CHAPTER TWO

PIERS AND CAISSONS

1. Introduction
Pier or caisson is a single unit which supports heavy loads from superstructure and
transfers them to deep- seated layers of soil or rock. The term caisson, pier, drilled
shaft, and drilled pier are the various names given to this type of foundation by the civil
engineers. Piers refer to cast- in- place pile generally having a diameter of about 750 mm
(= 2.5 ft) or more, with or without steel reinforcement and with or without an enlarged
bottom. Sometimes the diameter can be as small as 305 mm (=1ft). More details for
drilled- shaft foundation are given in the following paragraphs.

Drilled- Shaft Foundation

To avoid the confusion, we use the term drilled shaft for a hole drilled or excavated to
the bottom of a structure’s foundation and then filled with concrete, thus it is a massive
structure. Depending on the soil conditions, casing may be used to prevent the soil around
the hole from caving in during construction. The diameter of the shaft is large enough for
a person to enter for inspection.
The use of drilled- shaft foundations has several advantages:
1. A single drilled shaft may be used instead of a group of piles and the pile cap.
2. Constructing drilled shafts in deposits of dense sand and gravel is easier than
driving piles.
3. Drilled shafts may be constructed before grading operations are completed.
4. When piles are driven by a hammer, the ground vibration may cause damage to
nearby structures. The use of drilled shafts avoids this problem.
5. Piles driven into clay soils may produce ground heaving and cause previously
driven piles to move laterally. This does not occur during the construction of
drilled shafts.
6. There is no hammer noise during the construction of drilled shafts; there is during
pile driving.
7. Because the base of a drill shaft can be enlarged, it provides great resistance to the
uplifting load.
8. The surface over which the base of the drilled shaft is constructed can be visually
inspected.
9. The construction of drilled shaft generally utilizes mobile equipment, which under
proper soil conditions, may prove economical than methods of construction pile
foundations.
There are also a couple of drawbacks to the use of drilled shafts construction. For
one thing, the concreting operation may be delayed by bad weather and always
needs close observation.

1
2. Types of Drilled Shafts
Drilled shafts are classified according to the ways in which they are designed to transfer
the structural load to the substratum. Fig 1a shows a drilled straight shaft. It extends
though the upper layer(s) of poor soil, and its tip rests on a strong load bearing soil layer
or rock. The shaft can be cased with steel shell or pipe when required. For such shafts, the
resistance to the applied load may develop from end bearing and also from side friction at
the shaft perimeter and soil interface.
A belled shaft (Fig 1b) consists of a straight shaft with a bell at the bottom, which rests
on good bearing soil. The bell can be constructed in the shape of a dome, or it can be
angled (Fig 1c). For angled bells, the under reaming tools that are commercially available
can make 300 to 450 angles with the vertical. For the majority of drilled shafts in the
United States, the entire load- carrying capacity is assigned to the end bearing only.
However, under certain circumstances, the end bearing capacity and the side friction are
taken into account. In Europe, both the side frictional resistance and the end- bearing
capacity are always taken into account.
Straight shafts can also be extended into an underlying rock layer.(Fig 1 d). In the
calculation of the load-bearing capacity of such shafts, the end bearing and the shear
stress developed along the shaft perimeter and rock interface can be taken into account.

2
Fig 1 types of drilled shaft (a) straight shaft; (b) and (c) belled shaft; (d) straight shaft
socketed into rock.
3. Construction Procedures
The most common construction procedure used in the United States involves rotary
drilling. There are three major types of construction methods; the dry method. the casing
method and the wet method.

3.1. Dry Method of Construction

This method is employed in soils and rocks that are above the water table and that will
not cave in when the whole is drilled to its full depth. The sequence of construction,
shown in Fig 2, is as follows:
1. The excavation is completed (and belled if desired), using proper drilled tools and the
spoils from the hole are deposited nearby.
2. Concrete is then poured into the cylinder hole.
3. If desired, a rebar cage is placed in the upper portion of the shaft.
4. Concrete is then completed, and the drilled shaft will be as shown in Fig 2.

3
Fig2 dry method of construction: (a) initiating drilling; (b) starting concrete pour; (c)
placing rebar cage; (d) completed shaft
3.2. Casing Method of Construction
The method is used in soils or rocks in which caving or excessive deformation is likely to
occur when the bore hole is excavated. The sequence of construction is shown in Fig 3
and is explained as follows:
1. The excavation procedure is initiated as in the case of dry method of construction.
2. When the caving soil is encountered, bentonite slurry is introduced into the
borehole. Drilling is continued until the excavation goes past the caving soil and a
layer of impermeable soil or rock is encountered.
3. A casing is then introduced into the hole.
4. The slurry is bailed out of the casing with a submersible pump.
5. A smaller drill that can pass through the casing is introduced into the hole, and
excavation continues.
6. If needed, the base of the excavated hole can then be enlarged, using an under
reamer.
7. If reinforcing steel is needed, the rebar cage needs to extend the full length of the
excavation. Concrete is the poured into the excavation and the casing is gradually
pulled out.
8. Fig 3 shows the complete drilled shaft.

4
Fig 3 casing method of constructiona) initiating drilling; (b) drilling with slurry; (c) introducing
casing; (d) casing is sealed and slurry is being removed from interior of casing (e) drilling below
casing; (f) under reaming; (g) removing casing; (h) completed shaft.

Fig 3 (continued)

3.3. Wet Method of Construction

This method is sometimes referred to as the slurry displacement method. Slurry is used
to keep the borehole open during the entire depth of excavation.(Fig 4). Following are the
steps involved in the wet method of construction:
1. Excavation continues to full depth with slurry.
2. 2. If reinforcement is required, the rebar cage is placed in the slurry.
3. Concrete that will displace the volume of slurry is then placed in the hole.

5
 4. Fig4 shows the completed drilled shaft.

Fig 4. Slurry method of construction: (a) drilling to full depth with slurry; (b) placing
rebar cage ;(c) placing concrete; (d) concreted shaft.

4 Other Design Considerations

For the design of ordinary drilled shafts without casings, a minimum amount of vertical
steel reinforcement is always desirable. Minimum reinforcement is 1% of the gross cross-
sectional area of the shaft. In California, a reinforcement cage having a length of about
3.65m (12 ft) is used in the top of the shaft, and no reinforcement is provided at the
bottom. This procedure helps in the construction process, because the cage is placed after
the concreting is almost complete.
For drilled shafts with nominal reinforcement, most building codes suggest using a
design concrete strength, fc, on the order of fc/ /4.Thus, the minimum shaft diameter
becomes,

6
 Qw Qw
f c  0.25 f c 
= A gs 
Ds 2
4

Qw
Qw
Or Ds =    = 2.257  (1)
 (0.25) f c fc
4
Where Ds =diameter of the shaft
 =28 days concrete strength
f c

Qw = working load of the drilled shaft

A gs = Gross cross- sectional area of the shaft
If drilled shafts are likely to be subjected to tensile loads, reinforcement should be
continued for entire length of the shaft.

Concrete Mix Design

The concrete mix design for drilled shafts is not much different from that for any other
concrete structure. It can therefore be any of the C20, C25 and C30 mix depending upon
the loading consideration on the drilled shaft. When a reinforcement cage is used,
consideration should be given to the ability of the concrete to flow through the
reinforcement. In most cases, a concrete slump of about 150 mm is considered
satisfactory. Also, the maximum size of the aggregate should be limited to about 20mm

5. Load Transfer Mechanism

The load transfer mechanism from drilled shafts to soil is similar to that of piles, as we
have discussed earlier.

6. Estimation of Load- Bearing Capacity

The ultimate load- bearing capacity of a drilled shaft is given by

Qu  Q p + Q s
(2)
Where Q u = ultimate load
Q p = ultimate load- carrying capacity at the base
Q s = frictional (skin) resistance
The ultimate base load Q p can be expressed in a manner similar to the way it is
expressed on the shallow foundations or
1
Qp = A p ( c N c F cs F cd F cc  q N q F qs F qd F qc   N  F s F d F c )
2
(3)

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Where c  = cohesion
Nc , Nq , N  = bearing capacity factors for shallow foundation (Table below)
Fcs , Fqs , F s = shape factors
Fcd ,Fqd , Fqs = depth factors
Fcc ,Fqc ,F  c =compressible factors
  = effective unit weight of soil at the base of the shaft
q  = effective vertical stress at the base of the shaft

A p = area of the base = Db 2
4

Fig 5 Ultimate bearing capacity of drilled shafts (a) with bell; (b) straight shaft
Table- Bearing capacity factors for equation 4 and 16
 Nc Nq  Nc Nq  Nc Nq

0 5.14 1.00 18 13.10 5.26 36 50.59 37.75

1 5.38 1.09 19 13.93 5.80 37 55.63 42.92
2 5.63 1.20 20 14.83 6.40 38 61.35 48.93
3 5.90 1.31 21 15.82 7.07 39 67.87 55.96
4 6.19 1.43 22 16.88 7.82 40 75.31 64.20
5 6.49 1.57 23 18.05 8.66 41 83.86 73.90
6 6.81 1.72 24 19.32 9.60 42 93.71 85.38
7 7.16 1.88 25 20.72 10.66 43 105.11 99.02
8 7.53 2.06 26 22.25 11.85 44 118.37 115.31
9 7.92 2.25 27 23.94 13.20 45 133.88 134.88
10 8.35 2.47 28 25.80 14.72 46 152.10 158.51
11 8.80 2.71 29 27.86 16.44 47 173.64 187.21
12 9.28 2.97 30 30.14 18.40 48 199.26 222.31
13 9.81 3.26 31 32.67 20.63 49 229.93 265.51
14 10.37 3.59 32 35.49 23.18 50 266.89 319.07
15 10.98 3.94 33 38.64 26.09
16 11.63 4.34 34 42.16 29.44
17 12.34 4.77 35 46.12 33.30

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In most instances, the last term (the one containing N  ) is neglected, except in the case
of a relatively short drilled shaft. With this assumption, the net load-carrying capacity at
the base (i.e. the gross load minus the weight of the drilled shaft) may be approximately
as

Qp(net) = Ap
cN c F cs F cd F cc  q ( N q 1) F qs F qd F qc 
(4)

Nq
Where F cs  1  because B=D=L (5)
Nc
F qs  1  tan   (6)
1  F qd
F cd  F qd  (7)
N c tan  
L
And F qd  1  2 tan  (1  sin  ) 2 tan 1( ) (8)
Db
1 L
Where tan ( D ) is in radians
b

According to Chen and Kulhawy (1994), F cc and Fqc can be calculated

in the following manner:
1. Calculate the critical rigidity index as

  
I rc  0.5 exp 2.85 cot(45  )  (9)
 2 
2. Calculate the reduced rigidity index as
Ir
I rr  (10)
1 I r

Where I r  soil rigidity index

Es
=
2(1   s ) q  tan  
(11)
In which E s = drained modulus of elasticity of soil
 s = drained Poisson’s ratio of soil
 = volumetric strain within the plastic zone during loading
3. If I rr  I rc then

F cc  F qc  1 (12)

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However, if I rr  I rc , then

1  F qc
F cc  F qc 
N c tan  
(13)
And

 3.07 sin  . log 10 2 I rr 

F qc  exp ( 3.8 tan  )  
 1  sin   
(14)
The expression for the frictional or skin resistance Q s is similar to that for piles; that is

L1
Q s   pfdz (15)
0
Where p = shaft perimeter = D s
f =unit frictional (or skin) resistance

7. Drilled Shafts in Sand: Load- Bearing Capacity

For drilled shafts in sand, c  =0; hence, eq 4 simplifies as


Q p ( net )  A p q ( N q 1) F qs F qd F qc 
(16)
The value of N q for a given soil friction angle   can be determined from the table
given for shallow foundation. The shape factor F qs and depth factor F qd can be
evaluated from eqs 6 and 8, respectively. To calculate the compressibility factor F qc eq
9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 will have to be used. The term E s ,  s and  can be
estimated by the relationship given by

Es
m (17)
pa
Where pa = atmospheric pressure (  100 kN m 2 )

m = 100 to 200 (loose soil)

= 200 to 500 (medium dense soil)
= 500 to 1000 (dense soil)

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     25 
 s  0.1  o.3  (For 250     45 0 ) (18)
 20 
And the formula

    25  q 
  0.0051   (19)
 20  p a 

The frictional resistance at ultimate load, Qs, developed in a drilled shaft may be
calculated from the relation given in eq 15, in which
p= shaft perimeter = D s
f = unit frictional (or skin) resistance = K 0  tan  (20)
Where K = earth pressure coefficient  K 0  1  sin  
 0   Effective vertical stress at any depth z
The value of  0  will increase to a depth of about 15 Ds and will remain constant
thereafter as we have discussed in the chapter of pile foundation.
An appropriate factor of safety should be applied to the ultimate load to obtain the
net allowable load, or
Q p ( net ) Q s
Q all ( net ) 
FS
(21)
Load-Bearing Capacity Based on Settlement in Sand
On the bases of the performance of bored piles in sand with an average diameter of
750mm, Touma and Reese (1974) suggested a procedure for calculating the allowable
load- carrying capacity. Their procedure, which is also applicable to drilled shafts in
sand, is as follows:
For L>10Db and a base movement of 25.4 mm, the allowable net point load,
0.508 A p
Q p  all  net   qp (22)
Db
Where Q p  all  net  is in kN, Ap is in m2, Db is in m, and qp is the unit point resistance
inkN/m2
The values of qp, as recommended by Touma and Reese, are given in the following table:
Sand type qp (kN/m2)
Loose 0
Medium 1530
Very dense 3830
For sands of intermediate densities, linear interpretation can be used. The shaft
friction can be calculated as

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 L1 L1 L1
Qs    0.7  p o tan  dz  0.7 Ds    o tan  dz  2.2 Ds   o tan  dz (23)
0 0 0
Where    effective soil friction angle
 0  Vertical effective stress at a depth z
For the definition of L1, refer the figure. Thus,
Q
Qall net   Q p  all  net   s (for a base movement of 25.4 mm) (24)
FS
Where FS=factor of safety   2
Example1-A soil profile is shown in the following fig. A point bearing drilled shaft with
a bell is placed in a layer of dense sand and gravel. Determine the allowable load the
drilled shaft could carry. Take Ds = 1 m and Db = 1.75 m. For the dense sand layer,
   36 o ; Es =500 pa. FS=4. Ignore the frictional resistance of the shaft. (Use eq 16)
Solution- see last.

8. Drilled Shafts in Clay: Load Bearing Capacity

For saturated clays with   0 , the bearing capacity factor N q  1 in eq 4. Thus eq 4 will
be,
Q p ( net )  A p c u N c F cs F cd F cc
(25)
where Cu =untrained cohesion
Assuming that L  3D b , we can rewrite eq 25 as
Q p ( net )  A p c u N c  (26)

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 Fig Allowable load of drilled shaft ( this fig is for example 1)

Where N c  N c F cs F cd F cc  1.33  ln I r   1
(27)
In which I r  soil rigidity index
The soil rigidity index was defined in eq 11. For   0 ,

Es
I r (28)
3c u
Es
O’Neill and Reese (1999) provided an approximate relationship between cu and 3c u
cu
This relationship is shown in the form of a figure. For all practical purposes, if p a is
equal to or greater than unity ( pa= atmospheric pressure 
100kN/ m2 ), then the
magnitude of N c  can be taken to be 9.
Experiments by Whitaker and Cooke (1996) showed that, for belled shafts, the full value
of N c  =9 is realized with a base movement of about 10%- 15% of D b. Similarly, for
straight shafts (Db=Ds), the full value of N c  =9 is obtained with a base movement of
about 20% of Db.

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The expression for the skin resistance of drilled shafts in clay is similar to that in piles or

L  L1
Qs 
L 0

c u pL (29)

Where p = perimeter of the shaft cross section

The value of   that can be used in the above eq 29 has not yet been fully established.
However, the field test results available at this time indicate that   may vary between
1.0 and 0.3. The best correlation for   as obtained by Kulhawy and Jackson (1989) is
given as
pa
  = 0.21  0.25 1 (30)
cu
Where pa = atmospheric pressure  100 kN m 2
So, conservatively, we may assume that   = 0.4 (31)

9. Settlement of Drilled Shaft at Working Load

The settlement of drilled shaft at working lad is calculated in a manner similar to that as
discussed for piles. In many cases, the load carried by shaft resistance is small compared
with the load carried at the base. In such cases, the contribution of s 3 may be ignored. It is
to be noted that the term D is to be replaced by D b for drilled shafts. In general, the total
settlement is given by se  se1  se 2   se 3 .

10. Drilled Shafts Extended into Rock

In this section, we shall study the principles of analysis of the load- bearing capacity of
such drilled shafts which are extended into rock, based on the procedure developed by
Reese and O’Neill (1988, 1989).Fig below shows a drilled shaft whose depth of
embedment in rock is equal to L. In their design procedure, it is assumed that there is
either side resistance between the shaft and the rock or point resistance at the
bottom, but not both. Following is a step- by – step procedure for estimating the
ultimate bearing capacity:
1. Calculate the ultimate unit side resistance as
f (kN / m 2 )  6.564q u 0.5 (kN / m 2 )  0.15q u (kN / m 2 )
(32)
Where qu = unconfined compression strength of a core of NW size or larger, or of the
drilled shaft concrete, whichever is smaller (kN/m2)
2. Calculate the ultimate capacity based on side resistance only, or
Q u  D s L. f (33)
3. Calculate the settlement, se the shaft at the top of the rock socket, or
Se = se(s) + se(b)

14
where se(s) = elastic compression of the drilled shaft within the socket,
assuming no side resistance.
Se(b) = settlement of the base
However,
Qu L
se(s) = (34)
Ac E c
Qu I f
and Se(b) = (35)
D s E mass
Where Qu = ultimate load obtained from eq33.
Ac = cross- sectional area of the drilled shaft in the socket
= D s 2 / 4
Ec = Young’s modulus of the concrete and reinforcing steel in the
shaft
Emass = Young’s modulus of the rock mass into which the socket is
drilled
If = elastic influence coefficient as given in the following figure.
4. If se is less than 10 mm, then the ultimate load- carrying capacity is that calculated by
eq30. If se  10mm , then go to step 5.
5. If se  10mm , there may be rapid progressive side shear failure in the rock socket,
resulting in a complete loss of side resistance. In that case, the ultimate capacity is equal
to the point resistance, or

 c 
 3 s 
 Ds q
Qu  3Ap u (36)
    0. 5
101  300  
  c s  
Where cs = spacing of discontinuities (same unit as Ds)
 = thickness of individual discontinuity (same unit as Ds)
qu = unconfined compression strength of the rock beneath the base of the
socket, or the drilled shaft concrete, whichever is smaller.
It is to be noted that eq 33 applies for horizontal stratified discontinuities with c s > 305
mm and  < 5mm.

15
 Caissons
Caisson which provides a large underwater support is a large sized chamber (French
word caisse means box) pre-cast above the ground or water level and then carried to the
desired location for sinking into the ground to the desired depth. After sinking, it is filled
with concrete or sand and left in position to form an integral part of the foundation
structure. Sinking of caisson is done either by blasting or dredging through dredge-wells
provided at the bottom. Caissons are made of steel, reinforced concrete or both, or may
also be made of wood with provision of steel shoes. The massive weight of the caisson
aids in its sinking. It may be made of vertical sections of convenient lifts, the additional
sections being added as the sinking progresses. Caisson may reach a depth even
exceeding 70m (The caisson used for San Francisco, Oakland Bridge is 295 * 60*75 m
depth

1. Types of Caissons
Depending upon the method of construction caissons may be classified as under;
(i) Open caisson,
(ii) Box or floating caisson,
(iii) Pneumatic or compressed air caisson.

1.1 Open Caisson

It is a box like pre-cast R.C.C shell, square, rectangular, circular or oval in plan and open
at the both ends. It is brought to the site for sinking at the desired location. It may have a
single open dredge well or may have several partitions or a group of wells. It is provided
with a cutting edge at the bottom and a cap at the top. Sinking is achieved by inside
excavation aided by the massive weight of the shell. When the shell is sunk to the desired
level, the bottom is filled with concrete to form a plug. Hand excavation is possible if the
water level is below the excavation level, otherwise dredging or hand excavation by
divers is employed. Sinking is hindered by resistance due to skin friction, tilting of shaft
or due to obstacle from boulders. Caissons have no theoretical limit to the depth of
sinking; Open caissons are suitable in rivers and waterways, where soil consists of soft
clay, silt, sand or gravel overlying a firm layer.

1.2 Floating or Box Caisson

Box caisson is a pre-cast box like structure closed at the bottom end. It is floated and
sunk in position at the prepared sea or river bed by filling the inside with ballast of sand,
gravel and concrete. Large caissons have partitions and are known as cellular caissons.
Tilting or realignment is adjusted by placement or removal of ballast. Sometimes box
caissons are provided with false bottom of wood for floating them to the desired location.
Box caissons should leave about 2 m of free board above water to guard against capsizing
or tipping. The construction cost is low, but box caisson is not feasible for great depths.

16
1.3 Pneumatic Caisson
This is a caisson made of concrete, steel or both and is provide with a roof or a suspended
floor near the bottom to form a working chamber. Compressed air is pumped into the
working chamber to exclude the incoming water. The technique is useful for deep sinking
under high hydrostatic pressure (of more then 30 m head). The working chamber is
connected to an air lock and to the top by two or more shafts, facilitating the movement
of men and materials from the outside to the working chamber. The air pressure in the
chamber is kept sufficiently high to balance the hydrostatic pressure, maximum air
pressure to about 35 m depth of water.
Man can work for 35 minutes under compressed air and then needs a rest of 5
hours. Later the open caisson can be converted into pneumatic caisson. The excavation is
done by hand tools and the excavate material is lifted to the ground in buckets through
shafts or through blowout hose pipes. The construction is very slow and costly. As such,
the construction should initially start as an open caisson and continue as for as possible,
before conversion as pneumatic caisson.

2. Foundation Wells
Foundation wells are open caissons. These are most commonly used for bridge
foundations in India from long past. Masonry or concrete are the common types in their
construction. For depth of foundation greater than 5 m massive foundation wells are sunk
in the ground by dredging. Sinking is accomplished simply by the gravity force, aided by
inside excavation.
Wells may be circular, square, hexagonal or oval in shape, with one or more dredge
holes. A circular well is commonly employed for its ease in sinking. Two or more single
wells can also be connected by a common well cap to support a long bridge pier.
3. Foundation Well design
The following are the components of a well foundation
3.1 Steining- The wall of the shaft is known as steining. The steining is thick enough to
cause sinking under self weight. The minimum thickness for a masonry wall should be
one- eight of external diameter (minimum 450 mm) and for a concrete wall it should be
minimum 300 mm. The steining should increase with depth by 100mm for 3 m in steps.
RCC steining should be minimum 225 mm.
3.2 Curb- Curb is the lowest part of the RCC wall. It should resist stresses due to sand
bows and light blasting.
3.3 Cutting Edge- Useful to cut the soil at the edge, it is pointed at 30 0 angle to the
vertical and is rapped with 12 mm plate, anchored into wall concrete.

17
3.4 Bottom and Top Plugs- The bottom plug seals bottom. It should be sufficiently thick
to resist uplift. The shaft is backfilled with sand or concrete and topped by the concrete
plug and the cap

4. Sinking of Wells
A well sinks when the weight of the shaft overcomes the skin resistance. Additional
weight of kentledge is often required to effect speedy sinking. Uniform subsoil does not
present serious problems of sinking. But non- homogeneous hard layers can be
problematic. While sinking a well, following difficulties may arise:
(i) Tilt (iv) Obstruction
(ii) Shift (v) Sand blows
(iii)Hanging-up (vi) Sloping Rock
4.1 Tilt:
Tilting is the most common problem in caisson sinking. A tilt of up to 1 in 60 to 100 is
tolerable. For rectification of excessive tilt, grabbing or dredging on the higher side,
strutting on the lower side, eccentric loading on the higher side, temporary obstacle
below the cutting edge, lateral loading of shaft on the higher side, hooking on the lower
side, excavating a part of the pit on the higher side (to reduce skin resistance) are some of
the measures. Although some tilt or shift is tolerable, it is important to keep the caisson
true to verticality. Corrective measures must be initiated as soon as caisson is 50 to 80
mm off the centre.

4.2 Shift:
Any shift from alignment would change span length and induce eccentric loads on the
bridge pier shaft. Some of the measures used to rectify tilt also reduce shift. Maximum
shift should be limited to about 300mm
4.3 Hanging- Up:
This problem arises when top layer exert greater skin resistance than the bottom layers, or
when non- cohesive material at the bottom flows into the shaft and is dredged out,
causing a hollow surrounding the bottom. The shaft practically hangs up and develops
tensile stress.
4.4 Obstructions:
Hard clay pockets, logs or large boulders are the usual obstructions to sinking. Chisels or
hammers are used to break these obstacles. Localized blasting also may be used.
4.5 Sand Blows:
In non-cohesive layers inflow of water causes flow of finer material, which needs
dredging out. Thus, dredging increases in volume, without sinking. Besides, caving-in of
sides disturbs alignment of shaft.

4.6 Sloping Rock Bed:

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Tilt of the shaft is inevitable if its curb rests on a sloping rock bed. In such situations,
propping and temporary supports are provided on the low-side. Subsequent dredging and
plugging with concrete will re-establish the alignment of the shaft.
In designing the caisson, its centre of gravity must be well the centre of floatation to
prevent tilting. To rectify uneven bearing of the river bed, bags of sand are sometimes
placed over the side of landing, and the caisson is then sunk through the artificial bed.
After the caisson is in place, kentledge is added and dredging is started. The caisson must
at all time be balanced under downward and upward forces, acting on it.

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