The first step in the construction of a highway embankment is the identification and

selection of a suitable material. This is done by obtaining samples from economically

feasible borrow pits or borrow areas and testing them in the laboratory to determine
the group of each. It has been shown earlier that, based on the AASHTO system of
classification, materials classified as A-1, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 are usually suitable
embankment materials. In cases where it is necessary to use materials in other groups,
special consideration should be given to the design and construction. For example,
soils in groups A-4 and A-6 can be used for embankment construction if the
embankment height is low, the field compaction process is carefully controlled, and
the embankment is located where the moisture content is not expected to exceed that
at which the construction was undertaken. A factor that also significantly influences
the selection of any material is whether that material can be economically transported
to the construction site. Having identified suitable materials, their optimum moisture
contents and maximum dry densities are determined.
Highway embankments are formed by spreading thin layers of uniform thickness of the
material and compacting each layer at or near the optimum moisture content. End
dumping of the material from trucks is not recommended. The process of constructing one
layer at a time facilitates obtaining uniform strength and moisture content in the
embankment.
End dumping or compaction of thick layers on the other hand may result in variable
strengths within the embankment, which could lead to differential settlement between
adjacent areas.
Most states stipulate a thickness of 15 to 30 cm for each layer, although the thickness may
be increased to 60 cm when the lower portion of an embankment consists mainly of large
boulders.
All transportation agencies have their own requirements for the minimum density in the
field. Some of these are based on the AASHTO specifications for transportation materials.
Table 17.7 gives commonly used relative density values for different embankment heights.
The relative density is given as a percentage of the maximum dry density
obtained from the standard AASHTO (T99) test. Some agencies base their
requirements on the maximum dry density obtained in the laboratory. For
example, when the maximum dry density obtained in the laboratory is less than
1.5 gm/cm3, the required field density is 100 percent of the laboratory density.
When the maximum dry density obtained in the laboratory is 1.5 gm/cm3 or
greater but less than 1.8 gm/cm3, 95 percent is required in the field, and so forth.
The former practice of specifying the number of passes for different types of
compacting equipment is not widely used at the present time.
Some transportation agencies also have specifications for the moisture content to
be used during compaction. These specifications are usually given in general
terms, although limits above and below the optimum moisture content have
been given.
The construction control of an embankment entails frequent and regular
checks of the dry density and the moisture content of materials being
compacted. The bulk density is obtained directly from measurements
obtained in the field, and the dry density is then calculated from the bulk
density and the moisture content.
The laboratory moisture-density curve is then used to determine whether
the dry density obtained in the field is in accordance with the laboratory
results for the compactive effort used .
These tests are conducted by using either a destructive method or a
nondestructive method.
In determining the bulk density by the destructive method, a cylindrical hole of about a
four inch diameter and a depth equal to that of the layer is excavated. The material
obtained from the hole is immediately sealed in a container. Care should be taken not to
lose any of the excavated material. The total weight of the excavated material is obtained,
usually in the field laboratory, and the moisture content determined. The compacted
volume of the excavated material is then measured by determining the volume of the
excavated hole.
The moisture content is determined by either rapidly drying the soil in a field oven or by
facilitating evaporation of the moisture by adding some volatile solvent material such as
alcohol and igniting it. The volume of the excavated hole may be obtained by one of three
methods: sand replacement, oil , or balloon .
 In the sand replacement method, the excavated hole is carefully filled with standard
sand from a jar origin ally filled with the standard sand . The jar can be opened and
closed by a valve. When the hole is completely filled with sand , the valve is closed, and
the weight of the remaining sand in the jar is determined . The weight of the quantity
of sand used to fill the excavated hole is then obtained by subtracting the weight of the
sand remaining in the jar from the weight of the sand required to fill the jar. The
volume of the quantity of standard sand used to fill the excavated hole (that is, volume
of hole) is then obtained from a previously established relationship between the weight
and volume of the standard sand .
In the oil method, the volume of the hole is obtained by filling the excavated hole with
a heavy oil of known specific gravity.
In the balloon method, a balloon is placed in the excavated hole and then filled with
water. The volume of water required to fill the hole is the volume of the excavated
hole.
The destructive methods are all subject to errors. For example, in the sand
replacement method, adjacent vibration will increase the density of the sand in the
excavated hole, thereby indicating a larger volume hole. Large errors in the volume
of the hole will be obtained if the balloon method is used in holes having uneven
walls, and large errors may be obtained if the heavy oil method is used in coarse sand
or gravel material.
The nondestructive method involves the direct measurement of the in situ density and
moisture content of the compacted soil, using nuclear equipment. The density is obtained by
measuring the scatter of gamma radiation by the soil particles since the amount of scatter is
proportional to the bulk density of the soil. A calibration curve for the particular equipment is
then used to determine the bulk density of the soil. A plot of the amount of scatter in materials
of known density measured by the equipment versus the density of the materials is generally
used in the calibration curve.
The moisture content is also obtained by measuring the scatter of neutrons emitted in the soil.
This scatter is due mainly to the presence of hydrogen atoms. The assumption is made that
most of the hydrogen is in the form of water, which allows the amount of scatter to be related
to the amount of water in the soil. The moisture content is then obtained directly from a
calibrated gauge.
One advantage of the nondestructive method is that results are obtained speedily, which is
essential if corrective actions are necessary. Another advantage is that more tests can be
carried out, which facilitates the use of statistical methods in the control process. The main
disadvantages are that a relatively high capital expenditure is required to obtain the
equipment, and that field personnel are exposed to dangerous radioactive material, making it
imperative that strict safety standards be enforced when nuclear equipment is used.
Compaction equipment used in the field can be divided into two main categories. The
first category includes the equipment used for spreading the material to the desired
layer or lift thickness, and the second category includes the equipment used to compact
each layer of material.

Spreading of the material to the required thickness is done by bulldozers and motor
graders. Several types and sizes of graders and dozers are now available on the market.
The equipment used for any specific project will depend on the size of the project.
Rollers are used for field compaction and apply either a vibrating force or an impact
force on the soil. The type of roller used for any particular job depends on the type of
soil to be compacted.
One of the most frequently used rollers is the sheepsfoot. This roller has a drum
wheel that can be filled with water. The drum wheel has several protrusions, which
may be round or rectangular in shape, ranging from 31.25 to 75 cm2
in area. The protrusions penetrate the loose soil and compact from the bottom to the
top of each layer of soil , as the number of passes increases. Contact pressures ranging
from 1380 to 6900 kN/m2 can be obtained from sheepsfoot rollers, depending on the
size of the drum and whether or not it is filled with water. The sheepsfoot roller is used
mainly for cohesive soils.
Tamping foot rollers are similar to sheepsfoot rollers in that they also have protrusions
that are used to obtain high contact pressures, ranging from 1380 to 8280 kN/m2. The
feet of the tamping foot rollers are specially hinged to obtain a kneading action while
compacting the soil. As with sheepsfoot rollers, tamping foot rollers compact from the
bottom of the soil layer. Tamping foot rollers are used mainly for compacting fine-
grained soils.