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Anatolia: An International
Journal of Tourism and
Hospitality Research
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To cite this article: HAIRUL ISMAIL & TOM BAUM (2006) Urban Tourism in
Developing Countries: in the Case of Melaka (Malacca) City, Malaysia, Anatolia:
An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 17:2, 211-233, DOI:
10.1080/13032917.2006.9687187
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Anatdla: An InternationalJournal of Tourism and Hcspltallty Research
Volume 17,Number 2.pp. 211-233,2006
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ABSTRACT
This paper discusses the context that provldes understanding of the building blocks of the urban tourism
concept In developing countries. This is based on the geographical and historical position of Meiaka Clty
as an example of such phenomena in developing countries. The themes focus on several considerations
and Issues from the perspective of geographical and historical position. The flrst is the Initiative to develop
Melaka Clty as a tourism destination while the second theme highlights the limitations of Meiaka's posl-
tlon compared to other cltles. The last theme contlnues the sequence of dlscusslons wlth a focus on recent
attention on urban tourlsm development and the future expectations of what tourism can contribute to
Meiaka Clty and the State. impilcatlon of this study provide better lnslght into the concept of urban tourism
and It significance as pictured by those responsiblefor urban development, as part of the need for cltles in
developing countries to expand their economic and physical boundaries.
Key words: urban tourism, tourism development, developing countries. Southeast Asia, Maiaysla.
Halrul krnall Is lecturer at Department of Urban and Regional Planning, UnlversltlTeknoiogl Malaysia, Malaysia.
He has Bachelor of Urban 81Regional Planningand MSc. In Tourlsm Planningfrom Unlverslti Teknologi Malaysia
and a PhD In Tourism from the University of Strathclyde. Scotland. Hairul's main research interests are in the
flelds of urban tourism, urban plannlngand tourism In developingcountries.
lorn h u m Is Professor of International Tourism and Hospltallty Management In the University of Strathclyde,
Scotland. He has BA and MA degrees from the University of Wales and a PhD In Tourism from Strathclyde. Tom's
research Interests are tourism and development with a partlcular focus on human aspects relating to this area.
He Is a widely publlshedacademic author, consultant and educator.
INTRODUCTION
Although the existence of urban tourism has been subject to much criticism
and questioning (e.g. Ashworth 1989,1992; Law 1991,1993), subsequent dis-
cussion, especially in the 1990's, by various author (e.g. Page 1995; van den
Berg, van der Borg and van der Meer 1995; Judd 1995; Murphy 1997; Mazanez
1997; Tyler, Guerrier and Robertson 1998; Judd and Fainstein 1999)managed
to establish urban tourism, in the early 20003, as a distinctive knowledge area
within both the urban development and tourism disciplines (Pearce 2001a;
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Page and Hall 2003). The conceptualization of urban tourism can be seen
through the position of cities as tourism destinations and is further described
through approaches that take into account supplylfacility and demandluser.
In relation to cities as tourism destinations, Blank (1994) notes that cities are
places where various major facilities such as transport, hotel and event infra-
structure are located. He identifies five major factors that characterise cities as
tourism destinations:
Major travel nodes that serve as gateways or transfer points to other desti-
nations.
High populations that attract large numbers of tourists who are visiting
friends and relatives.
Focal points for commerce, industry and finance.
Concentrations of services such as education, health and government ad-
ministration centre.
Places that offer a wide variety of cultural, artistic and recreational experi-
ences.
Several other approaches can also be identified that range widely across vari-
ous perspectives. Page (1995), for example, gives specific reference to cities as
tourism destinations where image and status are based on function (e.g. capi-
tal, historic cities and purpose-built integrated tourist resorts). Authors such
as Law (1993,1996,2002) uses understanding of the size of the city and origin
of tourists as reference point. Similarly, cities as tourism destinations can also
be determined in terms of tourist experiences (Blank 1996), and urban space
development (Fainstein and Judd 1999). Nevertheless, Law (1996: 3) argues
that existing typologies are still 'bound to be crude and over simplistic', al-
though they provide better descriptions of cities as tourism destinations. This
is because each city is unique and the characteristics that exist in playing tour-
ism role, direct or indirectly, are more complex than has been thought.
In addition to this, approaches through supply/facility and demandluser
are also ways in which urban tourism can be conceptualized (Ashworth 1989,
1992; Page 1995; Law 2002; Page and Hall 2003). According to Ashworth (1989),
understanding urban tourism through its supply-side or facilities has advan-
tages of visibility, identifiability and the ability to be mapped and located. One
of the most quoted descriptions of urban tourism in term of supply is the one
Primary elements that consist of activity places or formal urban activities, and
leisure settings, which are derived from physical characteristics, and social
or cultural features.
Secondary elements as facilities that could increase the attractiveness of the
primary product. These are also referred to as supporting facilities or serv-
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to increase the quality of the urban landscape. Similar issues are addressed
by Bhattacharya (1992) in the context of Darjeeling and Sikkim in the Hima-
layas. Weaver (1993) introduces models of urban tourism space in a number
of Caribbean islands, in which tourism has a strong influence in the process
of urbanisation and where cities play a role at a regional level as gateways or
hubs of tourism activities for the whole of the region.
Further studies focus on the examination of tourism activities and develop-
ment in cities such as Simla in Northern India (Jutla 2000) and Xianmen in
China (Begin 2000). Visual image, on the basis of the perception of tourists
and local residents in the city of Simla has identified distinct images of the city
from these differing locations (Jutla 2000). In the city of Xianmen in China, the
attention is on the geography of tourist businesses that have led to hotel dis-
tribution planning and influenced urban morphology and the pattern of city
development (Begin 2000). Direct debate in this regards is also addressed by
Rogerson (2002) in considering tourism in the city of Johannesburg in South
Africa in a way that is linked to urban economic regeneration and highlights
growing policy initiatives, interventions and development planning with re-
spect to the potential of tourism. Despite these studies, the existing literature
and research remains representative of a fragmented interest in various tour-
ism themes without clear indication of the application of the concept of urban
tourism in the context of the development of a particular region.
From these perspectives, a clearer description of the role of the city, particu-
larly in structuring tourism activities, can be painted. For example, through
an analysis of tourism at regional and international level, Mullins (1999: 246)
notes that most of the largest cities in Southeast Asia recognise that they can
take tourism as a means to 'expand consumption opportunities' through
tourist demand. Taking this opportunity, the effort of the political actors in
government has sought to provide an environment conducive to a tourism
economy and, therefore, to those selling goods and services to tourists. In ad-
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dition, much tourism infrastructure, such as hotels and various other forms
of accommodation, are normally centred in the capital city, or the major eco-
nomic centres of the country (Oppermann 1993).
According to Sinclair and Vokes (1993), with increasing demand for tourism in
the Asia Pacific region in the late 1980's and early 1990's, there is clear evidence of
international hotel management companies obtaining good sites for hotels in
gateway cities such as Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, Singapore and Jakarta. Kotler
et al. (2002) note that tourism and the business of hospitality have emerged
as viable development options for Asian countries, especially for their cities,
which are generally focused on tourist demand that combines business activi-
ties and personal travel. In this regard, large cities such as Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur
and Singapore attempt to cater for activities such as conventions, trade shows
and business meetings, while smaller cities such as Melaka in Malaysia at-
tempt to market themselves on the basis of the city's culture and architecture
as key selling points within the country and the Southeast Asia region (Kot-
ler et al. 2002). However, it is important to recognise that smaller cities may
also be able to promote tourism and business meeting at relatively lower cost
compared to larger cities. This also explains reasons why a number of cities in
countries such as Malaysia are able to promote themselves for activities such
as medical tourism as they can offer cheaper options compared to their larger
neighbours in the region, such as Singapore, and market these services to visi-
tors from Indonesia and other countries in the region (Musa 2000).
The discussion, at international level, also involves the role that cities play
as hubs and as centres for transport, responsible for shaping the regionalisa-
tion of tourism patterns and activities in Southeast Asia (Mullins 1999; Page
2001; Pearce 2001b). With reference to the cities of Southeast Asia, Page (2001:
85)notes that 'the evolution of gateways and hubs is increasingly being recog-
nised as a powerful spatial entity that may influence the nature of the produc-
tion system that is going to shape the regionalisation of tourism patterns and
activities within Southeast Asia'. For this reason, it can be seen that interna-
tional tourism is one of the central developments in the Southeast Asia region
and its growing cities, especially in the principal countries for tourism such as
Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand (Mullins 1999). For a city or country such
as Singapore, the aim is clear, that is to play a major role as the gateway for
Southeast Asia for international tourists (Low and Heng 1997).As noted by Go
(1997), international travellers that visit major cities in developing countries,
such as Southeast Asia, usually visit more that one city or country in a given
trip. That makes cities important as an intra-regional market for tourism and
highlights this as one of the main features of the Asian travel market.
Within this context, Mullins (1999)suggests that countries such as Thailand,
Malaysia and Singapore have become main entry points (or gateways) for
tourism to Southeast Asia. This is strongly related to urbanization that places
major cities in these countries as hubs for international tourists in the region
through the use of transportation systems such as airports, highways and the
railways that link them. In addition, Page (2000,2001) highlights the concen-
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tration of investment by government and the private sector for air transpor-
tation in major gateways or cities such as Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur and Sin-
gapore to be developed as main access routes to the region (e.g. new airports
- Kuala Lumpur International Airport and Bangkok International Airport).
This increases the existing and future urban tourism potential of these large
cities but, in many ways, also influences the potential of other, more remote
tourism locations in Southeast Asia. Thus, transportation and infrastructure
play a significant role in identifying cities in Southeast Asia for tourism. Simi-
larly, Pearce (2001b) notes that cities in Southeast Asia, especially major cities,
can be seen as nodes that play multiple and complex functions. This includes
tourism, where the roles of cities as gateways consequently link one node to
another for regional tourism activities in the region. In this case, major cit-
ies such as Kuala Lumpur, Singapore and Bangkok also act as generators of
domestic and intra-regional tourist flows to smaller cities such as Kuching
and Kota Kinabalu in East Malaysia, and provincial cities such Chiang Mai
and Phuket in Thailand, which are popular as dispersal nodes for nature and
beach based tourism activities.
Mullins (1999: 250) argues that, in Southeast Asia, 'the more dynamic and
capitalist the economy, the more urbanized the country and the greater the
likelihood of having the infrastructure and facilities to cater to international
tourists'. As a result, these cities are involved in competition to build up the
image and infrastructure for urban-based tourism through their mega shop-
ping malls, theme parks and an emphasis on event tourism or MICE (Low
and Heng 1997).The effort is also part of their initiative to diversify the tour-
ism product where the infrastructure or facilities and market for tourism
already exist. This includes attempts to extend existing restaurant facilities,
sports, cultural amenities and entertainment for the international market. Re-
garding this, Kotler et al. (2002) also notes that the struggle to compete with
each other involves other Asian cities outside Southeast Asia such as Hong
Kong and in Taiwan, in seeking to lead and have the best facilities in terms of
luxury hotels, museums and theatres.
However, although a city such as Kuala Lumpur or any tourism location in Ma-
laysia appears to be in competition with neighbouring countries, they also com-
plement each other as part of packages within Southeast Asian multi-destination
tourism (Khalifah and Tahir 1997).For example, despite an argument about how
neighbouring countries accept Singapore as the main gateway to Southeast
Asia (Pearce 2001b), there is also a view, in countries such as Malaysia, that Sin-
gapore is a partner rather than competitor that benefits both countries (Kha-
lifah and Tahir 1997; Low and Heng 1997). This is because of the opportunity
for Malaysia to receive tourist flows from Singapore on the basis of the close
proximity of certain tourism locations in the south of Peninsular Malaysia so
that products can be complementary (e.g. urban and beach). Furthermore,
there is evidence that countries such as Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and
Philippines are 'attempting to develop cross-border enterprise zones, which
may involve some subsidiary interest in tourism' (Kotler et al. 2002: 309)
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At the same time, the high population of major cities in Southeast Asia also
contributes to the significant growth of theme parks, which then become
international tourism icons for cities (Teo and Yeoh 2001). Despite develop-
ments that spark concern about modem 'Disney-type' entertainment such as
Sunway Lagoon (Klang Valley/Kuala Lumpur-Selangor region) and Fantasy
Island in Singapore, there are also attempts to adopt local images as a way to
preserve the 'kampung' (viIlage) that exists in the city for tourism. This has
led to the emergence of ethnic cultural theme areas, for example in Singapore
(Malay Village and Little India), despite the wider and rapid urban develop-
ment of the city. According to Teo and Yeoh (2001: 146), this form of cultural
theme area is part of what has been called 'localism', defined as 'a powerful
political agenda which shapes not only the meaning of being local but also
how the local is portrayed to the external world'. A similar point is also ad-
dressed by Hall and Page (2000) in that the historical background of centres
or cities in Southeast Asia, during colonization, has invited migration from
various races, resulting in multi-ethnic cultures in these areas. This has al-
lowed these cities to promote ethnic diversity or 'differentness' as shown in
Singapore where multiculturalism has been promoted for tourism purposes
in a way that appeals to 'global consumerism' (Hall and Page 2000: 18).
With regard to the discussion of urban tourism in the context of cities in
Southeast Asia, the next section in this paper will consider more localised
perspectives with specific reference to Melaka City in Malaysia. This section
develops the underpinning theme of this paper, that the experience of cities in
developing countries, with regard to urban tourism, has distinct characteris-
tics which set them apart from the picture of city-based tourism generally ad-
dressed in the literature and drawn from locations in the developed world.
ferences due to the different nature of how the cities in developing countries
have evolved? The discussion in this paper will address these aspects of the
urban tourism concept with the complexity that exists in Melaka City in Ma-
laysia as an example of urban tourism in developing countries.
METHODOLOGY
This study adopted in-depth interviews as the form of data collection that was
best able to provide answers for the study. In depth-interview and a sampling
frame that focuses on 'those responsible in urban and tourism development'
helps the researcher to understand the context and situation of urban tour-
ism and provides idea as to how urban tourism is perceived. The discussion
of findings in this paper focuses on ideas relating to this theme. The in-depth
interviews were used to identify themes or sub themes that provide under-
standing that are major concerns with regard to the aims of the research.
The data was drawn from fieldwork in Melaka City, conducted between April
and June 2004 (approximately3 months). GUM (2002) has identified four main
groups of planners in tourism and decision makers in tourism development.
These are the public sector (government), the business sector (private), the
non-profit sector (including NGOs representing local communities) and pro-
fessional consultants. The selection of informants for in-depth interviews was
intended to achieve inclusion of all these categories of planners in the case
study. It is important for the research to addresses the departments, agencies,
organisations, or associations that can relate to these categories of planners.
A total of 21 in-depth interviews were conducted and these can be divided
into three categories. The first category involved government agencies from
Melaka State departmentslagencies and the Melaka City local authority (8
respondents), federal planning organisation (3 respondents) and the federal
tourism organization (2 respondents). The second category included tourism
associations from the private sector and Non-Government Organisations (4
respondents). The third category was tourism and planning consultant (4 re-
spondents). The respondents were identified as 'those responsible in urban
and tourism development' and selected based on their position and experi-
ence (e.g. Director of Planning and Development Control Division, Melaka
Historical City Council and Chairman of Melaka Historic City Tourist Guides
Association). They thus, represent decision makers in planning and imple-
mentation in Melaka. In this case, the respondents were selected on the basis
of a combination of criteria.
The criterion for selection of respondents was based on their position and
experience (e.g. Melaka State Director of Town and Country Planning Depart-
ment and General Manager of Melaka State Tourism Action Council). Their
knowledge, for example, through attending high level meetings in the state
government, is important for the research to understand decision-making and
implementation in planning for tourism. The process of using 'snowball' sam-
pling was applied, whereby each interviewee helped the researcher to deter-
mine other personnel, who were eligible and qualified, as possible respond-
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Melaka City was declared a Historical City on 15th April 1989, which then
boosted and established its image as a core historic tourism destination
in Malaysia compared to other cities such as Penang. This initiative was
supported by the effort to designate the zoning of land use specifically for
tourism and an attempt to maximise the potential of historic and cultural
resources.
At the same time, Melaka City not only shows the characteristics mentioned
in the first criteria but also functions as capital city for Melaka State. There-
fore, it also received intensive development of infrastructure supported its
role as a centre of 'modem tertiary services' including activities such as
shopping, MICE tourism and events, even though in terms of image in Ma-
laysia, Kuala Lumpur is still the leader for these type of tourism activities.
Melaka City demonstrates strong interest by government to use tourism for
its development in a way that is a well planned, 'boosterist' approach and
provides an established market for domestic and international tourists in
Malaysia. It is also shows more prominent functions in term of land use for
tourism development compared to others cities.
This historic city includes attractions reflecting culture and heritage such
as (1) monuments and building from the Portuguese, Dutch and British colo-
nial eras from as long as 500 years ago, (2) the Peranakan community (Baba
Nyonya, Portuguese and Chetti that assimilate with local culture), (3) antiqui-
ties (especially from European Colonial), and (4) many others modem form
of tourism development features such shopping, MICE tourism and events
in relation to it role as mentioned above. Therefore, the unique attributes of
Melaka City provide an interesting case to be examined.
Ndh-Samr
Highway
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ban tourism activities for the nation. For tourism development in Melaka City,
a general description of progress can be illustrated (Figure 2). This chart, in
general, describes the conceptual process of tourism development from year
to year and identifies key events such as the role of government leadership
and key efforts such as moves to declare Melaka City as an Historical City.
The need for cities to expand in terms of economic and physical growth, and
a competitive edge between cities has forced Melaka State to create its own
economic identity by strengthening the specific image of Melaka City for
tourism. This is also identified as a significant reason that has led to the pri-
oritization of tourism. The opportunities derived from existing assets such as
historical and cultural heritage and the emergence of tourism in the late 1980's
have attracted interest at a national level.
In parallel with the new phenomenon of urban conservation and heritage
tourism in the early 19901s,concepts in this regard began to be accepted and
implemented. Meanwhile, the endorsement of Acts between 1976 and 1988
relating to urban conservation in Malaysia, indirectly supported the initiative
to preserve historic and cultural heritage. According to Ahmad (1998) and
Hassan et al. (2002), the potential for tourism increasingly received attention
as one of the resources that could generate economic benefits for the city. In
addition, Henderson (2002) indicate that colonial heritage is an accepted fea-
ture in the former Straits Settlements (e.g. Melaka, Penang and Singapore)
lntenslty of tourlsrn
A development The change of several leadersh~p(19951999)
and emnomy crisis (1997) slowing down -- ,
the momentum for tourism development I New leadership placing
Year
I I I I I
I I 1 b
1957 1960 1970 1980 1990 2&
I 4-
Tourism is part of educationaltrip related to Melaka developed as tourist Tourism
the history of Melaka State destinaticm both development with
and Melaka City for Malaysian domestic and international varms themes
-
Figure.General description of findings
non-government agencies. They can also use a wide range of measures within
the resource-base of the city to encourage tourism activities once tourism is
seen as a significant driving force that is able to fulfill the ambitions and needs
for the economic expansion of the city.
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
The findings of this study guide us to certain conclusions that have implications
in understanding the concept of urban tourism in the cities of developing coun-
tries. The understanding can be seen in three aspects of discussion, which are
Melaka City as tourism destination, Melaka City compared to other cities and
the city's tourist product development.
activities has forced other forms of development to take place outside Melaka
City. This concern has moved several functions such as administration and
modem tourism development to the Ayer Keroh area. This has caused a fur-
ther process of urbanization in Ayer Keroh away from Melaka City. These
areas are now the most developed areas in Melaka State, and are under the
administration of Melaka Historical City Council. In this case, one of the mo-
tivations that led to the process of urbanization was derived from the inten-
tion to expand tourism activities. This included aspects other than heritage,
which gave opportunities for areas such as Ayer Keroh to be developed with
modem tourism products such as theme parks, especially focused on the do-
mestic tourists.
In this context, the findings reveal that tourism has been used not only for
economic growth, but also to support the expansion of the city in term of its
physical environments. For cities in developing countries such as Melaka
City, the purpose of tourism development is about expanding physical and
economic growth from what can be referred as a 'small' to a 'large' city, allow-
ing the process of tourism urbanization to develop from low amenity areas
to high amenity areas. This tourism urbanization process is similar to other
areas in ~ a l a ~ s iHowever,
a. there is an argument that the process of urbani-
zation in Melaka City has rather less to do with tourism. This is because the
inner city is no longer conducive as a working environment for activities such
as administration since government departments or agencies have expanded
and therefore require more space outside the city. The problem of traffic man-
agement is also part of the reason. The findings indicate that the process of
urbanization in the Ayer Keroh area may have less to do with efforts to secure
the inner city for tourism, but rather to take advantage of the road interchange
on the North-South Highway and the route into Melaka City (refer to Figure 1).
Nevertheless, tourism has contributed to placing a different emphasis on
the functions of different areas. Melaka City or the inner city no longer serves
as the capital city in terms of administration since most areas have changed to
focus on tourism functions, especially with an historical image. At the same
time, the Ayer Keroh area, or the new urbanization area along the route into
Melaka City is now another city in Melaka State, with administration func-
tions and a modern tourism product. Thus, the findings reveal that tourism
development in these urban areas is more intense, and the position of tourism
as an important urban function is more prominent, compared to rural areas
of Melaka State.
the state government is seeking to attract not only individuals that require
these services, but also their relatives. Further demand for services or activi-
ties is required, which includes the potential that visitor may be interested in
partaking in activities related to heritage tourism during such visitations.
For health and education, future potential as tourism themes and a main mo-
tive of visitation is promising. Melaka City, in the context of Malaysia and the
Southeast Asian region, can provide lower and cheaper services compared to
Kuala Lumpur and Singapore for visitors, especially those from Indonesia. In
this case, health and education has began to place itself with heritage as the
three basic products for tourism in Melaka City. The efforts are also seen as a
means to improve the services sector through tourism, as part of the aim to
meet developed state status by generating 60% of the Melaka State economy
through services. These future tourism products are of advantage to the ex-
pansion of areas such as Melaka City since smaller cities are able to promote
tourism related activities at relatively little cost compared to larger cities.
In relation to this, there is issue relating to the use of tourism definitions in refer-
ring to these other sectors. Such development is more likely to take advantage
from the image of Melaka City as a tourism destination and may not really
be within the definition of a tourism theme. At the same time, every visitor
from outside Melaka State can be defined as a tourist. In this case, the find-
ings disclose the pressure to have another sector by using tourism as means
and an interpretation of what such visitors are. As a result, there are concerns
about how much these various themes really contribute to the further growth
of tourism. The question may be raised as to how these themes can be sus-
tained in the future. The condition is even more critical when several heritage
tourism products have difficulty in generating sufficient income, such as the
museums, while quality is an issue with regard to souvenirs that are not really
representative of Melaka City.
The findings also reveal bigger issues such as authenticity and tourist expe-
rience of the tourism product. For example, the interpretation of some histori-
cal buildings, is criticized as being too weak, while some tourism events do
not meet the objective of introducing Melaka City as an historical destination.
Arguably, the shortage of ideas in improving existing heritage resources is
one of the reasons why the state government has turned to other themes. It is
not surprising if, in some cases, tourism products or attractions only appeal
to local markets because of the standard of the product. These issues have
been identified since early stages of tourism development in Melaka City, and
the findings disclose that they still exist today. The issues relate to the plan-
ning and management of urban tourism and are caused by two conditions.
The first is the over focus on assets of an historical nature compared to neces-
sary supporting elements. The second is in relation to the early response to
re-create or invent history at a national level, with over promotion and over
theming of certain locations of Melaka City. This has resulted in the sameness
of almost every city in Malaysia with less individuality in terms of historical
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Europeans and their history outside Europe has made urban tourism in Mela-
ka City more appropriate in terms of image and quality of visit.
Another issue relates to seasonality for domestic tourist arrivals that de-
pends on weekends and school or public holidays. The need for the state
government to create more events is raised in the findings, in order to allow
for more continuous arrival of domestic tourists since many of the attractions
in Melaka City are most likely to be visited just once. This is to cater for the
problem of seasonality and to encourage repeat visitation. In this case, the
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ing used to expand other forms of tourism themes, with several issues in rela-
tion to the interpretation of tourism. The discussion in this paper gives an in-
sight and understanding of elements that build up the urban tourism concept
in Melaka City as an example of developing countries.
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