Religions: Israelite Festivals: From Cyclical Time Celebrations To Linear Time Commemorations

religions
Article
Israelite Festivals: From Cyclical Time Celebrations to
Linear Time Commemorations
Zev I. Farber 1,2
1 TheTorah.com, Project TABS (Torah and Biblical Scholarship), Passaic, NJ 07055, USA;
zev.farber@thetorah.com
2 Kogod Research Center, Shalom Hartman Institute, Jerusalem 9108001, Israel; zev.farber@shi.org.il

Received: 18 January 2019; Accepted: 9 May 2019; Published: 14 May 2019
Abstract: The Pentateuch and later Jewish tradition associates the key pilgrimage festivals with
stories about Israel’s past. Nevertheless, these festivals all began as agricultural or seasonal festivals.
Using comparative evidence from the ancient Near East, and looking at the Covenant Collection,
the earliest biblical law collection, through a redaction critical lens, we can uncover the early history
of these festivals and even how they developed in stages. A similar process is evident with the
Sabbath, which appears to have begun as a moon festival, as per certain biblical references and from
comparative evidence, but which eventually developed into the seventh day of rest as part of the
institution of the week, and then comes to be associated with the story of God resting after creation.
These developments, from celebrating agricultural and lunar cycles to celebrating mnemohistorical
events, can be seen as part of two parallel processes: the coalescing of Israelite cultural memory and
the institution of the linear calendar as the dominant conception of time.
Keywords: Israelite festivals; Sabbath; calendars; pilgrimage festivals; full-moon celebrations; harvest
celebrations; firstborn rituals; first produce rituals
1. Introduction: Experiencing Time

After smelling the burnt offerings offered him by Noah after the flood,1 YHWH decides that
he will no longer curse the earth on account of humanity (Gen 8:22): “So long as the earth endures,
seedtime and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter, day and night shall not cease.”2 The verse in
Genesis paints a picture of a cyclical world, where one time or season follows another without end.
The final item, day and night, is different from the other three in that it is about the daily cycle, while
the others are about the yearly cycle.
The first pair, seed time and harvest time, happen in the autumn and spring respectively, and,
they are the inverse of each other, since one harvests that which the other plants. The next two, cold
and heat/summer and winter are ostensibly synonymous with each other, with the pairs being written
one after the other in a boustrophedonic or chiastic pattern (ABBA). Thus, the verse presents the reader
with three cycles that YHWH is promising not to interrupt: agricultural, seasonal, and astronomical.
As observed by Mercea Eliade, time can be experienced as linear or cyclical (Eliade 1959).3 Modern
calendars emphasize linear time. They begin from a fixed point (creation of the world, Mohamed’s hijra
1 It has been argued that the original context of this verse in the J story was not after a flood, but after a drought
(Dershowitz 2016).
2 All quotes from the Hebrew Bible follow the NJPS (New Jewish Publication Society) translation with some adjustments by
the author.
3 This dichotomy is somewhat artificial as humans likely always experience aspects of both, but it is a useful heuristic to paint
human experience of time in broad strokes.
Religions 2019, 10, 323; doi:10.3390/rel10050323 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions

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always
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always
New experience
experience
experience
Moon aspects
festival aspects
aspects of both,
ofofboth,
both,
but but itbut
is isaacent.),
aitisuseful useful
useful
d Ḥōdeš, which comes when
heuristic
heuristic
fromthe
heuristic woman
to paint
totopaint
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human
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experience hasof
experience
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‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ח‬ died time
of wishes
oftime
meaning time
in broad
in
in to
broad
broad
“new.” seestrokes.
strokes. the prophet
strokes.
The full moon Elisha festival at once, her husband (who does
d either Šabbāt, a Itloanword
does
ItItdoes
does
not not
matter
notmatter
matter
whether
whether
whether
these
these
these
are are
actual
areactual
actual
historical
historical
historical
dayevents,
events,
events,
or mnemohistorical
or
ormnemohistorical
mnemohistorical
fictions.
fictions.
fictions.
In either
In
Ineither
either
case,
case,
case,
thisthis
this
4 44
from the Akkadian name for this (Šabattu/Šapattu) 6 or, less
is the
isisthe
internal
theinternal
internal
or constructed
or
orconstructed
constructed
logic
logic
logic
of the
of
ofthe
calendar.
thecalendar.
calendar.
y, Kēseʾ, another word for full moon that also appears in Aramaic and Syriac.7
5 55For
4 For
an
Foroverview
ananoverview
overview of the of
ofthe
biblical
thebiblical
biblical
material,
material,
material,
see see(Soulnier
see(Soulnier
(Soulnier 2012, 2012,
2012,
pp. pp.
71–82).
pp.71–82).
71–82).
It does not matter whether these are actual historical events, or mnemohistorical fictions. In either case, this is the internal or
TheThe The
idea
6
This
This idea
idea
of
6 6 33Shabbat
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oflogic
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constructed Shabbat
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the
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of Johannes
always
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ofexperience
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experience Meinhold
Meinhold
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aspects(1905,
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1909).
1909).
but
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useful
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5 arguments
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be
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found
found
inin J.inin
L. J.J.Wright
2012, L.L.pp.
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(2015),
71–82).(2015),
(2015),
GrundGrund
Grund
(2011),
(2011),
(2011),
andandand
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson(1988).
(1988).
(1988).A AA
heuristic
heuristic to
to paint human
human experience
experience of
of time
time in broad
broad strokes.
strokes.
6 The ideasummary
of Shabbat as Vollmondfest goes back to the work of Johannes Meinhold (1905, 1909). Recent arguments in favorthis
of
succinct
44 succinct
succinct
summary
It does
It does summary
not
not of the
matter
matter of
ofthe
argument
theargument
whether
whether argument can
these
these can
be
can
are
are found
bebefound
actual
actual found
in (Albertz
inin(Albertz
historical
historical (Albertz [1992]
[1992]
events,
events,[1992]
1994,
or
or 1994,
1994,
pp. pp.
408–9).
pp. 408–9).
mnemohistorical
mnemohistorical408–9).
TheTheconnection
The connection
connection
fictions.
fictions. is rejected
In either
In isisrejected
either rejected
case,
case, this
this theory can be found in J. L. Wright (2015), Grund (2011), and Robinson (1988). A succinct summary of the argument
by aby by
number
isathe
is athe
number
number of scholars,
internal ofofscholars,
scholars,
or whowho
constructed who
see seethe
seethe
logic sound
theofsound
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thesimilarity
similarity
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calendar. as coincidental
asascoincidental
coincidental andandand
the the
differences
thedifferences
differences
between
between
betweenthe thetwo
thetwo two
can be internal
found in or constructed
(Albertz logic
[1992] 1994, pp.of the
408–9).calendar.
The connection is rejected by a number of scholars, who see the sound
as55extreme.
as
as extreme.
For
Forextreme.
anSee
an
similarity asSee
(Levine
See
overview
overview (Levine
(Levine
of2008,
of
coincidental the2008,
the 2008,
p.the
77;
p.p.differences
biblical
biblical
and Tigay
77;
77; Tigay
Tigay
material,
material,1998a, 1998a,
1998a,
see
see
betweenpp. pp.
22–25).
pp.22–25).
(Soulnier
(Soulnier
the 22–25).
two 2012,
2012, pp. 71–82).
pp.
as extreme. 71–82).
See (Levine 2008, p. 77; Tigay 1998a, pp. 22–25).
chotomy is somewhat
7 artificial
7766 The
7The Comprehensive
The
The
The
The as of
Comprehensive
Comprehensive
Comprehensive
idea
idea humans
of Aramaic likely
Aramaic
Aramaic
Aramaic
Shabbat
Shabbat always
Lexicon,
Lexicon,
Lexicon,
asLexicon,
as s.v.experience
s.v.
Vollmondfest
Vollmondfest s.v.
“ksˀ,
s.v.
“ks “ksˀ,
,“ksˀ,
ksˀˀ,”
ks ksˀˀ,”
goes
goes aspects
,”ksˀˀ,”
accessed
back accessed
accessed
back accessedof
to 22
to the
the both,
AprilApril
April
April 22,
work
work but ofit2019.
2019.
22,
2019.22,
of is a usefulMeinhold
2019.
Johannes
Johannes Meinhold (1905, (1905, 1909).
1909). Recent Recent
8
ic to paint human experienceThere
arguments
argumentsisof time
never inin
in a broad
consensus
favor
favor strokes.
on
of this
of the
this theorydating
theory can of
can be biblical
be found texts,
found in and
in J.J. L. a full
L. Wrightattempt
Wright (2015), to
(2015), argue
Grund
Grundthe dating
(2011),
(2011), ofand
eachRobinson
and would treble
Robinson the size
(1988).
(1988). A
A
not matter whether these of this
are essay,
actual sohistorical
I will briefly note inordiscussions
events, mnemohistorical as to when I date a In
fictions. texteither
and why.case,Inthis
this case, though the Deuteronomistic
succinct
succinct summary
summary of
of the
the argument
argument can
can be
be found
found in
in (Albertz
(Albertz [1992]
[1992] 1994,
1994, pp.
pp.
History is certainly no earlier than the late 7th century, and much is even post-exilic, the work was based on earlier sources, 408–9).
408–9). The
The connection
connection is
is rejected
rejected
nternal or constructed logic by aaofnumber
by
which itthe
number calendar.
of scholars,
of
incorporated. scholars, whothe
In this who
case, seestories
see the sound
the sound similarity
similarity
of the northern as coincidental
as coincidental
prophets, Elijah and andand the
Elisha,the differences
aredifferences betweentraditions.
between
most likely northern the two
the two
overview of the biblicalFollowing
material,
as extreme. see
(RoféSee(Soulnier
[1982]
(Levine 1988,2012,
p.
2008, pp.
73),p. I 71–82).
see
77;
as extreme. See (Levine 2008, p. 77; Tigay 1998a, pp. 22–25). Elisha’s
Tigay vita
1998a, setpp. in the late
22–25). 9th century and penned before the destruction of the
ea of Shabbat as Vollmondfestnorth in the goeslateback8th century.
to the work of Johannes Meinhold (1905, 1909). Recent
77 The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, s.v. “ksˀ,
The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, s.v. “ksˀ, ksˀˀ,” accessed April 22, 2019.ksˀˀ,” accessed April 22, 2019.
ents in favor of this theory can be found in J. L. Wright (2015), Grund (2011), and Robinson (1988). A
t summary of the argument can be found in (Albertz [1992] 1994, pp. 408–9). The connection is rejected
umber of scholars, who see the sound similarity as coincidental and the differences between the two
eme. See (Levine 2008, p. 77; Tigay 1998a, pp. 22–25).
mprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, s.v. “ksˀ, ksˀˀ,” accessed April 22, 2019.
Sometimes a festival, on its face, may appear to be celebrating something in linear time,
Times the same time, be masking a more basic or primal celebration of something in cyclical tim
part of calendars in all cultures is the marking Farber 2018, pp.
of festivals 443–44, 449–50).
celebrating something Thisofmasking of a cyclical time festival with a linear time con
iven time of year. Festivals can celebrate both kinds of time. For example, the seems to underlie what happened with the Israelite f
(commemorating an important event)
ch celebration of Groundhog Day, found in the Hebrew Bible.
Religions 2019, 10, 323 is tied to the belief that a groundhog knows 3 of 19
cold will be long or short in a given year, based on The aim ofitthis
whether seespaperits shadow (in accordance
or not with the aim of the entire issue) is to present an ov
n February 2. This yearly ritual of watching the of the topic, rather
groundhog is notthantied atodetailed
Religions some10,event
2019, xand
FOR comprehensive
PEER REVIEW argument for a new thesis. Even so,
not know
mmemoration of previous their son has
Groundhog Days; the
died) material
asks
rather, her
it is(v. will be
23): “Why
simply part presented
ofarethe you cycle should
going of to himpresenttoday? theItreader
is neither with H a new,
. ōdeš nor overall picture
h festival of Tûbǝ-Šǝbāt, the New Year for Trees, is essentially the same, as it simply
Šabbāt.” This implies that development
seeking an of
audience the Israelite
with a
As festival
prophet
observed orcalendar.
religious
by Mercea To do
figure this,
was
Eliade, we will
something
time canlook at
people
be the development
experienced of th
as linear
midwinter. At the would
opposite doendon these
of thefestivals.
spectrumin the lightbe
would of July
source and
Modern
4th, which redaction
calendars
celebrates criticism,
emphasize as welllinearas with time. comparative
They begin models
from in a the ancie
fixed po
These were days whenEast. Nevertheless,
people would
dence from England, or the practice of celebrating one’s anniversary or birthday. as
assemble,the
Mohamed’s paper
and is necessarily
offerings
hijra to be
Mecca, broad
brought
etc.) 4in
toscope,
andGod, in
as
continue order
impliedfromto cover
bythere. this
For large topi
instance,
estival, on its face,Isaiah’s
may appear criticismto be(Isa of“Bringing
1:13):
celebrating the specific
something defenses
oblations theisyear
in linear of 2018
futile,
time, given isclaims
incense
while and readings
at is thousand
two offensive to
and Me. Hwill
. ōdešhave
eighteen and
years tosince
rely the
Šabbāt, on officially
works cited rec
masking a more proclaiming
basic or primal of solemnities,
celebration bibliography
assemblies
of something where
with the original
ininiquity,
this
cyclical linear Itime
cannotresearch I. isofpresented
(Z. abide”
conception (early
forward 7th in detail.
cent.).
movement 5
In connection
from a fixed point in the
3–44, 449–50). Thiswith Isaiah’s
masking of adescription
cyclical time offestival
days ofwith “proclaiming,”
a linear which timePsalmwe 81:3[4] (8th
experience
conception time.cent.) describesto
In addition how the horntime as a line, hu
imagining
an important event) would
seems be to
blown on these
underlie 3. Moon
whatholidays:
happened Festivals
“Blow
withthe (Ḥōdeš
the horn
endless
Israeliteand H Šabbāt/Kēseʾ)
ōdeš, on
oncircling.
. festivals This Kēse for our
is what festival
is being 9
day.” by the verse about days an
pictured
ew Bible. From Amos’ rebuke of theThe northern Israelites’ business practices
ancient Israelites/Judahites celebrated two moon holidays (8th cent.), we can deduce that The New Moon
monthly.
business was not conducted on these days 2.
(8:4–6): Festivals at Set Times
is paper (in accordance with the aim of the was entire issue)
called Ḥōdeš,
is to present
which comes an overview from the Hebrew root ‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ ח‬meaning “new.” The full moon
than a detailed and comprehensive argument for
was called a new thesis. Even so, the way
4 Listen to this, you who devoureither Šabbāt,annihilating
the needy, a loanword
An important from
thepart the
poor Akkadian
of calendars
of the land, inname
5all for this
cultures
saying, “Ifisday
the (Šabattu/Šapattu)
marking of festiv6
be presented should present the reader commonly, with a new, Kēseʾ,overall
another picture
importance word at of
forathe
full moon
given timethatofalso year.appears
Festivals in Aramaic
can celebrateand Syriac.
both 7kinds
only H . ōdeš were over, so that we could sell grain; Šabbāt, so that we could offer wheat for
e Israelite festival calendar. To do this, we will look at the development of the texts, celebration of Groundhog Day,
sale, using an ephah that is too small, andPennsylvania a shekel thatDutch is too big, tilting a dishonest scale, 6 is tied to the belie
ce and redaction criticism, as well as with comparative models in the
whether ancient
the Near cold will be long or short in a given year, based on whe
winter
and selling grain refuse as grain! . . . ”
, as the paper is necessarily broad in scope, in order to cover thiswhen largeittopic,emerges many on February 2. This yearly ritual of watching the groundh
fenses of given claimsOther and passages
readings show will havethat theseto rely on works
festivals were cited
often in the
celebrated
in the past or a commemoration as family of meals.
previous For instance, Days; rather, it i
Groundhog
e the original research is presented in detail. bǝ-going
5
when the seductress in Proverbs is convincingwinters. the young The manJewishthat festival
her husband of Tûis Šǝbāt,to thebeNew goneYear for for Trees, is essen
a long time, she says (Prov 3 This dichotomy
7:20): “He took his is marks
somewhat
bag ofthe artificial
silver with as humans
him and likely
will always
return experience
only
point of midwinter. At the opposite end of the spectrum on the aspects
day of both, would
but it is
(Ḥōdeš and Šabbāt/Kēseʾ) heuristic
10
of Kēse ” (8th cent. or earlier). The family feast to paint human experience
day concept of time in
is also the broad strokes.
American independence frompremise
England, of orthethestory about
practice of celebrating one’s
4 It does not matter whether these are actual historical events, or mnemohistorical fictions. In either c
David’s retreat from
raelites/Judahites celebrated two moon holidays Saul in 1 Samuel
monthly. 20: Sometimes a festival, on its face, may appear to be celebrating somet
is the internalThe New Moon
or constructed festival
logic of the calendar.
which comes from the 24 Hebrew
... H root ‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ ח‬meaning
5 an“new.”
For king overview The ofthe
full
the same
moontime,
to biblical festivalbe masking
material, 25 a. . more
see (Soulnier . 2012,
basic or primal celebration of some
pp. 71–82).
. ōdeš came, and the sat down partake of the meal. but David’s place
abbāt, a loanword fromremainedthe Akkadian name 627for this
Thethe day
idea Farber
(Šabattu/Šapattu)
of after
Shabbat 2018, 6 or,
as Vollmondfest pp. 443–44,
less goes 449–50).
back This
to theplace masking
workwas of Johannes of a cyclical
Meinhold time(1905,
festival
1909)w
vacant. . . . On day H. ōdeš, the second day, 11 David’s vacant
another word for full moon that arguments in favor (commemorating an important event) seems
of this theory can be found in J. L. Wright (2015), Grund (2011), and Robinson to underlie what happened
Soalso appears
said toinhis Aramaic and Syriac. 7
again. Saul son Jonathan, “Why didn’t the son of Jesse come to the meal
28succinct summary found in the Hebrew
of the argument Bible.in (Albertz [1992] 1994, pp. 408–9). The connection is
can be found
yesterday or today?” Jonathan answered Saul, “David begged leave of me to go to
by a number of scholars, Thewho aim see ofthe sound
this paper similarity as coincidental
(in accordance with the and aimthe differences
of the entire between
issue
Bethlehem. 29 He said, ‘Please as extreme.let me Seego, for we arep.
(Levine going to have a family feast in our town
of the2008, topic, 77;
ratherTigay 1998a,
than a pp. 22–25).
detailed and comprehensive argument for an
and my brother has 7summoned me to it.
The Comprehensive . . . ’”Lexicon,
Aramaic
34 Jonathan rose from the table in a rage.
s.v. “ksˀ, ksˀˀ,” accessed April 22, 2019.
the material will 12 be presented should present the reader with a n
He ate no food on the second day of H . ōdeš . . . (9th cent.)
development of the Israelite festival calendar. To do this, we will look at th
s somewhat artificial as humans
The above likely always
sketch experience
likely reflectsaspects of both,
the practice in theofbutthe it pre-exilic
light is of
a useful
source and redaction
period in Israel and criticism,
Judah.asEach wellone as with comparative
human experience of time in broad strokes.
of these festivals changes in later texts, starting East. Nevertheless,
in late pre-exilic Judah as the paper is necessarily
(7th century) broad in scope, in order to
and continuing
r whether these are actual historical events, or mnemohistorical fictions. In either case, this
into the exilic and post-exilic periods. H
constructed logic of the calendar.
. ōdešofmostlythe specific disappears defenses fromofpopulargiven claimspractice, and thoughreadings it will have to r
remains “on the books” for priests, as it involves bibliography
a special setwhere the original
of sacrifices research(Num
in the Temple is presented
28:11–15) in detail.5
of the biblical material, see (Soulnier 2012, pp. 71–82).
bbat as Vollmondfestaccompanied
goes back to by theritual
worktrumpet
of Johannes blasts as a reminder
Meinhold (1905, 1909). (zîkārôn) Recentbefore YHWH (Num 10:10).
The transformation of Šabbāt was(2011),
muchand 3.
more Moon Festivals
radical.(1988). First,Athe (Ḥōdeš andŠabbāt
original Šabbāt/Kēseʾ)
or Kēse disappears
or of this theory can be found in J. L. Wright (2015), Grund Robinson
y of the argument can entirely,
be found even from the
in (Albertz Priestly
[1992] 1994,sacrificial
pp. 408–9).lists. This The
The connection mayancient have happened
is rejected for the same
Israelites/Judahites celebrated reason that two H
. ōdeš
moon holidays mont
cholars, who see thevanishes as a festival.
sound similarity At one point,
as coincidental and the these two was
differences festivals
between celebrated
the two the cyclical
called Ḥōdeš, which comes from the Hebrew root moon cycle, which goes‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ ח‬meaning “n
Levine 2008, p. 77; Tigay
from1998a, pp. 22–25).
full-to-new-to-full. At some point, the was relationship to the moonacycle changed,
called either Šabbāt, loanword fromand the the main name for this da
Akkadian
e Aramaic Lexicon, s.v. “ksˀ, ksˀˀ,” accessedof
conceptualization April
this22, 2019.became a way to mark time. (We will return to this point in a later
cycle commonly, Kēseʾ, another word for full moon that also appears in Arama
section.) As such, H . ōdeš became important, not as a moon celebration, but as the beginning of a month.
9 This is a northern psalm, so it should be dated to before the destruction of the north.
10 This observation fits with the view of Carr (2011), who dates much of Proverbs, including chp. 1–9 to the early monarchic
period (pp. 403–31). Other scholars date Proverbs, especially chp. 1–9 much later. See, e.g., (Schmid [2008] 2012, pp. 186–89),
who dates it as late as the Ptolemaic period.
3 This dichotomy is somewhat artificial as humans likely always experience as
11 According to this source, H heuristic
. ōdeš may have been celebrated for twotodays.
paintPerhaps
humanthisexperience of time
is connected inancient
to the broad Near
strokes.
Eastern practice of also marking the day of the moon’s4 disappearance ( ūm bubbulim) which would come right before
It does not matter whether these are actual historical events, the new or mnemohistor
moon (Horowitz 1998, pp. 162–63).
12 is the internal or constructed logic of the calendar.
Samuel is one of the oldest, if not the oldest, narrative books in the Bible. Though it shows editorial layers, as with
5
most biblical books, the stories connecting Saul and David For are
an overview
early enough of the
thatbiblical
they stillmaterial, seecentury
reflect 10th (Soulnier 2012, pp. 71–82).
realities
(Fleming 2012, p. 105). 6 The idea of Shabbat as Vollmondfest goes back to the work of Johannes M
arguments in favor of this theory can be found in J. L. Wright (2015), Grund
succinct summary of the argument can be found in (Albertz [1992] 1994, pp. 40
by a number of scholars, who see the sound similarity as coincidental and th
as extreme. See (Levine 2008, p. 77; Tigay 1998a, pp. 22–25).
7 The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, s.v. “ksˀ, ksˀˀ,” accessed April 22, 2019.
Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19
Thetransformation
The transformationof ofŠabbāt
Šabbātwas wasmuch muchmore moreradical.radical.First,
First,the theoriginal
originalŠabbāt Šabbātor orKēseʾ
Kēseʾdisappears
disappears
The
entirely, transformation
even from the of Šabbāt
Priestly was much
sacrificial more
lists. radical.
This
entirely, even from the Priestly sacrificial lists. This may have happened for the same reason that may First,
have the original
happened Šabbāt
for theor Kēseʾ
same disappears
reason that
Ḥōdešvanishes
entirely,
Ḥōdeš even
vanishesas from the
asaafestival. Priestly
festival.At Atone sacrificial
onepoint,
point,these lists.
thesetwo This
twofestivals may have
festivalscelebrated happened
celebratedthe thecyclical for the
cyclicalmoon same
mooncycle, reason
cycle,which that
which
Ḥōdeš
goes vanishes
goes from as a festival. At one
from full-to-new-to-full.
full-to-new-to-full. At point,point,
At some
some these two
point, festivals
the relationship
the relationship celebrated
toto the the
the moon moon cyclical cyclemoon
cycle changed,
changed, cycle, which
and
and the
the
Religions 2019, 10, 323 4 of 19
goes from full-to-new-to-full.
conceptualization of this At some
cycle point,
became athe way relationship
main conceptualization of this cycle became a way to mark time. (We will return to this point in aa
main to mark to
time. the
(We moon will cycle
return changed,
to this and
point the
in
main
later conceptualization
latersection.)
section.) Assuch,
As such,Ḥōdeš Ḥōdeš
of this cycle became
became
became important,
important, a way notto
not asmark
as aamoon
moon time. (We willbut
celebration,
celebration, return
but asthe
as to beginning
the this point in
beginning ofaaa
of
later
month.
month. section.)
Consequently, Asthesuch,
Consequently,
Consequently, full moon Ḥōdeš
thefull
the fullbecame
Šabbāt
moon
moon important,
lost Šabbāt
Šabbāt lostnot
its meaning,
lost as a moon
since
itsmeaning,
its meaning, there celebration,
is little
since
since there
there reasonisisbut toasmark
little
little the beginning
reason
reason theto markof
tomiddle
mark a
of
the
the
month.
a month. 13
Consequently, 1313 the full moon Šabbāt lost its meaning, since there is little reason to mark the
middle of
middle of a month. a month. 13
middle of a month.the
Nevertheless,
Nevertheless,
Nevertheless,
13
name
thename
the nameŠabbātŠabbāt does
Šabbātdoesdoesnot not disappear.
notdisappear.
disappear.Rather, Rather,
Rather,it ititis reinterpreted.
isisreinterpreted.
reinterpreted.In In later
Inlater texts,
latertexts, Šabbāt
texts,Šabbāt
Šabbāt
noNevertheless,
isisno longerthe
longer thename
the name
name theof name
of
of the
the Šabbāt does
thefull-moon
full-moon
full-moon notbut
day
day
day disappear.
but isisunderstood
understood Rather, asitderiving
as is reinterpreted.
deriving fromthe
from theIn later texts,
Hebrew
Hebrew root ‫ת‬.‫ב‬.‫ש‬, ,
rootŠabbāt
‫ת‬.‫ב‬.‫ש‬
is no
meaning
meaning longer
meaning“rest.” the
“rest.” name
“rest.”ItItthus
It thus of
thusgets the
gets full-moon
getsconnected
connectedto
connected day
toan
to anbut is
anentirely understood
entirelydifferent
entirely as
differentancient
different deriving
ancientrule,
ancient from
rule,found
rule, the
foundin
found Hebrew
ininthethe8th
the root ‫ת‬.‫ב‬.‫ש‬
8thcentury
8th century
century ,
meaning
Covenant “rest.”
CovenantCollection, It thus
Collection,requiring gets connected
requiringIsraelites
requiring Israelitesto
Israelites to toan entirely
torest
restevery
rest different
everyseven
every sevendays
seven ancient
days(Exod
days rule,
(Exod23:12):
(Exod 23:12):
23:12): found in the 8th century
Covenant Collection, requiring Israelites to rest every seven days (Exod 23:12):
Sixdays
Six daysyou youshallshalllabor, labor,but buton onthe theseventh
seventhday dayyou youshall cease((‫)ת ִּת ְׁש ְׁשבֹּבֹּתת‬,
shallcease ִּ ),sosothat
thatyouryourox oxandand
Six
your
your days
donkey you shall
donkey maylabor,
may but onand
haverelief,
have relief, thethe
and seventh
the sonof
son day
of your
your you shall cease (and
maidservant
maidservant ‫ת‬and
ֹּ‫ת ְׁשב‬the
ִּ the), so that your
resident
resident alien
alien oxmayand
may
your
be donkey14
berefreshed.
refreshed. may
14
14
14 have relief, and the son of your maidservant and the resident alien may
be refreshed.14
Thisrule
This ruleoriginally
rule originallyexpressed
originally expressed
expressed the
the
the need
need
need tototo
give give
give rest rest
rest
or or orvacation
vacation
vacation toone’s
to
to one’s one’s servants
servants
servants andand andanimals,
animals, animals,
and
andmay
and
may This
mayvery
very rule
verywell
well originally
wellhave
have havebeen
been expressed
beenobserved
observed the
observed need
by
by different to
bydifferent give
different
Israelites rest or
Israelites
Israelites vacation
on
on differentondifferent to
different one’s
days, since servants
days,there
days, since
since was,and
there
there animals,
was,
aswas,
yet, noasas
and
yet,
yet, may
nono very
concept
concept well
of
of dayshave
days of
of been
the
the observed
week.
week. The
The by
number
number different seven
seven
concept of days of the week. The number seven was likely chosen for its symbolic importance. Israelites
was
was likely
likely on different
chosen
chosen for
for days,
its
its since
symbolic
symbolic there was,
importance.
importance. as
yet, no The
The concept
creation
creation ofofdays of the week.Šabbāt
ofaaseventh-day
seventh-day The number
Šabbāt
Šabbāt cametogether
came seven was
together withlikely
with aafixing
fixing chosen
ofofthe the for its symbolic
weekly
weekly
weekly calendar,
calendar,
calendar, importance.
aapractice
practice
that The
thatbegins creation
beginswith withthe of a seventh-day
theAssyrian
Assyrianūm Šabbāt
ūmū-lemnutū,
ūmū-lemnutū, came
ū-lemnutū, (always together
(alwayswritten with
writtenin a fixing
inSumerian of the
Sumerianlogograms, weekly
logograms,UD.ḪUL.GALcalendar,
UD.ḪUL.GAL
UD. a practice
UL.GAL222), ),
2),
that begins
meaning,
meaning,
meaning,“evil with
“evil
“evildays.” the
days.”
days.” TheAssyrian
1515
15 15 The ūmū-lemnutū,
inclusion
Theinclusion
inclusion of such
of of
suchsuch(always
days
days days in written
in Mesopotamian in
Mesopotamian
in Mesopotamian Sumerian menologies
menologies logograms,
menologies (ritual
(ritual UD.ḪUL.GAL
calendars)
calendars)
(ritual calendars) 2),
goes
goes
meaning,
backat
back
goes atleast
back “evil
least
at to days.”
tothe
theto
least 10th
10th
15 The inclusion of such days in Mesopotamian menologies (ritual calendars) goes
century
thecentury
10th century B.C.E.,
B.C.E., butin
but
B.C.E., inbut
itsearlier
its earlier phases,
phases,
in its earlier theexact
the
phases, exact days
thedaysexact varied
varied according
days according
varied totomonth
according month to
back at
(Landsbergerleast
(Landsberger to the
1915,
1915, 10thpp.
pp. century
119–26;
119–26; B.C.E.,
Langdon
Langdon but in
1935,
1935, its earlier
pp.
pp. phases,
73–90).
73–90).
month (Landsberger 1915, pp. 119–26; Langdon 1935, pp. 73–90). By the time of the late Neo-Assyrian By
By the
the exact
time
time of
of days
thethe varied
late
late according
Neo-Assyrian
Neo-Assyrian to month
Empire,
Empire,
(Landsberger
however,
however,
Empire, the
however, 1915,
theūmū-lemnutū pp.ūm
ūmū-lemnutū
the 119–26; occur
occur
ū-lemnut Langdon
onon days1935,
days
ū occur 7,7,
on 14,
14, pp.
19,73–90).
19,
days 21,14,
21,
7, and
and 19,By
28.
28. the
With
With
21, time
and the
the
28.ofexception
the late
exception
With theNeo-Assyrian
ofthe
of the19th,
exception 19th, the
ofthe Empire,
the rest
rest
19th, of
of
however,
thedays
the daysof
rest
the
are
are ūmū-lemnutū
clearly
clearly
the daysbased based
are clearly
occur
onlunar
on lunaron
based
days
quarters,
quarters, 7,
on lunar
14,
with19,
with 21,
the
quarters,
and
thelast 28.
lastday
day
with
With
orthe
or two
two the exception
ofthe
of
last themonth
day month
or two
of the
(ūm
(ūm 19th,
bubbulim)
of bubbulim)
the
the rest
monthlikely
of
likely
(ūm
the
not
not days
counted
counted are clearly
asas part
part based
ofof the
the on lunar
division
division quarters,
but
but instead
instead with
as
as a the
a last
festival
festival
bubbulim) likely not counted as part of the division but instead as a festival (Langdon 1935, p. 89).
day or
(Langdon
(Langdon two of the
1935,
1935, p. month
p. 89).
89). (ūm bubbulim) likely
not counted
Onthese
On these
these asdays,
part
days,
days, of
the the
the division
king
king
king was was
was but instead
warned
warned
warned
as acertain
against
against
against
festival
certain
certain (Langdon
practices,
practices,
practices,
1935,
such such as such p. 89).
conducting as conducting
as conducting
business, business,
business,
eating
eating
eating On these
cooked
cooked days,
food,
food, the
changing
changing king was
clothes,warned
clothes, riding
riding against
on
on his
his certain
chariot,
chariot,
cooked food, changing clothes, riding on his chariot, etc. For example, we are told regarding day 7 of
practices,
etc.
etc. For
For such
example,
example, as conducting
we
we are
are told
told business,
regarding
regarding
eating
daymonth
day 77ofcooked
of the
the food,in
month changing
in theNeo-Assyrianclothes, riding
Neo-Assyrian on his chariot, etc. For example, we are told regarding
calendar:
the inmonth
the Neo-Assyrian the calendar:calendar:
day 7 of the month in the Neo-Assyrian calendar:
[Lucky]and
[Lucky]
[Lucky] andsinister.
and sinister.King
sinister. Kingas
King asshepherd
as shepherdof
shepherd ofthe
of thepeoples
the peoplesmay
peoples mayeat
may eatno
eat nocooked
no cookedflesh
cooked fleshand
flesh andbaked
and baked
baked
[Lucky]
bread.
bread. and
He sinister.
may not King
change as shepherd
his garments, of the
may peoples
not may
make eat no
sacrifices, cooked ride flesh
in a and
chariot, baked nor
bread. He He may may not not change
change his his garments,
garments, may may not not make
make sacrifices,
sacrifices, ride ride in in aa chariot,
chariot, nor nor
bread.
speak as
speak He may
asaaalord.
lord. not
lord. Seer change
Seershall shallnot
shall his garments,
notprophesy
not prophesyand
prophesy may not
andphysicians
and make
physiciansnot
physicians sacrifices,
notpractice.
not practice. Unsuited
practice. ride in a
Unsuited forchariot,
fordoing nor
doing
doing
speak as Seer Unsuited for
speak
anything
anything as a lord.
desirable Seer shall
(Langdon not prophesy
1935, p. 75). and physicians not practice. Unsuited for doing
anything desirable
desirable.(Langdon (Langdon1935, 1935,p. p.75).
75)
anything desirable (Langdon 1935, p. 75).
Similarly, aletter
Similarly, letterwritten
writtento toaaNeo-Assyrian
Neo-Assyrianking kingstates:states:
Similarly, aa letter written to a Neo-Assyrian king states:
Similarly, a letter written to a Neo-Assyrian king states:
The19th
The 19thday day(is (isthetheday) day)of ofwrath…
wrath…an anauspicious
auspiciousday, day,an anevil evilday.day.The Theshepherd
shepherdof ofthethe
The 19th
The 19th day
day (is
(is the
the day)
day) of
of wrath
wrath… . . . an
anauspicious
auspiciousday, day, an an evil evil day.
day. The The shepherd
shepherd of of the
the
great
great people does not eat anything cooked on fire; he does not change the garment of his
great people
great people
people
does
does not
does not eat
not eat anything
eat anything cooked
anything cooked on
cooked on fire;
on fire; he
fire; he
he
does
does
does
not
not
not
change the
change
change the
the
garment
garment
garment
of
of his
of his
his
body,put
body, puton onclean
cleanones, ones,nor nordoes
doeshe heperform
performaasacrifice. sacrifice.The Theking kingdoes doesnot not rideaachariot, chariot,
body, put
body, puton on clean
clean ones,
ones,nor nordoes
does hehe perform
perform a sacrifice.
a sacrifice. The king does notnot rideride
a chariot, nor
norspeak
nor speak ininanan authoritative
authoritative tone(Parpola
tone (Parpola [1983]
[1983] 2007,p.
2007, p.The 206).
206). king does ride a chariot,
speak in an authoritative tone. (Parpola
nor speak in an authoritative tone (Parpola [1983] 2007, p. 206). [1983] 2007, p. 206)
Parpolanotes
Parpola notesthat thatthese thesedays dayshavehaveaasomewhat
somewhatcontradictory contradictorycharacter, character,both bothpositive
positive(“lucky (“luckyor or
Parpola notes
Parpola
auspicious”) notes
and that these
that
negative these daysor
days
(“bad have
have a somewhat
a
evil”): somewhat contradictorycontradictory character, character, both both positive
positive (“lucky (“lucky or or
auspicious”) and negative (“bad or evil”):
auspicious”) and
auspicious”) and negative
negative (“bad (“bad or or evil”):
evil”):
Thesedays
These dayswere werenot notsimply
simply“inauspicious”:
“inauspicious”:every every“evil “evilday”day”isischaracterized
characterizedin inthetheseries
series
These
InbuBēl days
BēlArḫi were
Arḫias not
as“auspicious” simply
“auspicious”(UD “inauspicious”:
(UDŠE). ŠE).The Theattributeevery
every
attribute“evil”“evil day”
“evil”probably is characterized
probablyderives derivesfrom in the
fromaalearned series
learned
Inbu
Inbu Bēl Arḫi
Bēl
association
association Ar iof asevery
of “auspicious”
every seventh seventh(UD dayŠE).
day of The
of the attribute
the month (the
month “evil”
(the probably
principal
principal derives
lunar
lunar from and
phases)
phases) aandlearned
their
their
association of ofevery
everyseventh seventh dayday of the
of month
the month (the principal
(the principal lunar phases) lunar phases) and theirand multiple
their
(7 × 7 = 49 = 30 = 19: the 19th day) with the seven evil demons, through number symbolism.
Grund
1313 Grund
13 (Parpola (2011,
(2011, pp.136–42)
[1983]
pp. 136–42) discusses
2007, discusses
p. 178) the themoon
moonfestivals
festivalsfrom fromthisthisperspective
perspectivein inthe thesection
sectionaptlyaptlytitled
titled“Linear
“Linear
13 Grund
and (2011,views
andcyclical
cyclical pp. 136–42)
views oftime
of discusses
time inIsrael
in the
Israel moon
and
and festivals from this
itsenvironment”
its environment” perspective
(Lineare
(Lineare in the Zeitauffassung
undzyklische
und zyklische section aptly titled
Zeitauffassung “Linear
ininIsrael
Israel und
und
It is
and easy to
cyclical
seiner
seiner Umwelt).
Umwelt). see of
views the connection
time between
in Israel and a system of
its environment” everyund
(Lineare seven daysZeitauffassung
zyklische being declared special
in Israel und
and
14
14 off-limits
14 seiner
See
See also, to 34:21,
Umwelt).
also, Exod
Exod certain types
34:21,which
which of activities
seems
seems tobe
to and what
beworking
working becomes
withthe
with thesame the Judean Sabbath day by the late first
samemodel.
model.
1515 See
14
See also,
CAD Exod 34:21,
(Chicago which
Assyrian seems to be
Dictionary), working
Volume 9 with
(L), the
s.v. same model.
“Lemnu,” C3,p.
p.122.
122.(Gelb
(Gelbetetal.
al.1956–2010).
1956–2010).
15 See CAD (Chicago Assyrian Dictionary), Volume 9 (L), s.v. “Lemnu,” C3,
15 See CAD (Chicago Assyrian Dictionary), Volume 9 (L), s.v. “Lemnu,” C3, p. 122. (Gelb et al. 1956–2010).
13 Grund (2011, pp. 136–42) discusses the moon festivals from this perspective in the section aptly titled “Linear and cyclical
views of time in Israel and its environment” (Lineare und zyklische Zeitauffassung in Israel und seiner Umwelt).
14 See also, Exod 34:21, which seems to be working with the same model.
15 See CAD (Chicago Assyrian Dictionary), Volume 9 (L), s.v. “Lemnu,” C3, p. 122. (Gelb 1956–2010).
multiple (7 × 7 = 49 = 30 = 19: the 19th day) with the seven evil demons, through number
symbolism (Parpola [1983] 2007, p. 178).
Religions 2019, 10, 323 5 of 19
It is easy to see the connection between a system of every seven days being declared special and
off-limits to certain types of activities and what becomes the Judean Sabbath day by the late first
Temple
Temple or or exilic
exilic period,
period, and
and many
many scholars
scholars have
have made
made this
this connection. Certainly, as
connection. Certainly, as Jeffrey
Jeffrey Tigay
Tigay
cautiously notes, one cannot argue for a simple adoption of the ūm ū-lemnutū
cautiously notes, one cannot argue for a simple adoption of the ūmū-lemnutū by the Judeans, duetotoa
by the Judeans, due
anumber
number ofof
important
important differences:
differences:
• The
The Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian practice
practice was to divide
was to divide the
the month
month byby quarters,
quarters, not
not to to have
have aa seven-day
seven-day week;
week;
• The Mesopotamian
Mesopotamiandays
daysincluded
includedday
day1919either
eitherwith
withororininplace
placeofof21,21, and
and sometimes
sometimes neither
neither of
of these;
these;
• The days were generally seen as
as negative
negative (though
(though not
not exclusively
exclusively so).
so).
Despite thesethesedifferences,
differences,even evenTigay Tigay admits
admits that thethe
that connection
connection is attractive
is attractiveand that and thethatūmū-the
lemnutū were
ūmū-lemnut likely likely
ū were at leastata least factorainfactor the reimagining
in the reimagining of Šabbātof (Tigay
Šabbāt 1998b,
(Tigay pp.1998b,
93–96).pp. Therefore,
93–96).
rather thanReligions
Therefore, rather 2019, 10,
dismissing
than x FOR
this
dismissing PEER REVIEW
connection, we mightwe
this connection, suggest
might that suggestthe that
Judean the practice, inspiredinspired
Judean practice, by the 2 of 19
connection with the

by the connection seventh-day
with the seventh-day vacationvacationrule, disentangled
rule, disentangledthe Šabbāt thefrom thefrom
Šabbāt lunarthe month lunarentirely,
month
and As observed by Mercea Eliade, time can be experienced asforlinear or cyclical (Eliade 1959). 3
entirely, and connected their rest day for workers with the Neo-Assyrian rest days for the kingother
connected their rest day for workers with the Neo-Assyrian rest days the king (and (and
officials), Modern calendars
emphasizing the solemn emphasize importance linear of time.
these They
days, begin
and from
the a fixed point (creation of the world,
other officials), emphasizing the solemn importance of these days, and theimportance
importanceofofnot not profaning
profaning
them with Mohamed’s hijra to Mecca,have etc.) and continue from there. For instance, in the Gregorian calendar,
4
work. This This process
process would would have begun begun in in the
the 7th
7th century, when Judah was a vassal state
to Assyria. the year 2018 is two thousand and eighteen years since the officially recognized birth of Jesus. But
this
Significantly, linear conception of forward movement
Šabbāt’s reinvention as a weekly rather than monthly from a fixed holiday,
point in the pastmade is notit the
much only way in
Significantly, Šabbāt’s not only
more frequent,which butwe experience
changed time. of
the nature In theaddition to imagining
more ancient timeby as a line, “everyhumans also imagine it as an
ancient day day of of rest
rest by turning
turning “every seventh seventh day”day”
endless circling. This is what
(a subjective counting) into “every Day Seven” (a communal, is being pictured by
communal, fixed the verse about
fixed counting), days
counting), thereby and seasons.
thereby incorporating
incorporating
weeks into
intothethecommunal
communalcalendrical calendrical conscience.
conscience. ThisThisis a significant
is a significant development,
development, since weeks, unlike
since weeks,
2. Festivals at Set Times
lunar months or solar years, do not reflect natural phenomena,
unlike lunar months or solar years, do not reflect natural phenomena, but rather, are based on but rather, are based on human
conceptual schemes, An important
schemes, which
which may partexplain
of calendars
explain why Šabbāt in all cultures
Šabbāt continued is the markingtwo
to undergo of festivals
further,celebrating
contradictory something of
conceptualimportance
changes,
changes, both bothat of aofwhich
given
whichtime attempt
attempt of toyear.
tomake
make Festivals
sense
senseofof can thecelebrate
the law.
law. both kinds of time. For example, the
First, Pennsylvania
in the Deuteronomic Dutch celebration
school, the of Groundhog
day-of-rest
First, in the Deuteronomic school, the day-of-rest law was explained as existing law Day,
was is tied
explained to the belief
as existing that
because aGod
becausegroundhog
God
took knows
took
IsraelIsrael
out ofwhether
out
Egypt the winter
of Egypt
(Deut 5:15).cold
(Deut 5:15). will
In other Inbe longwords,
other
words, orisshort
it it in
loosely aconnected
given year,
is loosely tobased
connected linearto on whether
linear
time. time.
This it not
is sees its
is shadow
Thisreally nota or not
really a when
radical it emerges
change, since on February
the conceptual 2. This linkyearly
is ritual
clear: of
Israel
radical change, since the conceptual link is clear: Israel should treat their slaves and workers well, watching
should the
treat groundhog
their slaves is not
and tied
workers to some event
well, in
rememberingthe pasthow or a commemoration
unfairly they were of previous
treated in Groundhog
Egypt.
remembering how unfairly they were treated in Egypt. Second, the Priestly revision—probably from Second, Days;
the rather,
Priestly it is simply
revision—probably part of the cycle of
post-exilic winters.
from post-exilic
scribes The
scribes
of the Jewish the festival
ofHoliness Holinessschoolofschool
16 bǝ-Šǝbāt,
Tû—connects 16 thethe
—connects New theYear for Trees,
seventh-day
seventh-day Šabbātis essentially
Šabbāt
to theto creation the same,
the creation of theofas it simply
world and claims that the reason Šabbāt must be observed is because it commemorates God’s resting celebrates
the world marks
and the
claims point
that of
themidwinter.
reason At
Šabbāt the opposite
must be end
observed of theis spectrum
because would
it be
commemoratesJuly 4th, which
God’s
resting on American
on the sevenththe seventh
day (Gen independence
day (GenExod
2:1–3; from
2:1–3; England,
Exod
20:10, 20:10,or
31:17). the practice of celebrating one’s anniversary or birthday.
31:17).
In
In sum,
sum, looking Sometimes
looking atatthethe amoon
festival,
moonfestivals, on its face,
festivals, wewe may
cancanseeappear
thethe
see tovirtual
virtual be disappearance
celebrating
disappearance something
of twoof two in linear
festivals time, while at
that
festivals
originally the same
celebrated time,
natural,be masking
cyclical
that originally celebrated natural, cyclical phenomenon. H a more
phenomenon. basic or Ḥōdeš,
primal celebration of something
. ōdeš, which celebrated the new moon is
which celebrated the new in cyclical
moon is time (Z. I.
discontinued
discontinued Farber
in 2018, pp. 443–44,
in everything
everything butname,
but name, 449–50).
remaining
remaining This onlymasking
onlyasasa aof a cyclical time
Temple-based
Temple-based festivallaw,
sacrificial
sacrificial with
law, awhile
whilelinear timeasconception
Šabbāt
Šabbāt
a celebration of the full moon disappears entirely, reemerging as the name of a seventh-day holiday, festivals
as a (commemorating
celebration of the full an
moon important
disappears event) seems
entirely, to underlie
reemerging what
as thehappened
name of with
a the Israelite
seventh-day
holiday,
inspired by found
inspired inbythe
the exodus the Hebrew
fromexodusEgypt Bible.
from
andEgyptcommemoratingand commemoratingGod’s creation God’s creation
of the world.ofWe thewill
world. We
see that
will seedevelopments
similar that similarThe aim of this
developments
took place paper took
with (in accordance
place
other with other
festivals with the aim as
festivals
as well. of well.
the entire issue) is to present an overview
of the topic, rather than a detailed and comprehensive argument for a new thesis. Even so, the way
4. The
The Wheat
Wheatthe Festivals:
material Maṣṣôt, will
Mas.s.be ôt, Qāṣî
presented
Qās.îr, r, and should
Šabūʿôt
Šabū ôt present the reader with a new, overall picture of the
development
The Covenant of the in
Collection Israelite
Exodus festival calendar.
(21:1–23:19) To do this,
is believed by wemany willscholars
look at the to be development
the oldest ofof the texts,
the Pentateuchal legal collections (Levinson 1997; D. Wright 2009). It includes a descriptionin
in the light of source and redaction criticism, as well as with comparative models ofthe ancient Near
three
East. Nevertheless, as the paper is necessarily broad in scope, in order to cover this large topic, many
festivals (Exod 23:14–17):
of the specific defenses of given claims and readings will have to rely on works cited in the
14 Threebibliography
times a year whereyou the shall original
hold aresearchfestival for Me: 15 The
is presented inFeast
detail.of5 Mas.s.ôt (Unleavened
Bread) you shall observe—eating unleavened bread for seven days as I have commanded
you—at 3. Moon
the setFestivals
time in the (Ḥōdeš
Hōdešand (New Šabbāt/Kēseʾ)
Moon) of Ābîb (Green Ears), for in it you went forth
16 Although for a long time, H was. considered to be earlier than P and pre-Exilic, for the past two decades, the
The ancient
majority of scholars Israelites/Judahites
have embraced the idea thatcelebrated two moon
H is a revision of P orholidays
even the monthly. ThePentateuch
editor of the New Moon festival
itself. Aswas
such,called Ḥōdeš, which comes from the Hebrew root ‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ ח‬meaning “new.” Thethat
without taking a position on whether P is pre- or post-exilic, it seems quite likely fullHmoon
is, festival
16 though some
Althoughwas scholars
for acalled disagree.
long time, H was
either (See Knohl
considered
Šabbāt, [1995] 2007;
to be earlier
a loanword Schectman
thanthe
from P and and Baden
pre-Exilic, name
Akkadian 2009).
for the for
past this
two decades, the majority of 6 or, less
day (Šabattu/Šapattu)
scholars have embraced the idea that H is a revision of P or even the editor of the Pentateuch itself. As such, without
taking a commonly, Kēseʾ, Panother word for full moonquite
thatlikely
also appears
that H is, in Aramaic
some and Syriac. 7
position on whether is pre- or post-exilic, it seems though scholars disagree.
(See Knohl [1995] 2007; Schectman and Baden 2009).
3 This dichotomy is somewhat artificial as humans likely always experience aspects of both, but it is a useful
paper (in accordancewhich with we experience
the aim of the time. In addition
entire issue) isto
Modern to imagining
calendars
present an time as a line,linear
emphasize
overview humans time. also Theyimagine beginitfrom as ana fixed point (creati
in the past or a commemoration of previous Groundhog Days; rather, it is simply part of the cycle of
endless circling. This is what
han a detailed and comprehensive argument for a new thesis. Even so, the way is being pictured
Mohamed’s by the
hijra verse
to about
Mecca, days
etc.) 4 and
and seasons.
continue from there. For instance, in the Gre
winters. The Jewish festival of Tûbǝ-Šǝbāt, the New Year for Trees, is essentially the same, as it simply
e presented should present the reader with a new, the year
overall 2018picture
is two of thousand
the and eighteen years since the officially recognized b
marks the point of at midwinter. At the opposite end of the spectrum would be July 4th, which celebrates
sraelite festival 2. Festivals
calendar. To do Set Times
this, we will look at the this linear conception
development of the texts, of forward movement from a fixed point in the past is not
American independence from England, or the practice of celebrating one’s anniversary or birthday.
and redaction criticism, as well aspart
An important withofcomparative
calendars which
models we experience
in the is ancient time.ofInfestivals
Near addition to imagining time asofa line, humans also
Sometimes
Religions a festival,
2019, 10, 323 on its face, may in all cultures
appear the marking
to be celebrating something in linear celebrating
time, while somethingat 6 of 19
s the paper is necessarily
importance broadat a in scope,
given in
time order
of to
year. endless
cover this
Festivals circling.
large
can This
topic,
celebrate is
manywhat
both is being
kinds ofpictured
time. by
For the verse
example, about
the days and seasons
the same time, be masking a more basic or primal celebration of something in cyclical time (Z. I.
nses of given claims and readings will have to rely on works cited in the
FarberPennsylvania
2018, pp. 443–44, Dutch celebration
449–50). This of Groundhog
masking of a cyclical
2. Festivals
Day,time
atMe
is tied to the
festival
Setempty-handed;
Times with belief
a linear
16
thattime a groundhog
conceptionknows
the original research is
whether thean presented
from Egypt;
winter in detail.
and
cold will none5
shall
be long appear
or short before
in a given year, based onwith whether and the Feast of the Qās or. îrnot
(commemorating important event) seems to underlie what happened the it sees its festivals
Israelite shadow
(Harvest), of the first produce of your work, of what you sow in the field; and the Feast of
found whenin theitHebrewemergesBible. on February 2. This yearlyAn ritual of watching
important part of thecalendars
groundhog in all is not tied to
cultures is some event
the marking of festivals celebrat
Ḥōdeš and Šabbāt/Kēseʾ)Āsîp (Ingathering) at the end of the year, when you gather in the results of your work from
in the past
The aim of this paper or a commemoration of previous
importance Groundhogat a Days;
given
(in accordance with the aim of the entire issue) is to present an overview timerather,
of it
year.is simply
Festivals part canof the cycle
celebrate of
both kinds of time. F
17 Three
of the winters.
elites/Judahites celebrated
topic,
the
rather
field.
Thetwo Jewish
than moona festival
times
holidays
detailed ofandTûa bǝ -Šǝbāt,
year
monthly. all your
theNew
Pennsylvania
comprehensiveThe males
New shall
Year
Dutch
Moon
argument for appear
Trees,
celebration
festival
for
before
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is essentially Sovereign,
of Groundhog
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theas
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is
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hich comes from marks
the
the material The the
Hebrew point
will three rootof
be presented‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ח‬
midwinter.
holidays here meaning At
should the opposite
whether
“new.”
are present The
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full
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festival would
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first isa described long
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or July
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as a picture4th,
in awhich
given
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of the based
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bāt, a loanword American
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Akkadian
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Israelite thefrom
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forcalendar.
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twoday aswhenor
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6
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or,
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in the light Sometimes
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also festival,
appears
and redaction on in
And yet, criticism, its face,
Aramaic may
in the
and
part of theasdifferenceappear
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Syriac.
well as with or to
7a be
derives celebrating
commemoration
comparative something
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models in
from redactional previous in linear
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the ancient Near
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Days;
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the same
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are indented): be masking a more basic
winters. or primal
The celebration
Jewish festival
as the paper is necessarily broad in scope, in order to cover this large topic, many of something
Tû bǝ - Šǝbāt, in
the cyclical
New time
Year for(Z. I. is essentially the s
Trees,
of theFarberspecific 2018, pp. 443–44,
defenses of given 449–50). claimsThisand masking
marks theof
readings a cyclical
point will havetimetofestival
of midwinter. At the
rely with
on a linear
opposite
works end
citedtime ofinconception
the
thespectrum would be July 4th
(commemoratingThe Feast of an Mas . s.ôt— event)American
important seems to underlie
independence what happened
from England, with or the
the Israelite
practice offestivals
celebrating one’s anniversa
bibliography where the original research is presented in detail. 5
found in the Hebrew Bible. Sometimes a festival,

you shall observe, eating unleavened bread for seven days as I have commanded you— on its face, may appear to be celebrating something in lin
3. Moon Festivals The ataim of this
the(Ḥōdeš paper
and the(in
in Šabbāt/Kēseʾ)
H accordance the with time,
same the aim be of the entire
masking issue)basic
a more is to or present
primal ancelebration
overview of something in cy
omewhat artificial
set time . ōdeš ofaspectsĀbîb,
of as thehumans
topic, likely
ratheralways than aexperience
detailed and of 2018,
both, pp.
comprehensive
Farber but it is a useful
argument
443–44, for aThis
449–50). newmaskingthesis. Even so, the time
of a cyclical way festival with a linea
uman experience Theof ancient
time in broad for in it you went
strokes. forth from
celebrated twoEgypt;
moon holidays monthly. The New Moon festival
the material will be presented should present the reader
(commemorating an important with aevent) new, seems overall to picture
underlieofwhat the happened with the
wasare
whether these actualḤōdeš,
called historicalwhich comes
events, from the Hebrew
or mnemohistorical root In
fictions. ‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ח‬
either meaning
case, this“new.” The full moon festival
development The first of the Israelite festival
supplement is easy to calendar.
found
recognize,inTo thedo this,this
Hebrew
since weBible.
will look
phrase was atadded
the development
into a number of the of texts,
biblical
nstructed was
logic called
of the calendar.
either Šabbāt, a loanword from the Akkadian name for this day (Šabattu/Šapattu) 17inThe
6 or, less
in passages,
the light of source andthe
interrupting redaction
flow of criticism,
the text The asaim
(e.g., well ofas
Exod with
this
12:15–16, comparative
paper (in accordance
13:6; Deut models
16:3). with the ancient
thesecond
aim ofwas Near
the part entire issue) is to pre
the biblical material, see
commonly, (Soulnier
Kēseʾ, another 2012,word pp. 71–82).
for full moon that also appears in Aramaic and Syriac.7
at as Vollmondfest East. Nevertheless,
of the
goes attempt
back to thetowork as theofpaper
redefine many
Johannes is necessarily
different
Meinhold broad
of the observances
topic,
(1905, in scope,
rather
1909). than
as being
Recent in order
a detailed to and
commemorationscover this large
of thetopic,
comprehensive exodus many
argument(more for a new thesis.
of onthe specific
this later). defenses
Thus, the of
oldestgiven
of this theory can be found in J. L. Wright (2015), Grund (2011), and Robinson layerclaims
the
of the and
material
Mas readings
s
.. ôt will
passage be will have
presented
follows
(1988). A to
the rely
should
same on works
present
structure as cited
thethe in
reader
other the with a new, overa
two:
bibliography
of the argument can be namefound of in where
festival
(Albertz the
plus[1992] original
season
1994,of research
pp.observance. is
developmentpresented of
408–9). The connection is rejected in
the detail.
Israelite 5 festival calendar. To do this, we will look at the develop
olars, who see the soundAnd similarity

yet, the as coincidental
festivals areand stilltheindifferences
not the
of alight
piece. of source
between
The time and
the two
forredaction
celebrating criticism,
Mas.s.ôtas is well
marked as with
by acomparative
date, models in
3. Moon
vine 2008, p. 77; Tigay while1998a,Festivals
the pp.time22–25). (Ḥōdeš
for and Šabbāt/Kēseʾ)
celebrating Qās.îrEast.
andNevertheless,
Āsîp is marked as the
by an paper is necessarily
agricultural stage,broad wheninyou scope,harvest in order to cover this
Aramaic Lexicon, s.v. or“ksˀ, ksˀˀ,” accessed April 22, 2019. of the thespecific defenses ofaspects
given
3 This dichotomygather
The isthe
ancient given product.
artificial Moreover,
somewhat as humans celebrated
likely meaning
two
always moon of holidays
the latter
experience monthly.ofclaims
festivals both, is
The and
butNewit isreadings
clear—thanksgiving
Moon will for
a usefulfestival have to rely on wo
heuristica good
was calledto paint harvest—whereas
Ḥōdeš,
human experience
which comes the
offrommeaning
time in bibliography
thebroad of
Hebrew the
strokes. where
Mas
root s ôt the
festivaloriginal
is research
opaque. What
. . ‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ ח‬meaning “new.” The full moon festival is presented
are the in detail.
unleavened 5
4 It does
was flatbreads
not matter
called for?
whether
either Šabbāt, these are actual historical
a loanword from theevents, Akkadian or mnemohistorical
name for thisfictions. In either case, this
day (Šabattu/Šapattu) 6 or, less
is the internal The or constructed
first clue comes logic of
from thethe 3. Moon first
calendar.
date—the Festivals
of the (Ḥōdeš
month and
of Šabbāt/Kēseʾ)
“Green Ears” ( Ābîb). 18 To what grain
commonly, Kēseʾ, another word for full moon that also appears in Aramaic and Syriac. 7
5 For andoes overview of the An
this refer? biblical material,
important find seethat
(Soulnier
sheds 2012, pp. 71–82).
The light
ancient on Israelites/Judahites
the agricultural calendar celebratedfor ancienttwo moon Canaan/Israel
holidays monthly. The N
6 The idea of Shabbat as Vollmondfest
is what scholars call “the Gezer Calendar,” goes back to the work
discovered of Johannes
in 1908 Meinhold
at Tel Gezer (1905,
by 1909).
R.A.S. Recent
Macalister, and
was called Ḥōdeš, which comes from the Hebrew root ‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ ח‬meaning
arguments in favor of this theory can be found in J. L. Wright (2015), Grund (2011), and Robinson (1988). A
“new.” The f
dated to the 10th century (roughly the was time
calledof David
either according
Šabbāt, a to biblical
loanword chronology).
from the Akkadian I will quote
name the
for this day (Šabattu
succinct summary of the argument can be found in (Albertz [1992] 1994, pp. 408–9). The connection is rejected
calendar in full, as we will make reference commonly, to otherKēseʾ, parts
another of it word
later in forthe fullpiece.
moon that also appears in Aramaic and Syr
by a number of scholars, who see the sound similarity as coincidental and the differences between the two
as extreme. His
See (Levine 2008, p. 77;
double-month isTigay 1998a, pp. His
ingathering. 22–25).
double-month is sowing. His double-month is
7
3 This dichotomy
The Comprehensive Aramaicis somewhat
Lexicon, artificial
s.v. “ksˀ, as humans
ksˀˀ,” accessed likely
Aprilalways
22,monthexperience aspects of both, but it is a useful
2019.
late-planting. His month is chopping flax. His is barley harvest. His month is
heuristic to paint human experience of time in broad strokes.
19 His double-month is pruning. His month is summerfruit. Abiya
4 harvest and measuring.
It does not matter whether these are actual historical events, or mnemohistorical fictions. In either case, this
is the(trans.,
internalP.or
Kyle McCarter,
constructed COS
logic of the2, 2003,
calendar.p. 222 [#2.85]). (Hallo and Younger 2003)20
5 For an overview of the biblical material, see (Soulnier 2012, pp. 71–82).
For our purposes, it should be3noted Thisthat immediately
dichotomy preceding
is somewhat theaswheat
artificial humans harvest
likely is the barley
always experience aspects of bot
6 The idea of Shabbat as Vollmondfest goes back to the work of Johannes Meinhold (1905, 1909). Recent
harvest. Wheat was a much more significant heuristic to painttohuman
product experience
the farmers thanofbarley,
time inandbroad strokes.
as we already see
arguments in favor of this theory can 4be found in J. L. Wright (2015), Grund (2011), and Robinson (1988). A
in the Gezer Calendar, where the wordIt“harvest” does not matter
without whether these refers
a modifier are actual historical
to wheat
events,Similarly,
harvest. or mnemohistorical fictions
the is the internal or constructed logic of the calendar.
by aBible alsoofspecifies
number scholars,“barley
who seeharvest”
the 5soundwhen it hasasthis
similarity in mind (2
coincidental andSam
the 21:9, Ruth 1:22),
differences between whereas
the twothe
For an overview of the biblical material, see (Soulnier 2012, pp. 71–82).
word “harvest
as extreme. See time”
(Levineon its own,
2008, likely
p. 77; Tigay refers
1998a, to
pp. the wheat
22–25). harvest. In any event, Exodus 34, which is
6 The idea of Shabbat as Vollmondfest goes back to the work of Johannes Meinhold (1
7 aThe
later revision ofAramaic
Comprehensive parts ofLexicon,
Exodus s.v.23 (Gesundheit
“ksˀ, ksˀˀ,” accessed2002),
Aprilspecifically
22, 2019. states that the holiday of Qās.îr
arguments in favor of this theory can be found in J. L. Wright (2015), Grund (2011), and
celebrates the wheat harvest. But whatsuccinct about the festival of Mas.s.ôt? can be found in (Albertz [1992] 1994, pp. 408–9). The co
summary of the argument
by a number of scholars, who see the sound similarity as coincidental and the difference
17 Although many scholars still read this text 7
asThe Comprehensive
coming Aramaic
from one author, Lexicon,
a number s.v. “ksˀ,
of scholars ksˀˀ,”
have accessed
suggested April along
redaction 22, 2019.
the lines discussed above. The specific, critical redaction suggestion here is based on Gesundheit (2002). Reinhard Kratz
refers to the addition in v. 15 as “syntactically clumsy” (Kratz [2000] 2005, pp. 142, 152 n49). A middle position, in which the
author of the whole passage is the author of the Covenant Collection, but that this author was reworking older material, is
found in Wright (2009, pp. 310–11).
18 As H. ōdeš can mean month, the phrase could be translated as “at the set time in the month of green ears.” This would then
assume that the reader knows the set time for this festival.
19 The translation of this word is disputed. Others, such as King and Stager (2001, pp. 88–89) suggest “feasting.”
20 The language of this document, specific translations of given words, and even the nature of the document, are all matters of
dispute. See discussion in (Talmon 1963; Lemaire 1976; Young 1992; Sivan 1998).
Religions 2019, 10, 323 7 of 19
The Hebrew word Mas.s.ôt, in the biblical text, refers to flatbreads, likely made from barely
0, x FOR PEER REVIEW (Avrahami 2018). As the stores of wheat would have been
Religions depleted
2019, ifPEER
5 of
10, x FOR not entirely
19 REVIEW used up by this point
in the year, flatbreads would have been the only bread available in this season; green ears of wheat can
(7 × 7 = 49 = 30 =be 19:eaten parched
the 19th day) (qālûy
with the in biblical
seven evilterms, known
demons, today
through by the Arabic
number
As observed term, freekeh),
by Mercea but cannot
Eliade, time can be be experienced as line
made into
sm (Parpola [1983] 2007, p. 178). flour for baking. What is the festival’s meaning?
Modern calendars emphasize linear time. They begin from a fixed
On one level, it seems possible that the festival celebrateshijra
Mohamed’s the barley
to Mecca, harvest
etc.)(Schmidt [1968] from
4 and continue 1983, there. For instanc
to see the connection between a system of every seven days being declared special and
p. 120). If so, it would work well with the otherthe two festivals, as each celebrates a different harvest.
year 2018 is two thousand and eighteen years since the officially r
certain types of activities and what becomes the Judean Sabbath day by the late first
And yet, this only partially explains the festivalthis for two
linear reasons.
conceptionFirst, ofif itforward
were to movement
be exactly like
fromthea fixed point in th
ilic period, and many scholars have made this connection. Certainly, as Jeffrey Tigay
other two festivals, then one would imagine thewhich first barley being offered
we experience time.notIn eaten. Second,
addition the verse time as a line, h
to imagining
tes, one cannot argue for a simple adoption of the ūmū-lemnutū by the Judeans, due to
never mentions this being the time of gathering endless barley. Instead,
circling.the This only marker
is what is a date,
is being and this
pictured by is
thea verse about days
mportant differences:
reference to the green ears of unripe wheat, not the ripe barley.
opotamian practice was to divide
Thus, the month
the eating by quarters,
of (barley) flatbreads not may
to have
2.have a seven-day
Festivals
been an at Setweek;
Times ritual to ensure the success
apotropaic
opotamian days included day 19
of the wheat either (Propp
harvest with or[1999]in place2010,of 21,
pp.and sometimes
429–34). neitheritofappears to be a privation ritual,
Specifically,
An important part of calendars in all cultures is the marking of fest
the logic of which comes from the idea that showing wealth can bring about the opposite. We know
importance at a given time of year. Festivals can celebrate both kin
s were generally seen fromasother
negative (though
biblical passages not exclusively
that in yearsso). of plenty, the stores of wheat grain could last into and even
Pennsylvania Dutch celebration of Groundhog Day, is tied to the be
these differences, past
eventhe next
Tigay year’sthat
admits wheat season (Levis26:10).
the connection attractive And
whether and yet,thatas the
fates
the winter ūmū-and gods are capricious in many
cold will be long or short in a given year, based on wh
cultures’ conceptions, eating baked wheat
likely at least a factor in the reimagining of Šabbāt (Tigay 1998b, when bread at the
pp. 93–96). beginning of
Therefore, the wheat harvest season could be
it emerges on February 2. This yearly ritual of watching the groun
understood as implying that the farmers
ismissing this connection, we might suggest that the Judean practice, have “no need” of
inspired this new crop or any divine help. Such an
in the past or a by the
commemoration of previous Groundhog Days; rather, i
implication could anger the relevant deities,
fromcausing them to demonstrate how much they are needed
ith the seventh-day vacation rule, disentangled the Šabbāt thewinters.
lunar month entirely,
The Jewish festival of Tûbǝ-Šǝbāt, the New Year for Trees, is ess
d their rest day for by workers
destroying thethe
with crops with blight or
Neo-Assyrian rest bad weather.
days for the king (andof other
marks the point midwinter. At the opposite end of the spectrum woul
An argument for the likelihood
phasizing the solemn importance of these days, and the importance of this interpretation comes
of notindependence
profaningfrom the concomitant ritual act that,
American from England, or the practice of celebrating one
ork. This process wouldalthoughhavenotbegun
mentionedin thein7th thecentury,
Covenant whenCollection
Judah was or the Ritual Decalogue
a vassal (and thus perhaps a later
Sometimes astate
festival, on its face, may appear to be celebrating som
development), appears in all other references to this festival: the prohibition to eat leaven (Exod 12:15,
the same time, be masking a more basic or primal celebration of som
13:3, Deut
ntly, Šabbāt’s reinvention as a16:3) andrather
weekly the requirement
than monthly to holiday,
remove all notleaven
only fromitone’s
made much midst (Exod 12:19–20, 13:7, Deut
Farber 2018, pp. 443–44, 449–50). This masking of a cyclical time festival
16:4). Noting this, Yael Avrahami
t, but changed the nature of the more ancient day of rest by turning (2018) has argued that the
“every seventh day” ritual of the Mas.s.ôt festival mimics the
(commemorating an important event) seems to underlie what happen
practice of a bad year by having
counting) into “every Day Seven” (a communal, fixed counting), found the Israelites live
therebyas if they had no wheat in stock. Such an act of
inincorporating
the Hebrew Bible.
e communal calendrical self-privation
conscience.wasThis
meant is ato ensure the
significant opposite; as since
development, the deity would not want his people to go hungry,
Theweeks,
aim of unlike
this paper (in accordance with the aim of the entire iss
he would watch over the growing
s or solar years, do not reflect natural phenomena, but rather, of wheat and ensure the
arethebased harvest went well.
topic,on human
rather than a detailed and comprehensive argument for a
According to this, the wheat
hemes, which may explain why Šabbāt continued to undergo twothe harvest had two festivals
further, attached
contradictory to it. Mas.s.ôt before the harvest as
material will be presented should present the reader with a
an apotropaic ritual,
anges, both of which attempt to make sense of theand Qās îr when
. law. the wheat was harvested, as a ritual of thanksgiving. And yet,
development of the Israelite festival calendar. To do this, we will look a
the Deuteronomicthis bringsthe
school, upday-of-rest
a new problem: law wasthe first cut of wheat—the
explained as in
existing
the light
referent
because ofGod
of source
“the first produce (bîkkûr-) of one’s
and redaction criticism, as well as with comparati
work”—would be very soon afterconnected
the festivaltooflinearMasstime.ôt, since theisfirst cut would take place later that
ut of Egypt (Deut 5:15). In other words, it is loosely East.. .Nevertheless,This not
as the paper is necessarily broad in scope, in order t
same month. This hardly seems as
al change, since the conceptual link is clear: Israel should treat theirit if were two different times or seasons.
of slaves and workers
the specific defenses of given claims and readings will have to
The description of the bîkkûrîm
bering how unfairly they were treated in Egypt. Second, the Priestly grain offering in Leviticus
revision—probably implies that the first cut was not of ripe
bibliography where the original research is presented in detail.5
grain butschool
lic scribes of the Holiness of green ears (Lev 2:14):
16—connects the seventh-day Šabbāt to the creation of
d claims that the reason Šabbāt
If you must
bring be observed
a grain offering isofbecause 3. Moon
it commemorates
first produce to YHWH,Festivals (Ḥōdeš
God’s
you and Šabbāt/Kēseʾ)
shall bring green ears ( ābîb)
e seventh day (Gen 2:1–3; Exod with
parched 20:10,fire,
31:17).
grits of the fresh grain, as your grain offering of first produce.
The ancient Israelites/Judahites celebrated two moon holidays mo
ooking at the moon festivals, we can see the virtual disappearance of two festivals that
was called
If son, Mas.s.ôt and Qās.îr would have been contiguous festivals, Ḥōdeš, which comes
one after the from
other.the Hebrew
Good evidenceroot ‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ ח‬meaning “
lebrated natural, cyclical phenomenon. Ḥōdeš, which celebrated the new moon is
of such a practice can be found in an alternative ritual was called either Šabbāt,
that appears a loanword
in the Holiness from the
legislation. Akkadian name for this
Leviticus
in everything but name, remaining only as a Temple-based sacrificial law, while Šabbāt
commonly, Kēseʾ, another word for
23–24 is a festival calendar, which begins in the spring. According to this calendar, Mas.s.ôt is a seven-dayfull moon that also appears in Aram
ion of the full moon disappears entirely, reemerging as the name of a seventh-day
festival that begins on the 15th of the month, i.e., the full moon (vv. 6–8), as opposed to the new moon
ired by the exodus from Egypt and commemorating God’s creation of the world. We
of Exodus 23. Immediately after this holiday, the text lays out another ritual:
imilar developments took place with other festivals as well.
10 . . . When you enter the land that I am giving to you and you reap its harvest, you shall
Festivals: Maṣṣôt, Qāṣî r, and

bring ( ōmer), the first of your harvest to the priest. 11 He shall elevate the sheaf before
Šabūʿôt
a sheaf
YHWH
enant Collection in Exodus for acceptance
(21:1–23:19) in your
is believed bybehalf;
many the priest
3
scholars toshall
This elevate
dichotomy
be the oldestit of
is somewhat after Šabbāt
on the dayartificial . . . 14 likely always experience
as humans
Until that1997;
hal legal collections (Levinson very D.day, until you
Wright have
2009). It brought
includesthe offering of
heuristic
a description to your
paint God,
human
of three you shall eatofnotime
experience bread or strokes.
in broad
d 23:14–17): parched grain or fresh ears; it is a law for all time throughout the ages in all your settlements. events, or mnemohist
4 It does not matter whether these are actual historical
is the internal or constructed logic of the calendar.
The ritual here does not describe itself as a festival
5 For (h
an. ag) and yetofitthe
overview uses the key
biblical wordssee
material, that describe
(Soulnier 2012, pp. 71–82).
the Qās.îr festival in Exodus 23, i.e., it describes what
6 is to
The be of
idea done with the
Shabbat first cut. Asgoes
as Vollmondfest the final
back verse
to the work of Johannes
arguments in favor of this theory can be found in J. L. Wright (2015), Grun
or a long time, H was considered to be earlier than P and pre-Exilic, for the past two summary
succinct decades, the
of the argument can be found in (Albertz [1992] 1994, pp.
scholars have embraced the idea that H is a revision of P or even the editor by of the Pentateuch
a number of scholars, who see the sound similarity as coincidental and
uch, without taking a position on whether P is pre- or post-exilic, it seems quite likely that
as extreme. H is, 2008, p. 77; Tigay 1998a, pp. 22–25).
See (Levine
me scholars disagree. (See Knohl [1995] 2007; Schectman and Baden 2009).7 The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, s.v. “ksˀ, ksˀˀ,” accessed April 22, 2019.
that the reason Šabbāt
Significantly, mustreinvention
Šabbāt’s be observed as is 
because
a weekly The it Mesopotamian
rather commemorates
well,
First,monthly
than in the practice
remembering God’s
Deuteronomic
holiday, how was to
notunfairly
only divide
school,
made they theitwere
the month
much by quarters,
treated
day-of-rest inlaw Egypt.was notSecond,
to havethe
explained a asseve
Prieex
h day (Gen
more 2:1–3; Exod
frequent, 20:10, 31:17).
but changed multiple
the nature of the more ancient(7  × 7 =The49 Mesopotamian
=
tookfrom 30 = 19:
daypost-exilic
Israel of the
out rest ofbydays
19thEgypt included
day)
scribes
turning with
(Deut day
the
of 5:15).
“every 19
seven
the Holiness either
In otherday”
seventh evil with
demons,
school or
words, —connects
16 in place
through
it is looselythe of 21,
number and sometim
seventh-day
connected to lin
at the moon festivals,
(a subjective counting)we can intosee the symbolism
“every virtual
Day Seven” disappearance (athese;
(Parpola [1983]
really
communal, of
the atwo 2007,
world
radicalfestivals
fixed p.and178).
change, that
counting),claims since that
therebythethe reason Šabbāt
conceptual
incorporating link ismust clear:be Israelobserved shouldistreat because theiri
natural, cyclical phenomenon. Ḥōdeš, which  The
celebrated days the were new generally
moon seen as negative (though not exclusively so).
weeks into the communal calendrical It isconscience.
easy to see thewell,
This is aresting
connection remembering
significant on
between the how
development,aissystem
seventh day
unfairly of(Gen
since they
every 2:1–3;
weeks, were
seven Exod
unlike days20:10,
treated in Egypt.
being 31:17).
declared Second, specialthe Priestly
and
thing butmonths
lunar name, remaining
or solar onlyoff-limits
years, asdoa Temple-based
not reflect sacrificial
natural from
Despite phenomena,
of these law, In
post-exilic while
sum, but
differences, Šabbāt
looking
scribesrather, of
evenat the
arethe moon
Holiness
based
Tigay admits festivals,
on school
human
that the
16we can
—connects see
connection the
the virtual
seventh-day disappeara Šabb
Religions 2019, 10, 323 to certain types activities and what becomes the Judean Sabbath day8 of by 19is theattractive
late and
first th
he full moon disappears
conceptual schemes, which entirely,may reemerging
explain
Temple or exiliclemnutū why as the
Šabbāt
period, name
the
continued
were
and world of
originally a
likely at
many seventh-day
and
to celebrated
claims
undergo
least a have
scholars that
two
factormade natural,
the
further, reason
in thethis cyclical
Šabbāt
contradictory
reimagining
connection. phenomenon.
mustof Šabbāt be
Certainly,observed
(Tigay Ḥōdeš,
as is which
because
1998b, pp.
Jeffrey Tigay celebra
it
93–96 com
Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the conceptual
exodus from Egyptboth
changes, and of commemorating
which
cautiously attempt notes,God’s
to onecreation
make
rather resting
sense
than
cannot ofthe
ofargueonthe
discontinued
dismissing the
law. world.
for seventh
athisin We
simple everything
day
connection, (Genbut
adoption we ofname,
2:1–3; might
the Exod remaining
20:10, 31:17).
suggest
ūmū-lemnutū thatonly
bythe theasJudean
aJudeans,
Temple-based
practice,
due to insp sac
evelopments
First, took
in theforbids
place the consumption
with
Deuteronomic other festivals
school, of as
the anywell. wheat
day-of-rest
connection products,
as
In
law
with(7 a
sum,
was including
celebration
looking
explained
the× seventh-day parched
of
at the
the
as full
moon
existing or raw
moon wheat,
festivals,
because disappears
we it
God would
can seem
entirely,
see the that
reemerging
virtual disappearance as the
a number of important differences:
multiple 7 = 49 = 30 =vacation 19: the 19th rule,day) disentangled
with the the seven Šabbāt evilfrom demons, the lunarthrough mo
took Israel out the law envisions
of Egypt (Deut 5:15). suchInaother cut toand be taken
words, it is
connected from
originally holiday,
loosely thecelebrated
their very
inspired
connected
rest first
day green
byto the
natural,
for ears,
linear
workers exodus and
cyclical
time. with that
from
This the
Egypt
phenomenon.
the is ritual
not
Neo-Assyrian and Ḥōdeš,
of commemorating
bringing rest which
days God’s
celebrated
for the cre
king
 The Mesopotamian symbolism
practice was(Parpola to divide
21[1983] the 2007,
month p. by 178). quarters, not to have a seven-day week;
ls: Maṣṣôt, Qāṣî
really a radicalther, and
change,Šabūʿôt
sheafsince ( ōmer) theisconceptual
what permits linkconsumption
officials), will
discontinued
is clear: Israel
emphasizing ofshould
see wheat.
that
in the similar
everything
treat
solemn developments
their but slavesname,
importance and took
remaining
workers
of these placedays, withasand
only other festivals
a Temple-based
the importance as well.
sacrifici
of no
 logic The Mesopotamian It days
is easy included
to see theday 19
connection either with
between or inasplace ofentirely,
21,everyand sometimes neither ofnam
well, remembering The
how ritual
unfairly
ollection in Exodus (21:1–23:19) is believed by many they of this
were offering
treated
themscholars goes
inas a
Egypt.
with work. hand
celebration in
Second,
to beThis hand
the process of
the with
the
Priestlythat
full
oldest ofwould have begun of
moon the Mas . . in the 7th century, when Judahdeclare
disappears
revision—probably system
ôt festival, of which sevenis
reemergingits days being
as the was a
from post-exilic mirror
scribes image.
of the Both these;
Holiness likely originated
school off-limits
16—connectsas
holiday, 4. The
to
independentcertain
the Wheat
inspired types
seventh-day Festivals:
rituals
by of
the activities
to ensure
exodus
Šabbāt Maṣṣôt,
to aand
good
from
the Qāṣî
what
Egypt
creation r, becomes
harvest. andand
of Šabūʿôt
The the
ōmer
commemorating Judeanis a Sabbath
God’s day by
creatio
l collections (Levinson 1997; D. Wright 2009). It includes a description of three to Assyria.
 toreasonThe days thewere generally
Temple or seen
exilic asasimilar
period, negative and (though
many not
scholars exclusively
have made so). this connection. as Certainly, as
17):the world and classic claimsoffering
that the God ofŠabbāt first
must producewill
be see
observed
Significantly, and that
Theis variation
isCovenant
Šabbāt’s because reinvention oncommemorates
developments
it what
Collection as athe Priestly
took
weekly
in Exodus place God’s
rather text
with inother
than
(21:1–23:19) Leviticus
monthly festivals
is believed2holiday, well.
bynot many onlysch m
restingReligions calls10,
on the 2019,
seventh the grain
day (Genoffering
2:1–3; of the
Exod first cautiously
20:10,
more produce.
31:17).
frequent, notes,
The Mas one s ôt
.Tigay
. cannot
ritual isargue
before for the a simple
first cut adoption
and is an of the
apotropaic ūmū-lemnutū by the Ju
x FOR PEER REVIEW Despite these differences, the but even changed
Pentateuchal the
admits
legalnature that of
collectionsthethe more
connection
(Levinson ancient is 1997;5day
attractive
of 19D.of rest and
Wright bythat turningthe It
2009). “every
ūmū-includs
In sum, lookingritual alsoat the aimed
moon
lemnutūatfestivals,
ensuring
were likely we(aacan
the number
successful
atsee
subjective4. The
least the Wheat
aofcounting)
important
harvest.
virtual
factor in Festivals:
Unlike
disappearance
into
the theMaṣṣôt,
differences:
“every
reimagining Mas Day. s.ôttwo
of of Qāṣî
festival
Seven” r, and
festivals
Šabbāt here,
(a(Tigay Šabūʿôt
thatthe1998b,
communal, ōmerfixed offering
pp. counting),
93–96). thereby in
Therefore,
originally celebratedis not given
multiple × 7 an
(7natural, exact
= rather
49 = 30than
cyclical date,
= 19: except
the
phenomenon.
dismissing 19th

weeks for “after
day)
into
The Ḥōdeš,
thewiththe
thisMesopotamian
The Šabbāt,”
the
communal
connection, which
Covenant seven wea vaguery
evil
celebrated
calendrical demons,
might was
Collection
practice
that
the has
conscience.
suggest through
new
intoExodus caused
that the
divide moon
This no
number
theJudean
(21:1–23:19) isend of
is a significant
month
religious
practice,
byis quarters,
believed development,
inspired
by
notmanyto byhave since
the
scholar
a sev w
discontinued polemic
symbolism
in everything for millennia.
(Parpolabut [1983]
name, 2007,
remaining p. 178).
only as a Temple-based sacrificial law, while Šabbāt
connection
time, H was considered to be earlier than P and pre-Exilic, with  for
lunar
the months
seventh-day
the
The or
Pentateuchal
theMesopotamian solar
vacation
past two decades, years,
rule,
legal
days do not
disentangled
thecollections
included day reflect the
(Levinsonnatural
Šabbāt
19 either phenomena,
1997;from the
withD.orWright lunar
in place but month
2009).rather,
of 21, are
entirely,
It and
includes based
sometim a
as embraced
have a celebrationtheisidea
It
of And
the H
easythat
yet, aand
full
to seeisthe
asrevision
moon the Holiness
disappears
connected
connection
Text
ortheir
of P between even here
entirely,
conceptual rest
the dayisschemes,
editor
afestivals
these;
system
making
reemerging
for
ofof workers
the
(Exod
every
use
which as
Pentateuchofwith
23:14–17):
seven
an older
the
may name
daysexplain
the law,
ofwhy
Neo-Assyrian
being
ait seventh-day
seems
declaredŠabbātpossible
restcontinued
special days and fortoŠabbāt
that undergo
the king (and two further,
other c
out holiday, inspiredrefersby notthe to the
exodus is Priestly
from seventh
Egypt and dayseems (as
thereferenced atthat
the beginning the chapter) but tothe thelaw. 15thofofnot profaning
taking aoff-limits
position on
to whether
certain P types pre- oforactivities
officials), post-exilic,
emphasizing  it commemorating
conceptual
and The
what changes,
quite
solemn
days
16
becomes likely
were
Although both God’s
importance of
generally
the for H
Judean
creation
awhich
is,
long oftime,
seen these
Sabbath asof
attempt days,
Hnegative
wasday
world.
to considered
makeand
by(thoughthe
We
sense
the of
importance
to
late not
befirst exclusively
earlier than P and so). pre-Exilic, fo
will see(See
rs disagree. thatKnohlthe
similar month.
developments
[1995] If so,
2007; them then
Schectman withthe
tookand verse
place
work. Baden does
with
This include
other
2009).
First,
process in thean
festivals
would exact as
Deuteronomic
majority date,
well.
have
of the
begun
scholars 16th,
school,
in
have and
the the it
7th
embraced would
day-of-rest
century,the be ideathe
when second
law
that was
Judah
H is day
a of a vassal
explained
was
revision ofasP existing
orstate
even th b
Temple or exilic period, and many scholars have made this connection. Certainly, as Jeffrey Tigay
the seven-dayto Mas . s
. ôt Festival, which Despite
is, in these
fact, the differences,
day many eventaking
Jewish Tigay
sects admits
(including that the connection
contemporary is attractive and
cautiously notes, one cannot Assyria. argue fortook Israel adoption
a simple out of Egypt
itself. As
of the (Deut
such, 5:15). In other
without
ūmū-lemnutū by the a words,
position
Judeans, it is due
on loosely
whether to connected to linear time
P is pre- or post-exilic, it se
4. The Wheat Festivals:
rabbinic Jews) Maṣṣôt, mark Qāṣî ther,day andofŠabūʿôt lemnutū
the ōmer. werethough likely at some least a factor
scholars in the (See
disagree. reimagining
Knohl [1995]of Šabbāt
2007; (Tigay 1998b,
Schectman and pp. 93–9
Baden 200
a number of important differences: Significantly, really a
Šabbāt’s radical
16 reinvention change, as since
a weekly the conceptual
rather
Although for a long time, H was considered to be earlier than than link
monthly is clear: Israel
holiday, should
not only
P and treat
made their
it much
pre-Exilic, slaves
for the a
A further piece of evidence rather
that than
this may dismissing
have been this theconnection,
intention we
comes might from suggest
a passage that inthe the Judean practice, in
more frequent,
The Covenant Collection in Exodus (21:1–23:19) is majority well,
but remembering
changed the nature
believedofbyscholars how of unfairly
the
many scholarsmore theyancient
have embraced were
to be thedaytreated
of
the oldest rest
idea thatin Egypt.
by turning Second, “every the
of H is a revision of P or even the edi Priestly
seventh revision
day”
 Thebook Mesopotamian
of collections
Joshua, practice
(a which was
describes toconnection
from divide
what the
happens
post-exilic
with
month the
after
scribes byseventh-day
quarters,
the Israelites not vacation
to ahave
enter therule,
aland disentangled
seven-day
onand offer week; the the Šabbāt from theitlunar
paschal m
the Pentateuchal legal subjective
(Levinson counting)
1997; D.into “every
itself.
Wright As
2009).Day
such, Itof
Seven”the Holiness
without
includes (a acommunal,
taking school
position
description 16—connects
fixed
of counting),
whether
three the
P seventh-day
isthereby Šabbātseems
incorporating
pre- or post-exilic, to the
 The Mesopotamian days included and 19
day connected
worldeither and with
their or rest
in place daydisagree.
for21,
of workers
This isand
with [1995]
sometimes the neither
Neo-Assyrian
2007; of restand days for2009).
the ki
festivals (Exodoffering
23:14–17): for theweeks first time
into (Josh
the the5):
communal though
calendrical claimssome scholars
that
conscience. the reason a(See
Šabbāt Knohl
significantmust development,
be observed Schectmanissince
because weeks, Baden
it commemo
unlike
these; officials), emphasizing the solemn importance of these days, and the importance of
5:10 . . . the lunar
Israelitesmonths offeredorresting
solar on
the paschalyears,the seventhdo not reflect
sacrifice
day
onprocess
(Gen 2:1–3;phenomena,
natural
the fourteenth
Exod day of
20:10, 31:17).
the month,but rather, toward are based on human
 The days were generally
conceptual seen as
schemes,
them
negative In
which
with
sum,(thoughmay
work.
looking notThis
explain exclusively
at the
why moon Šabbāt
would
so).
festivals,
have
continued we
begun
can
to see
undergo
in the 7th
the virtual
two
century, when Judah was
disappearance
further, contradictory of two f
evening. 5:11 On the day after the paschal offering, on that very day, they ate of the produce
to Assyria.
Despite of these conceptual
differences,
the country, mas.s.even changes,
ôt and
originally
Tigay
parchedboth
admits of celebrated
grain. which
that5:12 attempt
the On
natural,
connection
that sameto make cyclical
is
day, sense
attractive
when
phenomenon.
of the law.
andate
they that of the
Ḥōdeš,
ūmū-
the produce
which celebrated the ne
Significantly, Šabbāt’s reinvention as a weekly rather than monthly holiday, not only
16 lemnutū
Although for were
a longoflikely
time,
the land, atwas
H least
the First,
amanna
factor
considered in the todiscontinued
in Deuteronomic
the
be
ceased. reimagining
earlier
The than inP everything
Israelites school,
of Šabbāt
and the
pre-Exilic,
got no
but
(Tigay
morefor name,
day-of-rest 1998b,
the
manna; pastremaining
lawpp.
two
that was
93–96).
decades,
year
only
explained as a Temple-based
Therefore,
theythe ate as
of existing because
the
sacrificial God law,
more frequent, but changed the nature of the more ancient day of rest by turning “every
rather
majority of than
scholars dismissing
have tookthis Israel out
connection,ideaof as aHcelebration
Egypt
we is (Deut
might 5:15).
suggest ofofthe In
Pthat full
other themoonwords,
Judean disappears
itpractice,
isofloosely entirely,
connected
inspired reemerging
by to
thelinear time. as the This nameis not of a s
yield ofembraced
the land theCanaan.
of that
(a subjective
a revision
counting)
or even
intoit“every
the editor
Day likely
the Pentateuch
Seven” (a Hcommunal, fixed counting), thereby
itself. As such, without taking really
a a
positionradical on holiday,
change,
whether P inspired
since
is pre-
connection with the seventh-day vacation rule, disentangled the Šabbāt from the lunar month entirely,the or by
conceptualthe
post-exilic, exodus link
seems from
is clear:
quiteEgypt Israel and should
that commemorating
treat
is, their God’s
slaves and creation
workers of the
though some scholars disagree.
According (See
today this Knohl [1995]
text,workers
thewill weeks
2007;
Israelites into
Schectman
ate the communal
flatbreads and Baden calendrical
andtreated 2009).
parched conscience. This is a significant development, since
and connected their rest well, remembering
for see
howwith that thesimilar
unfairly they
Neo-Assyrian developments
were rest days in grain
took place
Egypt.
for onSecond,
the the
with
king same
other theday,
(and Priestly
other the 15th
festivals of
as well.
revision—probably
theemphasizing
month, and this was theirimportance lunar
first months orof solar
consumption the local years,16 do This not appears
reflect natural a phenomena, but rather, are bas
officials), fromthe post-exilic
solemn scribes of of thethese Holiness days, andgrain.
school the—connects
importance to
notbeprofaning
theofseventh-day mythical Šabbāt origin to the creation of
4. conceptual
The Wheat schemes, which may explain why Šabbāt continued to undergo two further,
them with story for the
work. This ritual
the of waiting
world
process and until
would claims
have midmonth
that the
begun inFestivals:
to eat
reason
the 7thfrom Maṣṣôt,
Šabbāt
century, themust localQāṣî
when ber,Judah
produce. and Šabūʿôt
observed Theisaōmer
was because
vassal textstate differs
it commemoratesonly God’s
by having oneresting followon thethe other; conceptual
first the day changes,
in which both of which
barley flatbread attempt is to make sense
consumed (15th), of the then law. the
to Assyria. seventh The day (Gen
Covenant 2:1–3; Exod
Collection in Exodus 20:10, 31:17).
offering ofŠabbāt’s the new First, in the permits Deuteronomic school,(21:1–23:19)the of day-of-rest is believedlaw was byexplained
many scholars to be t
as existing
Significantly, Ingreen
sum, ears
reinvention lookingasofaPentateuchal
the wheat,
at the moon
weekly which
ratherlegal festivals,
thancollections
monthly the can
we consumption
see thenot
holiday,
(Levinson virtual
only
1997; the made
D. new
disappearance it wheat
Wright much 2009). of
ofthat two
It festivalsa that
includes descript
took Israel out of Egypt (Deut 5:15). In other words, it is loosely connected to linear tim
season (16th).
more frequent, but changed originally the naturecelebrated of the natural,
festivals more ancientcyclical day phenomenon.
of rest by turning Ḥōdeš, “every which seventh celebrated
day” the new moon is
really a(Exod
radical 23:14–17):
change,ifsince its Mas the s conceptual link is clear: just Israel should treat their slaves
(a subjective Returning to the“every
counting)discontinued
into Covenant Day Collection
in everything
Seven” (abut legislation,
name, remaining
communal, fixed ôt
only
counting),
.. festival
as a was
Temple-based
thereby originally
incorporating sacrificial one day,
law, while Šabbāt
andthe celebrated well, remembering how unfairly
its Qās.îrdevelopment, they were treated in Egypt. Second, the Priestly revisi
weeks into communal ason the
acalendricalfirst ofconscience.
celebration the of month,
the fullThis whenmoon is awas disappears
significant festival?
entirely, The text never
reemerging
since weeks, assays,the
unlike but, since
name of a seventh-day
agricultural patterns from post-exilic scribes of the Holiness school 16—connects the seventh-day Šabbāt to t
lunar months or solar years,remained
holiday, inspired
do relatively
not reflectby thenatural constant,
exodus fromone
phenomena, Egypt would andimagine
but commemorating
rather, that
are based it came God’s
on withinhuman days orofatthe world. We
creation
most, two weeks or so later. Such
thea world
proximity
and of claims
dates
that
would
theonly reason have
Šabbāt
been
must
possible
be observed
in a society in
is because it commem
conceptual schemes, which may explain will see that similar
16 why developments
Although Šabbāt for continued
aseventh
took
long time,
place
toHundergowith
was
other
considered
festivals
two further, to be
as well.
contradictory
earlier than P and pre-Exilic, for the past two
which local altars
resting on the day (Gen 2:1–3; Exod 20:10, 31:17).
conceptual changes, both ofabounded.
which attempt It is hardly
to
majority make ofsurprising
sense
scholars of the havethatlaw. as time went
embraced the idea on,that andHthe is acentralization
revision of P orofeven the editor of th
4. The Wheat Festivals: In sum,
Maṣṣôt, looking
Qāṣî r,atandthe moon
Šabūʿôt festivals,
ōmerasritual
we can see theMas virtual disappearance of two
worship
First, in theinDeuteronomic
the Temple in school, Judah became the
itself. thesuch,
day-of-rest
As official law
withoutstandard,
was taking the
explained
a position existing
on merged
whether P with
because is pre- God or. s.post-exilic,
ôt. As a it seems quite lik
originally celebrated natural, cyclical phenomenon. Ḥōdeš, which celebrated the n
took Israel consequence,
out of Egypt the(Deutcelebration
The 5:15).
Covenant Inofother
the first-produce
though words,
Collection somein itscholars festival
is loosely disagree. was (See
connected pushed Knohl off
tobelieved until
[1995]
linear themany
2007;
time. end of
Schectman
This the harvest
is not andto Baden 2009).
discontinued inExodus
everything (21:1–23:19)
but name, is remaining by only asscholars a Temple-based be the oldest of law
sacrificial
really a season
radical instead
change, of its
since beginning.
the
the Pentateuchal legal conceptual link is clear: Israel should treat their slaves and workers
as a collections
celebration (Levinson of the full1997; moon D. disappears
Wright 2009). It includes
entirely, reemerging a description as theofname three of a
well, remembering We canhow see this in(Exod
unfairly
festivals the
they dating
were of
23:14–17): the festival
treated in Egypt. in Deuteronomy
Second, the Priestly (7th cent.) as well as that of the
revision—probably
holiday, inspired by the exodus from Egypt and commemorating God’s creation of t
Holinessscribes
from post-exilic school of (exilic/post-exilic):
the Holiness school16—connects the seventh-day Šabbāt to the creation of
will see that similar developments took place with other festivals as well.
the world and Deut claims
16:9 You that the reason Šabbāt must be observed is because it commemorates God’s
shall count off seven weeks; start to count the seven weeks when the sickle is
resting on the seventh day (Gen 2:1–3; Exod1020:10, 31:17).
first put to the standing grain. 4. The Then Wheat you Festivals:
shall observe Maṣṣôt, theQāṣî Festival r, and ofŠabūʿôt
Šabū ôt (Weeks) for
In sum, looking at 16 the moon festivals, we can see the virtual to disappearance of twopre-Exilic,
festivals for that past two decades, the
YHWH yourAlthough God, offering for a long your time,
The
H was
freewill
Covenant
considered
contribution
Collection
be earlier than
according
in Exodus as PYHWH
and
(21:1–23:19) your is God the
believed has by many scholars to b
originally celebrated natural, majority cyclical
of scholars phenomenon.
have embraced Ḥōdeš,the which
idea that celebrated
H is a revision the of new
P or moon
even the iseditor of the Pentateuch
blessed you. the Pentateuchal legal collections (Levinson 1997; D. Wright 2009).
discontinued in everything butAs
itself. name,such,remaining
without takingonlya as a Temple-based
position on whether sacrificial P is pre- orlaw, while
post-exilic, Šabbāt
it seems quiteItlikely includes that H a descri
is,
Lev 23:15 And from the day on which you bring the sheaf of elevation offering—the day after
as a celebration of the full though moon some festivals
disappears
scholars disagree. (Exod
entirely, 23:14–17):
(Seereemerging
Knohl [1995]as 2007;theSchectman
name of and a seventh-day
Baden 2009).
the Šabbāt—you shallfrom countEgypt off seven 16
holiday, inspired by the exodus andweeks. commemorating They must God’s be complete: creation you of the must world. count We until
will see that similar developments took place with other festivals as well.
4. The Wheat
21 For Festivals:
a discussion Maṣṣôt, Qāṣîr,16
of the relationship and Šabūʿôt
Although
between foroffering
the ōmer a long time, Hfirst
and the wascut
considered
in Exodus, to
seebe earlier2004,
(Weyde thanpp.
P and pre-Exilic, for the past tw
74–79).
majority of scholars have embraced the idea that H is a revision of P or even the editor of
The Covenant Collection in Exodus (21:1–23:19) is believed
itself. As such, by many
without taking scholars
a position onto be the Poldest
whether is pre-ofor post-exilic, it seems quite
the Pentateuchal legal collections (Levinson 1997; D. Wright 2009). It includes a description of three and Baden 2009).
though some scholars disagree. (See Knohl [1995] 2007; Schectman
 The Mesopotamian days included day 19 either with or in place of 21, and sometimes neither of
these;  The Mesopotamian practice was to divide the month by quarters,
 The days were generally seen as  negative (though not exclusively
The Mesopotamian days included so).day 19 either with or in place o
these;
Despite these differences, even Tigay admits that the connection is attractive and that the ūmū-
Religions 2019, 10, 323  The days were generally seen as negative (though 9 of 19 not exclusively
lemnutū were likely at least a factor in the reimagining of Šabbāt (Tigay 1998b, pp. 93–96). Therefore,
rather than dismissing this connection, Despite we might suggest
these that theeven
differences, Judean Tigay practice,
admitsinspired that the by the
connection
connection with the seventh-day vacation
lemnutū rule,
were
the day after the seventh week—fifty days; then you shall bring an offering of new grain to disentangled
likely at leastthe aŠabbāt
factor from
in thethe lunar
reimagining month ofentirely,
Šabbāt (Tiga
YHWH. and 17 Youconnected
shall bring their
from restyour daysettlements
for workers
rather two with
thanloaves theofNeo-Assyrian
dismissing breadthis as an rest days
connection,
elevation we formight
offering; the king (and that
suggest other the Ju
officials), emphasizing Religions the solemn
2019, 10, x FORimportance
connection
PEER REVIEW
each shall be made of two-tenths of a measure of choice flour, baked after leavening, as first of
with these
the days,
seventh-day and the importance
vacation rule, of not
disentangled profaning
the Šabbāt
produce them with to
(bîkkûrîm) work.
YHWH This. .process
. 21 On that would and
same have daybegun
connected you shall in
theirthehold7tha century,
rest day when
for workers
celebration; Judah
it shall withbewas the aNeo-Assyrian
vassal state res
a sacred to Assyria.
occasion for you; you shall multiplenot work (7 ×officials),
7at=your
49 = occupations
30 = 19: the 19th
emphasizing . day)
. .the solemn with the seven of
importance evil demons,
these days,through
and the
Significantly, Šabbāt’s symbolism
reinvention (Parpola
them as awith [1983]
weekly work. 2007,
rather p.process
Thisthan 178).
monthly would holiday,
have not begun onlyinmade the 7thit much
century,
These two more texts assumebut
frequent, that the dating
changed of this
the nature festival
of should be seven weeks after the first cut.seventh day”
It is easy thethe
to Assyria.
to see more
connection ancient between day of rest by
a system turning
of every“every seven days being declare
Leviticus never names this festival,
(a subjective counting) but the
into “everyoffering is
Daytypesstill
Seven” described as bîkkûrîm, first produce, as it was
off-limits to certain of (a
Significantly, communal,
activities Šabbāt’s fixed
what counting),
andreinvention becomes thereby
as a weekly
the Judean incorporating
rather than monthly
Sabbath day by
in Exodus. However,
weeks into instead of offering
the communal the firstmore
calendrical cuts of new This
conscience.
frequent, grain,
but is bread
a is the
significant
changed offered. Inofother
development,
nature the words,
since
more weeks,
ancient unlike
day of restasb
Temple or exilic period, and many scholars have made this connection. Certainly,
the festival celebrates
lunar months the final product
or solar years, of thedo wheat
not harvest.
reflect natural Deuteronomy
phenomena, does butnot say
rather, anything
cautiously notes, (aonesubjective
cannot counting)
argue for ainto simple “every Day
adoption of are
Seven” based
(a communal,
the ūmū-lemnutū on human byfixed co
the Ju
about new produce, and
conceptual schemes,simply names
which the
may festival
explain after
weeks why the
into counting
Šabbāt
the process.
continued
communal to Notably,
undergo
calendrical Deuteronomy
two
conscience. further, This contradictory
is a significant de
does have a bîkkûrîm-like
conceptual changes, ritual inbothchapter 26, though
of which lunaragain
attempt months
to makeit doesorsensenot of
solar use that
years,
the law. term:
do not reflect natural phenomena, bu
1 When you enter First,thein land 
the DeuteronomicThe Mesopotamian
school,
conceptualthe practice
day-of-rest
schemes, was to
law
whichdivide
was may the monthwhy
explained
explain byexisting
as quarters,
Šabbāt because not to have
continued Godto aund
sev
that YHWH your God is giving you as a heritage, and you possess
tookinIsrael out shall 
of Egypt The Mesopotamian days included day 19 either with or in place of 21, and sometim
it and settle it, 2 you take(Deut some 5:15).of every In other
conceptual words,
first produce changes, itofisboth
loosely
the of which
soil, connected
which attempt to linear
you harvest to make time.
sense This is not
of the law.
these;
from thereally
land athatradical
YHWH change,
yoursince Godthe conceptual
is giving First,link
you, in the
put is
it clear: Israel and
inDeuteronomic
a basket should treat
school,
go to thethe their
place slaves andlaw
day-of-rest workers
was expl
well, remembering howThe days were
unfairly theytook generally
were Israeltreated
out seen
ofin as
Egypt
3
negative
Egypt. Second,
(Deut (thoughthe
5:15). In not
Priestly
other exclusively so).
revision—probably
words, it is loosely conne
where YHWH your God will choose to establish His name. You shall go to the priest in
from post-exilic
charge at that time and say to him, scribes of
Despitethe Holiness really school
these differences,
“I acknowledge a 16—connects
radical
this day change,
even TigayYHWH
before the
since seventh-day
the
admitsyour conceptual
that the Šabbātlink
Godconnection
that to is the
clear:creation
Israel of
should
is attractive and
the world and claims
lemnutūthat the
were reason well,
likely Šabbāt
at least
I have entered the land that YHWH swore to our fathers to assign us.” The priest shall
must
remembering
a factor be observed
how
in the unfairly is
reimagining
4 because
they were
of it commemorates
treated
Šabbāt (Tigay in Egypt.
1998b, God’s
Second,
pp. 93–9t
resting on the
take the basket from your rather
seventh day
hand and
(Gen
thanset 2:1–3;
from
dismissing
it down in
Exod this20:10,
post-exilic
front
31:17).
connection,scribes
of the altar of the
weofmight Holiness
YHWH suggest school
your that
16—connects the sevent
God.the Judean practice, in
5 You shall then In sum, looking at
connectionthe moon with festivals,
the
the world we
seventh-day can
and
recite as follows before YHWH your God . . . . . . . You shall leave it before
see
claims the
vacation
10 virtual
thatrule,the disappearance
reason
disentangled Šabbāt the of
musttwobe
Šabbāt festivals thethat
observed
from is be
lunar m
originally celebrated natural, cyclical
resting phenomenon.
on the seventh Ḥōdeš,
day which
(Gen celebrated
2:1–3; Exod the
20:10, new
31:17). moon is
YHWH your God and bowand lowconnected
before YHWH their yourrest day God.for workers
11 And youwith shallthe Neo-Assyrian
enjoy, together rest days for the ki
discontinued in everything officials), but name, remaining
emphasizing In sum, only as at
looking a Temple-based
the moon thesesacrificial
festivals, we canlaw, seewhile
the Šabbāt disa
virtual
with the Levite and the stranger in your midst, allthe thesolemn
bountyimportancethat YHWH of your days,
God has and the importance of
as a celebration ofthem the withfull moon work. disappears
originally
This process entirely,
celebrated
would reemerging
natural,
have begun as the
cyclical
in the7th name
phenomenon.
century, whenḤōdeš,
of a seventh-day Judah which
was
bestowed upon you and your household.
holiday, inspired by the exodus from
to Assyria. Egypt andincommemorating
discontinued everything but name, God’s remaining
creation ofonly the as world. We
a Temple-bas
The text will
never seeclarifies whendevelopments
that similar thisSignificantly,
is to occur,took and
as a even
place to
with
celebration what other
of products
thefestivals
full it refers
as
moon well.when
Šabbāt’s reinvention as a weekly rather than monthly holiday, not onlya
disappears describing entirely, reemerging
“every first produce,” though itmore is hard to imagine it refers only toby wheat. 22 Thus, in Deuteronomy,
frequent, butholiday,
changed inspired
the nature the
of the exodus
more from ancient Egyptday and of rest commemorating
by turning “every Go
we seem to have 4. The Wheat
a total Festivals:
separation Maṣṣôt,
between the Qāṣî r,
festival and
see of Šabūʿôt
Šab
that ū ôt,
similar as an outgrowth
(a subjective counting) into “every Day Seven” (a communal, fixed. counting), therebyw
will developments of
took the older
place Qās
with îr
other festivals as
festival, and the practice of
The Covenantweeksbringing
Collectionfirst
into produce
the communal
in Exodus as (21:1–23:19)
an calendrical
offering at the Temple.
is conscience.
believed byThis Theistext
many in Exodus
ascholars
significant to be development,
the oldest ofsince
34:22 would seem to be a hybrid in this
lunarcollectionsregard,
months or 4.
sinceThe the
solar years,Wheat
name Festivals:
of the Maṣṣôt,
festival was Qāṣî
changed r, and to Šabūʿôt
Šab ū ôt
the Pentateuchal legal (Levinson 1997;do D.not Wright reflect 2009).natural phenomena,
It includes a description but rather, are bas
of three
and yet, according
festivalsto the
(Exodsimple meaning ofschemes,
conceptual
23:14–17): the versewhich at least,
The may theexplain
Covenant festival is still
why
Collection based
Šabbāt
in on the
continued
Exodus bringing
to undergo
(21:1–23:19) two further,
is believed by m
of the first cuts. conceptual changes, both of which attempt to make sense
the Pentateuchal legal collections (Levinson 1997; D. Wright 2009). It of the law.
In Leviticus 23, the connection between First, in the firstfestivals
cuts and(Exod
Deuteronomic the festival
school,remains
23:14–17): the day-of-restimplied, law sincewas on explained
this as existing
festival, bîkkûrîm are brought, and it is connected by this counting ritual
took Israel out of Egypt (Deut 5:15). In other words, it is loosely connected to the earlier day, when the to linear tim
first cut is brought. In both cases, really however,
a radical the first cut
change, sinceritual and celebration are separated, with treat their slaves
16 Although for a long time, H was considered to bethe earlierconceptual
than P and link is clear:
pre-Exilic, Israel
for should
the past two decades, the
the latter being majority
moved to the end
well,
of scholars of
have the season.
remembering
embraced the The
how tension
ideaunfairly
that H is between
they a first-produce
were treated
a revision of P or in evenEgypt. festivalSecond,
the editor and
of thethePentateuch
Priestly revisi
an end-of-seasonitself. festival is never
As such, from
withoutreally solved
post-exilic
taking in
16 this
scribes
a position text,
of theand itPcan
Holiness beschool
seen clearly
—connects in how the the 3rdlikely thatŠabbāt
seventh-day to t
Although for a long time, H was considered to be earlier than P H
on whether is pre- or post-exilic, it seems quite is,pre-E
16
and
century BCE book of Jubilees
though attempts
some scholars to
disagree. deal
the world and claims with
(See it
Knohl (Jub 6:20–21):
[1995]
that the
majority 2007;
of scholars Schectman
reason have Šabbāt and Baden
must bethe
embraced 2009).
observed
idea thatisHbecause is a revisionit commem
of P or
resting on the seventh dayAs(Gen
itself. such,2:1–3; Exod
without
Now you command the Israelites to keep this festival during all their generations as a
20:10,
taking 31:17). on whether P is pre- or post-exi
a position
In sum, looking though
at the some
moon scholars disagree.
festivals, we (See
can seeKnohl [1995] 2007;
the virtual Schectman and
disappearance Ba
of two
commandment for them: one day in the year during this month, they are to celebrate the
originally celebrated natural, cyclical phenomenon. Ḥōdeš, which celebrated the n
festival because it is the festival of weeks and it is the festival of firstfruits. This festival is
discontinued in everything but name, remaining only as a Temple-based sacrificial law
twofold and of two kinds. (Vanderkam 1989, p. 40)
as a celebration of the full moon disappears entirely, reemerging as the name of a
As stated above, having an holiday,
artificial inspired
first-produce
by theholiday
exodusat the
fromend of theand
Egypt season, fifty days after
commemorating God’s creation of t
the first cut ritual, is likely a result
willofseethethat
centralization of the cult which
similar developments wouldwith
took place haveother
madefestivals
separating
as well.
a Mas.s.ôt festival from a first cut festival, virtually impossible for people living outside Jerusalem.
Despite the permutations 4. The
Qās Wheat Festivals:
. îr undergoes Maṣṣôt, Qāṣîr, and
in its transformation into Šabūʿôt
Šabū ôt, no biblical text
connects it to a mnemohistorical event—i.e., a ritual that commemorates an
The Covenant Collection in Exodus (21:1–23:19) event from Israelite cultural
is believed by many scholars to b
the Pentateuchal legal collections (Levinson 1997; D. Wright 2009). It includes a descri
22 This problem is what lead the Qumran sect to have three separate bîkkûrîm festivals, each fifty days after the other
(Sweeney 1983).
16 Although for a long time, H was considered to be earlier than P and pre-Exilic, for the past tw
majority of scholars have embraced the idea that H is a revision of P or even the editor of
itself. As such, without taking a position on whether P is pre- or post-exilic, it seems quite l
though some scholars disagree. (See Knohl [1995] 2007; Schectman and Baden 2009).
oration
he past of or previous
a commemorationGroundhog ofthe same
previous
Days; time,
rather,Groundhogitbe the
is masking
simply year
In sum,
Days; 2018
partarather,
more
of isthe
looking two
basic
itcyclethousand
is at the
or
simply moon
of primal part and eighteen
festivals,
celebration
of the cycle weyears
ofcan since
see
something thethe inofficially
virtual cyclical recognized
time (Z. I.ofbirth
disappearance two
mportant event) seems to underlie what happened this withlinear the Israelite
conception festivals
of forward movement from a fixed point in the
al
ters. of The -Šǝbāt,festival
TûbǝJewish the New of Year
Tûbǝ -Šǝbāt,
Farber
for 2018,
Trees, theisNew pp.
essentiallyoriginally
443–44,
Year for449–50).
the Trees,
same, celebrated
This
isas itmasking
essentially
simply natural,the a cyclical
of same, phenomenon.
as ittime
simply festival with Ḥōdeš,
a linear which conception thethen
past
time celebrated is not
ible. which
discontinued we experience
in everything time. In
but addition
name, celebratesto
remainingimagining only aswithtime as a
a Temple-basedline, humanssacrificialalso law
ima
nter.
ks the Atpoint
the opposite
of midwinter.end ofAt (commemorating
thethe spectrum
oppositewould end ofbe an
the important
Julyspectrum
4th, which event)
would seems
celebrates
be July to 4th, underlie
which what happened the Israelite festivals
per (in accordance with the aim of the entire issue) as is
endless to present
circling.
acelebrating
celebration anThis overview
of the is whatfull moon is being pictured by the verse about days asandthe seasons.
erican
rom England,
independenceor the practice
from England, offound inthe
celebrating
or thepractice
Hebrew
one’s ofBible.
anniversary or birthday.
one’s anniversary or disappears
birthday. entirely, reemerging name of a
n a detailed and comprehensive argument for a new holiday,thesis. Even
inspired so,
by the
the way
exodus from Egypt and commemorating God’s creation of th
, Sometimes
on its face, may a festival,
appear on toitsbeface, The
celebrating
may aim
appear of
somethingthis
to be paper
celebrating
in (in
linear accordance
time,
something while with
atin the
linear aimtime,of the
while entire
at issue) is to present an overview
presented shouldReligions present 2019,the10, 323
reader with a new, overall
2. Festivals thatat picture
Set Times of the 10 of 19
ng
same a more
time,basic
be masking
or primal a more of the
celebration
basic topic,
or rather will
of primal
something thansee
celebration
ina detailed
cyclical similar
of and developments
something
time comprehensive
(Z. I. in cyclical tooktime place
argument (Z. with
I.for aother
new festivals
thesis. Even as well.so, the way
aelite festival calendar. To do this, we will look at the development of the texts,
ber
49–50).2018,This
pp. masking
443–44, 449–50).
of a cyclical the time
This material
masking festival ofwill
awith bea presented
cyclical linear
Antime time should
festival
important partpresent
conception
with a linear
of calendars the in
time reader
conception with ais new,
all cultures the markingoverallofpicturefestivalsofcelebrating
the
nd redaction criticism, as well asway
memory—the withMas comparative
s ôt is 4.
connected models
The Wheat
to in the
the story ancient
Festivals:
of the Near
Maṣṣôt,
exodus. 23 Qāṣî
Thus, r, and
Qās Šabūʿôt
îr/Šab ū ôt/Bîkkûrîm remains
mmemorating
ortant event) seems an important
to underlie development
event) what seems happened
.. to of the
underlie Israelite
with
importancewhat
the festival
Israelite
happened
at a calendar.
festivals
given with time To
the do
of this,
Israelite
year. we will
festivals
Festivals
. look can at the development
celebrate both kindsof theof texts,
time. For
he paper is necessarily a purely broad in scope, in
agricultural order in
festival to the
cover Bible.this Nevertheless,
large topic, many its transformation into a commemoration is
nde. in the Hebrew Bible. in the light of source and redaction
Pennsylvania Dutchcriticism, celebrationas well as Groundhog
of with (21:1–23:19)
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present
collections be long in scope,
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2009). on topic,
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e original researchatisSinai. presented 24 in detail. 5
hedetailed
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Even
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esented
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deš and Šabbāt/Kēseʾ) 5. Āsîp, Sukkôt, and the Autumn New Year
elopment
ite festivalof calendar.
the Israelite To do festival
this, we calendar.
will look Toatdo thethis,
development
we will
winters. Thelook ofat
Jewish thethe texts, of Tûbǝ-Šǝbāt,
development
festival of the the texts,New Year for Trees, is essentially the sam
he tes/Judahites
redaction celebrated
light of criticism,
source and two
asredaction
well
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moon
as with Moon holidays
criticism,
festival Festivals
comparativeinasthe monthly.
well (Ḥōdeš
models
as
marks
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withthe and
in New Šabbāt/Kēseʾ)
comparative
the
point
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ancient
of list festival
models
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is Āsîp,inAt
midwinter. thethethe ancient
opposite
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of end of the spectrum
Ingathering. But to what would be July 4th, wh
h.paper
comes is from
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necessarily Hebrew
asform
the broad
paper root
inisscope,
of produce ‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ח‬
necessarily
in
does meaning
order
thisbroad to
refer?“new.”
cover
in scope,
American
The thisThe
Gezer large
in full
order moon
topic,
independence
calendar to festival
cover
manyquoted this
from large
England,
above topic,
opens or many
the
withpractice
“his of celebrating
double-month one’s anniversary
is o
16
The ancient Israelites/Judahites Although for a long time, Htwo
celebrated was moonconsidered holidaysto be monthly.
earlier thanThe P andNew pre-Exilic,
Moon for the past tw
festival
t,ofa given
he loanword
specific claimsfrom
defenses andthe of Akkadian
readings
given
ingathering”was whichname
claims
will have for
and
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to
occurwhichday
readings
relyin the (Šabattu/Šapattu)
on will
works
Sometimes
autumn, have citedto
a
considering 6 or, less
rely
in
festival, theon on
itsworks
its face,
placement. cited
may in
The the
appear
product to be celebrating
being ingathered something in linear
called majority
comesoffrom scholars the haveHebrew embracedroot ‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ח‬ the idea that
meaning H is a revision
“new.” The of fullP or
moon evenfestival
the editor of
her
riginalword
iography for
research
wherefullis moon
the most that
ispresented
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research
inwasdetail.
olives, which in Aramaic
5is presented
are thein
gatheredand
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itself. Syriac.
As time,
5
after 7
the
such, be masking
summer
without a
fruit
taking more
has
a basic
been
position or
picked
on primal
whether(Borowski
P celebration
is pre- 2003,
or of
p. something
28;
post-exilic, it seems inquite
cyclic l
called either Šabbāt, a loanword from the Akkadian name for this day (Šabattu/Šapattu) or, 6 less
King and Stager 2001, pp. 88–89), Farberthough
perhaps 2018, some pp.
also 443–44,
scholars
grapes.
commonly, Kēseʾ, another word for full moon that also appears in Aramaic and Syriac.7 449–50).
disagree.
The This
(See
festival masking
Knohl
calendar[1995]of in a
2007;cyclical
Exodus Schectmantime
23 festival
and
refers Baden
to with2009).a linear tim
Moonand Festivals
Šabbāt/Kēseʾ) (ḤōdešĀsîpandbeing Šabbāt/Kēseʾ)
“at the s.ē t of the year,” (commemorating
which couldan meanimportantthe “end event)
of the seemsyear” to or underlie what happened
alternatively, “the with the Isra
s/Judahites
The ancient celebratedemergence
Israelites/Judahites of
two moon celebratedthe year”
holidays monthly. (HALOT
two moon found
3886) in
Theholidays the
(Köhler
New Moon Hebrewand
monthly. Bible.
Baumgartner
festival The New Moon festival[1967–1995] 1994–2000).
comes
calledfromḤōdeš, thewhich
Hebrew Beginning
comes rootfrom the
‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ח‬the year with
meaning
Hebrew “new.”
root the‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ח‬TheThemeaning
ingathering aimmoon
full of fits
this
“new.”paper
with
festival The(infull
the accordance
Gezer moon calendar, withwhich
festival the aim of thewith
opens entire theissue) is to present
a called
loanword eitherfrom ingathering.
Šabbāt, Itname
also
fromworks with of
whatthe topic,
we forrather
know from thanmany a detailed
extra-biblical and6comprehensive
sources,
less uncovered argument over for the a new thesis. Eve
as the Akkadian
a loanword forthethis Akkadian
dayaspects
(Šabattu/Šapattu)
name this
but itday
6 or,
mewhat artificial humans likely always experience of both, is a(Šabattu/Šapattu)
less
useful or,
monly,
word for
Kēseʾ, past
fullofanother
moon two
that
word centuries
alsostrokes.
forappears
full moonof archaeological
in Aramaic
that alsoand the material
excavation,
appears
Syriac. will be
namely,
in7 Aramaic and Syriac.7 presented
that the should
ancient present
Near East the
had reader
two with
different a new, overall p
man experience time in broad
periods in which 3 Thisthe new year
dichotomy development
could be artificial
is somewhat of
marked: the Israelite
Autumnlikely
as humans festival
andalways calendar.
Spring, To do
which isaspects
experience this, we
reflected will look
in the
of both, butatit the
is a developmen
useful
ether these are actual historical events, or mnemohistorical fictions. In either case, this
Akkadian names heuristic
for these to paint
months. human
in the experience
light of source of timeand inredaction
broad strokes. criticism, as well as with comparative models in the
ructed logic of the calendar.
Autumn
4 It doeswith
opens not matterthe whether
East.
month of these
Nevertheless, are actual
Tašrı̄tu—from as thehistorical
paper
the events,
is
Akkadian or
necessarily mnemohistorical
šurrû, broad
meaning in fictions.
scope, in
“beginning,” In either
order to case, this
cover this larg
e biblical material, see (Soulnier 2012, pp. 71–82).
likely is the internal or constructed
of the specific logic
25 of the
defenses calendar. of given the claims andofreadings
the rainywill haveinto rely on works
as Vollmondfest goes backatoreference
the worktoofthe time of
Johannes planting.
Meinhold (1905,This 1909). also marks
Recent beginning season
this theory can be found in J. L. Wright
the Levant, which (2015),
lasts Grund
until bibliography
(2011),Spring
spring. and Robinson where
begins the
(1988).
with original
A month
the researchof is presented
Nissanu—from inthedetail. 5
Akkadian
6 The idea of26Shabbat as Vollmondfest goes back to the work of Johannes Meinhold (1905, 1909). Recent
he argument
This
what artificialcan
dichotomy be foundlikely
word
asishumans
somewhat in
for(Albertz
artificial
always [1992]
“first-produce,”
asexperience
humans 1994, likely
pp. 408–9).
since,
aspects ofThe
as
always both, connection
discussed but itabove,
experience aisuseful
isaspectsrejected
thisof was
both,the but time
it is awhen
usefulwheat began to ripen.
ars,
heuristicwho to
experience seepaint
the
of sound
timehuman
in similarity
broad
experience
strokes.
It seems hardlysuccinctas coincidental
of time
coincidentalin broad and the
3.
strokes.
thatofthe differences
Moon Festivals between (Ḥōdešthe twoand Šabbāt/Kēseʾ)
Qās.îr[1992] Āsîp pp.
summary the twoargument core harvest
can be found festivals,
in (Albertz and 1994, are408–9).
celebrated in the is rejected
The connection
edoes
ter 2008,
these p.are
not 77; Tigay
matter
actual 1998a, these
whether
historical pp. 22–25).
events,
are actual
or mnemohistorical
historicalitevents, fictions.
orseemmnemohistorical
In either case, two this
fictions. In either case, the
this two new years for the
autumn and spring. Instead,
by a number of scholars, would The who that
see the
ancient these festivals
sound similarity as coincidental
Israelites/Judahites marked
celebrated two and moon
the differences
holidaysbetween monthly. theThetwoNew
smaic
cted Lexicon,
thelogic
internal s.v.
of the “ksˀ, ksˀˀ,” accessed
or constructed
calendar. logic of the
ancient Israelites.
April 22, 2019.
calendar.
For
iblicalan overview
material, seeof the
(Soulnier
biblical2012, material,
as extreme. See (Levine
pp. 71–82).
see (Soulnier 2012, was pp. 2008,
called 71–82).
p.Ḥōdeš, which comes from the Hebrew root ‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ ח‬meaning “new.” The full
77; Tigay 1998a, pp. 22–25).
It may seem 7 Thestrange
Comprehensive to imagine Aramaic
was twoLexicon,
called new-years,
either s.v. “ksˀ,
Šabbāt, since,
ksˀˀ,” from
accessed
a loanword the April
perspective
22,
the2019.
fromRecent of linear,name
Akkadian calendrical
for this day (Šabattu/Šap
The Vollmondfest
idea of Shabbat
goes back as Vollmondfest
to the work goes of Johannes
back to Meinholdthe work of (1905,Johannes1909). Meinhold
Recent (1905, 1909).
time, it is necessary to mark one, and
commonly, begin the
Kēseʾ, year
another at a clear
word point.
for full Nevertheless,
moon that also as noted
appears at
in the
Aramaic and Syriac.7
isrguments
theory can in favor
be found of this
in J.theory
L. Wrightcan be (2015),
found Grund
in J. L.(2011),
Wright and (2015),
Robinson Grund (1988).
(2011), A and Robinson (1988). A
argument
uccinct summary
can be found beginning,
of thein argument from
(Albertzcan the
[1992]
be found perspective
1994, pp. in (Albertz of
408–9). The cyclical
[1992] connectiontime, each
1994, pp.is408–9). of
rejected these marks a
The connection is rejectedbeginning and is a kind of new
bywho a number
see theof sound year.
scholars, In fact,
similarity
who see we sound
know similarity
as coincidental
the that
andinthe Mesopotamia,
as
differences
coincidental each
betweenand of the
thethese
two new year
differences seasons
between the twowas marked by a festival
2008,
s extreme.
p. 77; Tigay
See (Levine called
1998a,2008, the
pp. 22–25). Akı̄tu (Bidmeade
p. 77; Tigay 1998a, pp. 22–25). 2002, pp. 1, 44; Cohen 1993, pp. 306, 327).
Theic Lexicon,
Comprehensive
s.v. “ksˀ,Aramaic We
ksˀˀ,” accessed know
Lexicon, of “ksˀ,
April
s.v. an
22,overlapping
ksˀˀ,” accessedautumn
2019. April 22,calendar, 2019. from Ugarit, the celebration of which began in the
previous month, which was when they gathered grapes from the vine:
3 This dichotomy is somewhat artificial as humans likely always experience aspects of both, b
On the month of Rashu-Yeni (“Beginning of Wine”),
heuristic to paint on the dayofoftime
human experience thein
New Moon
broad (ym.h.dt;),
strokes.
cut a bunch of grapes for Ilu
4 (=El) as a piece offering (shelamim) . . .
It does not matter whether these are actual historical events, or mnemohistorical fictions. In e
is the internal or constructed logic of the calendar.
The text continues by describing how the king makes preparations starting on the 14th, and then,
on the 15th begins a seven-day 6celebration.
The idea Finally,
of Shabbat as Vollmondfest goes back to the work of Johannes Meinhold (1905
arguments in favor of this theory can be found in J. L. Wright (2015), Grund (2011), and Rob
On the day of the new moon of {the following month, equivalent to Tašrı̄tu} . . . the king will
succinct summary of the argument can be found in (Albertz [1992] 1994, pp. 408–9). The conne
offer a sacrifice . . . on the roof where there will be dwellings of branches, four on one side
by a number of scholars, who see the sound similarity as coincidental and the differences be
four on the other, a ram as burnt offering,See
as extreme. a bull and2008,
(Levine a ram as peace
p. 77; offering,
Tigay 1998a, pp. to be repeated
22–25).
seven times. According to 7what is in his heart, the king will speak. (Pardee 2002, pp.
The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, s.v. “ksˀ, ksˀˀ,” accessed 63–65)
April 22, 2019.
23 Mnemohistory differs from history in that it is not an attempt to retrieve the past, but rather, to construct it. For a
general introduction to this field, see (Halbwachs [1941] 1992; Assmann 2006). For the application to biblical literature,
see (Davies 2008; Edelman and Ben-Zvi 2013).
24 The Book of Jubilees connects it with other covenants as well, such as God’s covenant with Noah (Jub 6:21) and the birth of
Isaac (Jub 16:13).
25 CAD vol. 18 (Tav), pp. 297–98, s.v. tašrı̄tu. (Gelb 1956–2010).
26 CAD vol. 11a (N-2), pp. 265–66, s.v. nisannu. (Gelb 1956–2010).
his paper (in accordance with the aim of the entire issue) is to present an overview
er than a detailed and comprehensive argument for a new thesis. Even so, the way
l be presented should present the reader with a new, overall picture of the
he Israelite festival calendar. To do this, we will look at the development of the texts,
rce and redaction criticism, as well as with comparative models in the ancient Near
Religions 2019, 10, 323 11 of 19
s, as the paper is necessarily broad in scope, in order to cover this large topic, many
efenses of given Religions
claims 2019,
and10,readings
x FOR PEER will have to rely on works cited in the
REVIEW 11 of 19
ere the original researchThisis presented
month-long in detail. 5
ritual ends with the New Moon celebration on Tašrı̄tu. In the middle of the
month This
comesmonth-long
a seven-dayritual ends with
festival. This the New Moon
is highly celebration
reminiscent onwe
of what Tašrītu.
know In the the
about middle of the
equivalent
month
holidaycomes
s (Ḥōdeš and Šabbāt/Kēseʾ) a seven-day
Āsîp in festival.
other biblical texts,This is highly
namely Sukkôtreminiscent of what
(Del Olme Lette we know about the equivalent
2004).
holiday ʾĀsîp in other biblical texts, namely Sukkôt (Del Olme Lette 2004).
Israelites/Judahites celebrated
Deut 16:15two moon holidays monthly. The New Moon festival
You shall hold a festival for YHWH your God seven days, in the place that YHWH
which comes from theDeut Hebrew root ‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ ח‬meaning “new.” The full moon festival
16:15 You shall hold a festival for YHWH your God seven days, in the place that YHWH
will choose; for YHWH your God will bless all your6 crops and all your undertakings, and
Šabbāt, a loanword from willthechoose;
Akkadianfor YHWH
name for your
thisGod
daywill bless all your crops
(Šabattu/Šapattu) and all your undertakings, and
or, less
you shall have nothing but joy.27
you shall
another word for full moon thathave
also nothing
appears but joy.27
in Aramaic and Syriac.7
Of particular interest is the reference to dwellings of branches, which is reminiscent of the
supplementary biblical commands about this festival at the end of Leviticus 23:
23:
39
Mark,
Mark, on
39 on the
the fifteenth
fifteenth dayday of
of the
the seventh
seventh month,
month, whenwhen you have gathered in (‫פ‬.‫ס‬.‫ )א‬the
yield of your land, you shall shall observe
observe thethe festival
festival ofof YHWH
YHWH to to last
lastseven days. …
sevendays . . 40
40 On the
is somewhat artificial asfirst day likely

humans you shall
always take the product
experience ofof
aspects both,trees,
hadar is a usefulof palm trees, boughs of leafy
but it branches
nt human experience of time in broad
trees, and strokes.of
and willows
willows ofthe
thebrook,
brook,andandyou
you shall
shall rejoice
rejoice before
before YHWHYHWH youryour
GodGod
sevenseven ... .
daysdays
er whether these are actual historical
42 You
…. 42 You
shall events,
shall in or
livelive inmnemohistorical
booths
booths seven
seven fictions.
days;
days; In either
all citizens
all citizens case,
in
in Israel this shall
Israel
shall live
live in 43 in 43
in booths,
booths, in order
order that
r constructed logic of the calendar.
that
futurefuture generations
generations may know
may know that I the
that I made made the Israelite
Israelite people people live in when
live in booths booths when I
I brought
w of the biblical material, see (Soulnier 2012, pp. 71–82).
brought
them outthemof theout
landof the land ofI YHWH
of Egypt, Egypt, Iyour
YHWH God. your God.
abbat as Vollmondfest goes back to the work of Johannes Meinhold (1905, 1909). Recent
vor of this theory can be Asfound
As it isindifficult
it is J. L. Wright
difficult to (2015), Grund
to imagine
imagine the (2011),
the direct
direct and Robinson
borrowing
borrowing of (1988).or
of Israel
Israel orAJudah
Judah from
from Ugarit,
Ugarit, it
it is
is more
more likely
likely
ary of the argument can
that bethe
found infrom
(Albertz [1992] 1994, pp. 408–9). The connection is rejected
that the text from both cultures reflect versions of the same practices that have ancient roots in
text both cultures reflect versions of the same practices that have ancient roots in the
the
scholars, who see the sound similarity
region. as coincidental and the differences betweenin thethe
twoUgaritic and biblical conception. In
region. TheThe purpose
purpose of of these
these branches
branches and
and booths
booths differ
differ in the Ugaritic and biblical conception. In
(Levine 2008, p. 77; Tigay 1998a, pp. 22–25).
Ugarit,
Ugarit, these
these dwellings
dwellings were
were for
for the
the gods,
gods, and
and the
the king
king would
would then then be
be able
able to
to go
go up
up on
on the
the roof
roof and
and
ve Aramaic Lexicon, s.v. “ksˀ, ksˀˀ,” accessed April 22, 2019.
speak with them,
speak with them, making
makinghis hisrequests.
requests.In InLeviticus,
Leviticus,theretherearearetwotwodifferent
different conceptions—the
conceptions—the first
first is
is so
so
thatthat
thethe people
people cancan rejoice
rejoice withwith
lovelylovely branches,
branches, andandthe the second
second so they
so they themselves
themselves can can
dwell dwell in
in the
the booths.
booths. In the
In the Persian
Persian Period,
Period, thesethese
twotwo conceptions
conceptions werewere merged,
merged, withwith
thethe booths
booths being
being made
made of
of lovely
lovely branches
branches (Neh
(Neh 8:15).Nevertheless,
8:15). Nevertheless,the theancient
ancientorigins
originsof ofthe
theIsraelite/Judahite
Israelite/Judahite ritual
ritual may
may be be
seen
seen inin the
the Ugaritic practice (De
Ugaritic practice (De Moor
Moor 1972,
1972, p. p. 22;
22; Waganaar
Waganaar 2005, 2005, p.
p. 23).
23).
Another
Another notable element in the festival at Ugarit is that the celebration
notable element in the festival at Ugarit is that the celebration was was multipodal.
multipodal.
Significantly,
Significantly, itit featured
featuredaaseven-day
seven-dayfestival
festivalstarting
starting ononthethe15th (full(full
15th moon)moon)of the
of sixth month,
the sixth and
month,
concluded on the first of the seventh month (new moon). In the Priestly
and concluded on the first of the seventh month (new moon). In the Priestly and Holiness calendars, and Holiness calendars, we
see see
we something
something similar. The first
similar. The of theofseventh
first the seventhmonth is a festival
month of horn
is a festival ofblasts, the tenth
horn blasts, theoftenth
the month
of the
is a time
month is for atonement
a time and cleansing
for atonement (Yôm Hakīppūrîm),
and cleansing both of
(Yôm Hakı̄ppūrîm), theof
both people and ofand
the people theofsanctuary,
the sanctuary,and
the 15th marks the seven (or eight) day festival
and the 15th marks the seven (or eight) day festival of Sukkôt. of Sukkô t.
It wouldseem
It would seemthat,
that, in this
in this tradition,
tradition, we havewe ahave a month-long
month-long celebration,celebration,
as describedas described
in Nehemiah in
Nehemiah 8, with the New Year element coming at the beginning
8, with the New Year element coming at the beginning instead of the end. Dividing the new year instead of the end. Dividing the
new year
proper from proper from the agricultural
the agricultural festival allowed festival allowed
Sukkôt Sukkôt to concentrate
to concentrate on celebrating on the
celebrating
ingathering the
ingathering
season, as well season,
as to as well
look as to look
forward to theforward
upcoming to the upcoming
rainy season. rainy season.
Although theAlthough
biblical textthedoes
biblical
not
text does not discuss Sukkô t as a rain festival, this is certainly what the festival
discuss Sukkôt as a rain festival, this is certainly what the festival marks in the Second Temple period, marks in the Second
Temple period,
and it seems and it seems
reasonable reasonable
to assume to assume
that this goes back that
tothis goes
earlier backsince
times, to earlier
Iron times, sinceand
Age Israel Iron Age
Judah
Israel and Judah were also agricultural
were also agricultural societies depending on rainfall. societies depending on rainfall.
Comparative
Comparative evidence,
evidence, as as well
well as as later
later tradition,
tradition, point
point to to the
the virtual
virtual certainty
certainty that
that the autumn
the autumn
festivals markedthe
festivals marked thenew
newyear,year,
and andthatthat
thisthis
waswas the meaning
the meaning of theoffestival
the festival
of hornofblasts
horninblasts in the
the Priestly
Priestly literature. In fact, the connection between horn blasts, enthronement
literature. In fact, the connection between horn blasts, enthronement ceremonies, and ancient Near ceremonies, and ancient
Near
Eastern Eastern
new year newfestivals
year festivals
suggestsuggest the likelihood
the likelihood that YHWH that YHWH was ceremonially
was ceremonially enthroned enthroned
on this new on
this new
year year celebration
celebration in the FirstinTemple
the First Temple
period period (Mowinckel
(Mowinckel 1962, vol. 1,[1951] 1962, vol.
pp. 107–92). 1, pp. 107–92).
Nevertheless, the
Nevertheless, the biblical texts only state that it is the first of the seventh
biblical texts only state that it is the first of the seventh month. Why is the new year’s element being month. Why is the new
year’s element being suppressed here? The answer may come from the realities of the exilic period
and the influence of Babylonian culture. To quote Julye Bidmeade (2002, p. 44):
27 The two festivals were a month apart, but they are still versions of the same basic autumn new year celebration. Note that
according to 1 Kings 12:32–33, the northern kingdom of Israel celebrated its autumn festival the month after Judah’s (i.e.,
27 month
The 8 and
two not month
festivals 7), perhaps
were a monthbecause
apart,produce ripens
but they later
are in the
still north (Talmon
versions of the 2005).
same basic autumn new year
celebration. Note that according to 1 Kings 12:32–33, the northern kingdom of Israel celebrated its autumn
festival the month after Judah’s (i.e., month 8 and not month 7), perhaps because produce ripens later in the
north (Talmon 2005).
An important part of calendars in all cultures is the marking of festivals celebrating something of
importance at a given time of year. Festivals can celebrate both kinds of time. For example, the
Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Pennsylvania Dutch celebration of Groundhog Day, is tied to the belief that a groundhog knows
whether the winter cold will be long or short in a given year, based on whether it sees its shadow or not
As observed by Mercea Eliade, time can be experienced as linear or cy
Religions when
2019, 10, xitFOR emerges PEER REVIEW on February 2. This yearly ritual of watching the groundhog is not tied 2toofsome 1912from event
Religions 2019, 10, 323 Modern calendars emphasize linear time. They begin of 19 a fixed point (cr
in the past or a commemoration of previous Groundhog Days; rather, it is simply part of the cycle of
Mohamed’s hijra to Mecca, etc.)4 and continue from there. For instance, in the
winters. The
As observed by Jewish Merceafestival Eliade,oftime Tûbǝcan -theŠǝbāt, be the New Yearas
experienced forlinear
Trees,or
year 2018 is two thousand and eighteen years since the officially recogniz
is essentially
cyclical (Eliade the same, 1959). as it simply
3
Modern marks
suppressed
calendars thehere?point
emphasize of midwinter.
The answer linearmay At the
time. come Theyopposite
from begin end
the of the
realities
from a fixed spectrum
of thepoint would
exilic period
(creation be July of4th,
and thewhich
the influence
world, celebrates of
Religions
Religions 2019,
2019,10, 10,x xFOR FORPEER PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
this linear conception of forward movement from a fixed 1212ofof1919point in the past is
Mohamed’s American
Babylonian hijra
Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW toindependence
culture. Mecca, To quote
etc.) 4 from Julye
and England,
Bidmeade
continue or
from the
(2002, practice
there. p. 44):
For of celebrating
instance, in one’s
the anniversary
Gregorian or
calendar, birthday.
5 of 19
which we experience time. In addition to imagining time as a line, humans
the year 2018Sometimes is two thousand a festival, andon its face,years
eighteen may appear since the to officially
be celebrating recognized something birthinoflinear Jesus.time, But while at
Initially,
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the
Initially, the Mesopotamian calendar Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian calendar
calendar endless
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new moon
rising
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sunset indicated the beginning
indicated the
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the new
newmonth. The fullThe
month. moon
The fullmarked
full moon
moon
Farber
which wesymbolism experience(Parpola 2018, pp. 443–44,
time. In[1983] 449–50).
addition This
2007,top.imagining masking
178).
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Set as Times time festival
a line, humans also imagine it as an with a linear time conception
the middle
marked
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and bubbulim
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found in the Hebrew Bible.
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and
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at
of the topic, rather than a detailed and comprehensive argument for a new thesis. Even so, the waythe belief that Dutch celebration of Groundhog Day, is tied to
An importantHowever,
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official celebrating
inscriptions, something
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is tobased on whether it
cautiously Tašrītu. notes, However,
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cannot argue
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present
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Mesopotamian
Standard
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Mesopotamian kinds ofcalendar.
calendar. time. For example, the
calendar.
development of the Israelite festival calendar. To do this, when it emerges on February 2. This yearly
we will look at the development of the texts, ritual of watching the groundhog is n
ER REVIEW Pennsylvania Dutch celebration of Groundhog Day, is tied2 to of 19 the belief that a groundhog knows
 the IThe
in Iwould
the light
Mesopotamian argue of source that the
and
practice Israelite
redaction in
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criticism, past conception
as or a commemoration
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shift.
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winter argue
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calendrical
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shift. Beginning
or not
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days
cycles, the papermoon
included
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moon winters.
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either the
broad
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seasonal/agricultural
inorscope, festival
seasonal/agricultural3in place inof ofTû
order 21, bǝto -cycle,
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cycle,
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sometimes
the New
moon
moonlarge Year
and topic,
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and for
year Trees, is essentially
many
of
year
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it emerges be experienced
on February 2. linear
This yearly ritual ofand
(Eliade
watching seasonal/agricultural
1959). the groundhog is not cycle,
tied the
to some moon and
event year
become
become ofthese;theways ofofmarking
specific defenses linear time.
ofpointgiven As marks
such,
claimssuch,itof the
and point
ititbecame readings of midwinter.
important will have totofixAt the
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month
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phasize linear time.
in the past They or ways a begincommemoration marking
from a fixed linear
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rather, it isto
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bibliography
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text or the
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calendar,
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it simply spring
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month
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its face, may appear
Decalogue, which to be celebrating something in
revises
housand andmarks eighteen years
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point ofsince
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differences, At the year
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(Exod
Tigay end 12:2).
birth
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29
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describes
describes
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American
lemnutū independence
were likely from at least England,
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reimagining of celebrating of Šabbāt one’s
(Tigay anniversary
1998b, pp. birthday.
93–96). Therefore,
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ַ‫הַ ה‬it‫פַתַת‬as 443–44,
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of calendarsfound
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elebration ofofGroundhog
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for fullreason is
moon to
into present
Šabbāt popular
that must an practice
also appears overview
be observed isinthe implied
Aramaicis from
because and the
itdidfact that,
commemorates
Syriac. 7 at least in
God’s the
the
theexilicexilic period,
period, the theJews Jews adopted the
theBabylonian
Babylonian namesnames ofof the months
months andand did not
not useusenumbers.
numbers.
n a detailed and resting
comprehensive
exilic period,
on the the argument
seventh Jews adopted
day for
(Gen a newthe
2:1–3; thesis.
Babylonian
Exod Even
20:10, namesso, 31:17). theofway the months and did not use numbers.
TheTheofficial officialadoption adoptionofofthe thespring
springnew newyear yeargoes goestogether togetherwith withthe thecancellation
cancellationofofthe thefull fullmoonmoon
presented should present InThe the
official reader adoption at with
the of athenew, spring overallnew picture
year of the
Šabbāt
Šabbāt sum,
and
andthe looking
the reconceptualization
reconceptualization moon festivals,
ofofḤōdeš
Ḥōdešnot wenotcan asasagoesasee moon moon
together
the virtualwith
celebration
celebration
theas
disappearance
but cancellation
but asthe of two
thebeginning
beginning
of festivals
theofofafull
amonth.
moon
that
month.
aelite festival calendar.
InŠabbāt and
originally
Inshort,
To
short,the
do
the
this,
the
celebrated
originally
we will
reconceptualization
originallynatural,
look
cyclical
at
cyclicalmonth-time
the
cyclical
month-time
development
of H . ōdeš not as
3phenomenon.
that
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of
went
wentfrom
thatdichotomy
a moonthe Ḥōdeš,
texts,
from
celebration which but
isfull-to-new-to-full,
full-to-new-to-full,
somewhat
as theetc.,
celebrated
artificial as
beginning
the
etc.,
humansbecamenew
became likely
ofamoon
a month.
away
wayof
always
isofexperience aspects o
nd redaction criticism, In
discontinued as well
short, the as
in with
originally
everything comparative
cyclical but name, models
month-time remaining inheuristic
the
that ancient
went
only as Near
from a full-to-new-to-full,
Temple-based sacrificial etc., law,became while a way
Šabbāt of
marking
markingthe thebeginningbeginningofofthe themonth, month,which whichwas wasdetermined
determined to paint human totobe atatḤōdeš.
beexperienceḤōdeš.Full of
Fulltimemoon
moonin broadŠabbāt
Šabbāt strokes.
was
wasno no
he paper is necessarily
asmarking
a broad
celebration the in scope,
beginning of the in order
of
full the
moon to cover
month, this
disappearswhich large
It does was topic,
entirely,
not matterdetermined many reemerging whether to be at
as Hthe ōdeš.
. are name Full ofmoona Šabbāt
seventh-day was
datethese actual historical events, or mnemohistorical fict
4
longer
longermarked, marked,though thoughininTishrei Tishreiand andNissan, Nissan, ititremained
remained asasthe thedate ofofthe the great
great agricultural
agricultural festivals
festivals
es of given 3 claims
Thisno
holiday,
Sukkô and
longer
dichotomy
t tand readings
inspired marked,
is somewhat will
by though
the have exodus in
artificialto rely
Tishrei
from
as on
humans and
Egypt worksisNissan,
and
likely
the cited
commemorating
always
internal it in
remained the
experience
or constructed as the
God’s
aspectslogicdate of
creation
ofof both,
the thebut great
of
calendar. itthe
is a agricultural
world.
useful We
Sukkô andMaṣṣô Maṣṣô t.t.InInaddition,
addition,ititisishardly hardlycoincidental
coincidentalthat thatthree threeother other“festivals”
“festivals”ininthe thelater laterJewish Jewish
e original research willis presented
heuristic seetothat
festivals paint
Sukkôt inand
human
similar detail. experience
Mas 5
. s.on
developments ôt.the In fullof time
addition, took inplace
5 broad
itTûisFor strokes.
hardly
with
an overview coincidental
other festivals
of the biblical that three
as well. otheryear
material, “festivals”
see (Soulnierin2012, the later71–82).
pp.
calendar
calendar are are celebrated
celebrated on the full moon:
moon: Tû bǝbǝ - -
Šǝbāt
Šǝbāt (15th
(15th of of Shevat,
Shevat, the
the new
new year for
for trees),
trees), TûTûbǝbǝ- -
4 It does
Jewish notcalendar
matter whether are these areon
celebrated actualthe historical
full 6 The events,
moon: idea Tû
e e
bofor -Š mnemohistorical
Shabbat
bāt (15th as ofVollmondfest
Shevat, fictions. the goesIn either
new back
year case,
tofor the thisworkTû
trees), of Johannes Meinho
ʾAb
ʾAbinternal
(15th
(15thofof Av,
Av, the thefestival
festival ofoflove),love), and
andŠabūʿô Šabūʿô t,t,celebrated celebratedon onthe the15th 15thofofSivan Sivanaccordingaccordingtotothe the
is4.the
deš and Šabbāt/Kēseʾ) b The- AbWheat (15th
e or constructed
Festivals:
of Av, the festival logic
Maṣṣôt,ofQāṣî of the calendar.
love), r, and arguments
andŠabūʿôt in favor
Šabū ôt, celebrated on the 15th of Sivan according to theof this theory can be found in J. L. Wright (2015), Grund (2011),
5 sectarian
Forsectarian
an overview calendar.
calendar.of the biblical material, see (Soulnier succinct 2012, pp. 71–82).
summary of the argument can be found in (Albertz [1992] 1994, pp. 408–9). Th
sectarian
ites/Judahites6 celebrated Thetwo Covenant calendar.
moon holidays Collection monthly.
in Exodus The(21:1–23:19)
New Moonisfestival believed by many scholars to be the oldest of
The idea of Shabbat as Vollmondfest goes back by
to athe work of
number of scholars,
Johanneswho
Meinhold
see the (1905,
sound 1909). Recent
similarity as coincidental and the diffe
h comes from the 6.
the Animal
6.Hebrew
Animal
arguments root
Pentateuchal
favor‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ח‬
inHusbandry
Husbandry
of Rituals
Rituals
thismeaning
legal collections
theory (Firstborns
“new.”
can be Theinand
(Firstborns
(Levinson
found and
full Pesaḥ)
Pesaḥ)
L.moon
J.1997;
as festival
D. Wright
Wright
extreme. (2015),
See 2009).
Grund
(Levine It(2011),
2008, includes
p. 77;and a description
Robinson
Tigay 1998a, pp. ofAthree
(1988).
22–25).
t, a loanword from the summary
succinct
festivalsAkkadian
(Exod of name
23:14–17): for thiscan
the argument daybe(Šabattu/Šapattu)
found
7 inThe
(Albertz 6 or, less
[1992]
Comprehensive 1994, pp. 408–9).
Aramaic Lexicon,The connection
s.v. “ksˀ, ksˀˀ,”isaccessed
rejectedApril 22, 2019.
28 This was a standard trajectory of calendars in the ancient period, including the Egyptian and Greek calendars (Stern 2012).
her word for fullbymoon
a number
29 The that of scholars,
also appears whoin see the sound
Aramaic andsimilarity
Syriac.7 as coincidental and the differences between the two
claim here that the Ritual Decalogue revises the Covenant Collection follows (Gesundheit 2002, pp. 12–43). This is
as extreme.
contra See (Levine
the view that 2008, p. was
this text 77; Tigay 1998a,
older and pp. 22–25).
perhaps even the source for the passage in the Covenant Collection.
2828 This was a standard trajectory of calendars in the ancient period, including the Egyptian and Greek calendars
The This was a standard
Comprehensive
7 Aramaictrajectory of calendars
Lexicon, s.v. “ksˀ, ksˀˀ,”in the ancient
accessed Aprilperiod, including the Egyptian and Greek calendars
22, 2019.
(Stern
(Stern2012).
2012).
16 Although
2929 The for a that
long time, H was considered to be earlier than P and pre-Exilic, for the past two2002,
decades, 12–
the
Theclaim
claimhere
here thatthetheRitual
RitualDecalogue
Decaloguerevises
revisesthe
theCovenant
CovenantCollection
Collectionfollows
follows(Gesundheit
(Gesundheit 2002,pp.
pp. 12–
majority
43). of scholars have embraced the idea that H is a revision of P or even the editor of the Pentateuch
43).This
Thisisiscontra
contrathetheview
viewthat
thatthis
thistext
textwas
wasolder
olderand andperhaps
perhapseven
eventhe
thesource
sourcefor
forthe
thepassage
passageininthe
the
itself. As such,
Covenant without taking a position on whether P is pre- or post-exilic, it seems quite likely that H is,
CovenantCollection.
Collection.
mewhat artificial as humans
thoughlikely
somealways
scholarsexperience
disagree. aspects of both,
(See Knohl but
[1995] it is Schectman
2007; a useful and Baden 2009).
Religions Religions
2019, 10, 2019,
x FOR PEER
10, REVIEW
x FOR
Religions PEER REVIEW
10, 323 13 of 19 13 of 19
In the biblical account of history, the conflict between farmers and shepherds goes back to the 13 of 19
2019,
first brothers in human history, with Abel as the shepherd and Cain as the farmer. The conflict story
In the biblical accountaccount
In the biblical of history, the conflict
of history, between
the conflict farmersfarmers
between and shepherds and shepherds goes back goestoback the to the
is connected 6. Animal to theHusbandry
very different Rituals lifestyle that farmers and shepherds
Pesah lived. Farmers were entirely
first brothers in human
first brothers history,history,
in human with Abel with asAbelthe(Firstborns
shepherd
as the shepherd andCain
and and )the farmer.
as. Cain as the farmer.The conflict story story
The conflict
sedentary, tilling the same plots of ground year after year. Although some shepherds were sedentary,
is connected to the very
is connected to the different
very differentlifestylelifestyle that farmers that farmersand shepherds and shepherds lived. Farmerslived. Farmerswere entirely were entirely
others wouldIntravel the biblical
with their account flocks, of history,
taking the them conflict between
to different farmersdepending
pastures and shepherds on thegoes back to the
season
sedentary, tilling the
sedentary, same
tilling theplots
same ofplots
ground year after
of ground year year.
after Although
year. Although some shepherds
some shepherds were sedentary,
were sedentary,
(Borowski 1998, pp. 40–45). Even so, the two cultures did not live entirely independently of each story
first brothers in human history, with Abel as the shepherd and Cain as the farmer. The conflict
others would
others would travel with traveltheir withflocks, taking taking
their flocks, them tothem different pastures
to different depending
pastures on the on
depending seasonthe season
other, asissemi-nomads
connected to relied the very ondifferent
grains grown lifestyle by that
farmers farmerswhile and theshepherds
farmers were lived. in Farmers
need of meat, were entirely
(Borowski 1998, pp.
(Borowski 1998,40–45). Even so,
pp. 40–45). Eventhe so, twothe cultures
two cultures did notdid livenot entirely independently
live entirely independently of eachof each
sedentary, tilling
skins, milk, and wool from the shepherds. the same plots of ground year after year. Although some shepherds were sedentary,
other, as semi-nomads
other, as semi-nomads relied on grains
relied on grown
grains grown by farmers while the
by farmers while farmers were inwere
the farmers needinofneed meat,of meat,
The book of Genesis depicts Israel’s ancestors consistently as shepherds, and Exodus depicts season
others would travel with their flocks, taking them to different pastures depending on the
skins, milk,
skins,and milk, woolandfrom woolthe fromshepherds.
the shepherds.
Moses as (Borowski
a shepherd, 1998, pp.showing
thus 40–45). Even that the so, the two cultures
biblical authors did werenot live entirely
conscious independently
of animal husbandry of each
as other,
The book Theofbook Genesis depictsdepicts
of Genesis Israel’sIsrael’s ancestors consistently
ancestors as shepherds,
consistently as shepherds, and Exodus and Exodus depictsdepicts
being an important and even respected part of their culture. It would be surprising, therefore, if milk,
as semi-nomads relied on grains grown by farmers while the farmers were in need of meat, skins,
Moses as a shepherd,
Moses as a shepherd, thus showing thus showing that thethat biblical authorsauthors
the biblical were consciouswere conscious of animal husbandry
of animal husbandryas as
among the and festivals
wool from and therituals
shepherds. of ancient Israel, we did not find some that were specifically the
being an important and even respected part of their culture.
being an important and even respected part of their culture. It would be surprising, therefore, if It would be surprising, therefore, if
province of shepherds. The book of Genesis depicts
Moreover, whereasIsrael’s large flocks ancestors consistently
of sheep and goats as would
shepherds, generally and Exodus
be kept depicts
among among
the festivals and rituals
the festivals of ancient
and rituals Israel, we
of ancient Israel, didwe notdid find notsome findthat some werethatspecifically
were specifically the the
Moses as a shepherd, thus showing that
by wandering shepherds, cows and bulls were kept by farmers, and they would have had rituals the biblical authors were conscious of animal husbandry
of as
province of shepherds.
province of shepherds.Moreover, whereas
Moreover, large flocks
whereas large of sheep
flocks ofandsheep goats andwouldgoats would generally be keptbe kept
generally
their own being an important
relevant to these and animals even(Knauf respected andpart of their culture.
Guillaume 2016, pp. It 57–59).
would be surprising, therefore, if among
by wandering
by wandering shepherds, cows and
shepherds, cows bullsandwere bullskept were bykeptfarmers, and they
by farmers, and would have had
they would have rituals
had of rituals of
the festivals and rituals of ancient
The Covenant Collection has a doublet of laws having to do with Israel, we did not find some that were specifically
offering first produce the and
province of
their owntheir relevant
own relevantto thesetoanimals these animals (Knauf (Knauf and Guillaume and Guillaume 2016, pp. 57–59).
2016, pp. 57–59).
shepherds. Moreover,
firstborns to YHWH, in chps. 22 and 23 respectively: whereas large flocks of sheep and goats would generally be kept by wandering
The Covenant
The Covenant Collection has a doublet
Collection has a doublet of lawsofhaving laws havingto do with to dooffering
with offering first produce
first produceand and
shepherds, cows and bulls were kept by farmers, and they would have had rituals of their own relevant
firstborns to YHWH,
firstborns Exodto in
YHWH,
22:28 You chps. in22chps.
shall andput
not 23 and
22 respectively:
off the 23 respectively:
skimming of the first yield of your vats.30 You shall give
to these animals (Knauf and Guillaume 2016, pp. 57–59).
Me the first-born among your sons. 29 You shall do the same with your cattle and your
You22:28
Exod 22:28 Exod shall
You The
not
shall Covenant
put off put
not the Collection
skimming
off the skimming has
of the a doublet
first
of the yield of of
first laws your
yield having
ofvats.
your 30tovats.
do with
You shall
30 You offering
give
shall give first produce and
flocks: seven days it shall remain with its mother; on the eighth day you shall give it to Me.
Me theMe firstborns
first-born
the among
first-born to YHWH,
your sons.
among in chps.
your 29 You
sons. 22 shall
and
29 You 23 respectively:
doshallthe do same thewithsameyour withcattleyourand cattle yourand your
flocks: seven
flocks: days
seven
Exod 23:19 Theit shall
days
choice remain
it shall
first with
remain
produce its mother;
withof its
your on
mother;
soil theyou
Exod 22:28 You shall not put off the skimming of the first yield of your vats.
eighth
on the
shall day
eighth
bring you day
to shall
theyou give
shall
house it to
give
of Me.
YHWH it 30
to Me. your
You shall give
God. Do not allow the kid to grow fat on its29mother’s milk. 31
The23:19
Exod 23:19 Exod choice
TheMe first
theproduce
choice first produce
first-born ofamong
yourofsoil your
your you soil
sons. shallyou bring
Youshall tobring
shall the
do the house the of
to same houseYHWH
with of YHWH
your your
cattle and youryour flocks:
God. Do God.not
TheDo allow
laws not the
allow
here
seven kid to itgrow
the
emphasize
days kid
shall tofatgrow
that onthe
remain its mother’s
fatwithon its
first of
itsmany milk.
mother’s
mother; 31 milk.
products
on 31go to YHWH,
the eighth day youostensibly
shall give as sacrifices:
it to Me.
wine, sons, cattle and flocks, produce (wheat?), and flocks again. These verses may derive from a unit
Exod 23:19
The laws The here
laws emphasize
here emphasize The choice
that thethat firstfirst
the produce
of first
many ofproducts
manyof your gosoil
products to you go shall
YHWH, to YHWH, bring to
ostensibly the
as house
ostensibly as of
sacrifices: YHWH your
sacrifices:
separated by the splicing in of other laws. The main idea of these laws31was to bring the “firsts” to
wine, sons,
wine,cattle
sons,and cattle God.andDo
flocks, not allow
produce
flocks, (wheat?),
produce the (wheat?),
kid andto grow
flocksandfat on its
again.
flocks mother’s
These
again. verses
These milk.
may
verses derive
may from derive a unit
from a unit
YHWH immediately, and this is emphasized in both iterations of the animal law. In most cases, the
separated by the splicing
separated by the splicing in of other in oflaws. otherThe laws. main Theidea main of idea
theseoflaws thesewas laws to was
bringtothe bring “firsts” to
the “firsts” to
animals would Thehave lawsbeen hereborn emphasizein the winter that the and first of many
weaned products
in the spring,gobut to the
YHWH, verseostensibly
insists thatasthe sacrifices:
YHWHYHWH immediately,immediately, and thisand is emphasized
this is emphasized in bothin iterations
both iterations of the animal of the animallaw. In law. mostIncases, mostthe cases, the
wine, sons, cattle and flocks, produce
firstborn should be offered almost immediately, without waiting for weaning. (wheat?), and flocks again. These verses may derive from a unit
animalsanimals
would would have been have born
been inborn
the winter
in the winter and weaned and weaned in the spring, but thebut
in the spring, verse theinsists
verse that insists thethat the
That separated
the first by the splicing
of these laws isin of other
about winelaws. The main
production fits idea
withof whatthese welawssawwas about to bring the “firsts” to
the Ugaritic
firstborn should should
firstborn be offered almost almost
be offered immediately, immediately, withoutwithout waitingwaiting for weaning. for weaning.
calendar, YHWH
whichimmediately,
began preparation and this foristhe emphasized
autumn new in both
year iterations
celebration ofin thetheanimal
monthlaw. of newIn mostwine, cases, the
That the Thatfirsttheof first
theseoflaws theseis lawsaboutiswine aboutproduction
wine production fits with fitswhat
withwe what sawwe about
sawthe aboutUgaritic
the Ugaritic
though from animals the would have beenwe
Gezer calendar, bornmight in theinfer winter
that the and weaned
grape in the season
gathering spring,was but in the verse
early insists that the
summer.
calendar, which began
calendar, which preparation
began preparation for the for autumn the autumn new year new celebration
year celebration in the month in the monthof new of wine,
new wine,
Perhapsfirstbornthe firstshould wine is beaoffered
little later almost than immediately,
first “grape without
juice,”waitingor perhaps for weaning.
the wine offering was
thoughthough
from the fromGezer thecalendar,
Gezer calendar, we might weinfermight thatinfer thethatgrape thegathering
grape gathering season season was in earlywas in summer.
early summer.
supposed to That comethe in thefirstsummer
of theseand laws not is the
about autumn.wine production fits with what we saw about the Ugaritic
PerhapsPerhaps
the firstthe winefirstiswine a littleis alaterlittlethan laterfirst than “grape
first “grapejuice,” juice,”
or perhaps the wine
or perhaps theoffering
wine offering was was
Wecalendar,
will skip which for a momentbegan preparationthe offeringfor the autumn
of firstborn sons, new yearwould
which celebrationnot beinathe yearlymonth of new
ritual, of wine,
supposed to cometoincome
supposed the summer
in the summer and notand the not autumn.the autumn.
course, thoughas it would from only the Gezer occurcalendar,
once perwe might Nor
mother. infer would
that theitgrape be limited gathering to a season
given season,was in early sincesummer.
We willWe skip forskip
will a moment
for a moment the offering the offeringof firstborn sons, which
of firstborn sons, would
which would not be anot yearly
be a ritual,
yearly of ritual, of
human births Perhaps the first
happen any wine time is aoflittle later than first “grape juice,” or perhaps the wine offering was supposed
the year.
course,course,
as it would only occur
as it would onlyonce occurper once mother.per mother.Nor would Nor wouldit be limited to a given
it be limited to a season,
given season, since since
As to forcomebringing
in thethe summerfirst born and not of animals,
the autumn. sheep and goats give birth between December and
humanhumanbirths happen
births happen any time any oftime
the year.of the year.
February (Borowski We will 1998, skip for pp.a52, 82 n17;the
moment Hirsch offering1933,ofp.firstborn
59). If thesons, firstborn
which animals
wouldare nottobebea brought
yearly ritual, of
As for As bringing the firstthe
for bringing born firstofborn animals, sheep and
of animals, sheep goats
andgive goats birth
givebetween
birth between December Decemberand and
before they course,are as weaned,
it would this means
only occur midwinter.
once per mother. Cows go Norinto heat periodically,
would it be limited to and their season,
a given sexual cyclesince human
February (Borowski
February 1998, pp.
(Borowski 1998,52, pp.
82 n17; 52, 82 Hirsch 1933, p.1933,
n17; Hirsch 59). Ifp.the 59).firstborn animalsanimals
If the firstborn are to be arebrought
to be brought
is not seasonal,
births happen so a firstborn
any time calf ofcan the be year. born at any time of the year.
before they
before aretheyweaned, this means
are weaned, this midwinter.
means midwinter. Cows go Cowsinto go heat intoperiodically,
heat periodically, and their and sexual
their cycle
sexual cycle
First produce, As for assuming
bringing the thisfirst is aborn referenceof animals, to wheat, sheep would and be goats cut give
in the spring
birth between as discussed
December and
is not seasonal, so a firstborn
is not seasonal, calf cancalf
so a firstborn be born
can be atborn
any time at any oftime
the year.of the year.
above. In fact, this
February rule overlaps
(Borowski 1998, with pp. 52, the82festival
n17; Hirsch of Qāṣî r which
1933, p. 59). celebrates the bringing
If the firstborn animalsofare thetofirst
be brought
First produce,
First produce,assuming this is athis
assuming reference
is a reference to wheat, would would
to wheat, be cut in be thecut spring
in the springas discussed as discussed
cut of wheat. beforeThis theyoverlap
are weaned, suggests this meansa radical possibility
midwinter. hinted
Cows go at intoabove:
heat periodically, and their sexual cycle is
above. above.
In fact, In this rule
fact, overlaps
this rule overlapswith the withfestival of Qāṣî
the festival rofwhich
Qāṣî r celebrates
which celebrates the bringing of the first
the bringing of the first
not seasonal, so a firstborn calf can be born at any time of the year.
cut of wheat. This overlap
cut of wheat. This overlapsuggests a radical
suggests possibility
a radical hinted at
possibility above:
hinted at above:
This is the NJPS translation. The Septuagint (LXX) understood the first word (‫)מלֵאָּׁ ְׁתָך‬
30 ְׁ as referring to harvest
produce and the second word (‫)ד ְׁמעֲָך‬ ִּ as referring to the first wine. Nevertheless, the use of the first word in
30 This30is the
ThisNJPS 30translation.
is the NJPS The Septuagint
istranslation.
Thisand theDeut
NJPS The Septuagint
translation. (LXX) understood
(LXX)(LXX) the first the
understood word first (‫תָך‬word ְׁ word
ָּׁ‫)מלֵא‬
ְׁ as ( ‫ְׁת‬referring
(‫ָך‬ ָּׁ‫)מלֵא‬
ְׁ ) as to harvest
asreferring
referring to to harvest
Num 18:27 22:9 in the The Septuagint
context of vineyards understood
and wine the first
production implies that this harvest
term isproduce
also and the
produceproduce
and the and second the word
second second ( ‫ע‬word
word (‫ֲָך‬ ‫)ד ְׁמ‬
ִּ ) as ‫)ד ְׁמע‬
as(‫ֲָך‬ ִּ as to
referring
referring to
thethe
firstfirst
referring wine.
to the
wine. firstNevertheless,
wine. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, the usethe of theusefirst of
thethe usefirst
word of word
the
in Num inword
first
18:27 in 22:9 in the
and Deut
connected to wine. The phrase may simply be a hendiadys here (HALOT 2121). (Köhler and Baumgartner
Num 18:27 Numand Deut
18:27 context
and 22:9 ofinvineyards
Deut the
22:9context
in the and context
wine production
of vineyards and
of vineyards implies
wine that
and this term
production
wine production isimplies
also connected that this
implies tothat
wine.
term The
is
this phrase
also
term may simply be a
is also
[1967–1995] 1994–2000).
hendiadys here (HALOT 2121). (Köhler and Baumgartner [1967–1995] 1994–2000).
connected to wine.
connected toThe
wine.phrase
The may
phrase simply
may be a
simply hendiadys
be a here
hendiadys (HALOT
here 2121).
(HALOT (Köhler
2121). and
(Köhler Baumgartner
and Baumgartner
31 This appears to be the
31 This appears original
to be meaning
the original of the
meaning of theobscure phrase ‫ל ֹּא ְׁתבַ שֵ ל גְׁ ִּדי בַ ֲחלֵב ִּאּמֹו‬,usually
obscurephrase usually translated
translated as “do
as “do not cook a kid
[1967–1995] 1994–2000).
[1967–1995] 1994–2000).
not cook in its mother’s
a kid milk.” For
in its mother’s an alternative
milk.” translation, translation,
For an alternative see (Schorch 2010). see (Schorch 2010).
31 This31appears to be thetooriginal
This appears meaningmeaning
be the original of the obscure phrase ‫ּמֹו‬
of the obscure ‫ּמֹו בַ ֲחלֵב ִּא‬
phrase ‫גְׁל ִּדֹּאי ְׁבַתבַ ֲחשֵלֵבל ִּגְׁא ִּדי‬, ‫ל‬usually
ֵ‫ל ֹּא ְׁתבַ ש‬, usually
translated as “do as “do
translated
not cooknota kid
cook in aitskid
mother’s milk.” For
in its mother’s an alternative
milk.” translation,
For an alternative see (Schorch
translation, see (Schorch 2010). 2010).
found in the Hebrew Bible.
the year 2018 is two thousand
2. Festivals at Set Times and eighteen years since the officially recognized birth of Jesus. But
The aim of this paper (in accordance with the aim of the entire issue) is to present an overview
this linear conception of forward movement from a fixed point in the past is not the only way in
of the topic, rather An important
than a detailed part of andcalendars in all cultures
comprehensive argument is theformarking
a newof festivals
thesis. Even celebrating
so, the way something of
which we experience time. In addition to imagining time as a line, humans also imagine it as an
the material importance
will be presented at a given should time of presentyear. Festivals
the reader can celebrate
with a new, both overall
kinds ofpicture time. For of the example, the
endless circling. This is what is being pictured by the verse about days and seasons.
development Pennsylvania
of the Israelite Dutch festivalcelebration
calendar. ofTo Groundhog
do this, weDay, is tied
will look to the
at the belief thatofathe
development groundhog
texts, knows
Religions 2019, 10, 323 14 of 19
in2.the lightwhether
Festivals ofatsource
Set Times
theand winter
redaction cold will be longasorwell
criticism, short asin a given
with year, based
comparative modelson whether it sees itsNear
in the ancient shadow or not
when it emerges
East. Nevertheless, as the paper on February is necessarily2. Thisbroadyearlyinritual
scope, ofinwatching
order tothe cover groundhog
this largeistopic, not tied many to some event
An
of the First important
in
specific thedefenses
produce, part
pastassuming of
or a of calendars
commemoration
given in
this isclaims all cultures
a reference of previous
and is
readings
to the
wheat, marking
Groundhog
will have
would of
be cut festivals
Days;
toinrely
the celebrating
rather,
on works
spring it is
assimply something
citedpart
discussed of
inabove.
theof
the cycle of
importance
bibliography
In fact, this at
winters.
wherea given
The
rule overlaps time
theJewish
originalwith of year.
festival
research of Tû
the festival bǝof-Šǝbāt,
Festivals can celebrate
Qās.îrthe
is presented in New
whichdetail. both
Year
5
celebrates kinds
for Trees, of time.
is essentially
the bringing For example,
of thethe firstsame, the
cut asof it simply
Pennsylvania marks Dutchthe celebration
point of of
midwinter. Groundhog
wheat. This overlap suggests a radical possibility hinted at above: At the Day,
opposite is tied
end of to
the the belief
spectrum that
would a groundhog
be July 4th, knows
which celebrates
whether
3. Moon the winter
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American cold
(Ḥōdeš will
and
independence
Mas be long or
Šabbāt/Kēseʾ)
Qāsfrom short in
England, a given
ornot year,
theoriginal based
practiceto on
ofthis whether
celebrating
text, butone’sit sees its
were anniversaryshadow or not
or birthday.
three festivals, . s.ôt, . îr, and Āsîp are added. Originally,
when
the The it emerges
rule was not on
Sometimes
aboutFebruary
festivals 2. This
a festival, but yearly
on
simply ritual
its face,
that may of watching
each appear
Israelite tothe
be groundhog
male celebrating
must appear is not
something
at tiedlocal
his toinsome
linear
altar event
time, while at
three
ancient Israelites/Judahites celebrated two moon holidays monthly. The New Moon festival
in the
times past
a year or
the a
samecommemoration
withwhich time, be
the appropriate maskingof previous
a
offerings. more Groundhog
basic
This isroot or
implied Days;
primal rather,
celebration it is simply
of part
something of the
in cycle
cyclical oftime (Z. I.
was called Ḥōdeš, comes from the Hebrew ‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ ח‬not only by“new.”
meaning the overlap The full butmoonalso byfestivalthe fact
winters. The
Mas.s.FarberJewish 2018, festival of Tû bǝ - Šǝbāt, the New Year for Trees, is essentially the same, as it simply
wasthatcalled ôt
either Qās
and Šabbāt, . îr pp. 443–44, 449–50).
themselves
a loanword overlap,
from the
This masking
i.e.,Akkadian
they come ofabout
name
a cyclical
forinthis
thetime
same
day
festival
season. with a linear
(Šabattu/Šapattu)
time conception
6 or, less
marksThis the (commemorating
point of midwinter. an At the
important opposite event)end of
seems the spectrum
to underlie would
what be July
happened 4th, which
with celebrates
the Israelite festivals
commonly,suggestionKēseʾ, another solvesword a number
for full of moontextualthatproblems.
also appears For ininstance,
Aramaic 23:15
andand Syriac.23:17 7 say the same
American independence
found in the from
Hebrew England,
Bible. or the practice of celebrating
thing in different words. This is best explained as a Wiederaufnahme (resumptive repetition), often a sign one’s anniversary or birthday.
that Sometimes
a supplement Thea festival,
aim added
was on its
of this face,
paper
into may
the(in appear
accordance
text. 32 Second, to with
be
thecelebrating
the aim of
festivals ofsomething
the. sentire
Mas inQās
. ôt andissue)
linear
. îr is
are time,
toseparatedwhilean
present at
byoverview
the same time,
of the be
topic,maskingrather a more
than a basic
detailed or primal
and celebration
comprehensive
a phrase that seems unrelated to the Mas.s.ôt festival but closely related to the general statement in the of something
argument for in
a cyclical
new thesis.time (Z.
Even I. the way
so,
Farber 2018,
previous verse. pp.
the material443–44,
Here is how 449–50).
will Ibe would This
presentedmasking
reconstruct of
should a
what cyclical
present
happened time festival
the with
reader with
thiswith
text—Ia linear
a usenew, time
twooverallconception
indentations picture of the
(commemorating
to show two development
levels anofimportant
of the Israelite
editing and event) seems to
festival
underlining tounderlie
calendar.
show the Towhatdo happened
this, we will (Exod
Wiederaufname with
look at the the Israelite
development
23:14–17): festivals of the texts,
3 found in the
in Hebrew
the light Bible.
of source and redaction criticism, as well
This dichotomy is somewhat artificial as humans likely always experience aspects of both, but it is a useful as with comparative models in the ancient Near
Three
The aim times
of a year
this paper you (in shall hold a festival
accordance with foraim
the Me:of the entire issue) is to present an overview
heuristicEast.to paintNevertheless,
human experience as the of paper
time is in necessarily
broad strokes. broad in scope, in order to cover this large topic, many
4 of It
the topic, rather than a .defenses
detailed areand comprehensive argument forwill
a new thesis. Even
does of
not
The the
matter
Feast specific
whether
of Mas s.these
ôt (Unleavened of given
actual claims
historical
Bread) and
events, readings
or mnemohistorical have to rely
fictions. onso,works
In either the way
case, cited in the
this
theis the
material
internal will
or
bibliography be presented
constructedwhere logic
the should
of the
original present
calendar.
research
you shall observe, eating unleavened bread for seven days as I have the
is reader
presented with
in a
detail.new,
5 overall picture of the
5 For an overview
development of Israelite
ofcommanded
the the biblical material,
festival
you— see (Soulnier
calendar. To do2012, this,pp.we71–82).
will look at the development of the texts,
6 The idea
in the light3. of Shabbat as Vollmondfest goes back to the work of Johannes Meinhold (1905, 1909). Recent
atofthesource
Moon andinredaction
setFestivals
time the (Ḥōdeš
H. ōdešcriticism,
and
(New as well
Šabbāt/Kēseʾ)
Moon) of asĀbîb
with comparative
(Green Ears), models in the ancient Near
arguments
East. Nevertheless, in favor of this
asit the theory can be found in
broad in scope, in order to cover thisRobinson
J. L. Wright (2015), Grund (2011), and (1988). A
for
Theinancient youpaper went is necessarily
forth
Israelites/Judahites from Egypt; large topic, many
succinct summary of the argument can be found incelebrated
(Albertz [1992] two 1994,
moonpp. holidays
408–9). The monthly.
connection The isNew Moon festival
rejected
of the specific defenses of given claims and readings will have to rely on works cited in the
by aand was
nonecalled
number ofshall Ḥōdeš,
scholars,
appear who whichsee the
before comes
Me sound from the Hebrew
similarity
empty-handed; as33 root ‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ח‬
coincidental meaning
and the differences “new.” betweenThe full moon festival
the two
bibliography where the original research is presented in detail.5
as extreme. wasSee (Levine
called 2008,
either p. 77; Tigay
Šabbāt, 1998a, pp.
a loanword from 22–25).
the Akkadian name for this day (Šabattu/Šapattu)6 or, less
The Comprehensive and Aramaic
the Feast of thes.v. Qās.“ksˀ,
îr (Harvest), of the first22, produce of your work, of what you7sow
7
commonly, Kēseʾ,Lexicon,
another word ksˀˀ,” accessed
for full moonApril that also2019. appears in Aramaic and Syriac.
3. Moon Festivals (Ḥōdeš and Šabbāt/Kēseʾ)
in the field; and the Feast of Āsîp (Ingathering) at the end of the year, when you gather
The ancient inIsraelites/Judahites
the results of your work celebratedfrom two the field.
moon holidays monthly. The New Moon festival
ThreeḤōdeš,
was called times awhichyear allcomes
yourfrom
males the Hebrew
shall appear root ‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ח‬the
before meaning
Sovereign,“new.”
YHWH. The full moon festival
was called either Šabbāt, a loanword from the Akkadian name for this day (Šabattu/Šapattu)6 or, less
The original did not specify a time or a name, since it was understood that the person should come
commonly, Kēseʾ, another word for full moon that also appears in Aramaic and Syriac.7
to his local3 altar
Thiswhen his produce
dichotomy or animal
is somewhat wasasready
artificial humans forlikely
sacrifice.
alwaysI suggest thataspects
experience in thisofpre-redacted
both, but it is a useful
version of theheuristic
“three festival” law, we
to paint human have a competing
experience set of strokes.
of time in broad rituals, which a later scribe reinterpreted
to be a reference
4 It doesto not
“famous” communal
matter whether thesefestivals,
are actualand chose three
historical events,agricultural ones, even
or mnemohistorical though
fictions. two case, this
In either
(Mas.s.ôt and Qāsis the
. îr)internal
were or constructed
related to the logic
same of the
event calendar.
(first cut of wheat) and would be celebrated at the
same time. 5 For an overview of the biblical material, see (Soulnier 2012, pp. 71–82).
of The
the idea of for
Shabbat as
of Vollmondfest goes backattothe thealtar
workseems
of Johannes Meinholdan (1905, 1909). Recent
6
3 Part
This dichotomy ritual
is somewhat each these
artificial appearances
as humans likely always experience to ofhave
aspects both,been
but it is aanimal
useful
sacrifice,
heuristicwhich
to paint may have
human been theoforiginal
experience meaning
time in broad of the phrase “none shall appear before me
strokes.
34 whether
4 It does not matter
empty-handed.” The same these are actual
“rush” we see historical
in the events,
laws oforthe
mnemohistorical
first producefictions. In either
or firstborn cancase, this
be seen
by a number of scholars, who see the sound similarity as coincidental and the differences between the two
withis the
theinternal
sacrifice,or constructed
which is thelogic of theofcalendar.
import v. 18:
7 The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, s.v. “ksˀ, ksˀˀ,” accessed April 22, 2019.
Exod 23:18
6 The idea of You shallasnot
Shabbat offer the blood
Vollmondfest of Mytosacrifice
goes back the work with anythingMeinhold
of Johannes leavened;(1905,
and the fat of
1909). Recent
arguments
My festal in offering
favor of this
shalltheory
not becan belying
left founduntil
in J. L. Wright (2015), Grund (2011), and Robinson (1988). A
morning.
byThe existence
a number of altar who
of scholars, rituals
seeunconnected to the pilgrimage
the sound similarity festivals
as coincidental fitsdifferences
and the with whatbetween
we know the from
two
other biblical See
as extreme. texts that there
(Levine 2008,were
p. 77;festivals thatpp.
Tigay 1998a, existed that are not mentioned in the Pentateuchal law
22–25).
7 The Comprehensive
codes. Aramaic had
Shilo, for instance, Lexicon,
its s.v.
own“ksˀ, ksˀˀ,” accessed
festival April 122,
(Judg 21:19, Sam2019.
1:3, 2:19) and the account of how
maidens weep yearly over Jephthah’s daughter (Judg 11:40) explains an existing festival. And these
32 Exodus 34 lacks the opening of this pericope, possibly because the author of the Ritual Decalogue saw the redundancy and
removed it. He also has the phrase “don’t see my face empty-handed” after the description of the firstborn offering which
he adds here.
33 Perhaps the scribe put the Mas.s.ôt text before this phrase since it is the one festival that comes with no produce, since it is an
apotropaic ritual and not an offering ritual. Alternatively, it could just have been an error.
34 This may also be the import of the Cain and Abel story—YHWH does not accept sacrifices of vegetation only.
Religions 2019, 10, 323 15 of 19
are just examples that happened to be noted in biblical verses. Moreover, individual families may have
had their own family festivals.
7. Pesah.: An Apotropaic Ritual

The most famous of all festival offerings is the pesah., which has an elaborate ritual with clear
apotropaic connotations. A number of scholars have suggested that this began as a way of protecting
the flock, before the shepherd moves them to spring pastures. Yet, the ritual is very much focused on
the house. For this reason, other scholars have suggested it originates as an offering not to YHWH but
to the family, ancestor deity (Zevit, pp. 280–81).
A third group of scholars have suggested that it has its origins in an apotropaic ritual to protect
babies, similar to the Akkadian lullabies to protect newborns from being snatched by Lamashtu
(Propp [1999] 2010, pp. 434–39; W. Farber 1989, pp. 34–39; 1990). This would connect the ritual with
the story behind the ritual, which becomes so central to it, that it saved the Israelite firstborns.
I suggest a related possibility, that this was a family ritual to protect the house in lieu of the
sacrifice of the firstborn. To clarify, let us return to the law in Exodus 22:28, which commands the
offering of the firstborn son to YHWH. Although some interpret this to mean dedicating the son to
serve at an altar, others understand this to be a requirement for child sacrifice. This is the only biblical
law collection that requires child sacrifice (Levenson 1993, pp. 3–17). The binding of Isaac story (Gen
22), which originally ended with the son being sacrificed (Yoreh 2010, pp. 65–78), may be the only
other biblical text that looks on this favorably. Although Leviticus 27:28–29 does allow for human
sacrifice, this is not a requirement, and probably refers to a slave.35
Other texts are quite negative about it, such as Psalm 106:37–38, which speaks of this as worship
of demons, or the passages in Kings (2 Kgs 23:10) and Jeremiah (7:31–32, 19:11–14) that describe the
Tophet, where children were sacrificed (Stavrakopoulou 2012–2013). Nevertheless, all of these texts
take it for granted that Israelites sacrifice their children, and the reference to a Tophet points to a
ritual shared with the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, for which we have archaeological evidence
(Vainstub 2010). Whereas Jeremiah claims that this practice has not been sanctioned by YHWH at all,
Ezekiel claims that child sacrifice was indeed commanded by God, but only as an expression of his
anger towards his people:
Jer 32:35
and they built the shrines of Baal which are in the Valley of Ben-hinnom, where they
offered up their sons and daughters to Molech—when I had never commanded, or even
thought of commanding, that they should do such an abominable thing, and so bring guilt
on Judah.
Ezek 20:25Moreover, I gave them laws that were not good and rules by which they could not
live: 20:26 When they set aside every first issue of the womb, I defiled them by their very
gifts—that I might render them desolate, that they might know that I am YHWH.
In keeping with the negative attitude of the prophets, the later law collections adjust the
requirement for child sacrifice, taking one of two approaches. One interpretation is that the child is to
be donated to serve at the local altar. The story of Samuel’s youth is an example of this. It is also the
assumption of the Priestly author in the book of Numbers, who argues that the law became defunct
when YHWH commanded the Levites be exchanged for the firstborn in a giant redemption ritual:
Num 3:40 YHWH said to Moses: Record every first-born male of the Israelite people from the
age of one month up, and make a list of their names; 3:41 and take the Levites for Me, YHWH,
in place of every first-born among the Israelite people . . .
35 The story of Jephthah’s daughter (Judg 11:39) is about child sacrifice as well, but the narrator does not appear to look upon
this with favor.
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In either
Qās . îr and fictions.
case,Āsîp this In either case, this
ave embraced the idea that commonly,
H is a revision Kēseʾ,ofanother P or even word for full
themajority
editor ofofmoonthe
scholars thathave
Pentateuch alsoembracedappears in theAramaic
idea thatand H isSyriac. 7
a revision of P or even the editor o
is
festivals the internal
is were or is
constructed
the internal logic
or constructed
of the calendar. logic of the calendar.
This dichotomy P isonce
somewhat not
artificial festivalsas humans at all,itself.
butquite
likely rather,
always offerings
experience required
aspects from each
ofIsraelites/Judahites
both, but individual
it is a useful P is family. Thistwo moon
3
ut taking a position on whether pre- or post-exilic, it seems As such,
likely without
that HThe is,
taking ancienta position on whether pre- or post-exilic,
celebrated it seems quite
holiday
heuristic
5
to For an
paint overview
human
5 For
experienceof the an biblical
overview
of time material,
in of
broadthe biblical
see
strokes.(Soulniermaterial, 2012, seepp. (Soulnier
71–82). 2012, pp. 71–82).
would make
disagree. (See Knohl6 [1995] 2007; Schectman the produce offerings
and Baden 2009). parallel to
though some scholars the system was we
disagree.
called find for
Ḥōdeš, firstborn
(See Knohl which [1995] animals,
comes 2007; from which
Schectman
the are
Hebrew not Baden
and root 2009).
‫ש‬.‫ד‬.‫ח‬ mean
4 It does not The 3idea
matter whether of Shabbat
6 The are
these idea
asactual
Vollmondfest
of Shabbat
historical goes
asevents,
Vollmondfest
backortomnemohistorical
thegoes work back of Johannes
to fictions.
the work Meinhold
of Johannes
In either (1905,
case, thisMeinhold
1909). Recent (1905, 1909). Recent
tied to a festival, This dichotomy but are required
is somewhat to be brought
artificial as humans forth was immediately.
likely
called always
either Perhaps
experience
Šabbāt, athisaspects
loanword has of to do
both,
from with
butthe itthe is a useful name for
Akkadian
is the internal arguments
or constructed in favor arguments
logic of this theory
of Judahite
the in favor
calendar. can of bethisfound theory in J.
can L. be
Wright
found (2015),
in J. L. Grund
Wright (2011),
(2015), and Grund Robinson (2011), (1988).
and Robinson
A (1988). A
coalescing heuristic
of Israelite to paint
and human experience
worship of timeover
places in broad time, strokes.
or perhaps these two approaches existed
5 succinct
For an overview 4of the summary
biblical succinct
of the
material, argument
summary
see (Soulnier can
of the
be argument
found
2012, in (Albertz
can
pp. 71–82). commonly,
be found
[1992] in Kēseʾ,
1994,
(Albertz pp. another
408–9).
[1992] word
1994,
The for
connection
pp. full
408–9). moon
isThe
rejected that
connection also appears
is rejectedin
simultaneously It does in not matter whether
competing groups. these
Whatever are actual the historical
case, events, orthe
eventually mnemohistorical
produce requirements fictions. Inbecame either case, this
6 by
The idea of Shabbat a number as of scholars,
by
Vollmondfest a number who of
see
goes back logic scholars,
the sound
to theofworkwho similarity
see the sound
as coincidental
similarity
of Johannes Meinhold (1905, 1909). Recent and
as coincidental
the differences and between
the differences
the two between the two
partasof3extreme.
theThis is the
festivals internal
dichotomy and or
istiedconstructed
somewhat to specific artificial dates, asthe calendar.
whereas
humans the
likely firstborn
always offerings
experience remain
aspects unbound
of both, but it to is aa useful
arguments in favor of thisSee (Levine
as
theory extreme.
canof 2008,
bethe See
p.
found 77;
(Levine Tigay 2008,
in J.material, 1998a,
L. Wrightsee p. pp.
77; Tigay
22–25).
(2015), 1998a,
Grund pp.
(2011), 22–25).
and Robinson (1988). A
5 For
heuristic an overview
toThe paint human biblical
experience (Soulnier 2012, pp. 71–82).
succinct specific
7
summary date,
The Comprehensive
6 ofThe the atargument
7least officially.
Aramaic
Comprehensive
can beLexicon,
found Aramaic
s.v.
in “ksˀ,ofLexicon,
(Albertz
timeaccessed
ksˀˀ,”[1992]
ins.v.broad
1994, “ksˀ, strokes.
April
pp. ksˀˀ,” 22,
408–9). accessed
2019.The April 22, 2019.
It does idea
not of Shabbat
matter whether as these Vollmondfest are actual goes back toevents,
historical the work or of connection
Johannes Meinhold
mnemohistorical
is rejected(1905, 1909). Recent
festivalsfictions. In either case, this
4
by a number of Mnemohistorical—Finally,
scholars, who see the sound the greatest
similarity as conceptualand
coincidental change the that the between
differences theundergo
two is their
is arguments
the internal inor favor of this theory
constructed logic of canthe be found in J. L. Wright (2015), Grund (2011),
calendar. and Robinson (1988). A
as extreme.integration
See5 (Levine into 2008,
succinct Israel’sp. 77;emerging
summary Tigay of the1998a, narrative
argument pp. 22–25). about
can be found itself,inspecifically,
(Albertz [1992] the 1994,connection pp. 408–9). to the Theexodus
connection story is rejected
For an overview of the biblical material, see (Soulnier 2012, pp. 71–82).
7 (Schmidt
The Comprehensive [1968]
Aramaic
by a 1983,
Lexicon,
number pp.of s.v.117–26).
“ksˀ,
scholars, ksˀˀ,” Pesah
who accessed
.
see stops
the being
April
sound 22, 3about
2019.
similarity This protecting
dichotomy
as coincidental Israel’s
is somewhat
and babies the or
artificial
differencesfirstborn
as humanssons,likely
between the two always exper
6 The idea of Shabbat as Vollmondfest goes back to the work of Johannes Meinhold (1905, 1909). Recent
but about how YHWHSee
as extreme. protected
(Levine Israel’s firstborn sons inpp. heuristic to paint human
Egypt. The same is true about the redemption experience of time in broad strokes.
arguments in favor of this2008, theory p. can77; Tigay
be found 1998a, in J. L. 22–25).
Wright (2015), Grund (2011), and Robinson (1988). A
of the firstborn; YHWH owns all firstborn Israelite males
4 It does
because not matter
he1994,saved whether these are actual historical events, or mnem
The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, s.v. “ksˀ, ksˀˀ,” accessed April 22, 2019. pp.Israel’s
408–9).firstborn males isin
7
succinct summary of the argument can be found in (Albertz [1992] The connection rejected
Egypt. Even is the internal or constructed logic of the calendar.
by a firstborn
number ofanimals scholars,are who explained
see the sound this way, similarity and the exodus story
as coincidental and isthe redacted differences to include
between the the two
5 For an overview of the biblical material, see (Soulnier 2012, pp. 71–82)
death of firstbornas extreme.Egyptian See (Levine 2008, p.Mas
animals. s.ôt stops
77; .Tigay 1998a, being pp. about
22–25). protecting the wheat harvest with an
6 The idea of Shabbat as Vollmondfest goes back to the work of Joh
apotropaic 7 Thedeprivation
Comprehensive ritual
Aramaic andLexicon, becomes s.v.about“ksˀ, ksˀˀ,” commemorating
accessed April Israel’s 22, 2019.rushed escape from Egypt
arguments in favor of this theory can be found in J. L. Wright (2015),
without bread. Even Sukkôt, in the very latest stage of textual succinct revision,
summary is described
of the argument as commemorating
can be found in (Albertz [1992] 1994
by a number of scholars, who see the sound similarity as coincidenta
7 The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, s.v. “ksˀ, ksˀˀ,” accessed April 22, 20
 The days were generally seen theas negative
world and (though
claims that not exclusively
the reason Šabbāt so). must be observed is bec
Despite these differences, even resting Tigayon the seventh
admits that day (Gen 2:1–3; isExod
the connection 20:10, and
attractive 31:17).that the ūmū-
In sum, looking at the moon festivals,
lemnutū were likely at least a factor in the reimagining of Šabbāt (Tigay 1998b, pp. 93–96). Therefore, we can see the virtual disap
rather than dismissing this connection, originally wecelebrated
might suggest natural, that cyclical
the Judean phenomenon.
practice, inspiredḤōdeš, by
which
the
discontinued in everything
connection with the seventh-day vacation rule, disentangled the Šabbāt from the17lunar but name, remaining only as a Temple-bas
Religions 2019, 10, 323 of 19 month entirely,
and connected their rest day forasworkers a celebration
with the of Neo-Assyrian
the full moon rest disappears
days forentirely,
the kingreemerging
(and other a
officials), emphasizing the solemn holiday, inspired
importance of by the days,
these exodus and fromthe Egypt and commemorating
importance of not profaningGo
the booths that the Israelites lived in when dwelling in the wilderness (Lev
them with work. This process would have begun in the 7th century, when Judah was a festivals
will see that similar developments 23:43), something
took place which
with other as w
vassal state
does not even appear in
to Assyria. any biblical narratives, and may have its origins in the post-exilic period
(Weyde 2004, p. 128).Significantly,
The one harvest Šabbāt’s festival 4. The
that
reinvention isasWheat
not Festivals:
reinterpreted
a weekly rather than Maṣṣôt,
in the Qāṣî
Bible,
monthly r, and
that of Šabūʿôt
holiday, Šab ū only
not ôt, made it much
is interpreted inmore Second Temple and Rabbinic
frequent, but changed the nature literature
The as
of the commemorating
more ancient
Covenant Collection day in the revelation
of Exodus
rest by turning of the
“every
(21:1–23:19) is seventh
believedday”
by ma
Decalogue at Mount Sinai. counting) into “every
(a subjective Day Seven” (a communal, fixed counting),
the Pentateuchal legal collections (Levinson 1997; D. Wright 2009). It thereby incorporating
Perhaps theweeks most into
interesting example
the communal of historical
calendrical
festivals reinterpretation
conscience. This is a is
(Exod 23:14–17): that which
significant began not as
development, a weeks, unlike
since
festival at all: the ancient law requiring Israelites to rest, and let their workers
lunar months or solar years, do not reflect natural phenomena, but rather, are based on human and slaves rest, every
seven days. We conceptual
noted above how thiswhich
schemes, was first
mayregularized
explain why toŠabbāt
be every day seven,
continued as part of
to undergo twothefurther,
new contradictory
division of time conceptual
into weeks,changes,
and howboth it took over the term Šabbāt from
of which attempt to make sense of the law. the defunct full-moon festival.
The next step was to interpret
First, this law in light
in the Deuteronomic school,of thetheexodus,
day-of-restand say lawHthat was Israel must allow
explained its because God
asbeexisting
16 Although for a long time, was considered to earlier than P and pre-E
slaves to rest since tookthey were
Israel outnotof given
Egyptthis privilege
(Deut when
5:15).majority
In otherofthey
words,wereithave
scholars slaves
is loosely in Egypt.
embraced theEventually,
connected ideatothat Hin
linear istime. This is
a revision of not
P or
the Priestly or Holiness version of the Decalogue,
really a radical change, since the conceptual and other Priestly
link is
itself. As such, or Holiness
clear: taking
without Israel should passages,
a position treat this was
their slaves
on whether P is and
pre- workers
or post-exi
reinterpreted again well,toremembering
commemorate, hownotunfairly
the exodus,
they but
werethe
though some creation
treatedscholars ofdisagree.
in Egypt. the world. (See God
Second, Knohl rests on2007;
[1995]
the Priestly the Schectman and Ba
revision—probably
seventh day, andfrom thuspost-exilic
Israel should imitate
scribes God
of the and do the
Holiness same.
school 16—connects the seventh-day Šabbāt to the creation of
This is the only festival in the Pentateuch that

the world and claims that the reason Šabbāt mustis reinterpreted in light of a Genesis
be observed story and
is because not an
it commemorates God’s
Exodus story. Inrestingfact, theonGenesis story day
the seventh was (Gen
written,
2:1–3;or at least20:10,
Exod heavily revised, to explain the practice,
31:17).
just as many of the exodus In sum, details
lookingwere written
at the moon to festivals,
explain the wePesah
can.see, Mas . s.ôt,
the and the
virtual firstborn laws.
disappearance of two festivals that
originally celebrated natural, cyclical phenomenon. Ḥōdeš, which celebrated the new moon is
9. Conclusions
discontinued in everything but name, remaining only as a Temple-based sacrificial law, while Šabbāt
As the Pentateuch’s editors were
as a celebration conservative,
of the full moon we can still see
disappears the outlines
entirely, of the original
reemerging as the festivals
name of a seventh-day
and their meanings. Moreover,
holiday, inspiredtheby
Pentateuch
the exodusnever
fromcompletely
Egypt and reworked the festival
commemorating system
God’s into the
creation of the world. We
new historical conception, nor did the editors of the other biblical books try to make
will see that similar developments took place with other festivals as well. all of the references
cohere with the later Priestly/Holiness system. The next step in this development was taken in the 3rd
century BCE by 4. theThe Wheat
author Festivals:
of Jubilees, Maṣṣôt,
who Qāṣî
not only r, and Šabūʿôt
grounds Šabū ôt in the Sinai story, but regrounds
all the festivals in Genesis stories asCollection
well, giving 36
The Covenant in each
Exodusboth a patriarchal
(21:1–23:19) and exodus
is believed heritage.
by many scholars to be the oldest of
the Pentateuchal
Funding: This research legal collections
received no external funding. (Levinson 1997; D. Wright 2009). It includes a description of three
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
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religions

1. Introduction: Experiencing Time

Religions 2019, 10, 323; doi:10.3390/rel10050323 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions

he Hebrew Bible. of development

connection with the

found in the Hebrew Bible. Sometimes a festival,

olars, who see the soundAnd similarity

Festivals: Maṣṣôt, Qāṣî r, and

is somewhat artificial asfirst day likely

7. Pesah.: An Apotropaic Ritual

This is the only festival in the Pentateuch that

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