4 | Assessment in Learning 2 1

UNIT 4
Nature of Portfolio Assessment
Designing and Evaluating Portfolio Assessment in the Classroom
Grading and Reporting System
Statistics and Computer: Tools for Analyzing Assessment Data

1.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Plan portfolio assessment tools for a given subject/ course
b. Develop and evaluate portfolio assessment utilized in the classroom.
c. Develop skills in preparing and interpreting grades.
d. Analyze assessment data using statistical tools

1.1 Introduction

Portfolio assessment enables students to reflect their real performance,

to show their weak and strong domain and to observe student’s progress
during the learning process, and encourages students to take
responsibilities for their own learning. Since portfolio enable collecting
information from different source such as students’ parents, friends,
teachers, and him self, it provides teachers to have reliable information
about student. They are important tools for assessment of students’
learning products and process. Different theoretical and applicable
researches show that portfolio can be used both as learning and
assessment tools (Birgin, 2007; Ersoy, 2006; Klenowski, 2000; Kuhs, 1994;
Norman, 1998). Thus, portfolio has a potential which enables students to
learn during assessment and to be assessed during learning (to assess
for learning and to assess of learning). Therefore, it should be exactly
applied in primary education for different courses such as Science and
Technology, Mathematics, Social Science to observe the students’
progress during the learning process and to provide the required
assistance depending on their performances.

Assessment as part of instruction provides useful information on

student learning outcomes. In recent years, another technique of assessing
achievement has emerged as an alternative assessment over the use of
conventional forms of testing. This method is portfolio assessment, which has
captured the attention of many educators, as it has become an important
addition to the repertoire of performance assessment.

1.2 Content/ Topics/ Learning Activities and Assessments

1.2.1 Nature of Portfolio Assessment

Portfolio is a systematic process and purposeful

collection of student work to document the student learning
progress , efforts , and achievement towards the attainment of
learning outcomes. It is a systematic process that follows a well-
organized collection of products of student work.
 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 2

It is a planned collection of learner achievement that

documents what a student has accomplished and the steps
taken to get there. - Borich & Kubiszyn

Differences in Assessment Outcomes between Portfolios

and Standardized Testing Practices:(Popham, 2011)
PORTFOLIO
 Represents the range of reading and
writing students are engaged in
 Engages students in assessing their
progress and/or accomplishments and
establishing ongoing learning goals
 Measures each student’s achievement
while allowing for individual
differences between students
 Represents a collaborative approach to
assessment
 Has a goal of student self- assessment
 Addresses improvement, effort, and
achievement
 Links assessment and teaching to
learning
TESTING
 Assesses students across a
limited range of reading and
writing assignments which may
not match what students do
 Mechanically scored or scored by
teachers who have little input
 Assesses all students on the same
dimension
 Assessment process is not
collaborative
 Student assessment is not a goal
 Addresses achievement only
 Separates learning, testing, and
teaching

1.2.1.1 Purposes
1.2.1.1.1 Why Use Portfolio?
1.2.1.1.1.1 Portfolios give students the opportunity to direct
their own learning. Johnson and Johnson (2002)
1.2.1.1.1.2 Portfolios can be used to determine students’ level
of achievement.
1.2.1.1.1.3 Portfolios can be used to understand how students
think, reason, organize, investigate, and communicate
1.2.1.1.1.4 Portfolios can be used to communicate student
efforts, progress toward accomplishing learning goals, and
accomplishments.
1.2.1.1.1.5 Portfolios can be used to evaluate and improve
curriculum and instructions.
1.2.1.1.1.6 One big contribution of portfolio is to give the
students the chance to reflect and revisit on their performances
overtime.
1.2.1.1.2 Characteristics
These characteristics are good indicators that a portfolio
is conducive in assessing the student. It is an assessment where
students and teachers do together. It represents of what the
students believe related to the concept being studied. It provides
all the sample works of the students where it can show if the
students really learn and grow.
 A portfolio is a form of assessment that students do together
with their teachers. The teachers guide the students in the
planning, execution and evaluation of contents of the
portfolio .Together ,they formulate the overall objectives for
 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 3

constructing the portfolio. As such students and teachers in

interact in every step of the process in developing a Portfolio.
 A portfolio represent a selection of what the students believe
are best included from among the possible collection of
things related to the concept being studied. It is the teachers
responsibility to assist the students in actually choosing from
among a possible set of choices. To be included in the
portfolio. However the final selection should be done by the
students themselves since the portfolio represents what the
students believe are important considerations.
 A portfolio provides samples of the students work which
show growth over time . By reflecting on their own learning
(self-assessment) students begin to identify the strengths and
weakness in their work . These weakness then become
improvement goals.
 The criteria for selecting and assessing the portfolio contents
must be clear to the teacher and the students. At the outset of
the process. If the criteria are not clear at the beginning then
there is tendency to include Among Unessential components
in the portfolio and to Include those which happen to be
available at the time. The portfolio is prepared at each step of
the process, the students need to refer to the agreed set of
criteria for the construction and development of the portfolio.
1.2.1.2 Types
1.2.1.2.1 Showcase - from the word itself, it includes only those
best works of the students through the combination of students and
teachers' selection. It does not only include the text information, it
also has pictures and audio-visual artifacts that supports and
completed the students’ work.
1.2.1.2.2 Documentation -this is commonly called as “growth
portfolio” in the literature because it includes all the works of the
students over time showing their growth and improvement. Also, it
includes the best and weakest work of the student.
1.2.1.2.3 Process - in contrast to first type it includes all the facets
and phases of the learning process. It shows the number of reflective,
journal, and then logs and other meta-cognitive processing. This is
where you see the mastery of the subject of the students.
1.2.1.2.4 Product -Product oriented portfolios are collections of
work a student considers his or her best. The aim is to document
and reflect on the quality and range of accomplishments rather than
the process that produced them. It generally requires a student to
collect all of her work until the end, at which time she must choose
artifacts that represent work of the highest quality. Similarly,
product oriented portfolios are more common at the secondary level.
This is probably due to two factors. First, the higher stakes of grade
point averages and test scores at these levels has created a more
final result oriented learning environment. Second, older students
generally have the higher thinking skills necessary to choose their
 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 4

best work wisely, as well as engage in self-reflection more deeply.

Notwithstanding any of these points, neither type of portfolio is
necessarily better suited for any grade level. It is usually a matter of
preference, teaching style, or school culture.
1.2.1.2.5 Standard-Based - In the standards-based paradigm,
students have the freedom to demonstrate understanding in diverse
ways, including (but not limited to) selected response (e.g. multiple
choice tests), physical constructions, written responses, and
performances. Of course, these are not new types of assessments,
nor is the concept of differentiated assessment. The teacher uses all
available observations and quantitative information to summarize
learning with reference to a specific standard. With these data, a
teacher can formulate the steps or actions that can be taken to gain
mastery of a particular concept. That is, it aids in assessment for
learning.
1.2.1.3 Elements
1.2.1.3.1 Parts and Designs
Essential Elements of the Portfolio
It is important to include all of the following:
Cover Letter “About the author” and “What my portfolio
shows about my progress as a learner” (written at the end, but
put at the beginning). The cover letter summarizes the evidence
of a student’s learning and progress.
Table of Contents with numbered pages.
Entries - both core (items students have to include) and
optional (items of student’s choice). The core elements will be
required for each student and will provide a common base from
which to make decisions on assessment. The optional items will
allow the folder to represent the uniqueness of each student.
Students can choose to include “best” pieces of work, but also a
piece of work which gave trouble or one that was less successful,
and give reasons why.
Dates on all entries, to facilitate proof of growth over time.
Drafts of aural/oral and written products and revised
versions; i.e., first drafts and corrected/revised versions.
Reflections can appear at different stages in the learning
process (for formative and/or summative purposes.) and can be
written in the mother tongue at the lower levels or by students
who find it difficult to express themselves in English.
For each item - a brief rationale for choosing the item should be
included. This can relate to students’ performance, to their
feelings regarding their progress and/or themselves as
learners.Students can choose to reflect upon some or all of the
following:
What did I learn from it?
What did I do well?
 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 5

Why (based on the agreed teacher-student assessment

criteria) did I choose this item?
What do I want to improve in the item? How do I feel
about my performance? What were the problem areas?
1.2.2 Designing and Evaluating Portfolio Assessment in the
Classroom
Portfolio development requires learners to collect and
integrate examples of their work and allows the teacher to assess
their learners as well. This assessment tool provides opportunities
for both the learners and teachers to better understand the
educational process in a wider perspective.
Designing a portfolio assessment requires some advance and
careful planning. It begins with a clear idea about the purpose of the
assessment.
1.2.2.1 Steps for Developing Portfolio Assessment
1.2.2.1.1 Identify Overall Purpose and Focus – the design and use
of portfolio begins with clear description of your purpose and
focus. The question “Why do I want a portfolio?” and “What
learning targets and curriculum goals will it serve?
1.2.2.1.2 Identify the Physical Structure – once the purpose and
targets have been clarified, we need to think of the physical
structure of the portfolio.
1.2.2.1.3 Determine the appropriate Organization and Sources of
Content - the content of portfolio consist of entries (student
products and activity records) which provides assessment
information about the content and processes identified in the
dimensions to be assessed.
1.2.2.1.4 Determine Student Reflection Guidelines – before
implementing your portfolio assessment plan, establish
guidelines to be help students self – reflect along the way.
1.2.2.1.5 Identify and Evaluate Scoring Criteria – establish the
scoring criteria you will use in evaluating student performance.
1.2.2.1.6 Communicate the Results of Portfolio Evaluation – this
serves as an avenue to determine the strengths and limitations
of portfolio for plan of action formulation.
1.2.2.2 Portfolio Evaluation

Evaluations—can be done by either teachers or students

or both
Individual pieces can be assessed by…. Checklists, rating
scales or rubrics
 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 6

1.2.2.2.1 Student Evaluation

Students gain valuable skills in organisation,
evaluation, reflective thinking and management. Skills
such as these allow the students to continue learning and
thus to improve their employability in times of
uncertainty and continual change
1.2.2.2.2 Teacher Evaluation
Involves making judgment about students’ outputs.
1.2.2.2.3 Student Teacher Conference
The final step in implementing portfolio
assessment is to conduct a conference with each student
to review its contents, the students’ reflections, and
assessment of the individual output. Give your students
guidelines for these conferences so that they can prepare
some questions ahead of time and allow the students to
give their views and insights during the conference.

1.2.3 Grading and Reporting System

Definition of Terms
Grading System: The system that a school has developed to
guide how teachers assess and grade student work.
Reporting System: The system that a school has developed for
the organization of assignment scores in grade books (either
online or paper), and the determination of final grades for report
cards and transcripts.

1.2.3.1 K to 12 Grading of Learning Outcome

• The K to 12 curriculum have specific assessment requirements
and design catering to the delivery modes of learning, i.e., the
formal education and alternative learning system.

• The K to 12 assessment is learner-centered and carefully

considers its learning environment system.

The 21st century skills such as research, analytical/critical,

practical and creative part of the indicators included in the K to
12 assessment.

• Both cognitive and non-cognitive skills which include values,

motivation, attitude, behavior traits, and interpersonal relations
are part of the assessment.

• Formative assessment (assessment FOR learning) is given

importance to ensure learning.

• Learners are encouraged to take part in the process of self-

assessment (assessment AS learning). Summative forms of
4 | Assessment in Learning 2 7

assessment (assessment OF learning) are also part of the

curriculum assessment under the K to 12.

• The K to 12 curriculum prescribes that the assessment process

should utilize the wide variety of traditional and authentic
assessment tools and techniques for a valid, reliable, and
realistic assessment of learning.

• Traditional and authentic assessments complement each other

though they are not mutually exclusive. Furthermore, it gives
greater importance on assessing understanding and skills
development rather than on mere accumulation of content.

• In K to 12 curriculum, assessment ill be standardsbased to

ensure that there is standardization in teaching and learning.

• Department of Education (DepEd) issued an order (DepEd

Order No. 31, s. 2012) stating that assessment will be done in
four levels and will be weighted accordingly.

Level of Performance and Understanding

Levels of Assessment
The attainment of learning outcomes as defined in
the standards shall be the basis for the quality assurance
of learning using formative assessments. • They shall
also be the focus of the summative assessments and shall
be the basis for grading at the end of instruction.
Levels of Learning Outcomes
The levels are defined as follows:
 “Knowledge” refers to the substantive content of the
curriculum, the facts and information that the student
acquires.
 “Process” refers to cognitive operations that the student
performs on facts and information for the purpose of
constructing meanings and understandings. This level is
assessed through activities or tests of analytical ability.
 “Understandings” refer to enduring big ideas, principles
and generalizations inherent to the discipline, which may be
assessed using the facets of understanding. Assessment at
this level, should require ability to synthesize, generalize and
judge accordingly.
 “Products/Performances” refer to real-life application of
understanding as evidenced by the student’s performance of
authentic tasks. At this level students are expected to be able
to apply what has been learned in contrived or real
situations.
4 | Assessment in Learning 2 8

• At the end of the quarter, the student’s performance

will be described based on the prescribed level of
proficiency which has equivalent numerical values.
• Proficiency level is computed from the sum of all the
performances of students in various levels of assessment.

Each level is described as follows:

• Beginning – The student at this level struggles with his/her

understanding of prerequisite and fundamental knowledge
skills that have not been acquired or developed adequately.
• Developing – The student at this level possesses the minimal
knowledge and skills and core understanding but needs help
throughout the performance of authentic tasks.
• Approaching proficiency – The student at this level has
developed the fundamental knowledge and skills and core
understandings, and with little
guidance from the teacher and/or with some assistance from
peers, can transfer these understanding through authentic
performance tasks.
• Proficient – The student at this level has developed the
fundamental knowledge and skills and core understandings,
and can transfer them independently through authentic
performance tasks.
• Advance – The student at this level exceeds the core
requirements in terms of knowledge, skills and core
understandings, and can transfer them automatically and
flexibly through authentic performance tasks.
 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 9

1.2.3.2 The Effects of Grading on Students

• While grades may not be compulsory for teaching or learning,
it can be used in positive ways to enhance students’
achievement and performance.
• It showed that positive effects can be gained with relatively
little effort on the part of teachers. Stamps or stickers with
standard comments such as these could be easily produced for
teachers to use. Yet the effect of this simple effort has significant
positive effect on students’ performance.
1.2.3.3 Building a Grading and Reporting System
1.2.3.3.1 Basis of Good Reporting
Whatever is preferred and required of the teacher when it
comes to format, grading and reporting should provide high-quality
information to interested person by means of any schema they can
understand and use. The basis of such high-quality information is
critical evidence on student learning
Evaluation experts stress that if one is going to make
important decisions about students that have broad implications,
such as decisions involved in grading, the more that good evidence
must be ready at hand. In the absence of good evidence, even the
most detailed and hi-tech grading and reporting system is useless. It
simply cannot serve the basic communication functions for which it
is intended.

Three qualities that contribute to the goodness of evidence

that are gathered on student learning
Quality Description Example
Validity Refers to the If an assessment is to be used to
appropriateness & described students’ reading
adequacy of comprehension; evidence should
interpretations made from actually reflect reading comprehension and
that information not other irrelevant factors
Reliability Refers to the consistency of Attain very similar scores when the
assessment results same assessment procedures are
used with the same students at two
different times, results have a high
 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 10

Quantity The more sources of
evidence on student’s
learning, the better the
information can be reported.
degree of reliability
Any single source of evidence of
student learning can be imperfect, it
is essential that multiple sources of
evidence in grading and reporting
students is utilized.

1.2.3.3.2 Major Purposes of Grading and Reporting

 To communicate the achievement status of students to parents
and others.
 To provide information that students can use for selfevaluation.
 To select, identify or group students for certain educational
paths or programs.
 To provide incentives for students to learn.
 To evaluate the effectiveness of instructional programs.
 To provide evidence of students’ lack of effort or inappropriate
responsibility.
Possible sources of Grading and Reporting System
• Major exams or Compositions
• Reports or Projects
• Students’ Portfolios
• Exhibits of Students’ Work
• Laboratory Projects
• Students’ Notebook or Journals
• Class Observation
• Oral Presentations
• Homework Completion
• Class Participation
• Work Habits and Neatness
• Effort
• Attendance
• Punctuality of Assignments
• Class Behavior or Attitude
• Progress Made

1.2.3.3.3 Grading and Reporting Methods

Letter Grades
• The most common and best known of all grading methods
• Mostly composed of five-level grading scale
• Letter Grade Descriptors
• Despite their apparent simplicity, the true meaning of letter
grades is not always clear. What the teachers would like to
communicate with particular letter or grade and what parents
interpret that grade to mean, often are not the same.
• To give more clarity to the meaning of letter grade, most
schools include a key or legend on the reporting from in which
each letter grade is paired with an explanatory word or phrase.
Descriptors must be carefully chosen, to avoid additional
 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 11

complications and misunderstanding.

Advantages
• A brief description of students’ achievement and level of
performance including students’ potentials can be provided to
parents and other interested persons.
• Based on parents’ experience when they were still studying, it
is easier for them to believe and understand what letter grade
means.
Disadvantages
• Requires abstraction of a great deal of information into a
single symbol.
• Despite educators’ best effort, letter grades tend to be
interpreted by parents in strictly norm-referenced terms. The
cut-offs between grade categories are always arbitrary and
difficult to justify.
• Lacks the richness of other more detailed reporting methods
such as standards-based grading, mastery grading, and
narrative.

Different Interpretation of Letter Grades

Grade Criterion-Referenced Norm Combined Based on
(Standard-Based) Referenced Norm Improvement
Referenced and
Criterion
Referenced
•Outstanding or Outstanding: Outstanding: Outstanding:
A advanced among the very high level much
•Complete highest or of performance improvement
knowledge of all content best on most or all
•Mastery of all targets performance targets
•Exceeds standards
• Very good or proficient Very good: Very good: Very good:
B • Complete knowledge performs better than some
of most content above the average improvement
• Mastery of all targets class average performance on most or all
• Meets most standards targets
• Acceptable or basic Average: Average Acceptable:
C command of only basic performs at some
concepts or skills the class improvement
• Mastery of some average on some targets
targets
• Meets some standards
• Making progress or Poor: Below Below average Making
D developing the class or weak: progress:
• Lacks knowledge of average minimum minimal
most content performance for progress on
• Mastery of only few passing
most targets
targets
 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 12

• Meets only a few

standards
• Unsatisfactory: lacks Unsatisfactor Unsatisfactory: Unsatisfactory:
F knowledge of content; y: far below lacks sufficient no
• No mastery of targets average; knowledge to improvement
• Does not meet any among the pass on any targets
worst in the
standards
class

Percentage Grades
• Are the ultimate multi-category grading method
• Can range from 0 to 100
• Generally more popular among high school teachers than elementary
teachers
Advantages
• Allows for maximum discriminators in evaluation of students’
achievement and performance
• Maximizes the variation among students, making it easier to choose
students for honors or representative for special programs.
Disadvantages
• Requires a great deal of abstraction.
• Interpretation of meaning of a percentage grade extremely difficult
• The cut-offs are no less arbitrary but a lot more
• Because of a large number of grade categories, it is less reliable and
more subjective

1.2.3.3 Developing Effective Reporting System

The most critical issue to be addressed in selecting the tools
included in reporting system is what purpose or purposes it is to
serve. Why we need to convey this information and what we need
to accomplish.
To determine the purpose or purposes, three aspects of
communication must be considered --- Critical Aspects in
Determining Communication Purposes:
a. What information or messages do we want to communicate?
b. Who is the primary audience for that message?
c. How would we like that information or message to be used?
1.2.3.4 Tools for Comprehensive Reporting System
Reporting systems most highly regarded by parents typically
include a mix of traditional and more modern reporting tools.
Tools that might be included in comprehensive reporting system:
• Report Cards
• Notes: Attached to Report Cards
• Standardized Assessment Report
• Phone Call to Parents
• Weekly/Monthly Progress Reports
• School Open-Houses
 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 13

• Newsletter to Parents
• Personal Letter to Parents
• Evaluated Projects or Assignments
• Portfolios or Exhibits of Students’ ork
• Homework Assignments
• Homework Hotlines
• School Web Pages
• Parent-Teacher Conferences
• Student-Teacher Conferences
• Student-Led Conference
1.2.3.5 Guidelines for Better Practice
To ensure better practice of grading and reporting systems, the
following statements serve as guide on how to utilize effectively the
grading and reporting systems:
1. Begin with a clear statement of purpose.
2. Provide accurate and understandable descriptions of learning.
3. Use grading and reporting to enhance teaching and learning.

1.2.3.6 Planning and Implementing Parent-Teacher Conference

The parent-teacher conference is the most common way teachers
communicate with parents about student progress. It is typically a face-
 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 14

to-face discussion, though phone conferences and calls can also be used.
Parent-teacher conferences may be initiated by either the teacher or the
parent, based on purpose.
1.2.4 Statistics and Computer: Tools for Analyzing Assessment Data

1.2.4.1 Statistics- branch of Mathematics that deals with the collection,

organization, and analysis of numerical data and with such problems
of experiments design and decision making.

1.2.4.2 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

Descriptive Statistics deals with collection of data, its

presentation in various forms such as graph and diagrams
and finding averages and other measures which would describe
the data.
Inferential Statistics deals with techniques used for
analysis of data, making estimates and drawing conclusions
from limited information taken on sample basis and testing the
reliability of the estimates.
1.2.4.3 Statistical Tools for Grouped and Individual Data
1.2.3.1 Measures of Central tendency- is the point which the
scores tend to cluster or the value to be expected of a typical or
middle data point.
Mean- the mean or arithmetic mean is the arithmetic
average of a set of observations.
Ungrouped Data
�
�=
�
Where: =summation notation

X= scores

N= total number of scores

Grouped Data

���
�=
�
Where: f= class frequency

Xm= class midpoint

N= sum of frequencies

Median- single value forms the data set that

measures the central item in the data.
4 | Assessment in Learning 2 15

Ungrouped Data
�+1
Median= the ( 2
)th item in a data array
Example: given the ages of 7 girls:
15,19,14,13,18,19,16. Find the median of their ages.
Girls 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ages in data 13 14 15 16 18 19 19
array
�+1
�=
2
7+1
=
2
8
=
2
=4th item

=16 years old

Grouped Data
�
−��<
Median= 1+ 2
��
i

Where: 1= exact lower limit of the median class

N= number of scores
cf<= cumulative frequency of the class
immediately preceding the median class
fm= frequency of the median class
i= class size or interval
 Mode- most often repeated value or the value
which has the highest frequency in the data set.
Ungrouped Data
a) Unimodal- one mode
b) Bimodal- two mode
c) Trimodal- 3 mode
d) Multimodal

Grouped Data
�1
�� = ��� +
�1 +�2
i

Where: ��� = lower limit of the modal class

�1 = frequency of the modal class minus the f

of the class directly below it.
 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 16

�2 = frequency of the modal class minus the f

of the class directly above it.

i= size of the class interval

1.2.3.1 Measures of Variability- A measure of variability is a

summary statistic that represents the amount of dispersion in a
dataset. A low dispersion indicates that the data points tend to
be clustered tightly around the center. High dispersion signifies
that they tend to fall further away.

In statistics, variability, dispersion, and spread are synonyms

that denote the width of the distribution. Just as there are
multiple measures of central tendency, there are several
measures of variability.

Range- The range of a dataset is the difference between the

largest and smallest values in that dataset. For example, in the
two datasets below, dataset 1 has a range of 20 – 38 = 18 while
dataset 2 has a range of 11 – 52 = 41. Dataset 2 has a broader
range and, hence, more variability than dataset 1.

Interquartile Range
The interquartile range is the middle half of the data.
To visualize it, think about the median value that splits the
dataset in half. Similarly, you can divide the data into
quarters. Statisticians refer to these quarters as quartiles and
denote them from low to high as Q1, Q2, and Q3. The lowest
quartile (Q1) contains the quarter of the dataset with the
smallest values. The upper quartile (Q4) contains the quarter
of the dataset with the highest values. The interquartile
range is the middle half of the data that is in between the
upper and lower quartiles. In other words, the interquartile
range includes the 50% of data points that fall between Q1
and Q3. The IQR is the red area in the graph below.

The interquartile range is a robust measure of variability in a

similar manner that the median is a robust measure of central
tendency. Neither measure is influenced dramatically by outliers
because they don’t depend on every value. Additionally, the
interquartile range is excellent for skewed distributions, just like the
median. As you’ll learn, when you have a normal distribution, the
standard deviation tells you the percentage of observations that fall
specific distances from the mean. However, this doesn’t work for
skewed distributions, and the IQR is a great alternative.

Variance- Variance is the average squared difference of the values from

the mean. Unlike the previous measures of variability, the variance
includes all values in the calculation by comparing each value to the mean.
 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 17

To calculate this statistic, you calculate a set of squared differences

between the data points and the mean, sum them, and then divide by the
number of observations. Hence, it’s the average squared difference.

There are two formulas for the variance depending on whether you are
calculating the variance for an entire population or using a sample to
estimate the population variance. The equations are below, and then I
work through an example in a table to help bring it to life.

Population variance

The formula for the variance of an entire population is the following:

Equation for the population variance

In the equation, σ2 is the population parameter for the variance, μ is
the parameter for the population mean, and N is the number of data
points, which should include the entire population.

Sample variance

To use a sample to estimate the variance for a population, use the

following formula. Using the previous equation with sample data
tends to underestimate the variability. Because it’s usually impossible
to measure an entire population, statisticians use the equation for
sample variances much more frequently.

Equation for the sample variance.

In the equation, s2 is the sample variance, and M is the

sample mean. N-1 in the denominator corrects for the
tendency of a sample to underestimate the population
variance.

Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is the standard or typical difference
between each data point and the mean. When the values in a dataset
are grouped closer together, you have a smaller standard deviation. On
the other hand, when the values are spread out more, the standard
deviation is larger because the standard distance is greater.
4 | Assessment in Learning 2 18

Standard Scores- is the number of standard deviations by which

the value of a raw score (i.e., an observed value or data point) is
above or below the mean value of what is being observed or
measured. Raw scores above the mean have positive standard
scores, while those below the mean have negative standard
scores.

It is calculated by subtracting the population mean from an

individual raw score and then dividing the difference by the
population standard deviation. This process of converting a raw
score into a standard score is called standardizing or
normalizing (however, "normalizing" can refer to many types of
ratios; see normalization for more).

Standard scores are most commonly called z-scores; the two

terms may be used interchangeably, as they are in this article.
Other terms include z-values, normal scores, and standardized
variables.

Computing a z-score requires knowing the mean and

standard deviation of the complete population to which a data
point belongs; if one only has a sample of observations from the
population, then the analogous computation with sample mean
and sample standard deviation yields the t-statistic.

Calculation

If the population mean and population standard

deviation are known, a raw score x is converted into a standard
score by[1]

z={x-\mu \over \sigma }

where:

μ is the mean of the population.

σ is the standard deviation of the population.
The absolute value of z represents the distance between that raw
score x and the population mean in units of the standard
deviation. z is negative when the raw score is below the mean,
positive when above.

Calculating z using this formula requires the population mean

 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 19

and the population standard deviation, not the sample mean or

sample deviation. But knowing the true mean and standard
deviation of a population is often unrealistic except in cases such
as standardized testing, where the entire population is
measured.
When the population mean and the population standard
deviation are unknown, the standard score may be calculated
using the sample mean and sample standard deviation as
estimates of the population values.

In these cases, the z-score is

where: �= is the mean of the sample.

S is the standard deviation of the sample.
In either case, since the numerator and denominator of the
equation must both be expressed in the same units of measure,
and since the units cancel out through division, z is left as a
dimensionless quantity.

Indicators of Relationship
Pearson’s correlation coefficient is the test statistics that
measures the statistical relationship, or association, between two
continuous variables. It is known as the best method of
measuring the association between variables of interest because
it is based on the method of covariance. It gives information
about the magnitude of the association, or correlation, as well as
the direction of the relationship.
Degree of correlation:
Perfect: If the value is near ± 1, then it said to be a perfect
correlation: as one variable increases, the other variable tends to
also increase (if positive) or decrease (if negative).

High degree: If the coefficient value lies between ± 0.50

and ± 1, then it is said to be a strong correlation.
Moderate degree: If the value lies between ± 0.30 and ±
0.49, then it is said to be a medium correlation.
Low degree: When the value lies below + .29, then it is
said to be a small correlation.
No correlation: When the value is zero.
1.2.4.4 Computer: Aid in statistical computing and data
presentation
 Programs for Qualitative Research
- Very often, qualitative research involves dealing with long texts,
and so the software involves such functions as text retrieval,
coding, and building conceptual networks. For example, this
4 | Assessment in Learning 2 20

software works if you want to analyze the content of a document

for key words or themes and then rank the words relating to a
topic by frequency of use. Sometimes it can be hard to choose
between the software available, and there is information online to
help with the choice. For example, the Computer Assisted
Qualitative Data Analysis (CAQDAS) Networking Project has
been set up to help researchers find out which is the best software
for their needs.

Programs for Quantitative Research

One of the most well-known packages for quantitative research is
called SPSS, which stands for Statistics Package for the Social
Sciences. It gives many options for statistical analysis and offers
output in the form of tables, graphs, pie-charts and other
diagrams. The software is easy to use, but that does not mean it is
problem-free. The data put in must be correct and the suitable
form of analysis chosen, otherwise the results will be misleading
or simply wrong. Thus, you still need a knowledge of statistics to
choose the appropriate method and necessary parameters of the
analysis.

Commercial Programs
Some software has been developed for commercial use, such as
spreadsheet and database packages. These packages are useful for
providing basic figures such as averages, standard deviation, and
so on. However, for academic research the results need to be
considered as to whether they are statistically significant or not.
Commercial packages are not (yet) capable of such analyses, and
this is why programs such as SPSS are recommended above
spreadsheets and databases. Let's have a look at the different
software packages - both commercial and non-commercial.

Sources of Software
When you are aware of your needs for analysis and what sort of
packages are best for you, there are a number of places where you
can get your package from. Let's have a look at the options
available:

Open source software is available with a license. The holder of the

copyright for the software has the right to distribute the software,
often at no cost. For example, vlc media player was developed
and made freely available to the public. For statistical analysis,
here are a few of the many open source software packages
available:
 ADaMSoft. This is a general statistical software package that can
be used for data mining and data management.
 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 21

 CBEcon. This package is web-based and helps with econometrics,

which refers to the analysis of specific economic data using
statistical methods.
 JASP. This is an alternative to SPSS.
 Ploticus. This software package has been designed with a focus
on creating graphs from raw data.
 Simfit. The software from this package enables the use to work on
graphs, such as when trying to fit curves or plot data on a graph.
 Freeware is also an option when you want to get hold of some
software for analyzing data. There are some general statistical
software packages available, such as MaxStat Lite, or some more
specialized packages, such as WinBUGS for Bayesian analyses or
SPS for using Rodger's method in statistical analysis
Learning Assessment
I. Multiple Choice.
1. A collection of work that can include a diverse record of an individual’s
achievements, such as results from authentic tasks, performance assessments,
conventional tests or work samples.
a) Portfolio c) Rubrics
b) Journal d) Module
2. Average of the squared deviation of the data values about the arithmetic mean.
a) Range c) Quartile Deviation
b) Inter – quartile range d) Variance
3. It is the difference between the highest score and the lowest score.
a) Range c) Quartile Deviation
b) Inter – quartile range d) Variance
4. Refers to the distance between the third quartile and the first quartile.
a) Range c) Variance
b) Inter – quartile range d) Quartile Deviation
5. Refers to the average deviation of the third quartile and the first quartile from
the value of median.
a) Quartile Deviation c) Quartile Deviation
b) Variance d) Range
6. Is a score or scores that occurred most in the distribution.
a) Mode c) Mean
b) Median d) Variation
7. It is the most commonly used measure of the center of data
a) Mode c) Mean
b) Median d) Variation
8. The middle most or the central value of the variable in a set of observations,
when the observations are arranged either in ascending or in descending order
of their magnitudes.
a) Mode c) Mean
b) Median d) Variation
9. It is a single value that is used to describe the spread of the scores in a
distribution
 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 22

a) Mode c) Mean
b) Median d) Variation
10. The standard or typical difference between each data point and the mean
a) Median c) Standard Deviation
b) Mean d) Variation

II. Using an advance organizer (charts/tables/maps/diagram) synthesize the

following topics:
a. Designing and Evaluating Portfolio Assessment in the Classroom
b. Grading and Reporting System
c. Statistics and Computer: Tools for Analyzing Assessment Data
III. Plan portfolio assessment tools for a given subject/ course
IV. Develop and evaluate portfolio assessment utilized in the classroom.
V. Develop skills in preparing and interpreting grades.
VI. Analyze assessment data with statistical tools.

1.3 References

1. Alberto A. Rico (2011). Assessment of Students’ Learning

2. Assessment of Learning Outcomes (Book 2) by Danilo S. Gutierrez, Ph. D.
(2008
3. Cajigal, Ronan M. and Mantuano, Maria Leflor D. (2014). Assessment of
Learning 2. Adriana Publishing Co., Inc
4. Navarro R. Ph.D., et.al.Authentic Assessment of Students Learning
Outcomes. 2nd Edition. Lorimar Publishing, Manila
5. Gabuyo, Y. et.al., Assessment of Learning II, Rex Bookstore, Manila. (Latest
Edition)

Websites:

https://www.academia.edu/36215083/Title_Designing_and_Evaluating_Port
folio_Assessment_in_the_Classroom
https://statisticsbyjim.com/basics/variability-range-interquartile-variance-
standard-deviation/
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_score
https://www.statisticssolutions.com/pearsons-correlation-coefficient/
https://study.com/academy/lesson/computer-software-in-statistical-
analysis-role-examples.html

1.4 Acknowledgment

DISCLAIMER:

The information and contents provided in this module by books,

articles and websites or links indicated in the list of references are for
educational /classroom and general information purposes only. As respect to
 4 | Assessment in Learning 2 23

the intellectual property of the original owners this module considers all
citations of the contents and information, figures, illustrations, photos etc.

Note:
Should you have any queries concerning the topics discussed in this module,
you may call at the Contact Nos. 09972711361 (TM) or 09216364077 (Smart) or PM me
in my FB Messenger or email me at antoneth.buraga@ssu.edu.ph.