Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology

CELLS AND TISSUES

Introduction

All living beings are composed of cells, from bacteria, to seaweed and redwood trees, to humans.
The unity of life has been resoundingly demonstrated by observations that all cells function in
remarkably similar ways. They all contain DNA, the hereditary information that determines
cellular structure and function. There are two main divisions in the living world—prokaryotic cells
and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic organisms are bacteria; most other organisms including protists,
plants, animals and fungi (e.g. molds and mushrooms) are composed of eukaryotic cells.
Eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex, containing compartmentalized structures,
organelles, which carry out specific functions.

Multicellular organisms have groups of eukaryotic cells that work together to perform complex
functions—these are tissues. Thus, cells and tissues are the fundamental structures of complex
creatures like us.

Histology is the study of tissues and requires using a microscope Tissues consist of groups of cells
that perform a specific function in the body. They are like fabrics that, when woven together, form
a complete body. Some tissues are specialized for support of weigh such as bone and cartilage.
Others act as .barriers to keep out foreign material and to retain moisture. Muscle tissues allow
movement.

Each tissue has unique features that underlie its function. It is important to note the shapes of cells
and how they are arranged in relation to each other. In some tissues, the cells themselves are less
important for function than the material around the cells, the matrix. The matrix is the extracellular
material. Proteins produced by tissue cells determine its characteristics. For example, the matrix
of cartilage is jellylike; this means that it provides both flexibility and support.

There are four principal tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.

Epithelial tissues consist almost entirely of cells; that is, they have very little extracellular material.
They are sheets of cells that may be only one cell deep, or may have several layers of cells. They
are microscopically thin and always lie on top of connective tissue, like a thin layer of butter on a
slice of bread. They have nerve endings but lack blood vessels. They form the surface of the body
and line the tubes and cavities. They provide barriers against pathogens but are thin enough to
allow molecules to pass through them, so are found wherever anything is secreted or absorbed or
exchanged. Examples of locations include the surfaces of the lungs where O2 and CO2 are
exchanged, the lining of the small intestine where nutrients are absorbed, the lining of the mouth,
esophagus, vagina, and anus, and the outer layer of the skin.
Connective tissues are varied. They may be very hard (e.g bone) or liquid (e.g. blood). Connective
tissues have few cells sprinkled in lots of matrix—that is, they consist mostly of extracellular
material. The matrix is the main determinant of the function of the tissue. For example, bone
supports weight because the matrix is mineralized. Blood transports cells and other material
because the matrix is mostly water, enabling it to flow through vessels. Connective tissues that
provide support include bone, cartilage, and dense regular connective tissue that form ligaments a
tendon. In addition, dense irregular and loose areolar connective tissues are found supporting
epithelial tissues and surround organs such as blood vessels, nerves, intestines, etc. Adipose tissue
is specialized for energy storage but also supports organs.

Muscle tissues consist of cells that are able to shorten, or contract, to produce movement. There
are three muscle tissues: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. The most abundant
is skeletal muscle, the type that attaches to bone and produces typical body movements—for
example the biceps brachii in your arm allows you to flex your elbow. Cardiac muscle is found in
the heart. Smooth muscle is mostly involuntary, and is found in the tubes of the body such as the
digestive tract and blood vessels. It helps to move food along in the digestive process, and
constricts blood vessels to help regulate blood pressure, for example

Nervous tissue is specialized to send and receive messages. 99% of nervous tissue is found in the
brain and spinal cord, the rest is in the spaghetti-like nerves that extend to the periphery of the
body and provide sensation and ability to move remote muscles in the hands and feet. The main
feature of nervous tissue is neurons, cells that have extensions that reach out to gather information
and send messages to other cells. In addition to neurons, various neuroglia cells are present.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Introduction

The integumentary system is made up of the skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.
The skin is the largest organ in the body. It makes up 12-15% of body weight and has an entire
surface area between 1-2 meters. Our skin is our first barrier against infectious disease and prevents
fluid loss from our organs, which allows our body to maintain homeostasis. The skin is such an
important organ that even moderate burns on more than 30% of the skin can be lifethreatening due
to fluid loss and infection.
The primary functions of the integumentary system include: Maintain internal temperature
(sweating & shivering); Excrete excess fluids and waste; Receive of pressure, pain, heat, and cold;
Produce and secrete melatonin & vitamin D; Protect the body from infection; and Maintain fluid
balance.
The skin is separated into three main layers called the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis.
The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin. There are four types of cells that make up the
epidermis: melanocytes that produce melanin (influences skin color), keratinocytes that produce
keratin, Merkel’s cells that function in touch, and Langerhans’ cells that function in immunity.
There are a few layers, called strata, that make up the epidermis. The epidermis is avascular and
all nutrients for the living cells of the epidermis diffuse from the basement membrane of the dermis
below it. From the bottom layer to the outermost layer the strata include:
• Stratum basale – a layer of single cells that lays on the basement membrane of the dermis.
These cells continuously divide and push up towards the surface of the skin.
• Stratum spinosum – These cells are “spiny” as the name denotes. They have been pushed out
from the stratum basale and the spines interlock together to form a support layer.

• Stratum granulosum – The cells of this layer are still living, but none of the nutrients reach them.
These cells begin producing keratin and the cells begin to die. Eventually, the keratin protein
produced will make up the majority of the dead cells in the next two layers.

• Stratum lucidum – This layer of dead keratinized cells is only found in areas where skin is thick,
such as the soles of the feet, and is not found in thin skin areas, such as the forearm.

• Stratum corneum – This is the outer layer that we see and is made up of layers of dead keratinized
cells. This layer is tightly bound together, and the keratin protects the underlying cells from fluid
loss while keeping the skin elastic. In a process called desquamation, cells of the stratum
corneum are sloughed off. Cells from the epidermis are completely shed every 35- 45 days, so
essentially you have completely new skin every month and a half!

The dermis is the layer below the epidermis. The dermis is primarily made up of connective tissue
layers and proteins including collagen, elastin, and reticular fibers. The arrangement of these fibers
allow for the dermis to be extremely elastic and flexible. It also allows for blood vessels, glands,
hair follicles, and nerves to be embedded in the dermis. The two main glands embedded in the skin
include the sweat and sebaceous glands. The sweat glands assist the body in temperature control.
The sebaceous glands produce oils that keep the outer layer of skin and hair moisturized. Hair and
nail growth begin in the dermis. Highly keratinized epithelial cells are arranged to make up hair
and nails.
The hypodermis is the bottommost layer of skin, located under the dermis. This layer is primarily
made up of adipose tissue and functions in insulation and protection. The base of blood vessels,
nerves, and some hair follicles also extend into the hypodermis.

MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
Introduction

Muscle tissue consists of groups of cells that are specialized for contraction. In the body, muscle
tissue is usually organized into organs called muscles. Muscle contains connective tissue, nerves,
and blood vessels in addition to muscle tissue. Although the term muscle often refers to the entire
organ, it is also frequently used to refer to muscle tissue alone. There are three different types of
muscle tissue in the bodies of humans and other vertebrates: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Skeletal
muscles are attached to bones, cover the skeleton, give shape to the body, and make movement
possible. The individual cells in skeletal muscle are often called fibers rather than cells because
they are long and thin and quite different in structure from typical cells. Skeletal muscle fibers are
larger than most cells (as much as 40 cm in length!), contain many nuclei, and have transverse
stripes that are visible when fibers are viewed under a microscope. Because of these stripes, or
striations, skeletal muscle is called striated muscle. Skeletal muscle is also known as voluntary
muscle because it is under conscious control. Smooth muscle is very prominent in the walls of the
stomach, intestine, and urinary bladder. Smooth muscle also occurs in the walls of blood vessels,
in glands, and in the skin. The cells of smooth muscle are spindle shaped, have individual nuclei,
and are not striated. Smooth muscle is also called involuntary muscle because it is not under
conscious control. Cardiac muscle is found only within the walls of the heart. Like smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle is not under conscious control-it is a type of involuntary muscle. Like skeletal
muscle, cardiac muscle is striated-the cells in cardiac muscle are striped. Cardiac muscle cells
contain one nucleus and form branching fibers with adjacent cardiac muscle cells. In this
investigation, you will observe prepared slides of the three types of muscle cells. You will also
examine a chicken wing to observe its muscle structure.

The skeletal system is made up of: bone, cartilage and ligaments. The skeletal system provides
protection and support for internal organs, serves as a fulcrum for muscle action, is responsible for
blood cell production and acts as a reservoir for calcium and phosphorus. The adult skeleton is
comprised of 206 bones. There are 126 bone in the appendicular skeleton and 80 in the axial
skeleton. Knowledge of the skeletal system bone structure is important for understanding the
physiology and mechanics of body movement and muscle action. In this lab you will proceed
through 5 stations in the classroom. At each station you will apply what you have learned by
identifying the various bone markings and surface features of selected bones of the skeleton.
 NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervous system uses electrical signals (nerve impulses) which produce immediate (but short-lived)
responses. It has 3 major functions: Sensory input – sensory or afferent neutron detect internal or
external changes (stimuli) and send the message to the brain or spinal cord. Integration –
interneurons in the brain or spinal cord process and interpret the message from the sensory neurons,
and relay the massage back to body parts. Motor output – motor or efferent neurons receive the
message from interneuron and produce a response at the effector organ (a muscle or a gland).

The central nervous system (CNS) comprises: (1) nerve cells (neuronal cell bodies) and their
dendrites and axons (both myelinated and unmyelinated), (2) supporting cells, the neuroglia
(oligodendroglia, astrocytes and microglia), (3) the dura, arachnoid, and pia, and (4) blood vessels.

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) contains: (1) neurons (organized into clusters called
ganglia), (2) supporting cells including satellite cells associated with the ganglionic neurons, (3)
Schwann cells associated with axons and forming the myelin sheath, (4) connective tissue elements
(endoneurium, perineurium, and epineurium) and (5) blood vessels.

The neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. Neurons are highly polarized
cells. The cell body contains the nucleus and synthetic apparatus. The highly branched dendrites
are the receptive pole and axons are the transmitting pole. Note: Axons are often referred to as
nerve fibers.

Each neuron contact (synapses) on cell bodies, dendrites or axons of other neurons so that each
neuron is a functional part of the interconnecting unit in the network of the entire nervous system.
Neurons act as integrators, conductors and transmitters of coded information. Nervous tissue is
characterized by its extreme specialization for excitability and conductivity.

The supporting cells are in intimate contact with the neuron and their processes in both the CNS
and the PNS. Actually the entire surface of many neurons, with few exceptions (synapses and
nerve endings), is enveloped and “insulated” from other tissues by processes of supporting cells.
These cells are interposed between each neurons (with a few exceptions) and the blood capillaries
and adjacent neurons.
The meninges (connective tissue elements) surround the central nervous system, capsules surround
some sense organs and ganglia, and the endo-, peri-, and epineurium of peripheral nerves are also
formed by connective tissue elements. Exchange of gases, nutrients, and metabolic products
between the neurons and blood vessels takes place through these tissues. The microglia of the CNS
and the histiocytes of the PNS are macrophages.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
The Cardiovascular (Circulatory) System functions to deliver oxygen and nutrients to tissue for
growth and metabolism, and to remove metabolic wastes. The heart pumps blood through a circuit
that includes arteries, capillaries, venules and veins. One important circuit is the pulmonary circuit,
where there is an exchange of gases within the alveoli of the lungs. The right side of the human
heart receives deoxygenated blood from body tissues and pumps it to the lungs. The left side of
the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the tissues.

With increased exercise, several changes occur within the circulatory system, thus increasing the
delivery of oxygen to actively respiring muscle cells. These changes include increased heart rate,
increased blood flow to muscular tissue, decreased blood flow to nonmuscular tissue, increased
arterial pressure, increased body temperature, and increased breathing rate.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The organs of the respiratory system include the nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, respiratory tree, and lungs. They function to transport air to the air sacs of the lungs (the
alveoli) where gas exchange occurs. The process of transporting and exchanging gases between
the atmosphere and the body cells is respiration. The process of taking in air is known as
inspiration, while the process of blowing out air is called expiration. A respiratory cycle consists
of one inspiration and one expiration. The point of respiration is to allow you to obtain oxygen,
eliminate carbon dioxide, and regulate the blood’s pH level. Respiration rate (breaths per minute)
and depth (volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath) varies due to changes in blood
chemistry that are monitored by the brain. For example, when you exercise, demand for oxygen
increases because the cells require more ATP. In turn, more carbon dioxide is produced by cells
and diffuses to the blood. The rise in carbon dioxide leads to a decrease in pH, causing the blood
to be more acidic. The brain is especially sensitive to pH levels; as pH levels in the blood fall, the
brain stimulates more rapid breathing and deeper breathing. The effect is to draw more air into the
lungs, to transport more oxygen to the cells, and lower pH and CO2 levels.
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Activity No. 7
Introduction
Movement, processing information and responding to the environment, and maintenance of
homeostasis all require energy. Ultimately, energy is derived from food. In addition, food provides
building material for cells and tissues. The job of the digestive system is to break down food and
absorb nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids and smaller quantities of vitamins and
minerals. Most of the water we need also comes from food. Few foods combine all six nutrients.
As primates, we are omnivores, adapted to eat a wide variety of foods to obtain a full complement
of necessary nutrients.

Our digestive system anatomy and physiology reflects the eclectic diet for which we are adapted.
Releasing nutrients from food requires mechanical digestion where large pieces are crushed and
ground primarily by teeth, with the aid of tongue and saliva. This increases the surface area for
chemical digestion in which digestive enzymes break down complex large molecules such as
proteins and carbohydrates to their basic components (e.g. amino acids and simple sugars).
Chemical digestion is performed by many organs: for example, salivary glands produce amylase,
an enzyme that breaks down starches (polysaccharides) to disaccharides; the pancreas and small
intestine produce numerous enzymes that complete the breakdown of proteins, lipids, and
carbohydrates to forms usable by cells. The nutrients are absorbed through the lining of the small
intestine and are then transported throughout the body. Today we will examine nutrients in food
and review the structures of the digestive system.

Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and vitamins and minerals are the nutrients in food. Carbohydrates
are either simple sugars (monosaccharides) consisting of a single sugar molecule such as glucose,
or disaccharides, two monosaccharides joined together (e.g. sucrose, or table sugar), or
polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates), large chains of monosaccharides. Starch and glycogen
are polysaccharides. They are major sources of energy for cellular work. Common sources of
carbohydrates in the diet are breads, cereals, fruits and vegetables. Proteins have numerous
functions. They are the basis for tissue and organ structure; some are capable of movement (so
called “motor proteins”) while others act as enzymes. All proteins are chains of amino acids.
Twenty amino acids combine to form thousands of different proteins. Twelve amino acids can be
assembled in the body but eight must be obtained directly from the diet. Dietary sources of proteins
include fish, soybeans, meat, and dairy products. Lipids are hydrophobic (insoluble in water). They
include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Concentrated sources of energy, each gram
of lipid has more calories than a gram of protein or carbohydrate. of plasma membranes and
provide support for joints, tendons, and internal organs. Dietary sources of lipids include nuts,
meat, butter and cheese, and vegetable oils. Although only minute quantities of vitamins and
minerals are required, a deficiency can have devastating effects. Vitamins help control chemical
reactions, often facilitating the actions of enzymes. They are necessary for normal growth and
metabolism. Thirteen vitamins are essential for health— four of those are fat soluble and are stored
for months at a time in adipose tissue; nine are water soluble and must be regularly replaced.
Minerals such as calcium and phosphorus are also derived from the diet and perform vital
functions. Vitamins are obtained from a wide variety of foods. For example, vitamin C is obtained
from citrus fruits and tomatoes whereas vitamin B is found in nuts, whole grains, and beans.
Vitamin pills may supplement the diet. Each vitamin has specific functions in the body, leading to
particular symptoms if there is a lack. The first symptom of vitamin C deficiency is fatigue,
followed by anemia, back and joint pain, bleeding of the gums, and poor wound healing. With
time, death ensues, as was the fate of numerous sailors who succumbed to “scurvy.”

URINARY SYSTEM

Activity No. 8

Introduction

The urinary system consists of the kidneys and the urinary passages leading away from them (the
calyces, renal pelvis and ureter), the urinary bladder, and the urethra. The kidney is a compound
tubular gland that is specialized for the removal of waste products from the blood and for the
regulation of water and salt balance of the blood and intercellular fluids.

The kidney is divided into lobes. One lobe consist of the conical medullary pyramid and the
cortical substance that surrounds it like a cap. The human kidney is composed of 12-13 pyramids.
Kidney

Identify the outer, brighter staining cortex and central pale staining medulla. The cortex is
characterized by round capillary tufts, the glomeruli within the renal corpuscles. The base of the
medullary pyramid lies below the cortex and the apex of the pyramid projects or empties into the
renal pelvis. The hilus of the kidney is the site of entrance/exit of the renal artery, vein and ureter.
Note the abundance of white fat in this region.

Ureter

Note the stellate appearance of the lumen, the thick muscularis consisting of two or more layers,
and the relatively thick adventitia containing fat, vessels, and nerves. Under higher magnification
examine the characteristic transitional epithelium and note the dome-shaped or bulging appearance
of the surface cells and their more intense staining affinities. Observe the direction of the muscle
bundles in the muscularis, and locate blood vessels and nerves in the adventitia.

Urinary bladder

The basic structural arrangement of the bladder is similar to that of the ureter, and the structures
and layers should be studied. Note the greatly thickened muscularis of the bladder.

Urethra

This tissue is readily identified at lowest magnification by the characteristic shape of the lumen of
the penile urethra, and by the surrounding sponge-like arrangement of erectile tissue filled with
blood. Study the epithelial lining of the penile urethra, and observe that its appearance varies in
different regions of the same section. Most frequently it appears to be pseudostratified or stratified
columnar. Mucous glands may occur as nests of epithelial cells along the lining epithelium (intra-
epithelial glands), or they may occur as more typical urethral glands (of Littre), whose ducts empty
into local recesses of the urethral lumen.
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Activity No. 9

Introduction

A fundamental feature of life is reproduction—the ability to pass on genetic information to a new

generation. Humans reproduce sexually, that is, it takes both a male and female to produce an
offspring. As mammals, females carry the embryo and fetus inside the uterus, where the growing
individual is provided with nutrition, warmth, and transportation. After birth, female mammals
produce milk to feed the infant. This pattern of reproduction is demanding (for the female), limiting
the number of offspring she may produce over a lifetime. The trade-off is that the infant has a
much greater chance of survival.

Female anatomy and physiology accommodate the many tasks of female reproduction. First,
females produce eggs with 1/2 the typical cellular amount of DNA. Once they reach the age at
menarche (first menstruation), monthly changes in the ovary (ovarian cycles) occur. If an ovulated
egg encounters sperm, conception, gestation (pregnancy), birth, and lactation may ensue.

Male and female mammals, including humans, differ in reproductive anatomy and physiology
because of the different roles they play in reproduction. Males, like females, produce gametes—
in males these are sperm. Whereas females have virtually all the eggs they will ever have when
they are born, males begin at puberty to produce millions of sperm each day, and they continue
until they die. Women stop ovulating at menopause, which typically occurs decades before death.

Female and male reproductive structures originate from the same tissues in the embryo. In males,
genes on the Y chromosome stimulate the production of testosterone, and the male diverges from
the common pat-tern.

The gonads (ovaries and testes) develop in the abdomen but the male’s descend to the scrotum
before birth, carrying the blood and nerve supply with them. The paired uterine (fallopian) tubes
in females extend from the ovaries to the uterus. The uterus has a small opening to the vagina,
which exits the body.
Male reproductive anatomy consists of the testes, which produce sperm, and a series of tubes that
lead through the penis to the outside of the body. The penis is an organ of copulation; it can become
engorged with blood during an erection and can then introduce the sperm into the female
reproductive tract (specifically, the vagina). Reproduction doesn’t end with copulation. Both men
and women are engaged in raising children to maturity. In evolutionary terms, having offspring
doesn’t mean a great deal unless they themselves survive to reproductive age.