CHAPTER 1 (PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENTS)

1.1 Physical Quantities and Units

- Basic and derived quantity

- Prefixes, conversion of unit

1.2 Scalars and Vectors

- Dot (scalar) product : A B  A( B cos  )  B( A cos  ) Direction determined by
- Cross (vector) product : | A  B | A( B sin  )  B( A sin  ) corkscrew method or right
hand rule
- Additional of vectors – parallelogram, triangle
A B  B  A
- Subtraction of vectors C  D  C  ( D) - parallelogram, triangle.
y
- Resolving a vector R
Rx  R cos 
Ry
 x Ry  R sin 
Rx

 Magnitude of vector R ; | R | or R  ( Rx )2  ( Ry )2
Ry
 Direction of vector R ; tan  
Rx
 Vector R in terms of unit vectors R  Rxiˆ  Ry ˆj

- Multiplication of vectors ; scalar (dot) product A B  A( B cos  )

- Scalar product is a scalar quantity B A  B( A cos  )
- i i  j j 1 ; i j  0 A BB A
- Multiplication of vectors ; vector (cross) product
- Vector product is a vector quantity
A B  C
- Direction of vector C is determined by right-hand rule | A  B || C || A || B | sin 
 AB sin 
i i  j  j  0
eg: forces, torque, angular momentum,
magnetic field and magnetic force.

1.3 Measurement and Errors

- In laboratory.

1
CHAPTER 2 (KINEMATICS OF LINEAR MOTION)

2.1 Linear Motion

- Distance, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration.

- Instantaneous velocity,
s s
v  limit ; Average velocity, v 
t 0 t t
ds
  constant
dt
- Graph s-t , v-t and a-t
- Conversion of graph

2.2 Uniformly Accelerated Motion

v u
a ; v  u  at ; v 2  u 2  2as
-
t
1 1
s  ut  at 2 ; s  (u  v )t ; s  vt (a  0) ; s x  u xt
2 2

2.3 Free Falling Body

- a   g  9.81ms 2
u u
- H ; t (time reach maximum height) y
2g g

2.4 Projectile Motion u

uy sy = H
- u x  u cos  ; u y  u sin  ; ax  0 ; a y   g
 x
u 2 sin 2  u sin  2u sin  ux
H ; t ; t sx = R
- 2g g g
(max. height) (t max. height) (flight time)
u2 u2
- R sin 2 (Horizontal range) ; Rmax  (when   45o and sin 2  1)
g g
u
2h
- t (time taken to reach the floor) - Horizontal projectile
g
2h h
- xu (horizontal displacement) - Horizontal projectile
g
- sx  u xt x

2
CHAPTER 3 (MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE)

3.1 Momentum and Impulse

- Linear momentum, p = mv , vector quantity

dp
- Impulse, F  ; J  Fdt  dp  p2 - p1 , Ns or kgms 1 (force constant)
dt
- F - t graph, area under the graph = impulse
t2

- 
Force not constant ; J  Fdt  Fav dt
t1

3.2 Conservation of Linear Momentum

- In close system F  0
- P  P
i f

- Linear momentum in one dimension / two dimension collision

- Elastic collision & Inelastic collision (non - elastic)
- Elastic collision P  P & K  K
i f i f

- Inelastic collision  P   P but  K   K

i f i f (because + losses energy)

E  E i f

1 1 1 1
- K  K i f 
2
m1u12  m2u2 2  m1v12  m2v22
2 2 2

3
CHAPTER 4 (FORCES)

4.1 Basic of Forces and Free Body Diagram

- Weight, W ; Tension, T ; Normal force N @ R ; Friction f

W  mg N  mg f s   s N ; f k  k N ; f r   r N
- Resultant force, x - comp & y - comp then magnitude F  Fx 2  Fy 2

4.2 Newton’s Laws of Motion

- Newton's first law Fnett  F  0

- Inertia, mass, static equilibrium v = 0 , dynamic equilibrium (a = 0)
dp
- Newton's second law  F  dt ;  F  ma - the direction of the resultant force always in the same

direction of the motion or acceleration.

- Newton’s third law FAB   FBA
- Apply Newton’s law in a particular case / system.
- Sometimes some case or system use more than one Newton’s law.

4
CHAPTER 5 (WORK, ENERGY AND POWER)

5.1 Work

- W  F s , scalar quantity , J  Nm  kgm 2 s 2

- Work done for F -s graph is area under the graph.
- Work done is zero when F = 0 or s = 0 and  = 90o ; W = Fs cos 
- W  0 - work done on the system energy is transferred to the system
- W  0 - work done by the system energy is transferred from the system

5.2 Energy and Conservation of Energy

- Energy , J , joule , scalar quantity

- Kinetic energy K = ½ mv2
- Work - Kinetic energy theorem ; Wnett = ∆K ; Fnett s = ½ mv2 - ½ mu2
- Potential energy theorem U = mgh
- Work – Gravitational potential energy theorem W = -∆U (explain –ve sign)
- Elastic potential energy Us = ½kx2f - ½kx2i
- Work - Energy theorem Wnett = ∆E = ∑Ef - ∑Ei
- For F – x graph (elastic material) work – done area under the graph
- Principle of conservation of energy ∑Ei = ∑Ef
- Conservation of mechanical energy E = K + U = constant or Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf
- ∑E1 = mgho ∑E2 = mgh1 + ½ mv2 ∑E3 = mgh2 + ½ kx2

5.3 Power and Mechanical Efficiency

- 1 hp = 746 W
Wo P
- Mechanical efficiency ,   100% = o  100% ;  no unit
Ei Pi
- Energy dissipated in form of heat, sound or friction.

5
CHAPTER 6 (CIRCULAR MOTION)

6.1 Uniform Circular Motion

- s = r (radian)

- s = 2πr (circumference)
 f  i
- 
t
-

- π rad = 180o ; 2π rad = 360o 2


T
6.2 Centripetal force T  2    t
s x  uxt
v2
- ac  or ac  r 2  v
r
4 2 r
ac 
T2

v2
Fc  mac and ac   r 2  v Fc  f s
r
- mv 2
mv 2  s N
Fc   mr 2  mv r
r

Period oscillation of a simple pendulum, T:

l m
T  2 ; T=2 ; F  ke  k 
F
g k e
- Simple Spring  kx
pendulum

v2
v  rg tan  ; tan  
- rg

rg
s 
v2

6
CHAPTER 7 (GRAVITATION)

7.1 Gravitational Force and Field Strength

Mm 4 2 r
- F=G 2
(N) ; ac  2
 ms 2 G – universal gravitational constant
r T
R – radius of earth
Fg M GM g - gravitational acceleration
ag  ; ag  G 2 ; ag  g  2
m r R

ag – gravitational field strength constant mearth  6.00 1024 kg

Fg – gravitational force
r - distance between test mass and point mass mmoon  7.35 1022 kg
M – mass of the point mass msun  2.00 1030 kg
m – mass of a body (test mass)
Rearth  6.38 106 m

7.2 Gravitational Potential rmoom  1.74 106 m

rsun  6.96 108 m
GM
V   Jkg 1 Earth-Sun distance - 149.6 109 m
r
- V  gravitational potential Earth-Moon distance - 384 106 m
r  distance from the centre of the earth G  6.67 1011 Nm 2 kg 2 @ m3kg 1s 2

W (1N  1kgms 2 )
- V (W  J , m  kg)
m
 1 1  r1  initial distance W – work done in bringing a test
- Wr1 r2  GMm    mass from infinity to a point
 r1 r2  r2  final distance m – mass of the test mass
WAB
VAB   VA  VB
m
WAB  work done in bringing the test mass from point B to point A
VA  gravitational potential at point A
- VB  gravitational potential at point B
WAB
VAB  VB  VA 
m
1 1
VAB  GM   
 rB rA 

7
7.3 Satellite Motion in a Circular Orbit
M – mass of earth
GM r – distance of the satellite from
- v
r the centre of the earth
r3
- T  2
GM
v2
Fg  Fc  mac ; ac  r 2 
- r
GMm mv 2

r2 r
- For a satellite close to the Earth’s surface
rR and GM  gR 2
therefore
v  gR
2 r
& v  r 
T
Hence the period, T of the satellite orbits around the earth
is given by
2 r GM r3
  T  2
T r GM

8
CHAPTER 8 (ROTATIONAL OF RIGID BODY)

8.1 Equilibrium of a Uniform Rigid Body

v2
- s  r , v  r , at  r , ac  r 2  , a  r  R
r
- Rotational motion equation linear acceleration, a  at ; linear velocity, v
1 angular acceleration,  ; angular velocity , 
   o   t ,  =ot   t 2 ;  2 =o 2 +2
2
2 
 1rpm  rads 1  rads 1 Q = electric charge
60 30
 1rev  2 rad  360o n = +ve integer n = 1, 2...
- a  at 2  ac 2

8.2 Rotational Kinematics

  Fd  Fr sin  ;   r  F (  Tr )
- tork - +ve anticlocwise
- -ve clocwise

8.3 Rotational Dynamics

n
- I   mi ri 2 centre of mass
i 1
n n

m x i i m y i i

-   I  F  ma ; xcm  i 1
n
; ycm  i 1
n

m
i 1
i m
i 1
i

I  Tr ; I   t

8.4 Work and Energy of Rotational Motion

Rolling body without slipping
-
1
K  I 2 K  Ktr  K r
2 Ktr  translation kinetic energy
- W    W  Fs
K r  rotational kinetic energy
- P    P  Fv
- W  RF Work-rotational kinetic energy theorem states
W  K r  ( K r ) f  ( K r ) i
- E  Pt
1 2 1
8.5 Conservation of Angular Momentum W I   I o 2
2 2
L  I
- L  rp sin   mvr sin 
L  r  p  r  mv
dp
L  L F  F
i f nett 
dt
- analogous
dL
   nett 
dt

9
CHAPTER 9 (SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION)

9.1 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

d 2x
- a   2 x  ; a  x
dt 2
- Amplitude, period, frequency
2
-   2 f or  
T

9.2 Kinematics of Simple Harmonic Motion

- Electric field intensity x  A sin(t   ) ; t    phase

v  A cos(t   ) a   A 2 sin(t   ) k   2m
vmax  A F  m 2 A
amax  A 2
v   A2  x 2
a   2 x

1 1 2 E  K U
K m 2 ( A2  x 2 ) U kx and k  m 2
2 2 1
E m 2 A2
1 1 2
K  m 2 A2 cos 2 (t   ) U  m 2 x 2
2 2 1
E  kA2
1 2
U  m 2 A2 sin 2 (t   )
2

9.3 Graphs Of Simple Harmonic Motion

- Sketch, interpret & distinguish

(i) displacement – time (x -t)
(ii) velocity – time (v - t)
(iii) acceleration – time (a - t)
(iv) energy – displacement (E - x)
- x  A sin(t   )
  ve    ve
-
 shift the y-axis to the left  shift the y-axis to the right
- gradient a - x graph , m  - 2
E  x graph
-
E  t graph

10
9.4 Period of Simple Harmonic Motion

l m
- T  2 (pendulum)  T  2 (single spring)
g k
- The force act on the bob are weight & tension.
Tangential component : mg sin
Radial component : mg cos
- Resultant force in the radial
mv 2
T  mg cos  
r
- Restoring force, Fs contributed by the tangential component of the weight pulls bob back to the equilibrium
position.
FB  mg sin 

11
CHAPTER 10 (MECHANICAL WAVES)

10.1 Properties of Waves

- Mechanical waves, electromagnetic waves (e.m.w)

- Progressive wave, transverse waves, longitudinal waves
- Sinusoidal wave parameters,  , T , f and A

2
- v  f  (wave speed) ; wave number , k 

- Equation of displacement for sinusoidal progressive wave
y(t )  A sin t ; y(t )  A sin(t -  ) ;   kx
- y( x, t )  A sin(t  kx) wave propagates to the right (y-axis move to the left)
- y( x, t )  A sin(t  kx) wave propagates to the left (y-axis move to the right)
- Equation of a particles velocity in wave v y  A cos(t  kx ) ; v y  v

vy  velocity for particles varies with time

vy  v
v  v is constant, v is wave velocity
- Mention y and x in meter or centimeter and t in second or etc.

10.2 Superposition of Waves

- Principle of superposition
- Stationary (standing) waves
- Equation of stationary waves v y  A cos kx sin t and A  2a

A : amplitude of the stationary wave

a : amplitude of the progressive wave
m
- Acoskx Antinodes coskx=1 & x    m=0,1,2,3...
2
n
Nodes coskx=0 & x     n=1,3,5...
4
n
- sint Antinodes sint=1 & t   T n=1,3,5...
4
m
Nodes sint=0 & t    T m=0,1,2,3...
2
- Differences between progressive and stationary waves.

12
CHAPTER 11 (SOUND WAVE)

11.1 Intensity and Beats

E P
- Intensity I  or I  ; scalar quantity , Wm2 ( E  Pt )
tA A
2
1 A 1 I r2
- I  A2 ; I  2 ; I  2 ; A  ; 2  1 2
r r r I1 r2
1 1
- Beats f b  f1  f 2 or f b  
T2 T1
- Method to determine the actual frequency of the tuning fork.

11.2 Application of Stationary Waves

T m m
- Wave speed on the string v  ; = ;    A ;  = r 2 ;  =
 2 v
- fo (sound wave ) = fo (string vibration) - resonance phenomenon
- Harmonic series on a string fixed at both ends.
n T
f  or f  nf o n  harmonic or segment - piano, violin, guitar
- 2l 
n  1, 2,3...
- Harmonic series in an air column with one end closed (closed pipe)
nv
- f  or f  nf o n  1,3,5... (odd number) - flute & recorder
4l
- Harmonic series in an air column with both end open (open pipe)
nv
- f  or f  nfo n  1,2,3... (real number) - clarinet
2l

11.3 Doppler Effect

v v  vs v  vs
- fo  f s  ;  ; R =
 fs fs
 v  vo 
- fo    vs or vo same direction with v  -ve
 v vs 
vs or vo opposite direction with v  +ve

13
CHAPTER 12 (DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS)

12.1 Stress and Strain

F
- stress,  = , kgm 1s 2 or Nm 2 or pascal (Pa) , scalar quantity
A
e l  lo
- Strain,    e : extension
lo lo l : final length
lo : original (initial) length
- Graph for metal (ductile material)
- Graph for rubber (elastic material)
- Fs   ke

12.2 Young’s Modulus

F
Tensile stress  Fl
- Y   A o
Tensile strain  e Ae
lo
YA d2
- k ; Area, A   r 2

lo 4
- Force - extension graph - strain energy area under the graph
1
- W = strain energy = Fe
2
strain energy 1
-  (stress)(strain)
volume 2

14
CHAPTER 13 (HEAT)

13.1 Thermal Conduction

dQ dT
-  kA dQ
- rate of heat flow
dT
- temperature gradient
dt x dt x
A - cross sectional area k - thermal conductivity

- -ve sign indicates heat always in the direction of direction of decreasing temperature
- scalar quantity Wm-1 K-1 or Wm-1 oC-1

 steady state  same rate heat flow - Temperature change 1 K and 1 o C are equal
1  dT   dT 
k eg. k c >k D      (dT=T f -Ti )
 dT   x c  x  D
 x 
 

13.2 Thermal Expansion

- Linear expansion (  ) , Area expansion (  ) and Volume expansion (  )

- l   lo T   oC 1 or K 1 , l  lo (1  T )

- A   Ao T   oC 1 or K 1 , A  Ao (1  T ) ,  =2

- V   Vo T   oC 1 or K 1 , V  Vo (1  T ) ,  =3

1l  1kg deci  101

1ml  1g
1l  1  103 cm 3
1l  1  10 3 m 3

15
CHAPTER 14 (KINETIC THEORY OF GASES)

14.1 Ideal Gas Equations

- 1 1  PV
Boyle's law PV 2 2 , T constant , Isothermal

V1 V2
- Charle's law  , P constant , Isobaric
T1 T2
P1 P2
- Gay - lussac's law  , V constant , Isochoric
T1 T2
PV PV
- Ideal gas eq. 1 1
 2 2 , Ideal gas a perfect gas which obeys the three laws
T1 T2
m N R
- n n k PV  nRT PV  NkT
M NA NA

n - mole N - number of molecules k - Boltzmann constant (1.38  1023JK 1 )

m - mass of gas N A - Avogadro's constant R - molar mass constant (8.31 JK 1mol 1 )
M - molar mass of gas (6.02  1023mol 1 )

14.2 Kinetic Theory of Gases

- Assumption of kinetic theory of gases

- Ideal gas equation
1 1 N  m  v2  
PV  Nm  v 2  P   v2  F  
3 3 3  d 
kT 3kT 3RT 3P
- vrms  v 2  3 vrms  vrms  vrms 
m m M 

14.3 Molecular Kinetic Energy and Internal Energy

3 3 R  3 3
- K tr  kT   T ; E E  nRT (Average)
NkT (Total) ;
2 2  NA  2 2
f = 3, monatomic
f
-  k  kT (mean/average KE per molecule) , f, degree of freedom
2 f = 5, diatomic
1 f = 6, polyatomic
- 1 degree freedom  kT
2
f
-  K RT (mean/average KE per mole)
2
- UNK S.T.P
f
- U  NkT (Internal energy of molecules) T = 273.15 K
2
P = 101.3 kPa
f
- U  nRT (Internal energy of the gas) Vm = 0.0224 m3
2

16
CHAPTER 15 (THERMODYNAMICS)

15.1 First Law of Thermodynamics

 - different (instant part)

- Q  U  W
d - average
Q - heat (+ve or -ve)
W - work done (+ve or -ve)
U - internal energy (+ve or -ve)

15.2 Thermodynamic Processes

- Isothermal , U  0 PV  constant Q W 1 1  PV
Boyle's law PV 2 2

P1 P2
- Isovolumetric , W  0 Q  U Gay-lussac's law 
T1 T2

V1 V2
- Isobaric , P  0 W  PV Q  U  W Charle's law 
T1 T2

PV PV RT
- Adiabatic , Q  0 U  W ; 1 1
 2 2 ; pV  RT ; p
T1 T2 V

15.3 Thermodynamics Work

- Derive , W   PdV from dW  Fdx

V  P
- Isothermal , W  nRT ln  2   nRT ln  1 
 V1   P2 
- Isobaric , W   PdV  P(V2  V1 )

- Isovolumetric , W   PdV  0
- Area under the P-V graph = work done.

17