ the tools of New Historicism, the critic investigates, among other things, the life of the
author; social values as reflected in the text; and the text’s historical situatedness.

◆ Feminism In this approach, a text was read within a social context. In particular; it analyzes textual representations
from the woman's perspective like stereotyping and “objectification” of womanhood. Voices behind this approach:
Simone de Beauvoir, Rosa Luxemberg, and Hannah Arendt. In the Philippines, women empowerment has gained
considerable ground with political measures aimed at greater gender equality, not to mention the more active
participation of women in areas once dominated by men. The tools of Feminist criticism, for instance, could be used
to critique Disney’s representations of women characters in their animated films; or music videos full of sexual
innuendos prejudicial to women.

LESSON 3 Literary Journalism

Literary Journalism is one of the emerging type of literature nowadays. This type of literature combines the
characteristics of both the prose fiction and nonfiction prose. Looking closely to the text itself, the reader will notice
the presentation of validated facts in an interesting manner. Literary Journalism is a genre that bears close affinity
to journalistic writing. Unlike traditional journalism that requires the detachment of the writer from his/her subject, it
may involve the narrator's closeness to the topic, literally and figuratively. It may involve some research on the part
of the author to make a compelling and credible discussion of the topic.

Some foreign writers identified with the genre are Truman Capote, Norman Mailer and Joan Didion. In the
Philippines, writers like Nick Joaquin, Jose Dalisay, and Krip Yuson were using this genre. Nick Joaquin regularly
wrote literary journalism pieces in the Philippines Free Press under his pseudonym Quijano de Manila

LESSON 4 Poetry
Poetry, literature that evokes a concentrated imaginative awareness of experience or a specific emotional
response through language chosen and arranged for its meaning, sound, and rhythm (Nemerov, H., 2020). It is said
to aspire to the conditions of music, hence its rhythmic quality. It employs figurative and symbolic language that
makes it susceptible to different interpretations. It was used in the old days for religious rituals and ceremonies, and
later for narrating mythological stories. One of the earliest examples is the Epic of Gilgamesh, considered as the “first
great work of literature.”

LESSON 5 Flash Fiction

It refers to largely fictional work of relative brevity. In terms of length, some say that it should have not more than
50 words while others say that it can have as many as a thousand words. It is also known as “Short Short Story,”
“Micro-Fiction,” “Micro-Narrative,” and “Sudden Fiction.”

According to Bob Batchelor (2011), it is also known as the “Smoking-Long” story in China because one is likely
to finish reading it before he/she finishes smoking a stick of cigarette. It traces its origins to older genres such as the
fable and the parable. Notable writers such as American Ernest Hemingway and Italian Italo Calvino wrote short
works that exemplify the genre.

Flash Fiction has its equivalent in the Philippines -- the Dagli. Some say that Dagli had already been around for
decades even before the term flash fiction became popular. Examples of Dagli appeared on a regular basis in
newspapers and magazines as early as the first few years of American occupation of the Philippines. Among the
popular writers of the genre were Jose Corazon De Jesus, Lope K. Santos, and Teodoro Agoncillo.