ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

o has many tube-like inward folds called transverse

FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM tubules
1. Body movement B. MUSCLE FIBERS
2. Maintenance of posture o a single cylindrical cell with several nuclei located at
3. Respiration its periphery
4. Production of body heat C. MYOFIBRIL
5. Communication o threadlike structure approximately 1-3 micrometer in
6. Constriction of organs and vessels diameter
7. Heartbeat o extends from one end of the muscle fiber to the other
o composed of myofilaments
GENERAL FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS: D. ACTIN MYOFILAMENT (THIN MYOFILAMENT)
o approximately 8 nm in diameter and 1000nm in
1. Contractility length
2. Extensibility o composed of 2 strands of fibrous actin (F actin), a
3. Excitability series of tropomyosin molecules and a series of
4. Elasticity troponin molecules
TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUES o F actin – coiled to form a double helix; polymer of
approximately 200 small, globular units called
i. Skeletal globular actin (G actin) monomers
ii. Smooth/Visceral o Tropomyosin – protein that winds along the groove of
iii. Cardiac the F actin double helix; long, cover 7 G actin active
sites
o Troponin – composed of 3 subunits: one that binds to
CONNECTIVE TISSUE COVERINGS OF THE MUSCLE actin, a second that binds to tropomyosin, and a third
that has a binding site for Ca 2; spaced between the
o Epimysium - aka muscular fascia; a connective tissue
ends of the tropomyosin molecules in the groove
sheath that surrounds each skeletal muscle
between the F actin strands
o Perimysium - loose connective tissue that separates
E. MYOSIN FILAMENT (THICK FILAMENT)
muscle fascicles from each other
o approximately 12nm in diameter and 1800nm in
o Endomysium – loose connective tissue that surrounds
length
each muscle fiber
o composed of many elongated myosin molecules
shaped like a golf club
o consists of about 300 myosin molecules arranged so
that about 150 of them have their heads projecting
toward each end
o centers of the myosin myofilaments consist of only the
roof portions of the myosin molecules
o Myosin molecule – consists of 2 heavy myosin molecules
and 2 heads that extend laterally
1) The heads can bind to active sites on the actin
molecules to form cross-bridges
2) The heads are attached to the rod portion by a
hinge region that can bend and straighten during
contraction
3) The heads have ATPase activity, the enzymatic
activity that breaks down adenosine
triphosphate, releasing energy
F. SARCOMERES
o the basic structural and functional unit of a skeletal
muscle because it is the smallest portion of a skeletal
muscle capable of contracting
o extends from 1 Z disk to an adjacent Z disk
o Z disk – a filamentous network of protein forming a
disk-like structure for the attachment of actin
myofilaments
MUSCLE FIBER STRUCTURE G. SUPERFICIAL FASCIA
A. SARCOLEMMA o made up of areolar and adipose tissue
o cell membrane of the muscle fiber H. DEEP FASCIA
o covers whole muscles, individual muscles, and muscle
groups; divided into 3: epimysium, perimysium, and
endomysium

SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE

o composed of skeletal muscle fibers (smaller amounts of
connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves)
a) MUSCLE FIBER – single, long, cylindrical cell containing
several nuclei located around the periphery of the fiber
near the plasma membrane; develop from myoblasts;
number remain relatively constant; alternating light and
dark bands (striations); 1mm to about 4cm in length and
from 10micrometer to 100 micrometers
b) MOTOR NEURONS – specialized nerve cells that stimulate
muscles to contract
o An artery and either 1 or 2 veins extend together with a
nerve through the connective tissue layers of the muscles
c) MOTOR UNIT – composed of a single motor neuron and all
skeletal muscles it innervates
d)
e) NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION – formed by a cluster of
enlarged axon terminals resting in indentations of the
muscle fiber’s membrane
❖ Presynaptic Terminal – enlarged axon terminal;
contains many synaptic vesicles (contain acetylcholine,
Ach)
❖ Synaptic Cleft – space between the presynaptic
terminal and the muscle fiber membrane
❖ Postsynaptic Terminal – muscle fiber membrane
❖ Acetylcholinesterase – enzyme that breaks down
acetylcholine
EXCITABILITY OF MUSCLE FIBERS
 FUNCTION OF THE NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION

MOTOR UNIT

1. An action potential (orange arrow) arrives at the presynaptic

terminal and causes voltage gated Ca2+ channels in the
presynaptic membrane to open.
2. Calcium ions enter the presynaptic terminal and initiate the
release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) from
synaptic vesicles.
3. ACh is released into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis.
4. ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to ligand-
gated Na+ channels on the postsynaptic membrane.
5. Ligand-gated Na+ channels open and Na+ enters the
postsynaptic cell, causing the postsynaptic membrane to
depolarize. If depolarization passes threshold, an action
potential is generated along the postsynaptic membrane.
6. ACh unbinds from the ligand-gated Na+ channels, which then
close.
7. The enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which is attached to the
postsynaptic membrane, removes acetylcholine from the
synaptic cleft by breaking it down into acetic acid and choline.
8. Choline is symported with Na+ into the presynaptic terminal,
where it can be recycled to make ACh. Acetic acid diffuses away
from the synaptic cleft.
9. ACh is reformed within the presynaptic terminal using acetic
acid generated from metabolism and from choline recycled from
the synaptic cleft. ACh is then taken up by synaptic vesicles
 EXCITATION (CONTRACTION COUPLING)
o mechanism by which an action produced causes contraction
of a muscle fiber
o involves the sarcolemma, T tubules, sarcoplasmic reticulum,
Ca 2, and troponin
BREAKDOWN OF ATP AND CROSS BRIDGE MOVEMENT
DURING MUSCLE CONTRACTION
MUSCLE TWITCH
o contraction of muscle fiber in response to a
stimulus
o Involves all the muscle fibers in a motor unit
PHASES:
1. LAG PHASE – latent phase, the time between
application of the stimulus to the motor neuron and the
beginning of contraction; action potentials are
produced in one or more motor neurons
2. CONTRACTION PHASE – time during which the muscle
contracts; results from cross bridge movement and
cycling
 3. RELAXATION PHASE – time during which the muscle
relaxes; Ca2+ is returned back to the sarcoplasmic
reticulum
SUMMATION
o increasing the force of contraction of individual muscle
fibers within a muscle by stimulation
o Tetanus – sustained contraction that occurs when the
frequency of stimulation is so rapid without relaxation
RECRUITMENT
o increasing the number of muscle fibers contracting by
increasing the number of motor units stimulated
SLIDING FILAMENT MODEL
o contraction of a skeletal muscle occurs as actin and myosin
myofilaments slide past one another causing the sarcomeres
to shorten
o during muscle relaxation, the sarcomeres lengthen; an
external force must be applied to a muscle to cause
sarcomeres to lengthen
TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS
1) MULTIPLE MOTOR UNIT SUMMATION
o each motor units responds in an all-or-none function;
o a whole muscle can produce an increasing amount of tension
as the number of motor units with stimulated increases
2) MULTIPLE-WAVE SUMMATION
o Summation results when many action potentials are
produced in a muscle fiber
o Contraction occurs in response to the first action potential,
but there is not enough time for relaxation to occur between
action potentials
o Because each action potential causes the release of Ca2+
from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, the ion levels remain
elevated in the sarcoplasm to produce a tetanic contraction
o The tension produced as a result of a multiple-wave
summation is greater than the tension produced by a single
muscle twitch
o The increase tension results from the greater concentration
of Ca2+ in the sarcoplasm and the stretch of the elastic
components of the muscle early in contraction
3) TETANUS OF MUSCLE
o results from multiple-wave summation
o incomplete tetanus occurs when the action potential
frequency is low enough to allow partial relaxation of the
muscle fibers
o complete tetanus occurs when the action potential is high
enough that no relaxation of the muscle fibers occurs
4) TREPPE
o Tension produced increases for the first few contractions in
response to a maximal stimulus at a low frequency in a
muscle that has been at rest for some time
o Increased tension may result from the accumulation of small
amounts of Ca+ in the sarcoplasm for the first few
contractions or from an increasing rate of enzyme activity
5) ISOMETRIC CONTRACTIONS
o A muscle produces increasing tension as it remains at a
constant length
o This type of contraction is characteristic of postural muscles
that maintain a constant tension without changing their
length
6) ISOTONIC CONTRACTIONS
o A muscle produces a constant tension during contraction
o A muscle shortens during contraction
o This type of contraction is characteristic of finger and hand
movements
7) CONCENTRIC CONTRACTIONS
o A muscle produces increasing tension as it shortens
8) ECCENTRIC CONTRACTIONS
o A muscle produces increasing tension as it lengthens
MUSCLE TONE
o Constant tension produced by muscles for long periods of
time
o Responsible for keeping the back and lower limbs straight,
the head upright, and the abdomen flat
METABOLIC NEEDS FOR MUSCULAR CONTRACTION:
1) Stimulus – facilitated by acetylcholine
2) Energy – ATP is the immediate source of energy for muscle
contractions; creatine phosphate; aerobic respiration;
anaerobic respiration
CREATINE PHOSPHATE
o Synthesized form aerobic respiration
o Accumulates in muscle cells and functions to store energy,
which can be used to synthesize ATP
o Quickly exhausted in intense muscular contractions
o Sustain maximum contractions for about 8-10 seconds
o Creatine kinase – ADP + Creatine phosphate
Creatine + ATP
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
o Does not require oxygen and results in the breakdown of
glucose to yield ATP and lactic acid
o Net production of 2 ATP molecules and 2 molecules of lactic
acid
o Less efficient than aerobic respiration, but much faster
o Support intense muscle contraction for up to 3 minutes
together with creatine phosphate
o Cytoplasm
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
o Requires oxygen and breaks down glucose to produce
ATP, carbon dioxide, and water
o Much more efficient
o Uses a greater variety of molecules as energy sources such
as fatty acids and amino acids
o Produce up to 38 ATP molecules for each glucose molecule
o Mitochondria

FATIGUE
o Decreased capacity to do work and the reduced
efficiency of performance that normally follows a period
of activity
TYPES OF FATIGUE
1) PSYCHOLOGIC – most common type; involves the CNS;
muscles are capable of functioning, but the individual
“perceives” that additional muscular work is not
possible
2) MUSCULAR – 2nd most common; occurs in the muscle
fiber; results from ATP depletion; muscle tension
declines; fatigue in the lower limbs of marathon runners
or in the upper and lower limbs of the swimmers
3) SYNAPTIC – least common; occurs in the neuromuscular
junction; increased action potential frequency =
release of acetylcholine from the presynaptic terminals
> rate of acetylcholine synthesis; synaptic vessels
become depleted, and insufficient acetylcholine is
released to stimulate the muscle fibers
4) PHYSIOLOGICAL CONTRACTURE – muscles become
incapable of either contracting or relaxing; caused by
a lack of ATP within the muscle fibers
5) RIGOR MORTIS – development of rigid muscles several
hours after death; ATP production stops
CARDIAC MUSCLE
o Only in the heart
o Striated, each cell usually contains one nucleus located
near the center
o Store less Ca2+ but have bigger mitochondria
o Larger T-tubules
o With intercalated disks
o Self-excitable and authorhythmic cells
SMOOTH MUSCLE
o Distributed widely throughout the body
o More variable in function than other muscle types
o Smaller than skeletal muscle cells
o 15 to 500 μm in length and from 5 to 10 μm in diameter
o Are spindle-shaped, with a single nucleus located in the
middle of the cell
o Does not have a striated appearance
TYPES OF SMOOTH MUSCLE
1) VISCERAL OR UNITARY SMOOTH MUSCLE
o More common
o Occurs in sheets
o Includes smooth muscle in internal organs
o Smooth muscle has numerous gap junctions
o Often autorhythmic
o Responsible for peristalsis
2) MULTIUNIT SMOOTH MUSCLE
o Occurs as sheets (walls of blood vessels)
o As small bundles (arrector pili muscles and the iris of the
eye)
o As single cells (capsule of the spleen)
o Has fewer gap junctions than visceral smooth muscle
o Act as independent units.
o Normally contracts only when stimulated by nerves or
hormones
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
a. Origin - fixed end or the head; usually the most stationary,
usually proximal end of the muscle
b. Insertion - mobile end; the distal end of the muscle attached
to the bone undergoing the greatest movement
Belly
o part of the muscle between the origin and the insertion
Agonist
o muscle that accomplishes a certain movement, such as
flexion
o Biceps brachii (elbow flexion)
Antagonist
o muscle acting in opposition to an agonist
o triceps brachii – extends the elbow
Synergists
o Members of a group of muscles working together to
produce a movement
o Ex. biceps brachii and brachialis are synergists in elbow
flexion
Prime mover
o muscle plays the major role in accomplishing the desired
movement
o brachialis is the prime mover in flexing the elbow
Fixators
o muscles that hold one bone in place relative to the body
while a usually more distal bone is moved
o muscles of the scapula act as fixators to hold the scapula
in place while other muscles contract to move the humerus
 MOVEMENTS ACCOMPLISHED BY MUSCLES
When muscles contract, the pull (P), or force, of
muscle contraction is applied to levers, such as bones,
resulting in movement of the levers.
Lever
o Rigid shaft capable of turning about a hinge, or pivot
point called fulcrum
o Bones
Fulcrum
o Hinge or pivot point (joints)
a) The atlanto-occipital joint is the fulcrum, the posterior neck
muscles provide the pull depressing the back of the head,
and the face, which is elevated, is the weight.
b) In the body, an example of a class II lever is depression of
the mandible
c) In the body, the action of the biceps brachii muscle (force)
pulling on the radius (lever) to flex the elbow (fulcrum) and
elevate the hand (weight) is an example of a class III lever

Weight
o Resistance, placed at another point along the lever