Pile Foundations 547

16.3 TYPES OF PILES

Piles have been classified in the past using different criteria. Some of these criteria are:
(a) Material of construction-ex: timber, steel, concrete,
composite piles.
(b) Cross-section-ex: circular, square, hexagonal, I-section. H-section, pipe, etc.
(c) Shape-ex: cylindrical, tapered, underreamed, etc.
(d) Mode of load transfer-ex: bearing, friction, tension etc.
(c) Method offorming-ex: precast, prestressed, cast in situ, etc.
() Method of installation-ex: driven. bored, vibrated, jetted, etc.
However, it is now realised that perhaps the best way of classifying the pile is on the basis of the efect
of installation ofpile on the soil. Based on this criterion. piles can be considered to fall into two main classes:
displacemen1 piles and non-displacement piles.
f during the installation of the pile, a large volume of soil is displaced laterally and upwards._such.a.pile
Iscalled a displacement pile. In a loose sand, such a pile densifies thesand upto a distance of about 3.5 times
thediameter of the pile measured from the centre of the pile. Compaction of sand leads to an increase in its
angle of shearing resistance within the zone of influence. One commonly used rule of thumb suggested by
Kishida (1967) describes the variation of o from oj at the periphery of the zone of influence (at 3.5D) to 2 at
the centre of the pile as a straight line variation, given by the equation

Pi+40
2
2
where is the initial value of angle of shearing resistance. When o = 40°, no benefit will be derived from
pile driving. For o, > 40°. pile driving shall, in fact, have the effect of reducing theangle of shearing resistance
of sand, due to dilatancy effects.
In clays, large displacement piles remold the soil to a distance of about twice the diameter of the pile. Also,
during driving, very high pore water pressures are set up around the pile and the soil regains its initial strength
only after a period of time, when the excess pore water pressures are dissipated. That is why displacement piles
are preferTed for use in loose to medium sands and not in dense sand or clay.
Driven and cast-in-place, driven precast or prestressed concrete piles, timber piles etc. are examples of
large displacement piles while there are some piles like the rolled steel section piles, screw piles, open-ended
hollow section piles etc. which are classified as small displacement piles because, on account of their small
cross-section, they produce small displacement of soil. Small displacement piles are preferred when ground
displacements and disturbance are to be minimised.
Non-displacement piles are those piles whose installation does not lead Lo any displacement of soil at all.
A void is formed inthe soil by boring orexcavationand isthen filled with concrete. The sides of the voidcan
beunsupported or supported either permanently by casing or temporarily by casing or drilling mud. Bored cast
in situ and bored precast piles are examples of non-displacement piles. Some of the advantages of non-dis-
placement piles are that there is no ground heave, the piles can be installed without noise or vibration, their
length can be easily varied at site and it is possible to instal very long piles with very large diameters.
Construction of enlarged ends upto about three times pile diameter, is possible in clays. This would result in a
substantial increase in point bearing capacity owing to the larger bearing area. Further, the construction process
enables inspection of the excavated soil and its comparison with the soil exploration data. However, during
installation of piles, the soil on the sides of the borehole softens due to contact with wet concrete, migration of
water or due to the water used in the borehole to facilitate boring. This softening of the soil, if it is a clay-1ype
 Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics
S48

soil or the loosening of the soil. if it happens lo be sand or gravel. would lead to a loss in shear strength nn
educed pile bearing capacity Futher. there is the ditficulty of concreting under water and likelihood
WaIsting or necking ot concrete in squcezing ground.Bulb ends cannot be made in granular soils. It isessentio
hat concrele is placed as soon as possible alter the boring is done to minimise the softening of the soil.Th
scheme of classification for bearing piles is illustrated in Table 16.1
The general characteristics of piles classified on the basis of he material of construction, namely, titnher
stecl and concrete piles are discussed below

Timber Piles

A timber pile is primarily the trunk of a tree with its branches chopped off. An iron shoe may be provided at
the tip and iron cap at the top to prevent damage during driving
Timber piles are cheap and easy to handle. These piles, though not very popular in India, have been used
upto about 30 m lcngth in other countries. Several codes of practice have becn brought out, defining
specifications of timber piles with regard to quality and presence of defects like knots, holes, etc.
In situations of fluctuating water table. timber piles should be suitably treated to enhance their life. An
untreated pile above water table is likely to be eaten away by insects. borers. termites etc. Hence chemical
treatment is desirable.
The allowable load on these piles varies from 100 to 250 kN per pile.

Stoel Piles

These are small displacement piles. Heave and ground displacement are minimal. A steel pile may be a rolled
section, a pipe or any fabricated shape. These piles require heavy equipment for driving. The pine piles are
made of seamless or welded pipes and are usually filled with concrete. These pipes may be driven close-ended
with a driving point or open ended.
Steel piles can be used to carry heavy loads. Splicing of steel piles is also easy. However, these are likely
to be affected by corosive action and hence need painting or encasement in concrete to resist corrosion. Steel
piles of length upto 40 m and allowable load of about 1800 kN are common.

Driyeh Precast Concrete Piles

Precast concrete piles are prismatic or circular in section. These piles may be of uniform diameter or tapered
They are usually cast at a central casting yard, cured and transported to the construction site. If arrangements
for casting and curing are available, they may be cast at the site also.
As a precast concrete pile is usually in a state of compression, no reinforcement is required from load
bearing considerations. However, piles are reinforced to take care of handling stresses. Solid sections of 0.2 m
to 0.3 m side are usually used. Precast, hollow eylindrical sections are also used where large stiffness and higher
bearing capacity is required, though in India, hollow sections are not popular. Precast concrete piles in lengths
upto 20 m and precast hollow pipe piles upto 60 m length have been used. Shorter piles can carry loads upto
600 kN, whereas the capacity of longer piles can, in somecases, be as large as 2000 kN.
Concrete piles are considered more or less permanent. However, in exceptional circumstances, the soil
may contain deleterious substances which may affect the pile. Splicing of precast concrete piles is difficult.
Further. if the pile at the site proves to be too long, chopping off the extra length is difficult and is likely to
damage the pile. Handling and driving of precast concrete piles also requires heavy equipment. Heave and
disturbance of surrounding soil may also cause difficulties.
 Pile Foundanons
549

Cast in situ Concrete Piles

A castinSu concrcte pile is flormed by making a hole in the ground and filling it with concrete, The hole may
be formed by drilling as in caissons (bored cast in siu) but usually it is forned by driving a metallic shell or a
casing into the ground (driven cast in siu). If during the process of concreting the hole, the casing Is lelt in
position. then il is lermed as cased pile. The casing may be gradually withdrawn. In that case, it is termmed as
uncased pile. Uncascd piles can be of uniform diameter or may be provided with an enlarged end or a pedestal.
Drven and cast m stlu
piles have the
advantages and disadvantages of both the driven and cast in stfiu ptles.
The advantages of driven cast-in-place piles are:
(1) They can be driven to a predetermined set; (ii) pile lengths are easily adjustable: (i1) an enlarged base
can be formed which will help generate much higher end bearing capacity in a granular bearing stratum, (av)
rentorcement is not needed to take care of handling or driving stresses, and: (v) piles can be driven with a
closed end exclude the effects of ground
so as to
water.
The disadvantages are:
0) Heave of adjoining ground surface which could affect the services or structures nearby: (ii) lifting
of previously driven piles where the penetration of the pile toes into the bearing stratum has not been
Sutficient, (i) possible damage to uncased piles by necking or waisting due to the lateral forces when the
concrete iS green; (iv) concrete cannot be inspected after completion: (v) concrete may be weakened if
artesian flow pipes up the shaft of piles when the tube is withdrawn: (vi) cannot be driven where headroom
is and (vii) limitation in length because of the lifting force required to withdraw
limited. casing
Theusual pilelengths are from 25-30 m and allowableloads of around 1500 kN are quite common.
Bored and cast in situ piles may be straight bored piles or piles with one or more bulbs at intervals. cast
at the site. The latter are known as underreamed piles. Reinforcement is used as per design requirements.
The advantages of bored and cast in situ piles are:

i) Very little displacement and no risk of ground heave; (ii) length can be readily varied;: (ii) soil can
be inspected and checked with soil investigation data: (iv) piles can be installed in very great lengths and very
large diameters and end enlargements of upto 2 or 3 shaft diameters are possible in clays or soft rocks. and (V)
can be installed without much noise and vibration and with limited head room.
The disadvantages are:

i) Boring methods may loosen sandy or gravelly soils; (ii) concreting under water will pose problems
(iii) concrete cannot be subsequently inspected; (iv) susceptible to waisting or necking in squeezing ground.
and (v) enlarged bases cannot be formed in granular soils.
Pile lengths upto 50 m have been used, with loads going upto even 10,000 kN.

16.4 CAST IN SITU PILE CONSTRUCTION

Different methods of in situ pile construction with slightly different end results have been developed by several
commercial firms in this country and abroad. These have been patented. Some of these processes have been
discussed in the following sections. For further details, company catalogues may be referred.

Cased Piles

Union of Montube pile, Raymond standard and Raymond step-taper pile are some of the examples of patented
cased piles.
In the case of a Raymond standard pile, a shell having a taper of 10 mm in diameter tor each 300 mm
length with 200 mm tip diameter, is driven with a mandrel into the ground. After it is driven to the required
Pile Foundations 551

depth. the mandrel is withdrawn and the shell filled with concrete. Such piles could be used upto lengths
of about 15 m. The Raymond step-taper pile consists of a series of cylinders about 3 m long, each about
25.4 mm larger than the lower one. Step-taper piles can be used upto about 30 m length. The method is a
patented process of Raymond Concrete Pile company of the USA.

Uncased Pile

Western uncased p1le and Franki uncased pile are some of the examples of uncased piles.
In a Franki pile, a 500 mm diameter steel casing is driven into the ground for a small depth. After cleaning
the casing. concrete with a low water-cement ratio is placed at its bottom and rammed to form a plug. The
rammed concrete plug grips the casing pipe tightly and thereafier forms an integral part during the driving
process. Thecasing is then driven by a ram weighing about 31.75 kN, falling through a height of 3 to 6m insiae

the casing. The casing penetrates the ground under the impact of the falling ram. When the casing reaches the
required depth, the casing is held and the concrete plug is forced out of the casing. Further ramming of the
expelled concrete is done to form a bulb. The casing is then raised while successive charges of concrete are
rammed in place to form a rough surface of the pile. Figure 16.I shows the sequence of various operations. As
the pile has an enlarged end at the base, it is sometimes called a Franki uncased pedestal pile. Such piles of
lengths upto 32 m, can be used with a load bearing capacity exceeding 1000 kN.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Forming Driving Forming Foming
plug tube base haft

Fig. 16.1 Sequence of Franki pile construction

 Basic and Applied Sotl Mechanrs
S52

Underreamed Piles
provided
which is with a bulb/pedestal at the end. The
An underreamed pile is a special type of bored pile
mcans of a hand-operated auger. An
a hole in the ground by
undereamed pile is constructed by making underreamer is pressed down
and rotated. Under pressure
underreamer is then lowered in the cleaned hole. The
When the bucket is full, the
and due to rotary action, the soil is cut and falls in the bucket.
the blades open up lowered again and the process repeated. After the
undeiTeanmer is pulled out and clcaned. The underreamer is
16.2 shows the sequence
end is formed. the reinforcement cage is lowered
and concreting is done. Fig.
enlarged
of operations with the underreamer.
3 to 4 m long. The diameter of the
The usual size of such piles are 150 to 200 mm shaft diameter,
undereamed portion is usually 2 to 3 times the shaft diameter.
Underreamed considered useful in expansive soils where the use of shallow spread footings is
piles are
is the use of
shrinkage and swelling behaviour of such soils. A further development
ruled out due to excessive

When the number of bulbs is increased from

one to two, the carrying capacity of the
multi-underreamed piles.
le increases by about 50 per cent.
Concreting
funnel
Boring
guide

Reintor
c e ment

Under
reamer
Auger

(a) (b) (c (d
Making hole Forming Rein forcement Compketed
bulb in position pile

Fig. 16.2 Stages in construction of a single underreamed pile

16.5 SELECTION OF PILE TYPE

The selection of the type of pile to be used in a project depends on several factors, e.g., (i) the type of structure
and the load it carries: (i) location of the site; (ii) soil conditions and position of water table: (iv) required pile
length and structural capability of the pile; (v) durability and (vi) economy.
The selection of the material of the pile would depend upon the magnitude of structural load. For light
loads, imber piles can be used while for heavy loads, only steel or reinforced concrete piles can be considered.
If the site is situated in a very busy and crowded area with structures already constructed in adjacent areas, the
 Iilr laumdation
S53

ol
option lit pe diplncenen1 piles a y have lo be piven up and only small or
ed non-displacement piles av to
r
fromconsielerations of noise, vibration and grund displacement In loose to medium 5ana enO
dinplnceent pilen help connpact the oil, while in aclay wil, use of displaccnent piles may resut in the
of the s i l e e e , non hecaving
displacement piles ae pretencd under such conditions. Driven piles are unaTectod
round WAei while in bored piles, COnCretin ha ty be catefully nonitorcd whcn the construction 1s bein D
aied oul beow the water
table. TheIe ane limitations
the length of piles of different types. imber pi
to
Can be used upto lenpthof
20 mor driven concrete piles upto about 30) m, bored concrete piles up o aut
s0,
45 m while steel T or pipe
jpile can have almost unlimited length. Durability of the pile depends on the pIE
materal and the cnvironcntal condition Timber
piles are liatble to rot when subjected to alternate wetnE
nd drying. Il sulplhates are the
prescnt in
soil, concrcte piles are likely to keeping in inmind
obe comodcd by the salis, The selection of the pile material must be madedeteriorate
strengtn. >tee
any suchcondition
Alternatively, suitable treatment must be given to the
pile material to protect it from damage
I therc is morc than onc alternative for the
type of pilc that can be used in a given project, Compal au
nstalle cosIs must be worked out and the most economical alternative chosen. In many cases. the cheapest
1or ot iling may no necessarily result in the cheapest pile installation per meter length. Lack of experience
o thepiling coniactor may result indelays and add appreciably to the cost of a project. It is always preferable
n the long run to cmploy a reputed contractor with good appreciation of local conditions even though his
SCrvices are slightly more cxpensive. Cost of pile load tests have also to be added to the installation cost while
working out the overall cost.
niormation on the optimum and naximum lengths generally available for various types of piles and the
approxinate working loads for cach of them is summarised in Table 16.2

Table 16.2 Typical Lengths and Capacities of Various Pile Types

Pile length (m) Approximate design load (kN)
Pile typ
Usual range Maximum Usual range Maximum
Timber 10-18 0 150-200 300

Driven prccast concrete 10-15 30 300-600 900

Driven prestressed 20-30 50 500-600 900
Concrete

Cast in silu concrcte 15-25 40 300-750 900

(Drilled shell)
Concretce cast in situ 15-25 45 600-3000 9000
bulb pilcs (large dia.) (large dia.)
Stcel pipe 20-40 Unlimited 300-1000 2500-10000
(small dia.) (large dia.)
Composilc 20-40 60 300-900 2000

This information can be used only as a guide line during the initial planning and analysis stages.
 556 Basic and Applied Soil Mechants
raft is another possibility that can be considered. For really heavy loads, driven stcel piles or caissons bearing
on rock stratum will be suitable.
Case ) : Since rock is available at only 4.5 m depth. piles or piers bearing on rock would obviously be mos1
sausfactory. But if basement floors are going to be useful. cxcavating the soil upto rock level and providing
two basement tloors with the base slab resting on rock, would be ideal.

16.7 PILE DRIVING

Pile driving equipment consists of a hoist to lift the pile, a device to hold the pile in position and some device
to provide impact energy. Pile drivers are used to provide the impact energy. Several types of pile drivers are
used. However, the most commonly used is the drop hammer. The hammer is lifted up and dropped, falling
freely on the cap block and cushion mounted on the pile head. These hammers are satisfactory for light work.
The main disadvantages are the slow rate of blows and the length of leads required during early driving to
obtain adequate fall to drive the pile.
Steam hammers (single or double acting) are used for rapid driving and higher efficiency. In single acting
hammers, steam or air pressure is used to lift the ram upto the required height. The ram then drops under gravity
on the anvil which transmits energy to the pile through the cap block. Double acting steam hammers use steam
to lift the ram and also aid gravity in providing the driving energy. Steam harmmers are more efficient as
compared to drop hammers but the need for gas pressure, generator and hoses are the main disadvantages.
Diesel hammers utilising diesel-fuel explosions are also used for pile driving. These hammers are lighter,
have high mobility and low fuel consumption as compared to steam hammers. Further, diesel hammers can
operate efficiently in temperatures as low as 0°C.
A relatively recent trend in pile driving is the use of vibratory drivers. A vibratory driver consists of a
variable speed oscillator having two counter-rotating eccentric weights. The eccentric weights during each
revolution provide two vertical impulses, one up and one down. The downward pulse acting with the weight
of pile increases the downward force. Further, when the frequency of vibration of the pile coincides with the
natural frequency of the pile-soil system, resonance is achieved and the pile penetrates easily. Vibratory drivers
have the advantage of lesser driving vibration, reduced noise as compared to impact drivers and increased
speed of pile penetration.

16. 8 PILE LOAD CAPACITY IN COMPRESSION

General requirements for satisfactory behaviour of pile foundations are the same as for other foundations,
namely, adequate safety against shear failure and excessive settlement. The load capacity of the pile can be
estimated by several methods which may be grouped into the following categories:
(a) Static pile load formulae
(b) Pile load test
(c) Pile driving formulae
(d) Correlations with penetration test data

16.9 STATIC PILE LOAD FORMULAE

When a compressive load Q is applied at the top of a pile, the pile will tend to move vertically downward
relative to the surrounding soil. This will cause shear stresses to develop between the soil and the surface o
Pile F o u n d a i o n s 557

the shaft. As a result, the applied load is distributed as friction load along a certain length of the pile measured
from the top. As the load at the top is increased, the friction load distribution will extend more and more
rowards the tip of the pile, till at a certain load level. the entire length of the pile is involved in generating the
frictional resistance. This is the ulúmate skin friction resistance of the pile,. 0, It is only when the load at the
tO0 of the pile exceeds , that the load in excess of , begins to be transferred to the soil at the base of the
nile. This load. known as the point load, goes on increasing till the soil at the base of the pile fails by punching
shear failure. The load in bearing at this stage is the ultimate point load. Qu
The maximum load which the pile can support through the combinced resistance of skin friction and pOint

bearing is known as the ultimate load capacity, Q, of the pile.

(16.1)

If Qpu> O, the pile may be called a "point bearing'pile; if >> pu, it iscalled 'friction a pile.
friction depend on the shear strength and
The relative proportion of loads carried by point load and skin
mobilise full skin friction resistance is much
elasticity of the soil. The vertical movement of the pile required to that the relative
smaller than that required to mobilise full point bearing resistance. It has been observed
shaft resistance is approximately equal to 0.5 to I per cent of the shaft
movement required to fully mobilise
and for driven piles in sand, the vertical movement required to fully
diameter. In contrast to this, in clays
base diameter. This usually implies that when piles
mobilise base resistance is about 10 to 20 per cent of the
a working load equal to 1/3 to 1/2 of the
ultimate load, the chances are that the shaft
are designed to carry
friction
load. It has been observed that (a) when the ultimate skin
resistance is fully mobilised at this working
ultimate point load is mobilised, and (b) when the ultimate point
resistance is mobilisec, only a fraction of the
resistance has decreased to a lower value than its peak.
load is mobilised, the skin friction
for a c-¢ soil may be written in the form
The general equation for unit point bearing resistance, qpu
9puCN, +GN, +0.5 yBNY (16.2 a)

B = width or diameter of the pile

where
=effective overburden pressure at the tip of the pile, equal to y L
factors
N.N, and N,= bearing capacity
c unitcohesion
L = Length of embedment of the pile
7 effective unit weight ofsoil
0.5 y BN, is quite small compared to oN and hence is usually neglected.
In a decp foundation, the tem
The equation for qpu for a c -¢ soil thus reduces to
(16.2 b)
hu=CN +N,
Fora granular soil, c =C= 0; thus (16.2 c)
Sru=N,
For a clay soil, c = Cu and Gu= 0, thus

CuhN (16.3)

the pile
where Cuh undrained shear strength ofclay at the base of
the form
The ulümate point load, Qpu can be expressed in
(16.4)
 Bastc and Applied Soll Mechanics

SSN

base
wh A,scctional arca of the pile nt its
may written in the form
friction resistance,
The general cquation for the ultimate skin
(16.5)
- ,A,
where unit skin friction resistance ind
the pile in contact with the soil
A, srfacearca of
be expressed in the form
Thus, the ultimate load capcity,. , can

, =pu Ay +/,A,
(16.6)

a single pile is to relate qpu

and f, in Eq. 16.6 to basic soil strength
One of the first steps in designing
stress' analysis. In clays, it iscommon
paramcters. For piles in granular soil,
the design is based on an 'efective
Cu. However,
to use a 'total stress' analysis in which the
load capacity is related to the undrained shear strength.
effective stress approach. For one
some investigators believe that even piles
in clay should be designed using
than the undrained
drained load capacity may be more critical
thing, in piles in overconsolidated clays, the
due to pile loading develops in a limited area
load capacity. Even otherwise, he excess pore water pressure
around the pile and can dissipate rapidly through
fissures in the soil or even through the concrete pile itself. In
soils.
this text, however, the total stress approach is used for clay

Piles in Granular Soils (Sand and Gravel)

Driven piles:

the effective stress analysis, one can assume C=0 for a granular
soil. The ulümate load capacity of a
Using
16.6.
single pile, driven into a grunular soil, is obtained by using Eq.

Point bearing

In a granular soil, 4pu =õ N , (Eq. 16.2 c).

The bearing capacity factor, N, in Eq. 16.2 c is a function of o.Different investigators have recommended
different values of Ny, as shown in Fig. 16.4.
+40°
Fordriven piles in sand, a value of may be taken, where d1 is the in situ value of the angle of
=

2
shearing resistance. Tomlinson, however, recommends that the in situ value of o itself may be taken. Thus,
with known pile dimensions and soil properties, the ultimate load capacity, Opu can be determined
from Eq. 16.4.
Eq. 16.2 c uppears to suggest that the unit point resistance increases in direct proportion to the
embedded length of the pile. However, several field observationsindicatethatthese values increase only
upto a limited depth, beyond which these values remain constant. Thisdepth iscalled thecritical depth
of pile. This phenomenon is primarily attributed to the arching action in the granular soil. The critical
depth depends on the angle of shearing resistance ' of the soil and the width (or diameter) of the pile.Its
value may vary from about 15 D in loose to medium sands to 20 D in dense sands where D isthe pile
diameter or width. It must be understood that the eritical depth conceptisnot applicable to piles embedded
in clay strata where arching effect is absent. It is also recommended that the maximum value of unit point
Pilc Foundations
559

1000

Skemptonetal(1963)
eyerhotb3 (1943)
51s>AN 961) (E

100 zaghi
Ter

10
25 30 3S 40 45
Angle of internal
tric tion,
(After Ranjan, 1970)
Fig. 16.4 Bearing capacity factor Ng for deep circular foundations

resistance qou be limited to 11000 kN/m* in normal silica sand and

5000 kN/m* for calcareous sand.
Tomlinson and Bowles, however, do not favour the use of the critical
depth concept.
Berezantsev et al. (1961) developed an analysis in which failure is assumed to have taken
failure surface reaches the level of the pile base. The place when the
surcharge at the base level is assumed to be due to the
overburden of the soil reduced by the frictional force acting on the outer surface. The
upon the shear strength parameter, d and the length to diameter ratio, VD. The values
Ng factor thus depends
of N, for LD ratio of 5,
20 and 70 are shown in
Fig. 16.5. Berezantzev values of Ng are the ones most commonly used now.
IS: 2911 Part I (1979) recommends the use
Soils.
of Fig. 16.6 for Ng values to be used for driven piles in granular
The code includes the term 0.5 y BN, in addition to G tor
values be taken
N, detemining qpu and recommends that
Ny
corresponding to general shear
failure
 560
Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics
300
250
200
150
500
120
100

60
50
40
30
UO=S
V0=5
15
uD=20L / 0
2 0

8
LD=70

200 25° 30 35 40 45
10
Angle of shearing resistance , 4' 20 30 L0
Angle of internal friction,
Fig. 16.5 Values of Ng for pile formula (After
Berezantzev et al. 1961) Fig. 16.6 Bearing capacity factor, Ng for driven
piles (IS: 2911 Part 1-1979)
Further the code recommends that in
15 to 20 pile diameters, working outpile capacities using static fornmula for
maximum effective piles longer than
to 20 diameters overburden pressure should correspond to pile lengths equal to 15
A factor of safety of 2.5 on the ultimate load capacity
piles driven refusal into
is recommended for computing the safe load.
are to a very dense sand stratum When
or rock, the safe load on the pile will be
the strength of the piles as a structural member than the ulimate load governed by
capacity.
Skin friction
The ultimate skin friction resistance, Q is obtained from
Eq. 16.5 after
acting at any depth is equal to the soil pressure determining
The unit skin friction the unit skin friction,
s
depth multiplied by the coefficient of friction between the soil and the acting normal to the pile surface at that
acting normal to the pile surface, o, is horizontal and is related to the pile material (tan 8). The soil pressure
effective vertical overburden
o by the equation o, Ko where K is the lateral earth
=
pressure,
pressure coefficient.
Thus,
S1=o, tan
or
A=KO
tan
 Pile Foundaions
561

h angle of friction between the pile and the soil

Ulumate skin
fnction resistance, Q/is given by

A
, K Oa Lan ô A, (16.7)

ere .verage effective overburden pressure over the embedded length of the pile.
recommends the values of Kand ô shown in Table piles driven into sand.
Brom (1966) 16.3 for

Table 16.3 Values of K and 6

Pile material Values of KK

Loose sand Dense sand

Steel 20 0.5 1.0

Concrete 0.75 1.0 2.0

Timber 0.67 15 4.0

S: 2911 Part I (1979) recommends a value ofðequal to o. For driven piles in loose to medium sands, the
recommended value of K is between I and 3.

100

80

200
kN

60
Effective 2
overburden 100kNm
pressure
z 40

20 O k N / m

ol
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Relative densityY
Fig. 16.7 Relative density obtained from N values (Alter Gibbs and Holz, 1966)
 Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics
562

in reality it does so only upto the

Though Eq 16.7 suggests that f, increases continuously with depth,
critical depth, which varies from 15 to 20 times the pile diameter. Below the critical depth, the value of õ and
hence the value off, remains constant. The maximum value off, should be limited to 100 kN/m* for straight
sided piles in normal silica sands and 20 kN/m in calcareous sands. Tapered piles have a much higher value
ofs, than straight piles. Fig. 16.7 and 16.8 have been proposed by Tomlinson (1977) to obtain limiting values
for average unit skin friction for driven piles in cohesionless soils, related to relative density.

Bored cast in situ piles

The load carrying capacity of a bored cast in situ pile will be much smaller than that of a driven pile in sand
The procedure used for a driven pile can be used for the bored pile also, but the in situ angle of shearing

120
Peak value 107 kN/m|-

100

80

60
Design curve for
tapered piles

40
De sign curve for
straight-sided piles
30

20

Lose Medium Jdense Dense Very den se

10L
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Relative density
Fig. 16.8 Average unit skin friction on driven piles in cohesionless soils

resistance of the soil is reduced by 3°, to account for the

The lateral earth pressure coefficient K for a bored
loosening of the sand due to the drilling of the hole.
pile can be calculated approximately from the equation
 Basic and Applied Soil
wIth depth. in reality it does so
Mechanics
only upto Pile Foundalions 563
r. Bclow the critical depth, the the
, should be limited to 100 kN/m* value of G and
for Sin . 1he value of Kgenerally varies from 0.3 to 0.75, with median value of 0.5. 6 be taken can as
nds. Tapered piles havea
much higherstraigh a
cqual to o lor bored piles excavated in dry soil and a reduced value of 6 if a slurry has been used during
y Tomlinson (1977) obtain alue In
unit point bearing resistance which is one-half to one-third of the
s. related to relative density. limiting values excavation.
value
general. bored pilesinhave
driven piles. Bored.
in
a
situ cast piles with an enlarged bulb at the base show a unit point resistane
about 1.5 to 2 times that of a pile without the bulb.
Driven cast in situ piles

ch smaller than that of a driven
pile also, but the in situ
angle of shearing
Peak value 107 kN/m|
pile in For a driven cast in siu pile, the load
sand. carrying capacity is calculated in the same manner as for a driven pile,
if the steel tube that is driven is left in
place. If the steel tube is retracted while the concrete is being poured
the calculation of skin friction resistance depends on the amount of compaction imparted to the concrete. IT
he concrete is not
compacted, loose soil condition may be assumed and if the concrete is compacted well,
medium dense soil condition
may be assumed in the compuation. Where a bulb is formed at the end by
compacting the concrete, the increased area due to the formation of bulb shall be taken into account in working
out the point bearing resistance.

Allowable load on piles

The allowable load. 2, is obtained from the ultimate load, Q, from the relation
Qa where F is the factor of safety. For piles in sand with shaft diameter less than 600 mm, a factor
of safetyof 2.5 is considered
satisfactory. When piles are driven to refusal in very dense sand or gravel or
rock, the allowable load on the pile is governed by the
strength of the pile as a structural member rather than
7 by soil consideration.

Piles ir Clay
De sign curve for Piles in cohesive soils,
barring underreamed piles of large diameter, generally carry most of the load virtue
straight-sided piles of the skin friction resistance
developed on the pile shaft. The bearing capacity is usually calculated by the
total stress
approach, using undrained shear strength, c (G=0). The ultimate load using
esumated from Eq. 16.6. capacity of the pile is

9 p u A, +f. A,
In clays, qpu= Cub Ne and f Cu =«
Cu: thus,
=

ense Cub N Apt* cA, (16.8)

Very den se
where Cuh undrained cohesion
0.8 0.9 1.0 at the base of the pile.
Ne =
bearing capacity factor for a deep foundation. For circular and
is used, piles, N, value of 9
square
cohesionless soils as proposed by Skempton. The pile must go at least 5 D inside the
bearing stratum.
a =
adhesion factor; for a single pile, the contact is between
ne sand due to the drilling of the hoc factor is used. pile and soil; hence the adhesion
ted
approximately from the equation Cu undrained cohesion in the embedded length of the pile.
 Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics
564

The evalu ation of the first term poses no problem

because ihe undrained shear strength of thc soil at the tip
1.5
of the pile can be detcrmined with fair accuracy and N
IS taken as equal to 9. In clay soils, the contribution of

point bearing is small compared to that of shafi skin 10

friction resistance. Hence, an accurate determination of

the adhesion factor a becomes very inportant.

05
The value of a depends of the undrained strength of
the soil. Smaller the undrained strength of the soil., softer
the consistency of the soil and greater the tendency for the
25 50 75
0125
soil to adhere to the pile. For this case. a tends to get close
Undrained strength, Cu (kN/m2)
to 1. For very stiffclays, a can be as low as 0.3. Tomlinson
(1979) gives the variation of a with c, for driven piles in
Fig. 16.9 Adhesion factor for diven pilcs in clay
clay (Fig. 16.9). It should. however. be understood that
even though the adhesion factor a is smaller in a stiff or
overconsolidated clay, the overall skin friction resistance is higher in stif clay because of its much larger shear
strength.
When a pile is driven into a soft clay stratum, the soil around the pile gets remoulded and loses some of
its shearing strength. However, with the passage of time, most of the strength so lost is regained due to
reconsolidation of clay. From experience, it is recommended that at least 30
of pile before it is loaded so that the
days should elapse after the driving
pile shaft develops its full frictional resistance. In actual projects, the
temporary loss in shear strength does not affect the pile capacity because it
usually takes several nonths after
driving for the piles to be loaded. Pile load tests in soft clays should be conducted at least 30
piles are driven. days after the
To deterinine skin friction
capacity of bored and cast in situ piles, Tomlinson recommends an
value of a 0.45 in firm to stiff clays with an
= average
upper limiting value of I kg/em* for unit skin friction resistance
In fissured clays, a =0.3 may be taken.
For piles in cohesive soils, 1S: 2911 Part I
(1979) recommends that the ultimate load
obtained from Eq. 16.8, which has been shown earlier. capacity, Qu be
The recommended values of o for different
consistencies of clay are summarised in Table 16.4 below:
Table 16.4 Values of Reduction Factor, ox

Consistency N value avalue

Bored piles Driven cast in situ piles
Soft to very soft <4 0.7 1.0
Medium 48 05 0.7
Suff 8- 15 04 0.4
Stiff to hard >15 0,3 0.3

The code recommends that for working out the safe

Further, static load formula load, a minimum factor of
may be used only as a guide for load safety 2.5 should be used
placed on load test on piles capacity estimates. More reliance is to be
 Allowable Load on a Pile Group

The sate pile load capacity of a pile group under vertical load is first determined on the basis of the shear
Tailure criterion as discussed in Sections 16.9 and 16. 13. The settlement of the pile group under this load
IS then computed. The setlement should not exceed the permissible settlenent. The allowable load on a
criterion and the
group ot piles is the smaller of the values calculated on the basis of the shear failure
settlement eriterion.
point resistance qc as given in
The comelation between standard penetration value N and static cone

Table 19.3 (Chapter 19) may be used for working out the skin friction resistance and point bearing resistance
of a pile using N value

16.14 NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTIOON

Piles installed in freshly placed fills of soft compressible deposits (Fig. 16.14) are subjected to a downward
This downward drag on the
drag, a consequence of the consolidation of the strata after the piles are installed.
structural loads and is called negative
pile surface, when the soil moves down relative to the pile, adds to the
mobilised when the pile moves down relative
SKT friction. This is in contrast to the usual shaft friction which is the allowable load on the pile. Negative skin
n e soi. Thus. negative skin friction has an effect ofsand reducing the lowering of the
friction may also develop if the fill material is a loose deposit. It can also occur due to
consolidation of the soil with the resultant
ground water table which increases the effective stress, thus causing
and the pile, of the order of about 10 mm,.
down-drag on piles. A small relative movement between the soil
may be sufficient for the full negative skin friction to materialise.

Filled up/loose
Negat ive unconsolidated Ne gative
Lc skin friction
skin friction layer

Frictional Natural stitf Frictional

resistan ce sOil resistance

(a) single pile (b) Pile group

Fig. 16.14 Negative skin friction

In bearing piles where the settlement ofthe pile is negligible, negative skin friction becomes a pile capacity
problem. However, for piles in compressible soils where pile capacity is contributed by both point resistance
and shaft adhesion, the problem of negative skin friction should be considered a settlement problem.
 Negative skin friction in single piles

The magnitude of negative skin friction, F, for a single pile in a filled up soil deposit may be estimatedas
below
Cohesive soils

F= PL, C (16.31)
where P = perimeter of pile
L length of the pile in the compressible stratum (Fig. 16.14(a)
Ca unit adhesion =
Oc,
a = adhesion factor

C undrained cohesion of the

compressible layer
Cohesjonless soils

FPLYKtanQ ay= Le (16.32)

where K = lateral earth pressure coefficient and

o = angle of friction between pile and soil, which may vary from 1/2 ¢ to 2/3 o

Negative skin friction in pile gróups

When a pile group passes through a soft, unconsolidated stratum [Fig. 16.14(b)], the magnitude of negative
skin friction on the group, Fng may be estimated from Eqs. 16.33 a or 16.33 b. The higher ofthe values obtained
from these equations should be used in design.

Fng=nF (16.33 a)

Fnu C Le Ps +YLeAg (16.33 b)

where n = number of piles in the group

P perimeter of the group

Y = unit weight of the soil within the pile group upto a depth Le

A area of pile group within the perimeter Pg

Eq. 16.33 b is worked out on the basis of block shear failure along the perimeter of the pile group which
includes the volume of the soil Le A, enclosed in the group.
The effect of negative skin friction on the factor of safety with respect to the ultimate load capacity ofa
pile or a pile group can be considered by defining the factor of safety thus:

Factor of
Factor safety =*ultimateload capacity of a singlepile or agroup of piles
ofsafety
orking load + negative skin friction load

n the field, negative skin friction can be reduced in precast piles by painting the pile surface with bitumen.