Motor Systems Optimisation (MSO)

2 Day User Training

 Acknowledgements
• UNIDO, Vienna
• Anibal T De Almeida, ISR – University of Coimbra
• Hugh Falkner, Atkins Global

2
 Lecture 1 – Overview and key principles
• Introduction to motors and motor systems
– Definition of motor system
– Motors in industry
– Motor systems efficiency
• Motor operating principles
– Motor classes
– Characteristics of various motor types
– Losses and efficiency
• Electric Motor operating characteristics
– Torque-speed
– Efficiency
– Duty Cycle – type of loads
3
1. Introduction to Motors and Motor
Systems
Anibal T. De Almeida
ISR-University of Coimbra

4
 Discussed Topics
• Motor systems energy use
• Definition of motor system
• Electric motor efficiency

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Motor Systems Energy Use

Global Electricity demand by end-use

Source: A+B International 2008

6
Motor Systems Energy Use

Electricity Consumption in the European Union Industrial Sector

Source: ISR – University of Coimbra (2012)

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 Motor Systems Energy Use

Disaggregation of motor electricity consumption by end-use, in the EU Industrial sector

Source: ISR – University of Coimbra (2012)
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Motor Systems Electricity Consumption by Industrial
Sector (2000)
Motor Electricity Consumption by Power Range in
the Industrial Sector (2000)
25,0 9000
8000
20,0 7000

Operating Hours
6000
15,0
5000
%

4000
10,0
3000
5,0 2000
1000
0,0 0
]0;0,75[ [0,75;4[ [4;10[ [10;30[ [30;70[ [70;130[ [130;500[ [500;---[
Power ranges

Consumption Capacity Hours

 Why Do We Use Motors?
• To drive some mechanical application (not used
in isolation)
• Motors cost money to install and maintain
• They consume energy of which there is currently
limited supply

• But…they can be optimised !!

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The Motor System
 Factors Affecting Efficiency
The efficiency of a motor system depends on several factors,
including:
• motor efficiency
• motor speed/torque control
• proper sizing
• power supply quality
• distribution losses
• mechanical transmission
• maintenance practices
• end-use mechanical efficiency (pump, fan,
• compressor, etc).
 Efficiency of an Electric Motor System
POUTPUT (USEFUL) PLOSSES
 
PSHAFT
 1 PSHAFT  T  
PINPUT PELECTRICAL PINPUT

Puseful
 system  VSD  motor transmissi on  end use 
Pinput

Where,
η – efficiency; P – Power; T – Torque; ω – rotational speed;
VSD – Variable Speed Drive
Strategies to Reduce Energy Consumption in
Electric Motor Systems

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 Discussion
• Why are we interested in motors?
• What is the difference between a motor and a
motor system?

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2. Electric Motor Operating Principles

Anibal T. De Almeida
ISR-University of Coimbra

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 Discussed Topics
• Types of electric motors
• Losses in electric motors
• Modern high efficiency electric motors

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 Operating Principles
All motors have two basic parts:

– The STATOR (stationary part)

– The ROTOR (rotating part)

The design and fabrication of these two

components determines the classification and
characteristics of the motor.
 Motor Types
Electric
Motors

DC Motors AC Motors

EC - PM
Brushed Universal Synchronous Induction
Brushless

Series Shunt Compound Permanent

Single-Phase Three-Phase
Wound Wound wound Magnet

EC – Electronically Commutated
PM – Permanent Magnet

ISR – University of Coimbra 20

 Motor Types and Applications
DC MOTORS
CONVENTIONAL DC MOTORS
PERMANENT MAGNET DC MOTORS

AC MOTORS
SQUIRREL-CAGE INDUCTION MOTORS (used in more than 90% of the inductrial applications)
WOUND-ROTOR INDUCTION MOTORS
PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCRONOUS MOTORS
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
WITH SEPARATED EXCITATION
SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTORS

DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS
TERTIARY AND SERVICES
PUBLIC FACILITIES (WATER PUMPING AND TREATMENT PLANTS)
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS

0,1 kW 1 kW 10 kW 100 kW 1000 kW Power

 Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors
Used in more than 90% of electric motor systems;
Good efficiency and high realibility (reduced maintenance);
Low cost (when compared to other motor types);
Easy to control, when fed by Variable Speed Drives (VSDs).
Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors
 Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors

Stator
1
X1 X2
Rotor

I1 I2 R2
To End ring V Xm Rm
3-phase S
AC Rotor bar
supply
(conductor)

R1, R2 = Stator and Rotor Resistance, Xm = Magnetising Reactance

X1, X2 = Stator and Rotor Leakage Reactance Rm = Magnetising Resistance
s=Rotor Slip
IM – Working principle
 Motor Losses

• The electrical losses (also called Joule losses) are expressed by I2R, and
consequently increase rapidly with the motor load. Electrical losses
appear as heat generated by electric resistance to current flowing in the
stator windings and in the rotor conductor bars and end rings.

• Magnetic losses occur in the steel laminations of the stator and rotor.
They are due to hysteresis and eddy currents, increasing approximately
with the square of the magnetic flux-density.

• Mechanical losses are due to friction in the bearings, ventilation and

windage losses.

I - current; R – electric resistance

ISR – University of Coimbra
 Motor Losses

• Stray load losses are due to leakage flux, harmonics of the air gap flux
density, non-uniform and inter-bar currents distribution, mechanical
imperfections in the air gap, and irregularities in the air gap flux density.

• The brush contact losses (only for motors with brushes) result from the
voltage drop between the brushes and the commutator, as well as include
additional friction losses.

ISR – University of Coimbra 27

Induction Motor Losses
Premium Motor Features
Premium Induction Motors
 Energy Efficient Induction Motors
• Higher efficiency (2-10% more depending on motor power);
• They can reduce energy bills as well as the maintenance costs;
• More material of higher quality – more expensive (25-30%);
• Longer lifetime (lower operating temperature);
• Typically, lower starting torque (depends on the rotor slot
shape);
• Higher starting current ;
• Lower slip;
• Higher rotor inertia.
Motor Losses
vs
Load
 Motor Losses
vs
Motor Power

Typical fraction of losses

in 50-Hz, four-pole IMs
 Squirrel-cage Induction Motors Life Cycle Cost

• In Industry, an induction motor can consume per year

an energy quantity equivalent to 5-10 times its initial
cost, along all its lifetime of about 12-20 years,
representing 60-200 times its initial cost.
• This fact justifies a life-cycle cost (LCC) analysis
including the repair/maintenance.
 Squirrel-cage Induction Motors Life Cycle Cost

11 kW IE3 Motor, 4000 operating hours per year, 15 years life cycle 0,0754 €/kWh
Source: ISR – University of Coimbra
IM Efficiency Classification
IEC 60034-30-1 (2014)
 Worked Example
Economic Analysis – Simple Payback of High Efficiency IE3 Motor
versus Standard Motor:

Motor power – 4pole 75 kW, 8400 hours/year, 75% load

Energy Cost - USD 0.05/kWh
Efficiency of IE3 motor – 95.5% (cost of motor USD 10,000)
Efficiency of IE1 motor – 93% (cost of motor USD 8,500)
Efficiency of old motor – 90% (assume IE0 for motors more than
15 years old)

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 Replacement with High Efficiency Motors
Existing Motor A Motor B Units
Motor Size 75 75 75 kW
EFF Class IE0 IE1 IE3
Efficiency 90.0% 93.0% 95.5%
Motor Cost 8,500 10,000 USD
Operating Hours 8,400 8,400 8,400 hours
Load Factor 75% 75% 75%
Output Energy 472,500 472,500 472,500 kWh Mech
Input Energy 525,000 508,065 494,764 kWh Elec
Losses 52,500 35,565 22,264 kWh pa
Energy cost 0.05 0.05 0.05 USD / kWh

Operating Cost 26,250 25,403 24,738 USD pa

Cost of Losses 2,625 1,778 1,113 USD pa
Savings 847 1,512 USD pa
Payback 10.04 6.61 years

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 DC Motors
• Brushed with stator winding
• Brushed with PM stator
• Brushless

Simple to control
High maintenance requirements
Poor reliability (brush failure)
Brushed DC Motors with Stator Winding

ISR – University of Coimbra

Conventional PM DC Servo Motor
el. connections winding iron core flange

commutato permanent housing

brush system r magnet (magn. return)
(external)
 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSM) /
Brushless DC Motors (BLDC) /
Electronically Commutated Motors (ECM)
Different names, but PMSM is preferred

• motor behavior similar to DC motors, but have no brushes

– Stator design similar to induction motors (3 phase stator winding
– Rotating permanent magnet in the rotor
– Powering of the 3 phases according to rotor position

• Synchronous operation, eliminates electric and magnetic losses in the rotor – a

typical reduction of 20% of the motor losses

• May become more attractive: cost reduction is likely with cheaper magnets
and mass production
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSM)
 Brushless DC Motors / EC Motors
Main advantages:

• Excellent torque-speed curve (e.g. may allow direct drive)

• Excellent dynamic response;
• High efficiency and reliability => low maintenance;
• Longer lifetime;
• Low accoustical noise;
• High speed capability;
• High torque/volume ratio or high power density.

Main disadvantages: High cost and there is always the

necessity of a controller (VSD).

ISR – University of Coimbra 43

PM Motor Part-Load Efficiency (11 kW)
 LSPM Motors

• Hybrid motor with squirrel cage rotor fitted with

high energy permanent magnets (NeFeB*) making it
suitable for direct on line start

• Interchangeable with induction motors (same

output x frame ratio)

*alloy of neodymium, iron and boron

 Switched Reluctance Motors (SR)
An SR motor is a doubly salient design
with phase coils mounted around
diametrically opposite stator poles.
Energisation of a phase will cause the
rotor to move into alignment with the
stator poles, so minimizing the
reluctance of the magnetic path. As a
high performance variable speed drive,
the motor's magnetics are optimized for
closed-loop operation.
Rotor position feedback is used to
control phase energisation in an optimal
way to achieve smooth, continuous
torque and high efficiency.
 Switched Reluctance Motors
STATOR: 6 POLES (3 PHASES)
ROTOR: 4 POLES

Bobinas

STATOR: 8 POLES
ROTOR: 6 POLES

Passo: pi/6

ISR – University of Coimbra 47

 Switched Reluctance Motors
• APPLICATIONS UP TO 75 kW: High speed centrifugal
machines, compressors, washing machines, vacuum
cleaners, vacuum pumps, HVAC*, variable-speed drive
systems, machine-tools, automation, traction, etc.

T(N.m) Torque Speed Curve

ideal

a
c b

n(rpm)

* Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning

ISR – University of Coimbra 48
 Switched Reluctance Motors
Main advantages:
• High efficiency;
• High torque and high speed capability;
• High reliability and long lifetime;
• Simple construction, robustness;
• Low cost;
• Simpler controller (1 power switch per phase);
• High power density;
• Available in different sizes and shapes.

Main disadvantage: ripple torque and high acoustical noise due to the high
vibration level – research is made to improve these aspects. The controller
is always necessary.
ISR – University of Coimbra 49
 Discussion
• What are the basic motor types?
• What are the typical losses in an electric motor?
• What newer types of high efficiency motors are
available today?

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3. Electric Motor Operating
Characteristics
Anibal T. De Almeida
ISR-University of Coimbra

51
 Discussed Topics

• Speed
• Torque
• Main load types
• Duty cycles
 Speed and Slip in Induction Motors

frequency of the applied voltage Hz   60

synchronous speed rpm 
number of pole pairs

slip rpm  Synchronous speed rpm  running speed rpm

Synchronous speed  running speed

slip %   100
Synchronous speed
 Motor Speed

• n – Rotations per minute (RPM)

• ω – Angular Speed (radians/s)

ω=2πf
f – frequency (in Hz)

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 Typical Torque-Speed Curve of 3-phase
AC Induction Motor

LRC –Locked Rotor Current, LRT- Locked Rotor Torque, FLC- Full Load Current, FLT- Full Load Torque
 Motor Torque
Power W 
Torque N .m 
speed rad / s 

Power W 
Torque N .m 
2  speed rps 

Power W 
Torque N .m 
2  speed rpm / 60
 Motor Torque
• Starting torque – the torque produced at zero speed. If the motor is to
turn a load that is difficult to start (a high inertia load) one would choose a
motor with high starting torque.
• Pull-up torque – the minimum torque produced during acceleration from
standstill to operating speed. This may be critical for an application that
needs power to go through some temporary barriers before achieving the
working level output.
• Breakdown torque – the maximum torque that the motor can produce
before stalling.
• Full load torque (also braking torque) – the torque produced at full load
speed that gives the rated output of the motor. At this point the torque
times the speed equals the nameplate power rating.
Efficiency vs Load

hp - horsepower

ISR – University of Coimbra 58

Motor Slip Variation with Load V=Vn
Sn
Slip

0 20 40 60 80 100
Load (%)
Note- For constant power loads slip varies roughly inversely with (Voltage)2,
e.g. Voltage increase of 5%, leads to decrease of about 10% in slip
 Load Characteristics
There are three basic types of loads in terms of T=f(w):
• Variable torque
• Constant torque
• Constant horsepower

In terms load variation the loads can be:

• Cyclic loads.
• Constant loads

ISR – University of Coimbra 60

 Types of Loads
Constant Torque / Variable Speed Variable Torque / Variable Speed

Speed

e.g: screw compressors, conveyors and feeders e.g: centrifugal pumps, fans

ISR – University of Coimbra 61

 Types of Loads
Variable Torque / Constant Power High Starting Breakaway Torque /
Constant Torque

e.g. Traction drives,

e.g. Extruders, screw pumps
winders, rolling mills

ISR – University of Coimbra 62

 Types of Loads
LinearTorque / Power ~ n2

Torque

Power

Speed

e.g. Calenders with viscous friction

coupling, mixers, eddy current
brakes

ISR – University of Coimbra 63

 Duty Cycles (IEC rating - IEC 60034-1)
Ref. Duty Cycle Type Description

S1 Continuous running duty
S2 Short-time duty
S3 Intermittent periodic duty
S4 Intermittent periodic with a
high startup torque
S5 Intermittent periodic duty
with high startup torque and
electric braking
S6 Continuous operation
periodic duty
Operation at constant load of sufficient duration for the thermal
equilibrium to be reached.
Operation at constant load during a given time, less than required to
reach the thermal equilibrium, followed by a rest enabling the machine
to reach a temperature similar to that of the coolant (2 Kelvin tolerance)
A sequence of identical duty cycles, each including a period of operation
at constant load and a rest (without connection to the mains). For this
type of duty, the starting current does not significantly affect the
temperature rise.
A sequence of identical duty cycles, each consisting of a significant
period of starting, a period under constant load and a rest period.
A sequence of identical cycles, each consisting of a period of starting, a
period of operation at constant load, followed by rapid electric braking
and a rest period.
A sequence of identical duty cycles, each consisting of a period of
operation at constant load and a period of operation at no-load. There is
no rest period.

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 Duty Cycles (IEC rating - IEC 60034-1)
Ref. Duty Cycle Type
S7 Continuous operation
periodic duty with electric
braking
S8 Continuous operation
periodic duty with related
load and speed changes
S9 Duty with non-periodic load
and speed variations
S10 Duty with discrete constant
loads and speeds
Description
A sequence of identical duty cycles, each consisting of a period of
starting, a period of operation at constant load, followed by an electric
braking. There is no rest period.
A sequence of identical duty cycles, each consisting of a period of
operation at constant load corresponding to a predetermined speed of
rotation, followed by one or more periods of operation at another
constant load corresponding to the different speeds of rotation (e.g.,
duty ). There is no rest period. The period of duty is too short to reach
the thermal equilibrium.
Duty in which, generally, the load and the speed vary non-periodically
within the permissible range. This duty includes frequent overloads that
may exceed the full loads.
A duty consisting of a specific number of discrete values of load (or
equivalent loading) and if applicable, speed, each load/speed
combination being maintained for sufficient time to allow the machine
to reach thermal equilibrium. The minimum load within a duty cycle may
have the value zero (no-load or de-energized and at rest).
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 Duty Cycles (IEC rating - IEC 60034-1)
S1 S2

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 Duty Cycles (IEC rating - IEC 60034-1)
S4
S3

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 Duty Cycles (IEC rating - IEC 60034-1)
S6

68
Opportunities for savings

Source: IEC60034-31
ISR – University of Coimbra 69
 Discussion
• What are the key characteristics that define the
motor?
• What typical loads to motors drive?

70
The Motor System

71
Case Study: Pumping System

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 Case Study: Pumping System

• Existing system efficiency – 31%

• Only upgrading the motor – System efficiency

increases to 32.6%

• Upgrading entire system – System efficiency increases

to 72%

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 Discussion
• Why do we need to optimise our motor
systems?
• Why is it not currently happening in industry?

74