SOLUTIONS OF THE DIFFUSIVITY EQUATION

Recall the diffusivity equation is given as:

2 p 1  p  c p
+ = (1)
 r 2 r  r 0.0002637k  t
The diffusivity equation (Eq. 1) is a partial differential equation for pressure with respect to
both distance and time. Furthermore, it is a second order with respect to distance. Thus, Eq.
1 is a second order partial differential equation.
There are four solutions for the diffusivity equation:
1. Solution for a bounded cylindrical reservoir.
2. Solution for an infinite reservoir with line source well with zero wellbore radius.
3. Pseudo-steady-state (PSS) solution.
4. Solution that includes wellbore storage for a well in an infinite reservoir.

1. Bounded Cylindrical Reservoir (Volumetric Reservoir)

To solve the diffusivity equation (Eq. 1), we must consider two boundary conditions and one
initial condition.
The boundary conditions are:
1. The well produces at constant rate qB into the wellbore.
2. The well, with wellbore radius rw , is centered in a cylindrical reservoir of radius re
and that there is no flow across the outer boundary, i.e., at r = re , q = 0 for all times
greater than zero. This implies that ( p /  r ) r = 0 .
e
The initial condition states that before production begins the reservoir is at uniform pressure
pi , i.e., at t = 0, p = pi or p(r , 0) = pi .

Taking the initial and boundary conditions into consideration the solution of the diffusivity
equation will be as follows:

 − n2 t D J 2 ( r ) 

141.2qB 2t D  e n eD 
+ ln (reD ) − + 2 
3 1
p wf = pi −   (2)
kh r2 4 2  2 2 
n =1  n  J1 ( n reD ) − J1 ( n ) 
 eD   

The solution given in Eq. 2 is called van Everdingen–Hurst constant-terminal-rate solution.

This is an exact solution of the diffusivity equation. Thus, it is used as a standard to compare
with other approximate solutions.
The dimensionless time t D is defined as:

Module 3 – Solutions of the Diffusivity Equation Prof. Ibrahim Sami Nashawi 1

 0.0002637kt
tD = (3)
 ct rw2

the dimensionless time based on drainage area t DA is defined as:

0.0002637 kt
t DA = (4)
 ct A

the dimensionless radius reD is defined as:

r
reD = e (5)
rw

 n are the roots of:

J1 ( n reD )Y1 ( n ) − J1 ( n )Y1 ( n reD ) = 0

J1 and Y1 are Bessel functions.

2. Infinite Acting Cylindrical Reservoir, Line Source Well or Sink (well with zero
radius), Transient Radial Flow

Boundary Conditions:
1. The well produces at constant rate, qB (inner-boundary condition).
2. The well drains an infinite area, i.e., p(r → , t ) = pi or
p(r → , t ) = pi − p(r → , t ) = 0 (outer-boundary cond.).

Initial Condition: the reservoir is at uniform pressure pi , before production begins, i.e., at
t = 0, p = pi or p(r , 0) = pi .

It is also assumed tha the well has zero radius

The solution in Darcy’s unit is given as:

q  1  −  ct r 2 
p ( r , t ) = pi − − Ei (6)
2 kh  2  4kt 
  

in field units Eq. 6 can be written as:

70.6 qB  − 948  ct r 2 

p ( r , t ) = pi + Ei (7)
kh  kt 
 
The solution given in Eq. 7 is called exponential integral solution or Theis solution.

Ei in Eq. 7 is called exponential integral or Ei function. It is defined as:

Module 3 – Solutions of the Diffusivity Equation Prof. Ibrahim Sami Nashawi 2

  e−u
Ei ( − x ) = −  du (8)
x u

For 0  x  1 , Ei is approximated by:

Ei ( − x ) = ln( x ) + 0.57721566 − 0.99999193 x + 0.24991055 x2

− 0.05519968 x3 + 0.00976004 x4 − 0.00107857 x5

with an absolute error   2 x10 − 7 .

For 1  x   , Ei is approximated by:

 − x2 − 2.334733 x − 0.250621 
Ei ( − x ) =   e− x
3 2
 x + 3.330657 x + 1.681534 x 

with an absolute error   5 x10 − 5 .

The solution given in Eq. 7 is an accurate approximation to the exact solution (van
Everdingen-Hurst solution) for the following condition:

3.79 x105  ct rw
2 948 ct re2
t 
k k

for t  948 ct re2 / k the reservoir boundary begins to affect the pressure distribution; thus,
the reservoir is no longer infinite acting.

for t  3.79 x105  ct rw

2 / k the assumption of zero well radius (line source or sink well)
limits the accuracy of the equation.

Eq. 7 can also be written as:

70.6qB  1 
p ( r , t ) = pi + Ei −  (9)
kh  4t D 

1
for  0.01 or 4t D >100 a condition that is true in most field cases:
4t D

 1   1.781 
Ei −   ln 
 4t D   4t D 

Therefore, Eq. 7 becomes:

Module 3 – Solutions of the Diffusivity Equation Prof. Ibrahim Sami Nashawi 3

 70.6qB  1688 ct r 2 
p ( r , t ) = pi + ln (10)
kh  kt 
 

6 log approximation

4
-Ei(-X)

3
Ei function drops to zero
2

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
X

Module 3 – Solutions of the Diffusivity Equation Prof. Ibrahim Sami Nashawi 4

Skin effect

Eqs. 7 and 10 are for wells that are neither damaged nor stimulated. If damage exists around
the wellbore these two equations should be modified to include the effect of this damage.

Fig. 1-11 is a schematic illustration of the areas surrounding a damaged well. While k is the
“undisturbed” reservoir permeability, k s is the permeability of the altered zone. In general,
the convention implies that a skin effect equal to zero denotes no damage ( k s = k , i.e., ideal
well). If k  k s , then s  0 denotes damage. If k  k s , then s  0 denotes stimulation.

In most wells, the skin effect is a multi-component of complex factors, most of which
usually cannot be altered. The total skin effect may be written as:

st = sc + + s p + s d +  pskins (11)

The last term on the right-hand side of Eq. (11) represents a large array of pseudoskin
effects. The other three terms constitute the usually important skin factors. The first
represents the skin effect due to partial penetration and slant. The second term represents the
skin effect due to perforations. Finally, the third term refers to the damaged skin effect, and
the only one that acidizing may remove.

Well and zone of altered permeability

Module 3 – Solutions of the Diffusivity Equation Prof. Ibrahim Sami Nashawi 5

Usually pressure distributions in the reservoir changes linearly with distance r from the
wellbore, i.e., as the distance from the wellbore increases the pressure increases. If a dmage
zone with radius rs exists around the wellbore this damage will cause an additional pressure
drop, p s .

Schematic of pressure distribution near the wellbore

The pressure drop caused by the skin effect is given by the following equation:

141.2qB  k  r 
p s =  − 1 ln s  (12)
kh  ks   rw 

substituting Eq. 12 into Eq. 7 we obtain:

70.6qB   − 948 ct r 2   k   r 
p ( r , t ) = pi + Ei − 2 − 1 ln s  (13)
kh   kt   ks   rw 
  

With

 k  r 
s =  − 1 ln s  (14)
 ks   rw 

Eq. 14 is known as Hawkins’ equation.

Module 3 – Solutions of the Diffusivity Equation Prof. Ibrahim Sami Nashawi 6

solving Eq. 14 for the permeability of the damaged zone around the wellbore, k s , we obtain:

k
ks = (15)
s
+1
 rs 
ln 
 rw 
Substituting Eq. 14 into Eq. 13 we obtain:

70.6qB   − 948 c r 2  
p ( r , t ) = pi +  Ei t  − 2s  (16)
kh   kt  
   
Using natural logarithm approximation of the Ei function we obtain from Eq. 16:

70.6qB   1688 c r 2  
p ( r , t ) = pi + ln t  − 2s  (17)
kh   kt  
   
Eq. 16 or 17 provides pressure at any distance r from the wellbore.

Replacing r by rw in Eq. 17 we obtain:

70.6qB   1688 c r 2  
p wf = pi + ln t w  − 2s  (18)
kh   kt  
   
Eq. 18 provides the flowing bottomhole pressure at the sandface.

Expressing Eq. 18 in base 10 logarithm we get:

162.6qB   1688 c r 2  
p wf = pi + log t w  − 0.869s  (19)
kh   kt  
   
or

162.6qB    
p wf = pi − log(t ) + log k  − 3.23 + 0.869s  (20)
  2 
  ct rw 
kh
 
Eq. 20 is the basis of pressure drawdown analysis.

The dimensionless pressure p D is defined as:

1  948 ct rw
2
p D = − Ei −  (21)
2  kt 
 

Module 3 – Solutions of the Diffusivity Equation Prof. Ibrahim Sami Nashawi 7

From Eq. 7 the dimensionless pressure can be written as:
kh
pD = p (22)
141.2qB

where: p = pi − p(r , t )

Neglecting the skin factor in Eq. 20 we obtain:

162.6qB   kt  
p = pi − p wf = log  − 3.23 (23)
kh    c r 2  
  t w 
Therefore,
p D = 1.151log (t D ) + 0.349 (24)

in natural logarithm Eq. 24 can be written as:

pD =
1
ln(t D ) + 0.80907 (25)
2

3. Pseudo-Steady-State (PSS) Solution

Boundary Conditions:
1. The well produces at constant rate, qB (inner-boundary condition).
2. The well, with wellbore radius rw , is centered in a cylindrical reservoir of radius re and
that there is no flow across the outer boundary, i.e., at r = re , q = 0 for all times grater
than zero. This implies that ( p /  r ) re = 0 .
Initial Condition: the reservoir is at uniform pressure pi , before production begins, i.e., at
t = 0, p = pi or p(r , 0) = pi .

The solution is a simplified form of the exact solution (van Everdingen–Hurst constant-
terminal-rate solution). It is valid for large times where t  948 ct re2 / k at this time the
summation term in the exact solution is negligible. Thus, Eq. 2 becomes:

141.2qB  0.000527kt r  3 
p wf = pi −  + ln e  − + s  (26)
kh   ct re2  rw  4 

during this period the whole reservoir contributes to fluid production and the pressure
changes linearly with time. This result is the basis of reservoir limit test.

If average reservoir presssure p is used instead of pi , Eq. 26 becomes:

141.2 qB   re  3 
p − pwf (t ) = ln  − + s 
kh   rw  4 

Module 3 – Solutions of the Diffusivity Equation Prof. Ibrahim Sami Nashawi 8

4. Radial Flow in Infinite Reservoir with “Wellbore Storage”

Wellbore storage also called afterflow, after production, after injection, and wellbore
unloading or loading.

Definition: wellbore storage, C , is the ability of the wellbore to store or unload fluids per
unit change in pressure, (bbl/psi).

• In pressure buildup test when the well is shut-in at the surface fluid continues to flow
into the wellbore. The effect of closing the well is not transmitted to the surface until a
sufficient amount of fluid accumulates, i.e., is stored in the wellbore (wellbore loading).

• The reverse cycle happens in pressure drawdown. The effect of production is not
transmitted to the surface until the whole amount of fluid stored in the wellbore is
produced (wellbore unloading).

• Detection of the wellbore storage period is very important in pressure analysis. Failing
to recognize this period may lead to the analysis of the wrong portion of the data which
leads to wrong test results.

Very Important: Wellbore storage is not an additive function like the skin factor.

Wellbore Containing Two Phase with Gas/Liquid Interface

The material balance describing oil moving in and out of the wellbore is:

rate of flow of mass  rate of flow of mass rate of accumulation 

 − = 
into wellbore  out of wellbore  of mass in wellbore 

Solving this equation we get:

24 C d
qsf = q + ( pw − pt ) (27)
B dt

The wellbore storage coefficient, C , is defined as:

A
C = 25.65 wb , bbl/psi (28)


The dimensionless wellbore storage coefficient, CD , is:

C
CD = 0.894 (29)
 ct h rw2

Module 3 – Solutions of the Diffusivity Equation Prof. Ibrahim Sami Nashawi 9

Wellbore Containing Single Phase
Solving the same material balance as the case before, we get:
24 C dpw
qsf = q + (30)
B dt

In this case, the wellbore storage coefficient, C , is defined as:

C = Vwb cwb (31)

where: Vwb : wellbore volume, bbl

cwb : wellbore fluid compressibility, psi-1

Presence of Unit-Slope Line on log-log Plot of pD vs. tD

Recall Eq. 27:

24 C d
qsf = q + ( pw − pt ) (27)
B dt

For constant wellhead pressure, pt , Eq. 27 becomes:

24 C dpw
qsf = q + (32)
B dt

Recall the dimensionless pressure, pD , Eq. 22:

kh
pD = ( pi − pw ) (22)
141.2qB

Solving Eq. 22 for pw yields:

− 141.2 pD qi B  + k h pi
pw = (33)
kh

Differentiating Eq. 33 with respect time, we get:

dpw − 141.2 qi B  dp D
= (34)
dt kh dt

Substituting the dimensionless time, t D , Eq. 34 becomes:

dpw − 141.2 qi B  0.0002637 k dpD

= (35)
dt kh   ct rw2 dt D

Substituting Eq. 35 into Eq. 32 and simplifying, we get:

0.894 qi C dpD
qsf = q − (36)
 ct h rw2 dtD

Module 3 – Solutions of the Diffusivity Equation Prof. Ibrahim Sami Nashawi 10

Substituting Eq. 29 ( CD ) into Eq. 36 we get:

dp D
qsf = q − qi CD (37)
dt D
Dividing Eq. 37 by qi yields:

qsf q dp
= − CD D (38)
qi qi dtD

For constant rate production q = qi then Eq. 38 becomes:

qsf dpD
= 1 − CD (39)
qi dtD

Eq. 39 is the inner boundary condition for the problem of constant flow rate of slightly
compressible fluid with wellbore storage.
For wellbore storage problem qsf = 0 , i.e., all surface production comes from the wellbore -
no sandface production.
Then, Eq. 39 becomes:
dpD
0 = 1 − CD (40)
dt D

or: dt D = C D dp D (41)

Integrating from t D = 0 where pD = 0 to t D and pD yields:

t D = CD pD (42)

Taking the logarithm of both sides of Eq. 42:

log( C D ) + log( p D ) = log( t D ) (43)

Thus, a log-log plot of pD versus t D should yield a straight line with a slope of unity.
This line remains as long as all production comes from the wellbore and none comes
from the formation, i.e., qsf = 0 .

For pressure drawdown test, the duration of wellbore storage is given by:
(200,000 + 12,000 s )C s
t= (44)
kh / 

For pressure buildup test:

170,000C s e 0.14s
t= (45)
kh / 

Module 3 – Solutions of the Diffusivity Equation Prof. Ibrahim Sami Nashawi 11

Radius of Investigation
The radius of investigation, ri , concept is of both quantitative and qualitative value in well
test design and analysis. It reflects the distance that a pressure transient has moved
(propagated) into the formation following either a constant production or injection rate. This
distance is a function of the formation rock and fluid properties and time elapsed since the
rate change.

The radius of investigation, ri , is given as:

kt
ri = , ft (46)
948  ct

Fig. 1.7 shows the pressure distribution in the formation near a producing well at different
production times. The radius of investigation can be calculated using either Eq. 46 or
approximated from Fig. 1-7 when the pressure in the formation stabilizes, i.e, the pressure
drawdown becomes negligible ( p = 0 ).

2050
t = 0.1 hr
2000

t = 1 hr
1950
Pressure, psi

1900
t = 100 hr
1850

t = 10 hr
1800

1750
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Radius, ft

Fig. 1.7. Pressure distribution near a producing well

Module 3 – Solutions of the Diffusivity Equation Prof. Ibrahim Sami Nashawi 12

Graphical Represenation of Flow Regimes

Region:
A : Infinite acting or transient region. This period is short in high permeability
rerservoirs, long in low permeability tight reservoirs. A plot of p wf vs. t on semi-
log graph papers yields a straight line (drawdown test).
B : Transition or late-transient period. This period is small or non-existing period.
C : Pseudo-steady-state region. A plot of p wf vs. t on cartesian graph papers yields a
straight line (reservoir limit test).

Time for PSS to begin is given by:

 ct A
t pss = (t DA ) pss
0.0002637k
Values for (t DA ) pss are given in Table D-1 p. 265 in the “Exact for t DA >” column. Both
C A and (t DA ) pss depend on reservoir shape and well location.

Module 3 – Solutions of the Diffusivity Equation Prof. Ibrahim Sami Nashawi 13