Bible,f

The l3iblE
ThE
The Quran
ThE Qut'arr
Science
-rnd kiEnc:e
and
 BucaiDe
Maurice Buceille

The Bible,
fhe l3iblef
The Quran
The Qut'art
and
arrd kienf:e
Science
ul,aBlble
"La Bible, Ie
le Coran et la
le Science"
Science"

THE SCBIPTUBES
TIIE TNCT,Y
HOLY SCRIPTURES
LICET
EXAMINED IN THE LIGHT
EXAMINED
OF MODERN
OF KNOWI,EDGE
UODEBN KNOWLEDGE

Trenslat€d from the French

Translated [tench
by
by
Ahdalr D.
,Alastair It PalmeD
Prnncll
rnd
and
The
Thc Auth..
Anthe
FRENCH
FRENCE EDITIONS
Firrt French
First Freneh Edition,
Edition, May 1976
19?6
"La Bibler Ie
"L,a Bible, le Coran le Science"
Coran et Ie Science"
F ourth French
Fourth French Edition, September
September1977
197?
Publisherr Seghers,
Publishers Seghers,3I Rue
Rue Falguiere, 75725 Paris, Cedex
FalguiEre,76726 18.
Cedex15.

ARABIC TRANSLATION
TBANSLATION (in print) print)
Publirtrers Dsr Al Ma'arif, 1119
Publishers Dar Al Ma'arif, Corniche El Nil,
1119Corniehe Nil, Cairo, Egypt.
 Fo..ewo..d
Toreword

In his
In his objeetive
objective study of of the texts, Maurice Maurice Bucaille clears
away
&rvay manymany preconceived
preconceived ideas
ideas about the Olrl Testament, the
Old the
Gospels
Gospelsand and the Qur'an.
Qur'an. He tries, in
in this
this collection of
of Writings,
Writings, to
separate what
separate what belongs belongs to Revelation from
from what
what is the product
product of
error
error or or human
human interpretation.
interpretation. His His study sheds sheds new light light on the the
Holy Scriptures.
Holy Seriptures. At At the end
end of a gripping
gripping account,
account, he places
places the
Believer before
Believer before a a point of cardinal
eardinal importance:
importance: the continuity
continuity of
aa Revelation
Revelation emanating from the same
same God,
God, with
with modes
modes of ex-
ex-
pression
pression that differ differ in the coursecourse of time. It It leads
leads us us to meditate
upon those
,rpott those factors which,
which, in our day,
day, should
should spiritually
spiritually unite-
unite-
rather
rather than divide-Jews,
divide-Jews, Christians and
and Muslims.
As surgeon, Maurice Bucaille has
As aa surgeon, has often
often been
beeir in situation
in aa situation
where he was
urhere he was able able to
to examine
examine not
not only
only people's
people's bodies,
bodies, but
but their
their
souls. This is
souls. This is how how he
he was
was struck
struck by
by the
the existence
existence of
of Muslim
Muslim piety
piety
and
and by by aspects
aspectsof of Islam
Islam which
which remainremain unknownunknown to to the ma-
vast ma-
the vast
jority
jority of non-Muslims.
of non-Muslims. In In his
his search
search for
for explanations
explanations which
which are
are
otherwise difficult to
otherwise difficult to obtain, obtain, he
he learnt
learnt Arabic
Arabic and
and studied
studied the
the
Qur'an. In it, he was surprised to
to find
find statements
statements on
on natural
natural phe-
phe-
Qur'an. In it, he was surprised
nomena
nomena whosewhosemeaning
meaning can can only
only be through modern
understood through
be understood modern
scientifc knowledge.
scientifc knowledge.
He
He then
theri turned
turned to to the
the question
question of of the
the authenticity
authenticity of writ'
the writ-
of the
ings that constitute the Holy
ings that constitute the Holy Scriptures Scriptures of
of the
the monotheistic
monotheistic re-
re-
ligions. Finally, in the
ligions. Finally, in the case of case of the
the Bible,
Bible, he
he proceeded
proceeded to
to aa eon-
con-
frontation
frontation between
betweenthese thesewritings
writings and andscientific data.
scientific data.
The results of his research
The results of his research into the into the Judeo-Christian
Judeo-Christian Revelation
Revelation
and the Qur'an are set out in
and the Qur'an are set out in this book. this book.
 CONTENTS
CONTTENTS

DUCT ION i
ITiITRODUCTION
INTRO

TEST AMEN T
OLD TESTAMENT
Outlines
Gener al Outlines
I. General 1
Originss of the Bible
Origin 4

IL The
II. Books of the Old
The Books ent
Testament
OId Testam 7
Pentat euch
Th.eTorah or Pentateuch
Th.e 10
10
Ttre
The Histor ical
Historical Books
Books 14
14
Books
tic Books
ProPhetic
The Prophe L7
17
The Books
The Books of PoetrY
Poetry Wisdom
and Wisdom
and 18
18

UI. The
III. Old Testam
fire Old Testament and Scienc
ent and Scienoe gs
Findings
e Findin 21
21
The Creati
The on of the World
Creation 22
22
the World
Date of the
The Date
The World's Creation
's Creati and
on and
Man's Appea
Date of Man's
Date rance on
Appearance on Earth 29
29
The Flood
The Flood 32
32

Position
IV. Positio christian
n of Christ Authors
ian Autho regard to
rs with regard
Scienti
Scientific Error in the
fic Error Texts'
Biblicall Texts.
the Biblica
nation
Examination
Criticall Exami
A Critica 3S
36

V. Conclu sions
Conclusions 42
42

THE GOSP ELS 44

44
GOSPELS
uction
Introduction
I. Introd 44
44

Historical
II. Histor Reminder.
ical Remin and
udeo-C hristia nity and
der. JJudeo-christianity
Paul
Saint Paul
Saint 49
49

Four Gospel
The Four s. Source
Gospels.Sources s and History
and Histor y 64
54
III. The
III.
GosPelAccord
The Gospel
The Accordinging to Matthew
to Matthe w 58
58
Accord
GosPelAecording
The Gospel
The ing to
to Mark 6B
63
 TheGospel
The GospelAccording
AccordingtotoLuke
Luke 66
66
The GospelAccording
The Gospel AccordingtotoJohn
John 68
68
Sourcesof
Sources of the
the Gospels
Gospels 71
TI
History of
History of the
theTexts
Texts 77
77
rv. The
IV. TheGospels
Gospelsand
andModern
ModernScience.
Science.The
The
Gehealogies
Genealogies of Jesus
of Jesus 82
82
TheGenealogies
The Genealogies of Jesus
of Jesus 83
88
Critical Examination
Critical Examinationof of the
the Texts
Texts 88
88
Commentaries
Commentaries of of Modern
ModernExperts
Experts in
in Exegesis
Exegesis 92
92
V. Contradictions
V. Contradictionsand
and Improbabilities
Improbabilitiesinin the
the
Descriptions
Descriptions 94
94
Descriptionsof
Descriptions of the
the Passion
Passion 94
94
John'sGospel
John's Gospeldoes
doesnot
not describe
describethe
the
Institution of the
the Eucharist
Eucharist 95
95
Appearancesof Jesus
Appearances JesusRaised
Raisedfrom
from the
the Dead
Dead 98
98
Ascensionof Jesus
Ascension Jesus 100
100
Jesus'sLast
Jesus's Last Dialogues.
Dialogues.The paracleteof
The Paraclete
John'sGospel
John's Gospel 102
10?
VI. Conclusions
VI. Conclusions 107
107

THE QUR'AN AND

THE QIIR'AN AND MODERN
MODERN SCIEN;E
SCIENCE 110
110
I. Introduction
Introduction 110
1 10
II.
II. Authenticity
Authenticity of
of the
the eur'an. How ItIt Came
Qur'an. How Came
to
to be
be Written
Written 126
r26
III'.
III. The
The creation
Creation of
of the
the Heavens
Heavens and and the
the Earth
Earth 133
138
Differences
Differences f'om
from andand Resemblances
Resemblances to to the
the
Biblical
Biblical Description
Description 133
138
The
The Qur'an
Qur'an does
does not
not lav
lay dorvn
down aa seflnenee for
RPJlIlp.nr.p. for
the
the Creation
Creation of
of the
the Earth
Earth and and Heavens
Heavens 137
137
The
The Basic
Basic Process
Process of of the
the Formation
Formation of of the
the
Univer.se
Universe and
and the
the Resulting
Resulting Composition
Composition of of
the
the Worlds
Worlds 139
139
Some
Some Modern
Modern Scientific
Scientific Data
Data concerning
concerning the the
Formation
Formation ofof the
the Univer.se
Universe 142
L42
 Confrontation
Confro the Qur'an
the Data in the
ntation with the Qur'an
ning the Creati
concerning
concer on
Creation 147
t47
Answers
Answe Certain
rs to Certai n Object ions
Objections 149
149

IV. Astron
IV. omy in the Qur'an
Astronomy 151
161
Generall Reflec
A. Genera tions concer
Reflections ning the Sky
concerning t6z
152
Naturee of Heave
B. Natur HeavenlYnly Bodies 155
155
C. Celesti
C. al Organ ization s
CelestialOrganizations 158
158
Evolution of the Heave
D. Evolut ion Heavensns 165
166
E. The Conqu est of Space
Conquest SPace 167
16?

V. The Earth
Earth 170
170
Verses Contai
A. Verses Generall Statem
ning Genera
Containing ents
Statements 170
1?0
CYcleand the Seas
B. The Water Cycle Seas 173
1?8
Earth'ss Relief
C' The Earth'
C. 180
180
Earth'ss Atmos
D. The Earth' phere
AtmosPhere 182
18?

Animall and Vegeta

VI. The Anima
VI. ble Kingdo
Vegetable ms
Kingdoms 185
185
Originss of Life
A. The Origin Life 185
185
B. The Vegetable
Vegeta ble Kingdo
Kingdomm 187
187
c. Animall Kingdo
C. The Anima Kingdom m 190
190

VII. Huma
VII. Humann Reprod uction
ReProduction 198
t98
Remin der of Certai
Reminder Certaiu Basic Concep
n Basic ts
Conccpts 198
198
Huma
Httmann Reprod uction in the Qur'an
Reproduction 199
199
The Qur'an and Sex Educa
and Sex tion
Education 207
207

QUR'A AND BIBLI

NIC AND CAL NARR
BIBLICAL ATIONS
NARRATIONS 211
211
QUR'ANIC
I. Genera
Generall Outlin es
Outlines 211
211
Parall el:: Qur'an
Parallel Qur'an/Gospels and-:Model
/Gospe ls and- 'll
I\fodertt
Knowl edge
Knorvledge 211
211
Parallell:: Qur'an
Paralle /Old Testam
Qur'an/Old ent and
Testament and
Moder
Modern n Knowl edge
l{nowledge 213
213

n.
II. The Flood
Flood 214
zL4
Biblicall Nan'ation
The Biblica Flood and the
Narrat ion of the Flood
Critici sm Levele
Criticism Leveled it-A Remin
d at it-A der
Renrinclet' 2r4
214
The Narrat
Narratiou Flood contai
the Flood
ion of the ned in
contained irr
the Qur'an zr6
216
 III.
III. The
The Exodu
Exodus s 219
219
The
The Exodu
Exoduss accord
according
ing to the
the Bible 220
220
The
The Exodu
Exodus s accord ing to the
according the Quran
eurran 221
?,2L
Confro
Confrontation
ntation betwee
between n Script
Scriptural
ural Data
and
and Moder
Modern n Knowl
Knowledge
edge 224
224
1.
1. Exami
Examination
nation of certain details
details
contai
contained
ned in the
the Narrat
Narrations
ions 224
224
2. The
2. The point occupi
oceupieded by the
the Exodu
Exodus s in
the
the history of the
the Pharao
Pharaohshs 228
228
8.
3. Rames
Ramesses
ses II, Pharao
Pharaoh h of the
the Oppres
Oppression;
sion.;
Merne
Merneptah,
ptah, Pharao
Pharaoh h of the
the Exodu
Eioduss 231
Zgl
4.
4. The
The descrip
description
tion contain
contained
ed in the
the Holy
Script
Scripture
ure of the pharaoh's
the Pharao h's death
death
during the
the Exodu
Exodus s Zg7
237
5.
5. Pharao
Pharaoh h Merne
Merneptah's
ptah's Mumm
Mummy y Zgg
239
QUR'A N, HADI
QUR'AN, HADITHS
THS AND MODE
MODERN
RN SCIEN
SCIENCE
CE ':42
242
GENE
GENERAL
RAL CONC
CONCLUSIONS
LUSIONS 24g
249
TRANSLITERATION
TRAN SLITE RATIO N OF
OF THE ARAB
ARABIC
IC INTO LATIN
LATIN
CHARACTERS
CHAR ACTE RS 258
253
 od ud ion
lntrodrrction
Ink
Eseh of the three monot
Each religions
heistic religio
monotheistic possess its own collec-
ns possesE collec'
ures. For the faithf
scriptures.
tion of Script
tion ul-be they Jews,
fsithful-be Jews, Christ
christisnsians or
Tls-these docum
Muslir.s,-these
Musli1 documents tute the founda
constitute
ents consti foundation tion of their
their
belief. ForFor them they are the materi materisl al transc ription -o!
transcription of as divine
y, as
directly,
tion; directl 8{t in the ease Abraham
caseof Abrah am and and Moses,
Moses, who
who
Revelation;
Revela
d the comm andments from God
commendments God Himse
Himself, lf, or indireetly' as
indirec tly, as
received
receive
in the ease Jesus and
cgse of Jesus Muhammad,
and Muham mad, the first first of whom whom stated
stated
that he was
that was speaki
speaking ng in the name
name of the Father,
Father , and
and s€cond
the second
of whom transm itted to men
transmitted men the Revela
Revelation imparted
tion impart ed to him by
Archangel Gabrie
Archangpl Gabriel. l.
If we
If take
wJtake into consid
consideration obiective
eration the objecti ve facts religious
facts of religio us
history,, we
history we must place place the Old Testam Testament,ent, the Gospels
the Gospel and
s and the
Qur'an on the same
same level
level as
as being
being collect ions
collections of written
writte n Revela-
Revela-
Qut'an'on s, the
Although
tion. Althou principle
attitudee is in princip
gh this attitud held by Muslim
le held Musliml'
fsithfull in the West
faithfu West underunder the predom inantly Judeo-
predominantly Christ
Judeo-Christian ian
influence
influen ce refuse Qur'an the charac
ascribe to the Qur'an
refuse to ascribe charactcr ter of a a book
book
of Revela tion.
Revelation.
Sueh an
Such attitudee may
an attitud may be be explai ned by the position
explained position eachreeach reli- li-
gious comm
gious eommunityunity adopts to**"dss the other
adopt" toward other two with regard regprd to
the Script ures.
Scriptures.
Judais
Judaism m has as its holy book
has as book the HebraHebraic Bible' This differs
ic Bible. difiers
from the Old Testam
old Testament ent of the Christ ians
christians in that the lattcr
latter have
have
included
includ several
ed severa whieh did not exist
books which
l books exist in Hebrew
Hebrew. practice'
. In practice,
ence hardly makes
divergence
this diverg makes any any differe nce to the doctrin
difference doctrine' e. Ju-
daism does
daism doesnot howevhowuue" er admit any revelation
any revelat subsequent
ion subseq uent to its
own.
own.
Christ ianity has taken the
has taken the Hebra
Hebraic Bible for itself and
ic Bible added
and added
Christianity
ments to it. It
supplements has not howev
It has however er accept
accepted ed all the pub-
the pub-
few supple
aa few
writings
lished writin
lished destined
gs destine d to make known to men
make known men the Mission
the Missio n of
The Churc
church h has made incisiv
has made incisive cuts in the
e cuts profusion
the profus ion of
Jesus.The
Jesus.
pre-
books relatin
books relating the life and
g the and teachin
teachings Jesus'It
gs of Jesus. only pre-
has only
It has
writings
r of writin the New
gs in the Testament'
New Testam ent, thethe
limited numbe
servedaa limited
served number
importdnt
most impor
most tant of which are are the four CanonCanonic ic Gospel
Gospels' s. Christ
Christian'ian..
takes no
ity takes account
no accoun t of any
any tion
revelation
revela subseq
subsequent uent to Jesus
Jesus and
and
Apostles.
his Apostl therefore
It theref
es. It ore rules
rules out the
the Qur'an
Qur'an' .
 ufi THE BmLE
THE BIBLE,, THE
TIrE QUR'A
QITRAN AND SCIEN
N AND SCIENCE
CE
The
The Qur'an ic Revela
Qur'anic Revelation
tion appear
Bppeared
ed six centur
centuries
ies after
afhr Jesus.
Jesus.It
It
resumes numer
nesumes numerous
ous data
data found
found in the Hebra
Hebraic
ic Bible and
and the G0s-
GoE-
pels since
pels since it guotes very freque
it quotes frequenilyntly from the 'Torah ,Torah,r '! and ~
'Gorpels.' ilre
'Gospe ls.' The
The Qur'an
Qut'an directs
direets all au Muslim
Mustims s to believe
believein the Scrip.. scrip,
tures
turee that precede
tttat preced e it (sura 4,
it (sura 4, verse
verte 186).
ls6). Itrt stresse
stresses s the impor-
tant positi"o
position n occupi
occupied ed in the the Revela
Bevelation tion by God's
God'semissa
emissaries,
ries, such
s-uch
as Noah,
as Noah, AbrahAbratram,
am, Moses,
Moses,the Proph prophets ets and
aud Jesus,
Jesus,to whom whom they
allocate aa specia
special position.
l positio n. His birthbirth is describ
described ed in the Qur'an
"Ilryltlikewi
and eur'an,,
and likewise se in the
the Gospel
Gospels, s, as
as aa supern
supernatural
atural event.
event. MaryMary-is is also
also
given
-givenaa specia
speeial placg as
l place, as indica
indicatedted by bv the fact that that sura 19 ig bears
U*"",
her.name.
her name.
The
fire above
above facts concerconcerning ning Islam
Islem are not genera generally lly known in
the West.
the west. This is is hardly
hardry surprisurprising,
sing, when
when we we consid
eonsider er the way
SO generations
msny genera
somany tions in the the West
West were were instruc
instructedted in the the religious
religious
problems
proble ms facing
faeing human
humanity and the
ity and the ignora
ignorancence in which they were were
kept about
kept about anythi
anything ng related
related to Islam. Isram. The
The use
use of such
such terms as
'Mohammedan 'Mohammedans' as
'Moha mmedan religioreligion' n' and and 'Moha mmedans' has has been
been instru-
mental-even
menta I-even to the present
the presen t day-i
day-inn mainta
maintaining
ining the the false
false notion
notion
beliefs were
that beliefs were involv
involved ed that were were spread
spread by ty thettre work of man man
among:which
among which GodGod (in the the Christ
christian ian sense)
sense) hadhla no no place.
place. Many
Many
cultivated
cultiva peopletoday
ted people today are are interes
interested ted in the philosophical,
the philoso phical, social
social
and political
and politic aspects
al aspect s of Islam,
Isram, but they they dodo not pausepauseto inquirinquire e
about the
about the Islami
Islamic Reveration
c Revela tion itself, as as indeed
indeed theythlv should
should. .
In what contem contempt pt the
the Muslim
Muslims are held
s are held by certain Christ christianian
circles!! I experi
circles experienced
enced this when when Ir tried to start an an exchan
exchange ge
ideas arising
of ideas arislng from aI compa comparative
rative analys
analysis is of Biblica
Biblicar l and
and
Qur'an
Qut'anic stories on
ic stories on the
the same
sametheme.
theme.I noted nnted aa system
systematic atic refusal,
refusal,
evln fo;
even fqp the purposes
the purpos es of simple
simprereflecti
reflection,
on, to take
take any any accoun
account t of
what the
what the Qur'an
Qur'an had had toto say
say on on the
the subjec
subject hand. It
t in hand. rt is
i* as
as ifif aa
quotefrom the
quote the Qur'an
Qur'anwere wereaa referen
reference ce to the
the Devil
Devil !
noticeable
A noticea chang:e
ble change seemshowev
seems however er to be
be under
under way way these
thesedays
days
the highes
at the highest le'els of the
t levels the Christ
christian world. The
ian world. The Office
office for Non-Non-
christian
Christ Affairss at the
ian Affair the Vatica
vatican produced
has produc
n has ed aa docum
document ent result-
result-
ing fromfrom the the Second
second Vatica
vatican council
n Counc under the
il under the French
French tiile title
Orientation^s
Orienta tio'RS pour un un dialogu
diul,ogue entre Chreti
e entre Chrdtiensens et et Musulmnruz
Musulrnans 2
1. What
1. what is meant by Torah are the first
first five books
books of
of the Bible, inin other
other
words the Pentate
Pentateueh
uch of Moses (Genesis,
Moses (Genesi s, Exodus
Exodus,, Leviticu
Leviticus,
s, Numberc
Numbe rs
and Deutero
Deuteronomy).
nomy).
Z. Pub. Ancora
2. Ancora,, Rome.
Rome.
 In&oduclion
lnfiodnrcfun llliii

(Orientations for
(orientations for aa Dialogue
Dialogue between Christians and
between christians and Muslims)
Muslims), '
third French edition dated
dated 1970,
19?0, which
which bears
bears witness
witness to
to the
the pro-
pro-
third French edition
found change
found change inin official
official attitude. Once the
attitude. Once document has
the document has invited
invited
the reader to
the reader to clear clear away
away the
the "out-dated
"out-dated image,
image, inherited
inherited from
from
the
the past,
past, or distorted
or distort€d by
by prejudice
prejudice and
and slander"
slander" that
that Christians
Christians
have of
have of Islam,
Islam, the
the Vatican document proceeds
Vatican document proceeds to "recognize the
to "recognize the
past injustice
past injustice towards
towards the the Muslims
Muslims for which the
for which with its
West, rvith
the West, its
Christian education,
bnti*U*n education, is
is to
to blame".
blame'. It
It also
also criticizes
criticizes the
the miscon-
miscon-
ceptions Christians h*ve
ceptions Christians have been been under
under concerning Muslim fatalism'
concerning Muslim fatalism,
Islamic legalism,
Islemic legalism, fanaticism,
fanaticism, etc.
etc. It
It stresses
stresses belief
belief in
in unity of
unity of
God and
God and ieminds reminds us
us how
how sUrflrised
surprised the
the audience
audience was
was at
at the
the
Muslim University
Muslim University of of AlAl Azhar, Cairo, when
Azhar, Cairo, Cardinal Koenig
when Cardinal Koenig
proclaimed this
proclaimed this unity unity at
at the
the Great
Great Mosque during
during an official
official con-
ference in March,
ference in March, 1969. 1969. It
It reminds
reminds us also that
that the
the vatican
Vatican of-
Of-
fice in 1967 invited
fice in 196? invited Christians
christians to
to offer
offer their
their best wishes to
to Mus-
Mus-
lims at
lims at the end of of the Fast
Fast of Ramadan with
of Bamadan "genuine religious
with "genuine religious
walth".
wofthtt.
Such preliminary steps
such preliminary steps towards relationship between
towards a closer relationship
the Roman
the Boriran Catholic Curia and Islam have
have been
been follorved by vari-
followed vari-
ous manifestations
ous rlanifestations and consolidated by encounters
encounters between
between the
two.
two. There has been,
has been, however, little
little publicity
publicity accorded
accorded to events
events
of
of such
such great importance
importance in the western world, World, where they took
place and where
plaee and where there are
are ample
ample means
means of communication in the
communication
form
form ofof press,
press, radio
radio and
and television.
television.
The
The newspapers
newspapers gave g'ave little
tittle coverage
coverag:e to to the visit of
offieial visit
the official of
Cardinal Pignedoli, the
Cardinal Pignedoli, the PresidentPresident of
of the
the Vatican
Vatican Office
Office of
of Non-
Non-
Christian
Christian Affairs,
Affairs, on on 24th
24th April,
April, 1974,1974,to Faisal of
King Faisal
to King Saudi
of Saudi
Arabia. The French
Arabia. The French newspaper newspaper Le
Le Monde
Mond,e on
on 25th
25th April,
April, 19?4'
1974,
dealt with it in a few lines.
d€alt with it in a few lines. What What momentous
momentous news
news they
they contain,
contain,
however,
however,when when we we read
read howhow the the Cardinal conveyedto
Cardinal conveyed the Sover-
to the Sover-
eign a message from
eign a message from Pope Paul Pope Paul VI
VI expressing
expressing "the
"the regards
regards of
of
His Holiness, moved
His Holiness, moved by a by a profound
profound belief
belief in
in the
the *niflcation
unification of
of
Islamic
Islamic andand Christian
Christian worlds
worlds in in the worship of
the worship of aa single God,to
single God, to
His Majesty King Faisal
His Majesty King Faisal as supreme as supreme head
head of
of the
the Islamic
Islamic world".
world".
Six
Six months
months later,later, in
in October
October1974, 19?4,the receivedthe
Popereceived
the Pope offi-
the offi-
cial of Saudi
Ulemaof Saudi Arabia. It Arabia' It
cial visit
visit to
to the
theVatican
Vatican of of the
the Grand
Grand Ulema
occasioned and Muslims on the
occasionedaa dialogue
dialogue between
between Christians
Christians and MusHms on the
,'Cultural Rights
"Cultural Rights of
of Man
Man in in Is1am".
l^glam".The ne\Yspaper'
Vatican newspaper,
The Vatican
-Rom&na,
Observatore \is-
this his-
ObseruotoreRomano, on on 26th
26th October, 19?4, reported
Oetober,1974, reported this
 iviv THEBIBLE,
THE BIBrr, THE
THEQUR'AN
QITnANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCTENCE
toric event
toric eventin inaafront
front pagepagestory
storythat
that tooktookup upmore
morespace
specethanthan thethe
rcport on the closing
report on the closing day dayof of the
the meeting
meetingheld heldby uy thelhe Synod
synod of of
Bishopsin
Bishops in Rome.
Bome.
The Grand
The Grandmema Ulemaof of Saudi
SaudiArabia
Arabia were wereafterwards
afterwards received
received
byby the
the Ecumenical
EeumenicalCouncil council of of Churches
churctresof of Geneva
Genevaand and byby thethe
r,ord Bishop
Lord Bishop of of Strasbourg,
strasbourg, His His Grace
GraceEIchinger.
Etchinger. The The Bishop
Bishop
invited them
invited them to join in
to join in midday
midday prayerprayer before
beforehim him in in his
his cathe-
eathe-
drsl. The
dral. The fact
fact that
that the the event
event waswas reported
reported seems seemsto to bebe more
more on on
accountof
account of its
its unusual
unusualnature nature than than because
becauseof of its
its considerable
considerable
religious significance.
religious signifieance.At At allall events,
events,among amongthose thosewhomwhom II ques- ques-
tioned about
tioned about thisthis religious
religious manifestation,
manifestation, there there were
were very very few
few
whoreplied
who repliedthat that they
theywerewereawareawareof of it.
it
The open-minded
The open-mindedattitude attitude Pope popePaulpaur VI vr has
hastowards
towards Islam Islam will
will
certainly become
certainly becomeaa milestonemilestone in in the
the relations betweenthe
relations between the two
two
religions. He
religions. He himself said said that he he was
was "moved
"moved by by aa profound
profound be- be-
lief in
lief in the
the unification
unification of the the Islamic
Islamic and and Christian
Christian worldsworlds in the the
wottshipof aa single
worship single God".
God". This reminder
reminder of the the sentiments
sentimentsof of the
the
head of the catholic
head of the Catholic Church chureh concerning
concerningMuslims Muslims is indeedindeedneces-
neces-
sary.
siry. Far too too many
msny Christians,
christians, brought up up in aa spirit
spirit of open open
hostitity, are
hostility, are against
ageinst any reflection
reflection about Islam on principle. The
about rslam on principle. The
vatican document
Vatican documentnotes notesthis with with regret.
regret. It It is on
on accouni
account of this
ttrat
that they remain
remain totally ignorent ignorant of what Islam is in reality, and and
retain notions
retain notions about about the Islamic Revelation which are
Bevelation are entirely
mistaken.
mistaken.
Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, when when studying an aspect aspect of the Revelation
Revelation of of a a
monotheistie
monotheistic religion, itit seerna seems quite in in order to compare
compare what the
other two have have to say on the same same subject.
subject. A A comprehensive
comprehensive
study
study of of aa problem
problem is is more
more interesting
interesting than than aa eompartmentalized
compartmentalized
one.
one. The
The confrontation
confrontation between between certain
certain subjects
subjects dealt
dealt withwith inin the
the
scriptures
Scriptures and and thethe facts
facts of of zOth
20th century
century science
science willwill therefore,
therefore,
in
in this
this work,
work, inelude
include all all three
three religions.
religions. In In addition
addition itit willwill bebe
useful
useful to realize
to realize that that thethe three
three rerigions
religions shouldshould form
form aa tighter
tighter
block
block by by virtue
virtue of of their
their eloser
closer relationship
relationship at at aa time
time when when they
they
are all threatened
are all threatened by by thethe onslaught
onslaught of of materialism.
materialism. The The notion
notion
that
that science
science and and religion
religion Bre are incompatibre
incompatible is is as
as equally
equally prevalent
prevalent
in countries under
in countries under the the Judeo-christian
Judeo-Christian influence influence as as inin the
the world
world
of
of Islarn--+specially
IsIatn--especially in in scientific
scientific circles. this question
circles. IfIf this question were were to to
be
be dealt
dealt with
with comprehensively,
comprehensively, aa series series of of lengthy
lengthy exposds
exposes would
would
be
benecessarr.
necessary.rn Inthis
thiswork,
work, IIintend
intendto tackleonly
totsckle onlyLr"one*rpot
aspectof ofit:
it:
lntmilrgr',ian

the examination
the examination of of the
the scriptures themselves in
Scriptures themselves in the light of
the light of
modern scientific
modern scientificknowledge.
knowledge.
Before proceeding
Before proceeding with with our our task,
task, w€ must ask
we must ask aa fundamental
fundamental
question:t Ho*
question How authentic
authentic are are today's texts? ItIt is
today's texts? question which
is aa question which
entails an examination
entsils an examination of
of the
the circumstances
circumstances surrounding
surrounding their
their
composition
composition and
and the
the way
way in
in which
which they
they have
have come
come down
down to
to us.
us.
In the
In the West
Wt!st the
the critical
critical study
study of of the Scriptures is
the Scriptures is something
something
quite recent. For
quite reeent. For hundreds hundreds of
of years
years people
people were
were content
content to accept
to accept
the Bible-both Old
the Bible-both Old and New and New Testaments-as
Testaments-as it
it was.
was. A
A reading
reading
produced nothing
produced nothing more more thanthan remarks vindicating it.
remarks vindicating it. ItIt would
would
have been
it"u" been sin toa sin to level the slightest
slightest criticism
criticism at
at it.
it. The
The clergy
clergy
were priviledged
were priviledged in in that
that they
they were easily easily able to to have a compre-
hensive
hensive knowledge of
of the Bible, while
while the maiority
majority of laymen
of
heard
hesrd onlyonly selected readings
readings as part
part of
of a sermon or
or the
the liturgy'
liturgy.
Raised to
Raised to the
the level of specialized study, textual criticism has
of a speeialized textual criticism
been valuable
been valuable in in uncovering and disseminating problems which which
are
sre often
often veryvery serious.
serious. How How disappointing
disappointing it it is therefore to read
works
works of a so-called
so-called critical
critical nature which, when faced faced with with very
real
real problems of interpretation,
interpretation, merely provide passages
passages of of an
apologetical
apologetical naturenature by means means of which which the author author contrives to
hide
hide hishis dilemma. Whoever retains his objective judgment iudgment and
power of thought at such such aa moment will will not find the improbabil-
ities
iti*s and
and contradictions any the less less persistent. One One can can only re-
gret
gret anan attitude
attitude which, in the face face of all logical reason' upholds
reason, upholds
certain
cer-tain passages
passagesin the Biblical Biblical Scriptures even though
Scriptures even though they are they are
riddled
riddled with
with errors.
*"*o"t. It It can
can exercise an extremely
exercise an extremely damaging in- damaging in-
fluence upon the
fluence upon the cultivated
cultivated mind mind withwith regard to belief
regard to belief in God. in God'
Experience
Experience shows shows however
however that that even
even if if the few are
the few are ableable to dis-
to dis-
tinguish
tinguish fallacies
fallacies of of this
this kind,
kind, the the vast majority of
vast majority of Christians christians
have
have never
never taken
taken any any account
accountof of such
suchincompatibilities
incompatibilities with with theirtheir
secular knowledge, even
secular knowledg:e,even though they though they are
are often
often very
very elementary.
elementary.
Islam
Islam hashas something
something relatively
relatively comparable
comparable to Gospelsin
the Gospels
to the in
some
someof of the
the Hadiths.
Hadiths. TheseTheseare are the
the collected
collectedsayings of
sayings of Muham- Muham-
mad and
mad and stories
storiesof of his
his deeds.
deeds.The The Gospels
Gospelsare nothing other
are nothing other than than
this
this for
for Jesus.
Jesus.Some Someof of the
the collections
collectionsof of Hadiths
Hadiths were were writtenwritten
decades
decsdesafterafter thethe death
death ofof Muhammad,
Muhammad' just just asas the Gospelswere
the Gospels were
written
writtcn decades
decadesafter after Jesus.
Jesus.In In both
both cases
casesthey they bear human wit-
bear human wit-
ness
nessto to events
events in in the
the past.
past. We We shall
shall seeseehow, contrary to what
how, contrary to what
many
many people
peoplethink,
think, the theauthors
authors of of the
the four
four Canonic Gospelswere
Canonic Gospels were
 vl TIIE BmLE,
THE BIBLF,,THE
TIIE QUR'AN
QIJn'ANAND
AIYDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

not the
not the witnesses
witnessesof of the
the events
eventsthey relate.The
they relate. The samesameisis true
true ofof
the Hadiths
the Hadiths referred
referred to to at the end
at the endof of this
this book.
book.
Ifere the
Here thecomparison
comparisonmust mustend endbecause
becauseeven evenif if the
the authenticity
authenticity
of such-and-such
of such-and-such aa Hadith
Hadith has hasbeen
beendiscussed
discussedand and isis still
still under
under
discussion,in
discussion, in thethe early
early centuries
centuriesof of the
the Church
Church the problemof
the problem of
the vast
the vast number
number of of Gospels
Gospelswas was definitively
definitively decided.
decided.Only only four
four
of them
of them were proclaimedofficial,
wereproclaimed official,oror canonic,
eanonic,in in spite
spite ofof the
the many
many
points on
points on which
whieh they they do do not
not agree,
agree,and and order
order was given for
was given for the
the
restto
rest to be
beconcealed;
concealed;hence hencethe term ,Apoerypha'.
the termI Apocrypha'.
Another fundamental
Another fundamental difference
difference in in the
the Scriptures
Scriptures of of Chris-
Chris-
tionity and
tianity and Islam
Islam is is the
the fact
fact that
that Christianity
Christianity does doesnotnot have
have
aa text
text which
which is is both
both revealed
revealedand and written down. down. Islam,
Islam, however,
however,
hasthe
has the Qur'an
Qur'an whichwhich fits
fits this description.
description.
The Qur'an
The Qur'an is the
the expression
expression of the
the Revelation
Revelationmade madeto Muham-
Muham-
mad by the
mad the Archangel
Arehangel Gabriel,
Gabriel, which
which was was immediately
immediately taken taken
down, and
down, and was
was memorized
memorized'and and recited
recited by the the faithful
faithful in their
prayers, especially
prayers, especiallyduring the the month
month of Ramadan.
Ramadan.MuhammadMuhammad
arranged it
himself arranged it into suras,
suras, and
and these were
these were collected
collected soon
soon
after the deathdeath of the the Prophet,
Prophet, to form, under under the rule of Caliph Caliph
uthman (12
Uthman (Lz to 24 24 years prophet's death),
years after the Prophet's death), the text we we
know today.
today.
fn
In contrast
contrast to this, the Christian Revelation Revelation is based based on on nu-
nu-
merous
merous indirect human human accounts.
accounts. We do do not in faetfact have
have an eye-eye-
witness
witness account
account from the life life of Jesus,
Jesus, contrary to what many
Christians imagine.
imagine. The question question of the authenticity of of the Chris-
tian and Islamic texts has has thus now been been formulated.
formulated.
The eonfrontation
confrontation between between the texts of the Scriptures and
seientific
scientific data has always provided
has always provided man with with food
food forfor thought.
ItIt was st at first
first held thatthat corroboration
corroboration between
between the scriptures
and science
science was a necessarynecessary element
element to the authenticity of of the
sacred
sacred t€xt.text. Saint Augustine,
Augustine, in in Ietter No. gp,
letter No. 82, which
which we we shall
quote
quote laterlater on,on, formally
formally established
established this this principle.
principle. As As seience
science
progressed
progressed howeverhowever itit beeame
became clear
clear that
that there
there were
were discrepancies
discrepancies
between
between Biblical
Biblical Scripture
Scripture and and science.
science. ItIt was
was therefore
therefore decided
decided
that
that eomparison
comparison would would no no longer
longer be be made.
made. Thus
Thus aa situation
situation arose
arose
which
which today,
today, we we are
are forced
forced to admit, puts
to admit, puts Biblical
Biblical exegetes
exegetes and and
scientists
scientists in in opposition
opposition to to one
one another.
another. We We eannot,
cannot, after
after all,
all, ac-
ac-
cept aa divine
cept divine Revelation
Revelation makingmaking statements
statements which which are totally
are totally
inaccurate.
inaccurate. There There was was onlyonly one
one way
way ofof logieally
logieally reeouciling
reconciling ilrethe
llllrGdacflon
Iffin vli
vii

two; itit lay

two; lay inin not considering Ia psssage
not considering containinl' uneceeptrbh
passage containing unacceptable
scientific data
scientific data to be genuine.
to be genuine. This solution was
This solution was notnot adopted.
adopted. In-In-
stead, the
steed, the integrity
integrity of of the
the text
text was
was stubbornly maintained rnd
stubbornly maintlincd and
experts wene
e!ryerts were obliged
obliged to adopt aa position
to adopt position on truth of
the truth
on the the Bib
of the Bib-
lical Seriptures
Hcal Scriptures which,which, for for the
the scientist, is hardly tenrble.
is hardly tenable.
Like Saint Augustine for
Like for the Bible, IslomIslam has always essumcd
has always assumed
that
thst the data contained
contained in in the Holy
Holy Scriptures were in
in sgr€s'
agree-
with scientific
ment u/ith scientific fact. A A modern examination of
modern examination of the Islamic
Revelation has not ceused
Bevelstion caused a change
change in this position. As we shell
in this shall
gee
see later on, on, the Qut'an
Qur'an dealsdeals with
with meny subjects of interest to
many subiects
gcience,
science, far far more in fact than the Bible. There is no comparison
Bible. There comparison
between the limitcd
between limited number statements which leed
number of Biblical staternents lead to
confrontation with
a confrontstion with science,
science, and profusion
and the profusion of subiects subjects men-men-
tioned in the Qur'an thet
tioned that are of a scientific None of the
nature. None
scientific nature.
can be
latter can scientific point of view; this is the
contested from a scientific
be contested
basic fact that emerges
basic emerges fmm from our study.
study. We We shall see at the end
shall see end
of this work that such such is not the case casefor the Hadiths.Hadiths. TheseThes€arearc
collections
collectionsof the Prophet'sProphet's saYings,
sayings, set set aside
aside from the Qur'anic Qur'enic
Revelation,
Bevelation, certaincertsin of which are are scientifically unacceptable.The
scientifically unacceptable. fire
Hadiths in questionquestion have
have beenbeen under
under study accordancewith
study in accordance
the strict principles
principles of the the Qur'an
Qurtan which dictate scienceand
dictate that science snd
reason
reasonshould
shouldalways
elways be be referred to, to, if necessaryto deprive
if necessary them
deprive them
of any authenticity.
These
These reflections
reflections on on the scientifically acceptableor unaecept-
scientifieally acceptable unaccepL
able
ablenature
nsture of aa certain
certain Scripture
Scripture needneedsome explanetion.It
someexplanation. must
It must
be stressed
be strcssedthat when when scientific
scientific data
data are discussedhere,
are discussed whrt is
here, what ic
meant
meant is is data
dats definitely
definitely established. considerstionrules
estsblished.This consideration out
rules out
any
any explanatory
explanatorytheories,
theories,once onceuseful
useful in in illuminating phenome'
illuminating aa phenome-
non
non andand easily
easily dispensed
dispensedwith to to make
makeway way for for further explrnr'
further explana-
tions
tions more
more in in keeping
keepingwith with scientific progress.What
scientificprogress. intend to
What II intend to
consider
considerhere here are
are incontrovertible
incontrovertible facts facts andand evenevenif if science
sciencecancsn
only
only provide
provideincomplete
incompletedata, data,they
they will neverthelessbe
will nevertheless sufficiently
besufficiently
well
well established
establishedto be used
to be usedwithout
without fearfesr of error.
of error.
Scientistsdo
Scientists do not,
not, for
for example,
example,havehaveeven evenan approximatedate
8n approximate date
for man's appearance
for man's appearanceon on Earth.
Earth. They
They have
have however
however discovered
discovered
remains
remainsof of human
human worksworhswhich which we cansituate
we can beyondaa shadow
situate beyond shadow
of a doubt at
of a doubt at before before the
the tenth
tenth millenium
millenium B.C.
B.C. Hence
Hence we
we cannot
cannot
consider the Biblical
considerthe Biblieal reality reality on
on this
this subject
subject to
to be
be competible
compatible with
with
science. In the Biblical text
science.In the Biblical text of Genesis,of Genesis, the
the dates
dates and
and geneelogie
I'enealo~es
viii THE
THE BmLE,
BIBI.E, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUN'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENGE

given would
given would placeplaee man's
man's origins
origins (i.e.(i.e. the
the creation
ereation of of Adam)
Adsm) at at
roughly thirty-seven
roughly thirty-seven centuries
centuries B.C. B.C. In In the
the future,
future, science
sciencemay may be be
able to
able provide us
to provide us with
with data data that
that are are more
more precise
precise than than ourour
present calculations,
present ealculations, but but we we maymay restrest assured
assured thatthat it wilt never
it will never
tell us
tell us that
that man
man first
first appeared
appeared on on Earth
Earth 5,736
E,?86years
years ago,
ag:o,as as does
does
the Hebraic
the Hebraic calendar
calendar for for 1975.
1975. The
The Biblical
Biblical data
data eoncerning the
concerning
antiquity of
antiquity of man
man areare therefore
therefore inaccurate.
inaccurate.
This confrontation
This confrontation with with science
science excludes
excludes all all religious
religious prob-
lems in
lems in the
the true
true sense
senseof of the
the word.
word. Science
Science doesdoes not, for example,
example,
have any
have any explanation
explanation of of thethe process
process whereby God God manifested
Himself to
Himself to Moses.
Moses. TheThe samesame may be be said for for the mystery
mystery sur-
rounding
rounding the the manner
manner in which Jesus Jesus was born in the absence absence of
aa biological father. The Scriptures Scriptures moreover give no material material
explanation of such
explanation such data. This present study is concerned concerned with with
Scriptures tell us
what the Scriptures us about extremely
extremely variedvaried natural
natural phe-
nomena, which they surround
nomena, surround to aa lesser lesser or greater
greater extent
extent with with
commentaries and explanations.
commentaries explanations. With With this in mind, we must n)te nrte
contrast between the rich
the contrast rich abundance
abundance of of information
information on a
given subject in the Qur'anic Revelation and
given anrl the modesty of of the
other two revelations on the same same subject.
It was in a totally
It totally objective
objective spirit,
spirit, and without
without any precon-
ceived ideas
ceived ideas that
that I first
first examined
examined the Qur'anic Revelation. rI was
Iooking for
looking for the degree
degree of compatibility between the eur'anic
of compatibility Qur'anic
text and the data of
text of modern
modern science.
science. rI knewknew fromfrom translations
translations
that the Qur'an
that often made allusion
Qur'an often allusion to all all sorts
sorts ofof natural
natural phe-
nomena, but
nomena, but I had onlyonly a summary
summary knowledge of of it.
it. ItIt was only
only
when II examined the text text very
very closely in in Arabic
Arabic thatthat II kept
kept a list
list
of them at
of at the end of of which
which II had to to acknowledge the the evidence
in front
in front of of me;
me: the Qur'an
Qur'an did not not contain
contain a single statement
that
that was assailable
assailable fromfrom a mocernmodern scientific point point of of view.
view.
rI repeated the the same test test forfor the
the oldOld Testament
Testament and the the Gos-
Gos-
pels, always preserving
pels, always preserving the the $ame
same objective
objective ouflook.
outlook. In In thethe former
former
II did
did not
not even have to to go beyond
beyond the the first
first book,
book, Genesis,
Genesis, to to find
find
statements
statements totally totally outout of of keeping
keeping with with thethe cast-iron
cast-iron facts facts ofof
modern
modern science,science.
on
On opening
opening the the Gospels,
Gospels, one one isis immediately
immediately confronted
confronted with with aa
serious problem.
problem. on On the first page
the first page we we find
find the
the genealogy
genealogy of of Jesus,
Jesus,
but
but Matthew's
Matthew's text text is
is inin evident
evident contradiction
contradiction to to Luke,s
Luke's on on the
the
same question.
same question. There There is further problem
is aa further problem in in that
that the
the latter,s
latter's
Introduction
Infiodwtkm rx

data on
data on the
the antiquity
antiquity of of man
man on on Earth
Earth sre incompatible with
are incompatible with
modern knowledge.
modern
existence of
The existence of these improbabilities and in-
these contradictions, improbabilities in-
compatibilities does
compatibilities does not seem to me to detract from
not seem from the belief in in
God. They involve
God. responsibility. No
involve only man's responsibility. Nooneone can say
what the original
what original texts mightmight have been, been, or identify imaginative
or identify imaginative
editing, deliberate manipulations
editing, manipulations of of them by men, men, oror uninten-
uninten-
tional modification of
tional of the Scriptures. What strikes us today,
What strikes
when we realize BiblicalBiblical contradictions and incompatibilitiesincompatibilities
well-established scientific data, is how specialists
with well-established
with specialists studying
studying
either pretend to be unaware of them, or
the texts either or else draw at-
else draw
tention to these
tention these defects
defects then try camouflage them with
try to camouflage with dia-
acrobatics. When we come
lectic acrobatics. come to the Gospels Gospels according to
Matthew and John, I shall provide examples
Matthew brilliant use
examples of this brilliant use
of apologetical
apologetical turns
turns of phrase
phrase by eminent experts in exegesis.
exegesis.
Often the attempt
attempt to camouflage
camouflage an improbability
improbability or a contra-
diction, prudishly called
called a 'difficulty', is successful.
'difficulty', suecessful.This explainsexplains
diction,
why soso many Christians are unaware of the serious
serious defects
defects con-
con-
tained in the Old Testament
Testament and the Gospels. Gospels. The reader reader willwill
find precise examples of these
precise examples these in the firstfirst andand second
second parts of
this work.
In the third
third part,
ped, there
there is the illustration of an unusual appli-
unusual appli-
cation of science
scienceto aa holy Scripture, the contribution contribution of modernmodern
secular
secular knowledge
knowledge to aa better understanding of certain verses verses in
the Qur'an
Qur'an which until now have
have remained
remained enigmatic, if
if not
incomprehensible.
incomprehensible. Why should
should we
we be
be surprised at this when
when
we
we know that, for Islam,
Islam, religion and
and science
science have
have always
always been
been
considered
considered twin sisters?
sisters? From the
the very beginning,
beginning, Islam
Islam directed
directed
people to cultivate
people cultivate science;
science; the the application
applieation of this precept precept
brought with
with itit the prodigious strides
strides in
in science
seience taken during
during
the great
great era of
era of Islamic civilization,
civilization, from
from which,
which, before
before the
the
Renaissance, the
Renaissance,the West West itself
itself benefited.
benefited. In
In the
the confrontation
confrontation be-
be-
tween the Scriptures
tween the Scriptures and
and science
science aa high
high point
point of
of understanding
understanding
has
has been
been reached
reachedowingowing to to the
the light
light thrown
thrown on on Qur'anic passages
Qur'anic passages
by modern scientific
by modern scientific knowledge.
knowledge. Previously
Previously these
these passages
passages were
were
obscure owning
obscure owning to to the
the non-availability
non-availability of
of knowledge
knowledge which
which could
could
help interpret
help interpret them.
them.
 tI
The Old
ThE Old
Testarrrcnt
TEstamEnt
Gene..al Outlines
General Outlines
Who is the author of the Old Testsment?
\Mho Testament?
One
One wonders
wonders how many readers readers of the Old Testarnent,if
Otd Testament, if asked
asked
the above question, would
above question, repeating what they had
would reply by repeating had
read
read in the introduction
introduction to their Bible. Bible. They snswer that,
They might answer that'
even
even though
though it it was
was written
wri.tten by men men inspired by the Holy Ghost, GhosL
was God.
the author was God.
Sometimes,
Sometimes,the the author
author of the the Bible's presentation confines
Bible's presentation confines
himself
himself to informing
informing his his reader
reader of this succinct obseryation
succinct observation
which
which puts
puts an
an end questions.Sometimes
endto all further questions. Sometimeshe he corrects
corrects
it by warning him that details
it detsils may
may'Subsequently
subsequentlyhave be+nadded
havebeen added
to the primitive text by
to the by men, nonetheless,the
men, but that nonetheless, the litigious
character passsgedoes the general 'truth' that
general 'truth'
character of aa passage doesnot not alter
alter the
proceedsfrom
proceeds from it. it. This 'truth'
This 'truth' is is stressed
stressed very heavily. The
very heavily. The
Church
Church Authorities answer answer for for it,
it, being the only
being the body, with
only body, with thethe
assistance
essistanceof of thethe Holy
Holy Ghost,
Ghost,ableable to enlighten the
to enlighten faithful on
the faithful on
guchpoints.
such Sincethe
points.Since the Councils
Councilsheld held in
in the century,it
Fogrth century,
the Fourth was
it was
the
the Church
Church that
that issued
issuedthe list of
the list of Holy ratified by
Books,ratified
Holy Books, the
by the
Councils
Councilsof of Florence (1441),Trent
Florence(1441), (1546),and
Trent (1546), and the First Vati-
the First Vati-
can
canCouncil (18?0),to
Council(1870), to form
form what
what today
todayis is known
known as the Canon.
asthe Canon-
Just
Just recently,
recently, after
after so 8o many
many encyclicals,
encyclicals,the the Second Vatican
SecondVatican
Council publishedaa text
Councilpublished text concerning
concerningthe which is
Revelationwhich
the Revelation ex-
is ex-
tremely
tremelyimportant.
important.It It took
tookthree
threeyears (1962-1965)of
yesrs (1962-1965) of strenuous
strenuous

1
g THE
THE BmLE,
BIBLF",THE
TIIE QUR'AN
QUR'ANAND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

effort to
effort produce. The
to produce. The vast
vast majority
majority of of the
the Bible's
Bible's readers
readers who who
find this
find highly reassuring
this highly reassuring information
information at at the
the head
head of of aa modern
modern
edition have
edition have been quite satisfied
been quite satisfied with
with the guarantees of
the guarantees of authen-
authen-
tieity made
ticity madeover past
over past centuries
centuries and and have
have hardly
hardly thought
thought it it possi-
possi-
ble to
ble to debate them.
debatethem.
When one
When one refers
refers however
however to to works
works written
written by by clergymen,
clergymen, not not
meant for
meant for mass publication, one
mass publication, one realizes
realizes that
that the question con-
the question con-
cerning the
cerning the authenticity
authenticity of of the
the books
books inin the
the Bible
Bible isis much
much more more
complex than
complex than one
one might
might suppose pri,ori. For
suppose ao priori. For example,
example, when when
one consults
one consults thethe modern publication in
modern publication in separate
separate installments
installments of of
the Bible
the Bible in French
French translated
translated under
under the guidance of the
the guidance the Bibli-
cal School
cal Schoolof Jerusaleml,
Jerusalemr,the the tone
tone appears
appears to be be very different.
different.
One realizes that the
one realizes the Old
old Testament,
Testament, like the the New Testament,
Testament,
raises problems with controversial
raises problems controversial elements
elements that, for the most most
part, the the authors
authors of commentaries
commentaries have have not concealed.
conceared.
we also
We also find
find highly precise
precise data
data in more
more condensed
condensedstudies
studies of
aa very objective
objective nature,
nature, such
such as as Professor
Professor EdmondEdmond Jacob'sJacob's
study; The
study: The Old
Old Testament
Testament (L'Ancien Testament) Testament)'. 2. This bookbook
gives an excellent
gives general view.
excellentgeneral view.
people are unaware,
Many people unaware, and and Edmond
Edmond JacobJacob points
points this out,
that there were originally
originally a number of texts and not just just one.
one.
Around the Third Thi'rd century B.C.,
8.C., there were at least least three forms
of the Hebrew text: text: the text
text which was was to become
become the Masoretic
Masoretic
text, the text which was used, used, in part part at least,
least, for
for the GreekGreek
translation, and the Samaritan Pentateuch. Pentateuch. In In the First
First century
B.C., there was a tendency
8.C., tendency towards the establishment
establishment of of a single
text, but it it was tiot
not until
until a century afterafter Christ
Christ that
that the Biblical
text
text waswas definitely established.
established.
If
If we had had the three forrns forms of of the text, comparison
comparison would
have
have beenbeen possible,
possible, and we couldcould have
have reached
reached an opinion
opinion con-con-
cerning what the original might might have have been.
been. unfortunately,
Unfortunately, we
do not
not have
have the
the slightest
slightest idea.
idea. Apart
Apart from
from thethe Dead
Dead Sea
Sea Scrolls
Scrolls
(Cave
(Cave of of Qumran) dating from from a pre-Christian
pre-Christian era near near thethe
time
time of Jesus, aa papyrus
of Jesus, papyrus of of the
the Ten
Ten Commandments
Commandments of of the
the Sec-
Sec-
ond century
ond century A.D.A.D. presenting
presenting variations
variations fromfrom thethe classical
classical text,
text,
and
and aa few few fragments
fragments fromfrom thethe Fifth
Fifth century
century A.D.A.D. (Geniza
(Geniza of of
1.
1. Pub.
Pub. Cerf,
Ced, Paris
Paris
2. Pub. Presses
2. Pub. Presses universitaires
Universitaires de
de France, Paris ,.eue
France, paris "Que sais-je?"
sais-je?" colleetion
collection
The Old Testamen' 3

Cairo), the
Cairo), the oldest
oldest Hebrew
Hebrew text text of
of the
the Bible
Bible dates from the
dates from the Ninth
Ninth
century
century A.D. A.D.
The Septuagint
The Septuagint was was probably
probably the the first translation in
first translation in Greek.
Greek.
dates from
ItIt dates from the the Third
Third eentury
century B.C. B.C. andand was written by
was written by Jews
Jews
in Alexandria.
in Alexandria. ItIt was was onon thisthis text
text that
that thethe l'Iew Testament was
New Testament was
based. ItIt remained
based. remained authoritative
authoritative until until the
the Seventh century A.D.
Seventh century A.D.
The basic
The basic GreekGreek texts
texts inin general
general useuse in in the Christian world
the Christian world are are
from the
from the manuscripts
manuscripts catalogued
catalogued under under the the title
title Cod'en Vatica'mn
Codex Vaticanus
in the
in the Vatiean
Vatican City City and Coden
Codex Sinaiticus
Sinniticus at at the British Museum,
the British Museum,
London. They They date from from the FourthFourth century
century A.D' A.D.
At the beginning
At beginning of of the FifthFifth century
century A.D., Saint Saint Jerome was
able to
able to produce a text text in latin using Hebrew documents.
in latin documents. It It was
later to
later to be called the thleVulgate on account of its universal distribu-
of its distribu-
after the Seventh
tion after Seventh century
century A.D.
For
For the record, we shall mention the Aramaic Aramaic version and
the Syriac (Peshitta)
(Peshitta) version, but but these
these are incomplete.
incomplete.
All of these versions have enabled specialists to piece
All of these versions have enabled specialists piece together
so-called
so-called 'middle-of-the-road'
'middle-of-the-road' texts, aa, sort of compromise
compromise be-
be-
tween
tween the different versions. Multi-lingual
versions. Multi-tingual collections
collections have
have also
also
been
been produced which whieh juxtapose
iuxtapose the Hebrew, Greek, Latin'
Greek, Latin,
Syriac, Aramaic
Syriac, Aramaic and even Arabic
even Arabic versions.
versions. This is the case
case of
the famous
the famous Walton Bible (London, 1657).
165?). For the sake
sake of
completeness,
completeness, let us
us mention that diverging Biblical conceptions
conceptions
are
a"" responsible for the fact that the various Christian churches churches
do "e*ponsible
not
do not all accept
accept exactly the same
same books
books and have
have not until
until now
had identical ideas on
had identical ideas on translation translation into
into the
the same
same language.
language. The
The
Ecumenical Translation
Eatmeni,cal Translation of
of the
the Old
OId Testament
Testament is
is a
a work of
of uni-
fication written
fication wriiten by by numerous
numerous CatholicCatholic and and Protestant experts
Protestant experts
now nearing completion
now nearing completionr 1
and
and should
should result
result in
in aa work
work of
of syn-
syn-
thesis.
thesis.
Thus
Thus the the human
humau element
element in in the
the Old
Old Testament
Testament is is seen
seen to be
to be
quite
quite considerable.
considerable. It It is
is not difficult to
not difficult understand
to understand why from why from
version
version to to version,
version, andand translation
translation to to translation,
translation, with rvith all the
all the
corrections
corrections inevitably resulting, it
inevitably resulting, it was possible for the
was possible for the original original
text
text to to have
have beenbeen transformed
transformed during during the the course
course of more than
of more than
two
two thousand
thousand years. years.

1.l. Translator's
Translator's Note: December f975
Published December
Note: Published f9?5 by
by Les Editions du
Les Editions Cerf
du Cerf
and Les
and l.cs Bergers
Bergers et
et les
les Mages,
Mages, Paris
Paris
41 TIIEBIBLE,
THE BBI.F,,THE
TIIEQUR'AN AND
QI,'R'ANANDSCIENCE
SGAENCE

ORIGINS OF
ORIGINS OF THE THE BIBLE
BIBLE
Beforeitit became
Before becameaacollection
collectionof of books,
books,itit was
urasaa folk folk tradition
tradition
that relied
that relied entirely
entirely upon
upon human
human memory,memory, originally
originally the the only
only
meansof
means passingon
of passing onideas.
ideas.ThisThis tradition
tradition waswassung.
sung,.
"At an
"At anelementary
elementarystage,stage,writes
writes E. E. Jacob,
Jacob,every
errerypeople
peoplesings;
sings;
in Israel,
in Israel, as as elsewhere, poetry preceded
elsewhere,poetry precededprose.
prose.Israel
Israel sangr"ng longlong
and well;
and well; led Iedbyby circumstances
circumstancesof of his history to
his history to thethe heights
treiehtsof of
joy and the
ioy and the depths
depthsof of despair,
despair,taking part with
taking part with intense feeling
intenseleeling
in all
in all that
that happened
happenedto to it,
it, for
for everything
everything in in their
their eyes eyeshad had aa
sense,Israel
sense, Israel gavegave its
its song
songaa wide wide variety
variety of of expression".
expression".They They
sgng for
sang for thethe most
most diverse
diverse reasons
reasonsand and E. E. Jacob
Jacob mentions
mentionsaa
numberof
number of them
them toto which
which we we find
find the
the accompanying
accompanyingsongs songsin in the
the
Bible: eating
Bible: eating songs,
songs,harvest
harvest songs,
songs,songs
songsconnected
connectedwith with work,
work,
like the
like the famous
famous Well well Song (Numbers 21,
song (Numbers zL, 17),
1r7),wedding
wedding songs, songs,
as in the
as the Song
Songof Songs,Songs,andand mourning
mourning songs.songs.In the the Bible
Bible there
there
are numerous
are numeroussongs songsof war and and among
among these
these we we findfind the
the Song
song
Deborah (Judges
of Deborah (Judges 5, 5, 1-32)
1-32) exalting Israel'sfsrael's victory desired desired
and led
and led by Yahweh
YahwehHimself, (Numbers10,
Himself, (Numbers 10,35) ,,Ahd whenever
85) ;; "And whenever
ttre ark (of
the (of alliance)
alliance) setset out,
out, Moses
Moses said, ,Arise,
said, 'Arise, oh yahweh,
oh Yahweh,
snd let thy enemies
and enemiesbe be scattered;
scattered; and and let them
them that hate hate thee
thee
fleebefore
flee before thee'thee"'. ".
There
There are also also the Maxims
Maxims and and proverbs
Proverbs (Book(Book of proverbs,
Proverbs,
Proverbs
Proverbs and and Maxims
Maxims of the Historic Books), Books), words
words of blessing
blessing
and curse,
curse, and the laws decreed decreed to man man by the prophets
Prophets on re-
ception
ception of their their Divine mandate.
mandate.
E. Jacobs
Jacobs notes notes that
that these
these words were were either passed passed down down
from
from family
family to familyfamily oror channelled
channelled through the sanctuaries sanctuaries in in
the form
the form of of anan account
account of the history
of the history of of God's
God's chosen
chosen people.
people.
History quickly
History quickly turned
turned into
into fable,
fable, as as in
in the
the Fable
Fable of of Jotham
Jotham
(Judges g,
(Judges 9, 7-z1-),
7-21), where
where "the
"the trees
trees went
went forth
forth to to anoint
anoint aa king king
over
over them;
them; and and they
they asked
asked in in turn
turn thethe olive
olive tree,
tree, the the fig
fig tree,
the
the vine
vine andand the the bramble",
bramble", whichwhich allows
allows E.E. Jacob
Jacob to note ..ani-
to note "ani-
mated
mated by by thethe need
need to tell aa good
to t€tl good story,
story, the
the narration
narration was was not not
perturbed
perturbed by by subjects
subjects or or times
times whosewhose history
history was was not not well
well
known",
known", from from which
whichhe heconcludes:
concludes :
"It is
"rt is proba,ble
probs.ble thstthat what
what the the oldOld restament
Testament narrates
narrates about about
Moses and
Moses and the the patriarchs
patriarchs onlyonly roughly
roughly corresponds
corresponds to to the
the suc-
suc-
cession
cession of of hisboric
historic facts.
facts. TheThe narrators
narrators however,
however, even even at at the
the
stage of
stage of oral
oral trsnsmigsion,
transmission, wene were able able to
to bring
bring intointo playplay suctl
such
rINOldr........,
Trpol|dTffircnt f5

grace and
gmce and imsgination
imagination to to btend between them
blend between them hishly varied epi-
highly varied epi-
sodes, that
sodes, that whenwhen all all is
is said
said andand done, they were
done, they were able to
able to present
present
as aa history
ar history thtt that was was fairly
fairly credible
credible to to criticsl thinkers what
critical thinkers what
happened at
heppened at thethe beginning
beginning of humanity aud
of humanity and the world".
the world".
There is
Therc is good
good 1re88onreason to to believe
believe thst after the
that after Jewish people
the Jewish people
settled in
settled in Canean,
Canaan, et at tlre
the end end of of the Thirteenth century
the Thirteenth century B.C., B.C.,
writing
writtns was
was uaed
us€d to
to preserve
preserve and
and hand
hand down
down the
the tradition.
tradition. There
There
was not
wes not however
however complete accuracy, even
complete accurscy' even in what to
in what men seema
to men seems
to
to demand
demand the
the greatest
greatest durability,
durability, i.e.
i.e. the
the lgws.
laws. Among
Among these,
these,
the laws
the trrws whichwhich are
sre supposed
supposed to
to have
have been
been written
written by
by God's
God's own
band,
hend, the Ten Commandments,
Commindments, were transmitt€d
transmitted in
in the Old
Testament
Testrment in
in two
two versions; Exodus
Exodus (20'
(20, 1-21)
1-21) and Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy
(6, 130).
leBO). TtreyThey are the same same in spirit, but
in spirit, but the variations are
obvious.
obvious. There is also
elso a concern
concern to keep
keep written record
a large written
of contracts,
of contracts, letters, lists of
of personalities
personalities (Judges,
(Judges, high ciff city
officials, genealogical
ofrcials, genealogical tables), lists of ofrerings
offerings and
and plunder.
plunder. [n
In
this way, archives
thle way, archives were creatcd were created which provided
provided documentation
documentation
for
for the later editing of detinitive definitive works resulting in the the books
books
we have today.
have todey. firus Thus in each book
eachbook there there is a
a mixture of difterent
different
literary
literary genres:
genres: it it can
can be left to the
be left specialiststo find the rea-
the specialists rea-
tons
IODS for this odd assortment
odd assorlrnent documents. of documents.
The
The Oldotd Testament
Testsmentis aa disparate disparate whole basedupon
whole based upon an initially
an initially
onal tradition. It
oral It isie interesting thereforetherefore to compare the
comperethe process proeess
which it
by which it was
was constituted
constituted with what could happen
could happen in another
another
period and
period and another
another place placeat at the
the time
time whenwhen aa primitive literature
was
waBborn.
born.
Let
Lct usugtake,
teke, for for example,
example,the birth of
the birth literature at
French literature
of French at the
the
time
time of
of the
tfue Frankish
Frankish Royalty.
Rofatty. The
The same
same oral
oral tradition
tradition presided
presided
over the
over the preservation
presenration of of important
important deeds: deeds: wars, often in
wars' often in the
the
defense of Ohristianity,
defenseof C'tr"istianity, various
various sensational
sensational events,
events, where
where heroes
heroes
distinguished
distinguishedthemselves,themselves,that that were were destined centuries later
destinedcenturies later to to
of vsrious 'cycles'.
inspire court
inspire court Fffits, poets, chroniclers
chroniclers and
snd authors
authors of various 'cycles'.
In
In this
this way,
wEY,from ito* the the Eleventh
Eleventh century century A.D. onwards,these
A.D. onw·ards, these
narrative
narative poems,
poems, in
in which
which reality
reality is
is mixed
mixed with
with legend,
legend, were
were
to appear and
to sppear and constitute constitute the
the first
first monument
monument in
in epic
epic poetry'
poetry.
The
The most
mostfamousfamousof of all
all isis the
theSong songof Roland (La
of Roland (La Chanson
Chansonde de
Roland) a biographical
Roland) a biographical chant
chant about
about aa feat
feat of
of arms
arms in
in which
which
Roland
Rolandwas was the the commander
coilrmanderof of Emperor charlemagne'srear-
Emperor Charlemagne's re&r-
guard on its
gUerd on its wsy homeway home from
from an
an expedition
expedition in
in Sp'rin.
Sp:ain. The
The sacri-
sacri-
8S THE BIBLE,
THE BIBLE THE
TIIE QUR'AN
QUR'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

fieeof
lice of Roland
Roland is is not just an
not just an episode
episodeinvented
invented to to meet
meet the the needs
needs
of the story.
of the story. It tookIt place
took place on on 15th
r5th August,
August, 778. ??g. In
In actual
actual fact fact itit
was an
was &nattack
attack by by Basques
Basquesliving
living inin the
the mountains.
mountains. This This literary
litersn'
work is
work is not just legend;
not just legend; itit has
hasaa historical
historical basis,
basis,but
but no no historian
historisn
would take
would take itit literally.
literally.
This parallel
This parallel between between thethe birth
birth of
of the
the Bible
Bible and
and aa secular
secular liter-liter-
ature seems to
ature seems to correspondcorrespond exactly
exactly with
with reality.
reality. It It is
is in
in no no way way
meant to
meant relegate the
to relegate the whole
whole Biblical
Biblical text
text as
as wewe know
know it today to
it today to
the store
the store of of mythological
mythological collections,
collections, as as do
do soso many
many of of those
those who who
systematieally negate
systematically negate the
the idea
idea ofof God.
God. ItIt is
is perfectly
perfecfly possible
possible to to
believe in
believe in the
the reality
reality ofof the
the Creation,
Creation, God's
God's transmission
transmission to to
Mosesof
Moses of the
the Ten
Ten Commandments,
commandments, Divine Divine intercession
intercession in in human
human
afrairs, e.g.
affairs, e.g. at
at the
the time
time ofof Solomon.
solomon. ThisThis does
doesnot
not stop
stop us,us, atat thetbe
same time, from
same time, from considering considering that that what has has been conveyed to
been conveyed to
us is the
us gist of these
the gist thesefacts,
facts, and
and that the detail in the the description
should be
should be subjected
subjeeted to rigorous criticism, eritieism, the reason
reason for toi this ttris
being that
that the element
element of human participation
participation in the transcrip-
transcrip-
tion of originally
originally oral traditions
traditions is so so great.
 llII
ThE Books
The of the
I300ks of thE
Old Testarrrent
Old T eslalDenl
The Old Testament is a collection of
Ttre of works
works of of greatly
greatly differing
differing
length and many
length many different
different genres. They They were writtenwritten in severrl
in -several
languages over a period of
languages of more than nine hundred years, based ye&rs' based
traditions. Many of
on oral traditions. these works were corrected and com-
of these
pleted in in accordance
accordance with with events or requirements, often
or special requirements, often
at periods that
at that were very very distant
distant from
from one one another'
another.
This copious
copious literature
literature probably flowered flowered at the beginning
beginning ofof
the
the Israelite
Israelite Monarchy,
Monarchy, around the Eleventh century B.C. It
Eleventh century It
was at this period that that a body of scribes scribes appeared
appeared among the
members of the royal household.household. They were cultiVL\ted
cultivated men whose whose
role
r6le was
uras not limited
limited to writing.
writing. The first incomplete writings,
incompiete writings,
mentioned
mentioned in the preceding
preceding chapter,
chapter, may date date from this period.period.
There was was aa special
special reason
reason for writing
writing these
these works down; there
were
were aa certain number of songs (mentioned earlier),
songs (mentioned prophe-
earlier), the prophe-
tic
tic oracles
oracles of Jacob
Jacob andand Moses,
Moses,the Ten Commandments
Commandments and, on
and, on
aa more
more general
general level,
level, the legislative texts which established established aa
religious
religious tradition
tradition before
before the the formation
formation of the law.
of the these
law. All these
texts
texts constitute
constitute fragments
fragments scattered
scattered herehere andand there throughout
there throughout
the
the various
various collections
collections of of the
the Old
Old Testament.
Testament.
It
It was
was not
not until
until aa little
little later, possibly during
later, possibly during the the Tenth cen-
Tenth cen-
tury B.C., that the so-called
so-called 'Yahvist" text
'Yahvist'l text of
of the
the Pentateuch
Pentateuch
tury 8.C., that the
was
was written.
written. This
This text
text waswas toto form
form the backbone of
the backbone first
the first
of the
'Elohist'2 text
five
five books
books ascribed
ascribed to
to Moses.
Moses. Later,
Later, the
the so-called
so-called 'Elohist'2 text
was 'sacerdotal'3 version. The The
was toto be
be added,
added,and and also
alsothe
the so-called
so-called'Sacerdota1'3 version.
1.1 . So
So called
called because
becauseGod
God isis named
named Yahweh
Yahweh in in this text'
this text.
2.2 . So
So called
cslled because
becauseGod
God isis named
named Elohim
Elohim inin this text'
this text.
3.B. From
Frorn the
the preachers
preachers in
in the
the Temple
Temple at
at Jerusalem.
Jerusalem'

1
 8g BrBr q THE
THEBIBLE,
THE rHE QUR·AN
QUnAN AND
ANDSCIENCE
SCTENCE

initial Yahvist
initial Yahvist text text deals
dealswithwith thethe origins
origins of of the
the world
world up up to
to the
the
death of
death of Jacob. Jacob. ThisThis text
taxt comes
comes fromfrom the the southern
southern kingdom,
kinsdom,
Judah,
Judah.
At the
At the end end of of the
the Ninth
Ninth century
century and and inin thethe middle
middle of of the
the
Eighth century
Eighth century B.C., 8.C., the prophetic influence
the prophetic influenceof of Elias
Elias and and Elisha
Elisha
took shape
took shape and and spread.
spread. We We have have their
their books
books today.
today. ThisThis is is also
also
the time
the time of of the Elohist text
the Elohist text of of the pentateuch which
the Pentateuch which covers
covers a&
much smaller
much period than
small'er period than thethe Yahvist
Yahvist text text because
becauseit it limits
limits itself
itself
to facts relating
to facts relating to to Abraham,
Abraham, Jacob Jacob and and Joseph.
Joseph. The The books
books of of
Joshua and
Joshua and Judges
Judges datedate from
from thisthis time.
time.
The Eighth
The Eighth century
century B.C. B.c. saw saw thethe appearance
appearance of of the
the writer-
writer-
prophets: Amos
prophets: Amos and Hosea and Hosea in in Israel,
Israel, andand Michah
Michah in in Judah.
Judah.
rn 721
In 8.c., the
721 B.C., the fall
fall of
of Samaria
samaria put put an an end
end toto the
the Kingdom
Kingdom of of
Israel.
Israel. The The Kingdom
Kingdom of of Judah
Judah took took over
over its religious heritage.heritage.
The collection
The collection of Proverbs dates dates from this period, period, distinguished
distinguished
in particular by the fusion into aa single book
in particular book of the yahvist and
the Yahvist and
Elohist texts of the Pentateuch; in this way the Torah was was con-
eon-
stituted. Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy was written written at this time.
In the second
In second halfhalf of the Seventh
seventh century B.C., 8.c., the reign of of
Josiah coincided
Josiah coincided with with the appearance
appearance of the prophet Jeremiah, Jeremiah,
but his work
but work did not take definitive shape until a century later.
shape until
Before the first first deportation to Babylon in 598 B.C., there
Egg 8.c.,
appeared
appeared the Books Books of of zephaniah,
Zephaniah, Nahum and Habakkuk.
Ezekiel was already prophesying during during this this first
first deportation.
The
The fallfall ofof Jerusalem
Jerusalem in in E8?
587 B.c.
B.C. marked the beginning of of the
the
second
second deportation which which lasted until until 5Bg
538 B.C.
The Book of Ezekiel. the last great
of Ezekiel, great prophet
prophet and the prophet of of
exile, was not not arranged into its present
into its present form form until
until after
after tris
his aeath
death
by
by the
the scribes
scribes thatthat were
were toto become
become his his spiritual
spiritual inlreritors.
in!1eritors. These
same
same scribes
scribes were were to to resume
resume Genesis
Genesis in third version,
in aa third version, the the so-
so-
ealled 'Sacerdotal'
called 'Sacerdotal' version, version, for for thethe section
section going
going fromfrom the the Cre-
Cre-
ation
ation to to the
the death
death of of Jacob.
Jacob. In In this
this way
way aa third
third texttext waswas. to
to bebe
inserted
inserted into into thethe eentral
central fabric
fabric of of the
the Yahvist
Yahvist and and Elohist
Elohist texts
texts
of
of the
the Torah.
Torah. We We shall
shall see
see later
later on,on, in
in the
the books
books written
written roughly
roughly
two
two and and fourfour centuries
centuries earlier,
earlier, an an aspect
aspect of of the
the intricacies
intricacies of of
this
this third
third text.text. ItIt was
was at at this
this time
time thatthat the the Lamentations
Lamentations
appeared.
appeared.
on
On thethe order
order of of cyrus,
Cyrus, the the deportation
deportation to to Babylon
Babylon came came to to an
an
end
end in in 538
538 B.c.
B.C. TheThe Jews
Jews returned
returned to to palestine
Palestine and and thethe Temple
Temple
T1uJ Boob
Tho of tlp
Boob of Oae Old
Old Ttutrlritt,
TalGment 09

at Jentsalem
at Jerusalem was was rebuilt.
rebuilt. TtreThe prophets'
prophets' activities began again,
activities began again,
resulting in
resulting in the
the books
books of of llaggai, Zechariah, the third book of
Haggai, Zechariah, the third book of
Isaiah, Malaehi,
Isaiah, Malachi, Daniel
Daniel and Baruch (the
and Baruch (the last
last being
being in in Greek).
Greek).
The period
The period following
following the the deportation
deportation is is also the period
also the period of of the
the
Books of
Books of Wisdom:
Wisdom: Proverbs
Proverbs was was written definitively around 480
written definitively around 480
B.C., Job
8.C., Job inin the
the middle
middle of of the
the Fifth
Fifth century
century 8.C., Ecclesiastes or
B.C., Ecclesisstes or
Koheleth dates from
Koheleth from the the Third
Third century
century 8.C.,
B.C., as do the the Song of of
Songs, Chronicles II & II,
Songp, II, Ezra
Ezra and Nehemiah; Ecclesiasticus or
Nehemiah; Ecclesiasticus or
Sirah appeared in
Sirah in the
the Seeond
Second century
century B.C.;B.C.; the Book of of Wisdom
Wisdom
and thethe Book of of Maceabees
Maccabees II & IIII $tere were written century be-
written one century
fore Christ.
fore Christ. The Books of of Buth, Esther and Jonah are not
Ruth, Esther not easily
datable. The same
datable. same is truetrue forfor Tobit
Tobit and Judith.
Judith. AllAll these
these dates
dates
are given on the understanding that that there may have been been subse-
subse-
quent adaptations, since since itit was only cirea circa one century before
one century
Christ that
Christ that form
form was first first given
given to the the writings
writings of the Old Testa-
of the
For many this did not become
ment. For become definitive until one century
until one century
after Christ.
after Christ.
Thus the Old Testament appears appears as as a literary
literary monument to
the Jewish people,
people, from
from its origins
origins to the comingeoming of of Christianity.
Christianity.
The books it it consists of of were written,written, completed and revised
between the Tenth and the First
between First centuries B.C. B.C. This is in no
way aa personal
personal point of view on the history history of its composition.
composition.
essential data for
The essential for this historical survey were taken from the
entry The Bi.btein the
The Bible the Encyclopedia
Encyclopedia Universalist
Universalis' by J. J. P. San-
P. San-
droz,
droz, aa professor
professor at the Dominican Faculties, Faeulties, Saulchoir.
Saulchoir. To under-
stand what the Old Testament Testament represents,
represents, it is important
important to
retain this information,
information, correctly
eorrectly established
established today by highly highly
qualified
qualified specialists.
speeialists.
AA Revelation
Revelationis is mingled
mingled in in all thesewritings, but all
all these all we possess
we possess
today is what
today is what men
men have
have seen
seen fit
fit to leave
leave us.
us. These
These men
men manipu-
lated
lated the
the texts
texts to to please
please themselves,
themselves,according
according to to the circum-
the circum-
stances they
stances they were
were in
in and
and the
the necessities
necessities they
they had
had to
to meet.
meet.
When
When these
these objective
objective data data are
are compared
compared with with those found in
those found in
various
various prefaces
prefaces to Bibles
to Bibles destined
destined today
today for
for mass
mass publication'
publication,
one
one realizes
realizes that
that facts
facts are are presented
presented in in them
them in quite aa dif-
in quite dif-
ferent way. Fundamental
ferent way. Fundamental facts
facts concerning
concerning the
the writing
writing of
of the
the
books are
books are passed
passed over
over in
in silence,
silenee, ambiguities
ambiguities which
which mislead
mislead the
the
reader
reader areare maintained,
maintained, facts facts are
are minimalised
minimalised to to such
such an extent
an extent
1.1. Paris,
Paris, 1974
19?4edition,
edition, Vol.
Vol. 3, pp. 246-253.
S,pp. 246'263.
 t0
10 THE
IIIE BIBLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QtrR'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

that
that aa false
false idea
idea of
of reality
reality is
is conveyed.
conveyed. A A large
large number
number ofof pre-
pre-
faces
faces or
or introductions
introductions to to the
the Bible
Bible misrepresent
misrepresent reality
reality in
in this
way.
way. In
In the
the case
caseof
of books
books that
that were
were adapted
adapted several
several times (like
(like
the
the Pentateuch),
Pentateueh), it it is
is said
said that
that certain
eertsin details
details may
may have
have been
been
added later
added later on.
on. A
A discussion
discussion of of an
an unimportant
unimportant passage
passage of aa
book
book isis introduced,
introduced, butbut crucial
crucial facts
facts warranting
warranting lengthy expo-
expo-
sitions
sitions are passed over
are passed over in
in silence.
silence. It
It is distressing to see
see such
such
inaccurate
inaccurate information
information on on the Bible maintained for mass mass publi-
cation.
cation.

THE
THE TORAH
TONAII OR PENTATEUCH
PENTATEUCH
Torah is the Semitic name. n&me.
The
The Greek expression, which in English gives
Greek expression, gives us 'Pentateuch',
us 'Pentateuch',
designates
designates a& work in five five parts; Genesis,
Genesis, Exodus,
Exodus, Leviticus,
Numbers and and Deuteronomy.
Deuteronomy. TheseThese were to form the five primary
primary
elements of the collection
elements collection of thirty-nine
thirty-nine volumes
volumes that
that makes
makes up
Testament.
the Old Testament.
This group of texts deals deals with
with the origins
origins of the world up to
entry of the Jewish people
the entry people into Canaan,
Canaan, the land promised
after their
to them after their exile in Egypt,
Esypt, more precisely untiluntil the death
Moses. The narration
of Moses. narration of these
these facts serves
serves however as as a gen-
gen-
framework for
eral framework for a description of of the provisions mademade forfor the
religious and social social life
life of the Jewish people,
people, hence
hence the name name
Law or Torah.
Law
Judaism and Christianity for many centuries considered
Christianity for considered thatthat
the author was Moses Moses himself. Perhaps this this affirmation
affirmation was
basedon the fact that
based that God
God said Moses (Exoclus
said to Moses (Exodus 17,17, 14)
L4):: "write
"Write
this (thg
(the defeat
defeat of of Amalek) as as a memorial in in a book", oror again,
talking
talking of of the Exodus from from Egypt,
Egypt, "Moses wrote wrote down their their
starting places"
starting places" (Numbers 33, 2), 2), and finally "And
"And Moses
Moses wrote
wrote
law" (Deuteronomy
this law" (Deuteronomy 31, 31, g).
9). From
From the FirstFirst century B.c. B.C.
onwards,
onwards, the theory that
that Moses wrote the pentateuch
Moses wrote Pentateuch was up- up-
held;
held; Flavius Josephus
Josephus and Philo of of Alexandria
Alexandria maintain
maintain it. it.
Today,
Today, this
this theory has been been completely
completely abandoned;
abandoned; everybody
everybody
is
is in
in agreement on this this point.
point. The
The New
New Testament
Testament nevertheless
nevertheless
ascribes
ascribes the authorship
authorship to Moses. paul,
to Moses. Paul, inin his Letter to
his Letter to the
the
Romans
Romans (10, (10, 5) quoting from Leviticus, affirms
from that .,Moses
affirms that "Moses
writes
writes that
that the
the man who practices
man who practices righteousness
righteousness which
which isis based
based
on the law . . ." etc.
on the law ..." etc. John, in in his Gospel (5,
his Gospel (5,46-47), makes Jesus
46-47), makes Jesus
TIle tub 01
ThcBoob tlu Old
of 1M r........,
OldTarlunnla ll
11

ssy the following: "If

say you believed
"ff you believed Moses,Moses,you you would
would believe
believe
me, for he
me, he wrote of me. me. But if you do
if you do not believe writings,
believe his writings,
how will you believe
wi[ you believe my words?"
words?" We have here
We have an example
here an example of
becausethe Greek
editing, because Greek word that correspondscorrespondsto the original
(written in Greek)
(written Greekl is episteuete,
epi,steu,ete, Evangelist is putting
so that the Evangelist
so
afrruetion into Jesus's
an affirmation Jegug'smouth
mouth ,that'that is totally wrong:
wrong:: the fol-
demonstratesthis.
lowing demonstrates
am borrowing the
I am the elements
elements of this demonstration
demonstration from
Father de de Vaux,
Vaux, Head
Head of the Biblical School Schoolof JJerusalem.
erosalem. He He
prefaeedhis French
prefaced Fr€nch translation of Genesis Genesisin 1962 1962with aa General
General
Introduction to the the Pentateuch
Pentateuchwhich which contained valuable argu-
eontained valuable
ments. These ran contrary to the affirmations
ments. These affirmations of the Evangelists
Evangelists
on the authorship
on authorship of the question. Father de
the work in question. de Vaux re- re-
minds us
minds us that the "Jewish tradition which was followed by
was followed
Christ andand his Apostles"
Apostles" was was accepted
acceptedup to the the end
end of thethe
Middle Ages. The
Middle Ages. The only personperson to contest
contest this theory
theory waswas Abe-
Abe-
Twelfth century.
neara in the Twelfth
nezra eentury. It It was
was in the Sixteenth
Si:rteenth century
that
thst Calstadt noted that Moses
Calstadt noted could
Mosescould not have written the
have written the ac-
ac-
count
count of his ou/n
own desth Deuteronomy
death in Deuteronomy (84,
(34, 5-12).
5-12). The
The author
author
then quotesother critics who
then quotes refuse to ascribe
who refuse Mosesaa part,
ascribe to Moses
least,
at least, of the
the Pentateuch. It
Pentateueh. was above the
It was above all the work Riehard
of Richard
Simon,
Simon, father of the Oratory,
Oratory, Critical
Cri,tical History
Historg of
af the
the Old,Testa-
Old Testa-
ment
rnont (Histoire critique
critique du
du Vieux
Vieux Testament)
Testament) 1678,
1678, that under-
under-
lined
lined the chronological difficulties, the
chronologicaldifficulties, repetitions, the
the repetitions, the confusion
confusion
of the stories
stories and
and stylistie
stylistic diferences
differences in the
the Pentateuch.
Pentateuch. The
The
book causeda scandal.R. Simon's line
book caused a scandal. R. Simon's line of argument
argument was
was barely
barely
followed
followed in history books beginning of the Eighteenth
books at the beginning Eishteenth
century.
century. At At this time,
time, the referencesto antiquity very often
the references pro-
often pro-
ceededfrom what "Moses
ceeded "Moseshad had written".
written".
One
Onecan can easily
easily imagine
imaginehow how difficult
difficult it was to combat
it was legend
combataa legend
strengthened
strengthenedby Jesus Jesushimself who, who, as we have
as we supported
seen,supported
have seen,
it
it in the
the New
New Testament.
Testament.It It is to Jean Astruc, Louis
Jean Astruc, doctor,
Louis XV's doctor,
that wewe owe
owe the decisiveargument.
the decisive argument.
publishing in 1753,
By publishing, 1?63,his Conjectures
Conieetureson the original
on the wri,t'
originnl writ-
ings whiehit
ingswhich it appears
appea,rsMoses
llfosesused
usedto to compose
eomposethe the Book Gene$,s
Boolt of Genesis
(Conjectures
(Conjecturessur sur les
les Memoires originaux dont
M}moires originaux dont il parait que que
Moyse
Moysds'ests'estservi pour composer
servi pour composerIe le livre dede la Genese),
Genese),he placed
he placed
the
the accent
accenton on the
the plurality of sources.sources.He probably not
was probably
He was not the
the
first to have
have noticed
noticed it, but he he did however
however have have the courage
courageto
 L2
12 THE
THE BIBLE,
BrBLF,'THE
TIIE QUR'AN
QUn'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

make public an
make public an observation
observation of of prime
prime importance:
importance: two two texts,
texts, each
each
denoted
denoted by by the
the way
way in in which
which GodGod waswas named
named either
either Yahweh
Yahweh or
Elohim,
Elohim, were present side
were present side by
by side
side in
in Genesis.
Genesis.The The latter
latter therefore
therefore
contained
contained two ju:<taposedtexts.
two juxtaposed texts. Eichorn
Eichorn (1780-1783)
(1?80-l?8S) made msde the
same
same discovery
discovery for for the
the other
other four
four books;
books; then Ilgen (1798) (l?g8)
noticed
noticed that
that oneone of of the
the texts
texts isolated
isolated by Astruc,
Astruc, the one one where
God
God is named Elohim,
is named Elohim, was was itself
itself divided into two. The Penta- Penta-
teuch
teuch literally
literal\y fellfell apart.
apart.
The Nineteenth
The Nineteenth centurycentury saw saw an even
even more minute
minute search
sesrch into
the
the sources.
sources. In In 1854,
1854, four
four sources
sources were recognised.
recognised. They were
the Yahvist
called the
called Yahvist version, the Elohist Elohist version, Deuteronomy,
Deuteronorly,
and the
and Sacerdotal version. It
the Sacerdotal It was even
even possible
possible to date them them:~
1) The Yahvist
1) Yahvist version was placed plaeed in the Ninth Ninth century
century
B.C. (written in Jud.ah)
B.C. (written Judah)
2) The Elohist version was was probably a little little more recent
(written in Israel)
(written
3) Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy was was from
from the Eighth
Eighth century B.C. B.c. for
for some
some
(E. Jacob), and from the time of Josiah Josiah forfor others (Father
(Father
deVaux)
de Vaux)
4l The
4) The Sacerdotal
Saeerdotalversionversion came
came from the period of of exile or or
after the the exile:
exile: Sixth centuryB.C.
Sixth century B.C.
It can
It can bebe seen
seenthat the the arrangement
arrangementof the the text
text ofof the Penta-
teuch spans
teuch spansat least least three
three centuries.
centuries.
The problem is, is, however,
however, even complex. In
even more complex. In 1941,
1941, A.A. Lods
Lads
singled out three sources sources in in the Yahvist
Yahvist version, four four inin the
version, six in Deuteronomy,
Elohist version, Deuteronomy, nine in in the Sacerdotal
Sacerdotal ver-
sion, "not
sion, including the additions spread out among eight
"not including eight differ-
differ-
ent authors"
authors" writeswrites Father
Father de Vaux. More reeently, recently, itit has beenbeen
thought thatthat "many
"many of of the constitutions or or laws contained in in the
Pentateuch had parallels outside the Bible going
Pentateuch going back much
further
further than the dates dates ascribed
ascribed to the documents
documents themselves"
and that "many of
that "many of the stories of of the Pentateuch presupposed
presupposed a
background that that was different
different frsrn-4nd
from-and older than-the than-the one one
from
from which these these documents
documents were supposedsupposed to to have
have come". This This
leads
leads on to "an "an interest in in the formation
formation of of traditions".
traditions". The The
problem
problem then appears appears so complicated that that nobody
nobody knowsknows where
where
he is anymore.
anymore.
The multiplicity
multiplicity of of sources
sources brings'with
brings' with itit numerous
numerous disagree-
disagree-
ments and repetitions.
repetitions. FatherFather de Vaux gives
de Vaux gives examples
examples of of this
this
The Boob of
Tlu Boob tllc Old Testament
oI the Teetamcnl r3
13

overlapping
overlapping of of traditions
trsditions in the case case ofof the Flood, the kidnap-kidnap-
ping of
ping of Joseph,
Joseph, his adventures in in Egypt,
Egypt, disagreement of names names
relating
relating to the samesame character, differing
differing descriptions of impor- impor-
tant
tant events.
Thus the Pentateuch is shown to be formed from from various tra- tra- .
brought together more or less
ditions brought less skillfully
skillfully by its authors.
The latter sometimes juxtaposed their
latter sometimes their compilations and some- some-
times adapted
adapted the stories for for the sake
sake of synthesis.
synthesis. They allowed
allowed
improbabilities
improbabilities and disagreements to appear in the texts, how-
ever, which
whieh have
heve led modern man to the objective study of the
sources.
soureeg.
As far
far as
as textual criticism
criticism is concerned,
concerned, the Pentateuch
Pentateueh pro-
vides
vides what is probably the most obvious obvious example
example of adaptations
adaptations
made
made by the hand of man. man. These
These were made made at different times in
the history
history of the Jewish people, people, taken from oral traditions
traditions and
texts handed
handed down from generations. It
from preceding generations. It was begun
begun
in the Tenth or Ninth Ninth century B.C. B.C. with
rrith the Yahvist
Yahvist tradition
tradition
which
which took the story story fromfrom itsits very beginnings. The latter latter
sketches
sketches Israel's particular destiny to "fit
fsrael's own particular "fit it
it back into God's
God's
Grand Design
Design for
for humanity"
humanity" (Father de de Vaux).
Vaux). It It was
was con-
con-
cluded
cluded in the Sixth
Sixth century B.C. B,C. with
rsith the Sacerdotal
Sacerdotaltradition
tradition that
that
preeise mention
is meticulous in its precise rnention of dates genealogies.'
dates and genealogies. 1

Father
Father de de Vaux writes
writes that
that "The few stories this tradition
tradition
has of its own bear witness to legal preoccupations:
has of preoccupations: Sabbatical
Sabbatical
rest at the completion of the Creation, the alliance with with Noah,
the alliance with
with Abraham and the circumcision, purchase
circumeision, the purchase
of the Cave
Cave of Makpela that gave
that gave the Patriarchs
Patriarchs land in Canaan".
Canaan".
We must bear in mind that that the Sacerdotal
Saeerdotal tradition
tradition dates
dates from
from
the time of the deportation to Babylon and the return return to Pales-
Pales-
tine starting
starting in 538638 B.C.
B.C. There is therefore a mixture mixture of religious
political problems.
and purely political problems,
For
For Genesis
Genesisalone,
alone, the division of the Book into three sources sourees
has
has been
been firmly
firmly established:
established: Father de de Vaux in the commentary
to his translation
translation lists forfor each
each source passagesin the present
source the passages

1.
1. We shall gee in the next
shell see next chapter, when confronted withwith modern scien-
scien-
tific data, the extent of the narrative
tific narrative errors authors of
errors committed by authors
the Sacerdotal version on the subject of the antiquity
antiquity of man on Earth,
Earth,
his
hie situation course of the Creation. They are obviously
situation in time and the course
errors
errlort arising
arising from
from manipulation
manipulation ofof the texts.
texts.
14
l{ THE
TIIE BIBLE,
BIBI,E, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUR'AN AND
AND SCIENCE

text of
of Genesis
Genesis that
that rely on
on them. On the evidence
evidence of these
these data
it
it is possible
possible to pinpoint
pinpoint the contribution
contribution made
made by the various
sources
Bourcesto anyone
any one of the chapters.
ehapters. For
For example,
example, in the case
case of
the Creation, the Flood and the period that that goes
goes from
from the Flood
to Abraham, occupying as as it
it does
does the first eleven
eleven chapters of
Genesis,
Genesis,wewe can
can see
see alternating
alternating in the Biblical text a section
section of
the Yahvist and and aa section
section of the Sacerdotal
Sacerdotal texts. The Elohist
Elohist
present in the first eleven
text is not present eleven chapters.
chapters. The overlapping
of Yahvist and Sacerdotal
Sacerdotal contributions
contributions is here quite clear.
clear. For
For
the Creation and up to Noah (first (first five chapters), the arrange-
ment is simple: aa Yahvist
Yahvist passage
passage alternates with
with a Sacerdotal
Sacerdotal
passage from beginning to end
passage end of the narration.
nanation. ForFor the Flood
and especially
especially chapters
chapters 7 and
and 8 moreover,
moreover, the cutting
cutting of
of the text
text
according
aecording to its source
source is narrowed down to very short passages passages
and even
even to aa single sentence.
sentence. In In the space
space of little
little more than
aa hundred lines
lines of English
English text, the text changes
changesseventeen
seventeentimes.
It
It is from
from this that the improbabilities
improbabilities and contradictions arise
when present-day text. (see
when we read the present-day (see Table on page
page 15 for
for
schematic
schematic distribution
distribution of sources)
sources)

THE
THE HISTORICAL
ITISTOruCAL BOOKS
BOOKS
In
In these
these books
books we enter into
into the history
history ofof the Jewish people,
people,
from
from the time they camecame to the Promised Land (which (which is most
likely been at the end of
likely to have been Thirteenth century B.C.)
of the Thirteenth
to the deportation to Babylon in the Sixth century B.C.
Sixth century
Here stress
stress is laid upon what what one might call the 'national
one might 'national
presented as
event' which is presented as the fulfilment
fulfilment ofof Divine
Divine word. In In
the narration
narration however,
however, historical
historical accuracy
aceuraey has rather
rather been
been
brushed aside:: a work
brushed aside work such as the Book of of Joshua
Joshua complies
complies first
first
and foremost with theologieal intentions. With
with theological With this
this in mind, E.
Jacob underlines the obvious
Jacob obvious contradiction
contradiction between
between archaeology
archaeology
case of
and the texts in the case of the supposed
supposed destruction of of Jericho
and Ay.
andAy.
The Book ofof Judges
Judges is centered defense of
centered on the defense of the chosen
chosen
people against
people enemies and on the support given to
against surrounding enemies
them by God.
God. The Book waswas adapted several times,
adapted several times, as
as Father
Father A.
Lefevre notes
LefEvre notes with great
with great objectivity
objectivity in his Preamble to the
prefaces
Crampon Bible: the various prefaces in the text
Crampon text and the appen-
appen-
 of ,rE
Boob of
Ths B@b
Tlc the Olilfierrtrrrlwnt
Old TaftJment 15
tE

TABLE OF
TABLE OF THETHE DISTBIBUTION
DISTRIBUTION OF OF THE YAHVIST AND
THE YAHVIST AND
SACERDOTAL TEXTS
SACERDOTAL TEXTS IN CHAPTERS 1 TO
IN CHAPTERS TO 11 in
in GENESIS)
GENESIS)
The first
The first figure
figure indieates
indicates the
the chapter.
chapter.
The second
The second figure
figure inin brackets
brackets indicat€s
indicates the number of
the number of phrases,
phrases,
sometimes divided
sometimes divided into two parts
into two parts indicated
indicated by the letters
by the and b.
letters aa and b.
Letters: Y
Letters: indicates Yahvist text
Y indicates text
Sacerdotal text
S indicates Sacerdotal text
Example: The fust first line of indicates: from Chapter
of the table indicates: Chapter
phrase 1 to Chapter 2, phrase 4a,
1, phrase text published
4a, the text in preeenL
published in present-
Bibles is the Sacerdotal
day Bibles text.
Sacerdotal tet(t
CluJpter
Clwptcr phror,c
pkrfUle to
tn CluJpter
Clwptar phrou,c
pkrfUle tcxt
uzt
I1 (r)
(1) 2 (da)
(4a) sS
2 ({b}
(4b) {4 (2e1
(26) Y
5
6 ((1)
1) 5
E (s2)
(82) sS
6 ((1)
11 6 ((8)
8) Y
6 (e)
(9) 6 (22)
(22) sS
7 ((1)
1) 7 (6)
(5) Y
71 (6)
(6) s
S
7 (?)
(7) 7 (10)
(10) adapted
Y adapted
7 (rr1
(11) s
S
77 (12)
(12) Y
7 (18)
( 18) 7 (r6a)
(16a) s
S
77 (16b)
(1Gb) 7I (1?)
(17) Y
7 (18)
(18) 7 (2r)
(21) s
S
7T (221
(22) 77 (2s)
(23) Y
Y
7 (24)
(21) 8 (2a)
(2a) Ss
88 (2b)
(2b) Y
Y
8I (8)
(8) 8I (6)
(5) Ss
8I (6)
(6) 8g (Lz's
(12) Y
8I (18a)
(184) Ss
88 (18b)
(18b) Y
8I (14)
(111 8I (1 0 )
(19) Ss
8I (20)
(20) 88 (nl
(22) YY
9I (1)
(1) 9I (1?)
(17) SS
9s (18)
(18) 9I (2?)
(27) YY
9I (s8)
(28) 10
10 (11
(7) Ss
10
10 (8)
(8) 10
10 (ls1
(19) YY
10
l0 (20)
(20) 10
10 (241
(23) Ss
ro
10 (211
~~ w10 (s0)
(~) YY
10
10 (8r1
(81) 10
10 (821
(32) Ss
11
1l (1)
(1) 11
11 (e)
(9) YY
11
l1 (r0)
(10) 11
11 (82)
(32) Ss
What
What simpler
simpler illustration
illustration can
can there
there be
be ofof the way
the way men have
men have
manipulst€d the
manipulated the Biblical
Biblical Scriptures?
Scriptures?
 t0
18 THE
THE BmLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUHAN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

dices
dices bear
bear witness
witness to to this.
this. The
The story
story of of Ruth
Ruth is is attached
attached to to the
the
narrations contained
narrations conteined in in Judges.
Judges.
The
The Book
Book of of Samuel
Samueland and the
the two
two Books
Books ofof Kings
Kings are are above
above allall
biographical
biographical collections
collections concerning
concerning Samuel,
Samuel, Saul, Saul, David,
David, and and
Solornon.Their
Solomon. Their historic
historic worthworth is is the
the subject
subject of of debate.
debate. From From
point of
this point
this of view
view E.E. Jacob
Jacob finds
finds numerous
numerous errors
errors in in it,
it, because
beeause
there are
there are sometimes
sometimes two two and
and even
even three
three versions
versions of the the same
same
event. The
event. prophets Elias,
The prophets Elisha and
Elias, Elisha and Isaiah
Isaiah also figure here,
also figure here,
mixing elements
mixing elementsof of history
history and
and legend.
legend. ForFor other commentators,
commentators,
sueh as
such as Father
Father A. A. Lefevre,
Lefdvre, "the"the historical
historical value of thesethese books
books is
fundamental."
fundamental."
Chronicles II &
Chronicles & II,
II, the Book
Book of EzraEbra and
and the Book Book of Nehemiah
Nehemiah
have aa, single
have single author, called ,the Chronicler', writing
called 'the writing in the
Fourth century B.C.
Fourth B.c. He resumesresumes the whole whole history
history of the Cre-
ation up period, although his genealogical
up to this period, genealogical tablestables only go
up to David. In actual fact, he he is using above above all the Book of
samuel and
Samuel and the Book
Book of Kings, "mechanically copying them out
without regard to the inconsistencies"
without inconsistencies" (E. Jacob), but he never-
theless precise facts that have
adds precise
theless adds have been
been confirmed
conflrmed by archae- archae-
ology. In
ology. In these
these works care is taken to adapt history history to the needs needs
of theology.
theology. E. JacobJacob notes notes that ,,sometimes writes
that the author "sometimes writes
history according to theology". "To
history "To explain the fact that that King
King
Manasseh, who was a sacrilegious persecutor,
Manasseh, persecutor, had a rong long and
prosperous reign, he postulates
prosperous postulates a conversion
conversion of of the King King during
during
a stay in Assyria
Assyria (Chronicles II, II, gg/tl)
33/11) although there is no
mention of of this in any Biblical or non-Biblical souree". source". The Book
of Ezra
of Ezra and the Book of of Nehemiah have been been severely criticised
criticised
beeause
because they are full full of obscure points, and because
of obscure because the period period
they deal with (the
deal with (the Fourth
Fourth century
century B.c.)
B.C.) is itself
itself not not very
very well
well
known, there being few few non-Biblical
non-Biblical documents
documents from from it. it.
The Books of of robit,
Tobit, Judith
Judith and Esther
Esther are classed
classed among
among the the
Historical
Historical Books.
Books. rn In them very very big big liberties
liberties are are taken
taken w.ith
with
history: proper
history: proper names
names are changed,
changed, eharacters
characters and and events
events are are
invented, all all for
for the
the bestbest ofof religious
religious reasons.
reasons. They They are are in in fact
fact
stories designed
designed to to serve aa moralmoral end,end, peppered
peppered with with historical
historical
improbabilities
improbabilities and and inaccuracies.
inaccuracies.
The Books
Books of of Maecabees
Maccabees are are ofof quite
quite aa different
different order.order. They
They
provide
provide aa version
version of of events
events that took place
that took place inin the
the Second
Second century
century
B.c.
B.C. which
which is is as
as exact
exact aa record
record of of the
the history
history of this period
of this period as as
The Books
Tho of tthe
Boob of Old Tectament
E Old TeaftJment 17
17

may be
may found. ItIt is for
be found. for this
this reason
reason that
that they constitute accounts
they constitute accounts
of great
of great value.
value.
collection of
The collection of books
books under heading 'historical'
under the heading 'historical' is there-
there-
treated in both
disparate. History is treated
fore highly disparate. and a
scientific and
both a scientific
whimsical fashion.
whimsical fashion.

THE
THE PROPHETIC
PNOPHETIC BOOKS
this heading we find the preachings of
Under this
Under of various prophets
who in in the
the Old Testament
Testament have been classed separately from
been classed from
the first
first great
great prophets such as Moses, Moses, Samuel,
Samuel, EliasElias and Elisha,
whose teachings are referued referred to in in other
other books.
books.
The prophetic
prophetic books cover the period period from Eighth to the
from the Eiehth
Second century
Secondcentury B.C.
In the Eighth
In Eighth century 8.C., B.C., there were the books books of Amos,
Amos,
Hosea,
Hosea, Isaiah and Michah. The first
first of these
these is famous for
for his
condemnation of of social inj ustice,
injustice, the second
second for
for his religious
religious
corruption
corruption which leads leads him to bodily suffering (for (for being forced
foreed
to marry
marry a sacred harlot
saered harlot of a pagan cult),
cult), like God
God suffering for
for
the degradation of His people people but still granting them His love.
still granting love.
Isaiah is a figure of political political history:
history: he is consulted
consulted by kings
and dominates events;
dominates events; he
he is the prophet of grandeur. In addition
to his personal
personal works, his oracles published by his disciples
oracles are published disciples
right
right up until
until the Third
Third century B.C.: protests
protests against iniquities,
iniquities'
fear of God's
God's judgement, proclamations
proclamations of liberation at the time
of exile and later later on the return
return of the Jews Jews to Palestine.
Palestine. It It is
certain
certain that in the case
case of the second
second and
and third
third Isaiah, the pro-
phetic intention
intention is paralleled
paralleled by political considerations
considerations that are
are
as
as clear as
as daylight. The preaching of Michah,
Michah, a
a contemporary of
Isaiah, follows
fsaiah, follows the same
same general
general ideas.
ideas.
In the Seventh
Seventh century B.C., 8.C., Zephaniah,
Zephanish, Jeremiah, Nahum
and
and Habakhuk distinguished themselves by their preachings.
Habakkuk distinguished themselves preachings.
Jeremiah became a martyr.
Jeremiah became a martyr. His His oracles
oracles were
\rvere collected
collected by Baruch
by Baruch
who is also
who is also perhaps
perhaps the
the author
author of
sf Lamentations.
Lamentations'
The
The period
period of of exile
exile in in Babylon
Babylon at at the
the beginning
begfnning of the Sixth
of the Sixth
century
century B.C.B.C. gave
gsve birth
birth to to intense
intense prophetic
prophetic activity.
activity. Ezekiel
Ezekiel
figures
figures importantly
importantly as as the
the consoler
consoler of of hishis brothers, inspiring
brothers" inspiring
hope among them. His visions
hope among them. IIis visions &re famous. are famous. The
The Book
Book of
of Obsdish
Obadiah
deals with the misery of
deals with the misery of a conquered a conquered Jerusalem.
Jerusalem.
 18
18 THE
THEBIBLE,
BIBLE,THE
THEQUR'AN
QUR'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

After the
After the exile,
exile,which
whieh came cameto to an
an end
endin
in 538
bggB.C.,
8.c., prophetic
prophetic
activity resumed
activity resumedwith with Haggai
Haggai and and Zechariah
Zechariah whowho urged
urged thethe re·
re-
eonstruction of
construction of the
the Temple.
Temple. When When itit was
was completed,
completed,writings
writings
goingunder
going underthe thename
nameof of Malachi
Malachiappeared.
appeared.They
They contain
containvarious
various
oraclesof
oracles of aaspiritual
spiritual nature.
nature.
wonders why
one wonders
One why thethe Book
Book of of Jonah
Jonah is
is included
included in in the
the pro-
pro-
phetic books
phetic bookswhenwhen the the Old
old Testament
Testament does
doesnot
not give
give it
it any
any real
real
text to
text to speak
speakof. of. Jonah
Jonah is is aa story
story from
from which
which one
one principle
p'incipll fact
fact
emerges:the
emerges: necessarysubmission
the necessary submissionto to Divine
Divine Will.
will.
Daniel was
Daniel was written
written in in three
three languages
languages (Hebrew,
(Hebrew, Aramaic
Aramaic and and
Greek). According
Greek). According to to Christian
Christian commentators,
eommentators,it ,discon-
it is aa 'discon-
is
certing'Apocalypse
certing' Apocalypse from from an an historical
historical point
point ofof view.
view. ItIt is
is prob-
prob-
ably aa work
ably work fromfrom thethe Maccabaean
Maceabaeanperiod,
period, Second
seconrl century B.C.
century B.c.
Its author
Its author wished
wished to to maintain
maintain the th0 faith
faith of his
his countrymen,
countrymen, at at the
the
time ofof the 'abomina,tion
the 'abomination
time of desolation',
desolation',by convincing them
by convincing them that that
the moment
the moment of deliverance
deliverance was was at hand.
hand. (E. Jacob)
Jacobi

THE BOOKS OF POETRY

THE POETRY AND AND WISDOM
WISDOM
These form collections
These collectionsof unquestionable
unquestionableliterary
literary unity.
Foremost among
Foremost psalms, the greatest
among them are the Psalms, greatest monument
monument
poetry. A
to Hebrew poetry. A large number were composed
composed by David and
the others
the others by priests
priests and levites.
levites. Their
Their themes
themes are praises,
praises, sup-
sup-
plications
plications and meditations,
meditations, and they served
served a liturgical
liturgical function.
The book
book of
of Job,
Job, the book
book of
of wisdom and pietypiety pal' excellence,
po,refrcellenne,
probably dates
probably dates from
from 400-b00
400-500 B.C.
The
The author
author ofof 'Lamentations'
'Lamentations' on the fallfall of
of Jerusalem
Jerusalem atat the
the
beginning of of the sixth
Sixth century B.c.
B.C. may
may well
well be be Jeremiah.
Jeremiah.
we
We must
must once
once again
again mention
mention the
the song
Song ofof songs,
Songs, allegorical
allegorical
chants mostly about
chants mostly about Divine
Divine love,
love, the
the Book
Book ofof proverbs,
Proverbs, aa collec-
collec-
tion
tion of
of the
the words
words ofof Solomon
Solomon and
and other
other wise
wise menmen of
of the
the court,
court,
and
and Ecclesiastes
Ecclesiastes or
or Koheleth,
Koheleth, where
where earthly
earthly happiness
happiness andand wis-
wis-
dom
dom are
are debated.
debated.

We have,
we have, therefore,
therefore, aa collection
collection ofof works
works with
with highly
highly disparate
disparate
contents
contents written
written over
over atat least
least seven
seven centuries,
centuries, using
using extremely
extremely
varied
varied sourees
sources before
before being
being amalgamated
amalgamated inside
inside aa single
single work.
work.
How was
How was this
this collection
collection able,
able, over
over the
the centuries,
centuries, to
to constitute
constitute an
an
Tlw Boobof01 thc
The Boola theOld
Old Tectamrlzfi
Testament le19

inseparable whole
inseparable whole and-with
and-with aa few few variations accordingtoto com-
variations according com-
munity-become the
lnooity-uecome the book
book containing
containing the Judeo-Christian Reve-
the Judeo-christian Reve-
lation?
lation This book
? This book was was called
called inin Greek
Greek the the 'canon' because of
'canon' because of thethe
idea of
idea of intangibilitY
intangibility itit eonveYs.
conveys.
The smalgam
The amalgam does does not not date
date from
from the Christian period,
the Christisn period, but but
from Judaism
from Judaism itself, itself, probably
probably withwith aa primary
primary stage stage in the Sev-
in the Sev-
enth century
enth century B.C. B.C. before
before later
later books
books were added to
were added those already
to those already
accepted. ItIt is
accepted. is to
to be
be noted
noted however
however that the first
that the first five books, form-
five books, form-
ing
ing the
ihe Torah
Torah or
or Pentateuch,
Pentateuch, have
have always
always been
been given
given pride
pride of
of
place. Once
plice. Once the the proclamations
proclamations of of the prophets (the
the prophets prediction of
(the prediction of
aa chastisement
chastisement commensurate
commensurate with misdemeanour) had
with misdemeanour) been ful-
had been ful-
filled, there
filled, there was was no no difficulty
difficulty in in adding their texts
adding their texts to the books
to the books
that had
that had already
already been been admitted. The same same was was true true for for the the
assurances
assurances of
of hope
hope given by these
these prophets.
prophets. By
By the Second
Second
century 8.C.,
century B.C., thethe 'Canon'
'Canon' of the prophetsprophets had been been formed.
formed.
Other books,
other books, e.g.
e.g. Psalms,
Psalms, on account
account of their
their liturgieal
liturgical func-
func-
tion,
tion, werewere integrated along
along with
with further
further writings, such
such as
as Lam-
Lam-
entations,
entations, the the Book
Book of WisdomWisdom and the Book Book of Job.Job'
Christianity,
Christianity, which was initially
was initially Judeo-Christianity,
Judeo-Christianity, has been
has been
carefully studied-as
carefully studied-as we we shall see
see later on-by
on-by modern authors,
authors,
such as
such as Cardinal
Cardinal Danielou.
Dani6lou. Before Before it it was
was transformed under under
Paul's influence,
Paul's influence, ChristianityChristianity accepted
accepted the
the heritage of the Old
Old
Testament without
Testament without difficulty. difficulty. The
The authors
authors of the
the Gospels
Gospels ad-
ad-
hered very strictly to the latter, but whereas a
a 'purge' has
'purge' has been
been
hered very strictly to the latter, whereas
made 'Apoct'ypha', the the samesame
made of of the
the Gospels
Gospelsby by ruling
ruling out out the
the 'Apocrypha',
selection has not been
selection has not been deemed necessarydeemed necessary for
for the
the old
Old Testament.
Testament.
Everything, or
Everything, or nearly
nearly everything,
everything, has has been accepted'
been accepted.
Who
who would would have have dared dispute any
dared dispute any aspects
aspectsof of this disparate
this disparate
amalgam
amalgam before before the the endend of of the
the Middle
Middle Ages-in
Ages-in the West the West at at
least?
least? The The answer
answer isis nobody,
nobody,or or almost
almost nobody. From
nobody.From the end the end
ofof the
the Middle
Middle Ages Agesup up toto the
the beginning
beginning of moderntimes,
of modern times,one oneor or
two
two critics
critics beganbeganto to appear;
appear; but,but, asas wewe have already
have already seen, the seen, the
Church inin having
having their their own own
Church Authorities
Authorities have have always
always succeeded
succeeded
way.
way.Nowadays,
Nowadays,there thereisiswithout
without doubt genuine body
doubtaagenuine body of textual of textual
criticism, devotedmany
havedevoted many
crilicism, but but even
evenifif ecclesiastic
ecclesiasticspecialists
specialistshave
of points,
detailedpoints, they they
of their
their efforts
effortsto to examining
examiningaamultitudemultitude of of detailed
have
havepreferred
preferred not not to to go
gotootoo deeply
deeptyinto what they
into what euphemisti-
they euphemisti-
cally 'difficulties'.They disposedtoto study studythem them
callycall call'difficulties'. Theyhardly
hardly seemseemdisposed
inin the establishparal-
wellestablish paral-
ttrelight
light of ofmodern
modernknowledge.
knowledge.They Theymay maywell
 to THEBIBLE,
THE BIBLE,THE
THEQUR'AN
QUR'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE
lelswith
leis with history-principally
history-principally when whenhistory
history and
and Biblical
Biblical narra-
narra-
tion appear
tion appearto to be
bein
in agreemeJ1lt--but
agreement-but so so far they havenot
far they have not com-
com-
mitted themselves
mitted themselvesto to be
beaa frank
frank and
andthorough
thoroughcomparison
comparisonwithwith
scientificideas.
scientific ideas.They
Theyrealize
reslizethat
that this
this would
wouldlead
leadpeople
peopletoto con-
con-
'testnotions
.test notionsabout
aboutthethetruth
truth of
of Judeo-Christian
Judeo-christianScriptures,
scripto"*r, which
which
haveso
have sofar
far remained
remainedundisputed.
undisputed.
 lll
III
The Otd
fhe T eslaDlenl and
Old festarnent and
Sc:iEnf:e.
Scierrce.
Findings
Find,uls
Few of
Few of the subiects
subjects dealt within within the Old Testament, and
likewise the
likewise the Gospels,
Gospels, give
give rise
rise to confrontation with
to a confrontation the data
with the
of modern knowledge.
of knowledge. When an incompatibility
incompatibility does does occur be-
tween the Biblical
tween Biblical text
text and science,
science, however,
however, it it is on extremely
important points.
important
As
As wewe have
have already seen seen in the preceding chapter, historical historical
errors
errors werewere found in the Bible and we have quoted several
have quoted several of of
these
thesepinpointed
pinpointed by JewishJewish andand Christian
christian experts exegesis.
experts in exegesis. The The
latter
latter have
have naturally had had aa tendency
tendency to minimize the importance
the importance
of
of such
such errors.
errors. They
They find quite natural for aa sacred author to
find it quite sacred to
present
present historical fact in accordanceaccordaneewith theologlyand
with theology and to write
write
history
iri*to.y toto suit certain
certain needs.
needs.We We shall
shall see
seefurther
further on, case
the case
on' in the
of
of the
the Gospel
Gospel according
according to to Matthew,
Matthew, the the same
same liberties taken
liberties taken
with
with reality
reality and
and the
the same
same commentaries
commentariesaimed aimed at making ad-
at making ad-
missible
missible as as reality
reality what
what is is in
in contradiction
contradiction to it. A logical
to it. A logical and and
objective
objective mindmind cannot
cannot be be content
content with
with this procedure.
this procedure.
From
i-to* aa logical
logical angle,
angle,it it is
is possible
possihteto to single
single out number
large number
out aa large
of
of contradictions
contradictionsand and improbabilities.
improbabilities. The The existence of different
existenceof different
soureesthat
sources that might
might have
havebeen
beenusedusedin in the
the writing
writing of description
of aa description
may
may be beatat the
the origin
origin of of two
two different presentationsof
different presentations the same
of the same
fact. This
fact. This isis not
not all; different
ditr*rent adaptations,
adaptations,later to
additions to the
later additions the
text
text itself,
itself, like
likethe "it;
thecommentaries
commentariesadded addedaa posteriori, then
posteriori,then included included
in made-these are per-
are per-
in the
the text
text later
later on
on wheJ}
whe$ aa new new copy
copy waswas made-these
fectly
fectly recognized
recognizedby by specialists
specialistsin in textual
textual criticism and
criticism and very very
frankly
ir"ni.tv underlined
underlinedby bysome
someof of them.
them.In In the caseof
thecase Pentateuch
the Pentateuch
of the

gl
21
 22
22 THEBIBLE,
THE BIBLq THE
THEQUR'AN
QUN'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

alone,for
alone, for example,
example,FatherFather de deVaux
vaux in in the
the General
GeneralIntroduction
Introduction
precedinghis
preceding histranslation
translationof ofGenesis (pages13
Genesis(pages lB and
and14),14),has
hasdrawn
drawn
attention to
attention to numerous
numerous disagreements.
disagreements.We We shall
shall notnot quote
quote them
them
here since
here since we we shall
shall be quoting several
be quoting severalof of them
them later
later onon in
in this
this
study. The
study. general impression
The general impression one gains isis that
one gains that oneone must
must not not
follow the
follow thetext
text toto the
the letter.
letter.
Here is
Here is aa very
very typical
typical example:
example:
In Genesis
In Genesis(6, (6, 3),B), God
God decides just before
decidesjust before the the Flood
Flood hence-
henee-
forth to
forth limit man's
to limit man's lifespan
lifespan to to one
one hundred
hundred and and twenty
twenty years,
years,
". . . his
"... his days
daysshall
shall be be aa hundred
hundred and and twenty
twenty years".
years". Further
Further on on
however,we
however, we note
note inin Genesis
Genesis(11, (ll, 10-32)
r0$z) thatthat the
the tenten descendants
descendants
of Noah
of Noah had had lifespans
lifespans that that range
range from
from 148 l4g to to 600
600 years
years (see (see
table in
table in this
this chapter
chapter showing
showing Noah's
Noah's descendants
descendantsdown to Abra-
down to Abra-
ham). The
ham). The contradiction
contradiction between between these
these twotwo passages
passagesis is quite
quite
obviouq.The
obvious.. The explanation
explanation is elementary.
elementary. The The first passage
passage (Gene-
(Gene-
sis 6,
sis 6, 3) is aa Yahvist text, probably probably dating as as wewe have
have already
already
seenfrom the
seen the Tenth century B.C. B.c. The
The second
second passage
passage in Genesis
Genesis
(11, 10-32)
(11, 10-3U) is aa much much more more recent
recent text (Sixth century century B.C.)
B.C.)
from the Sacerdotal
from Saeerdotal version.
version. This version is at the origin of these
origitt if th"**
genealogies,which are as
genealogies, as precise
precise in their
their information on on life-
life-
spans as
spans as they are improbable
improbable when when taken en en ?nusse.
masse.
It is in Genesis
It Genesis that we find find the most
most evident
evident incompatibilities
with
with modern
modern science.
science. TheseThese coneern
concern three essential
essential points:
1)
1) the Creation
Creation of of the world and its stages; stages;
2l
2) the date of of the creation
Creation of of the world ancland the date of of man's
man's
appearance
appearance on earth; earth;
3)
3) the the description of of the
the Flood.
Flood.

THE
THE CNEATION
CREATION OF THE WORLD
OF THE WORLD
As
As Father
Father de Vaux points
de Vaux points out,
out, Genesis ,.starts
Genesis "starts with
with two
two juxta_
juxta-
posed
posed descriptions
descriptions of
of the
the creation'.1.
Creation'!. when
When examining
examining them
them from
from
the point
the point of
of view
view ofof their
their eompatibility
compatibility with
with modern
modern scientifie
scientific
data,
data, we
we must
must look
look at
at each
each one
one separately.
separately.

First
First Description
Description of
of the
the Crcatimr
Creation
The
The first
first description
description occupies
occupies the
the first
first chapter
chapter and
and the
the ver.y
very
first
first verses of the
verses of the second chapter. ItIt isis aa masterpieee
second chapter. masterpiece of
of inaecu-
inaccu-
racy
racy from
from aa scientific
scientific point
point of
of view.
view. ItIt mustmust be
be examined
examined oneone
The OldTetwrcnt
Thc tJfId Sctercc
Old Tatornentud Science 23

paragraph atat aa time.

parsgmph time. The The text reproduced here
text repnoduced from the
here isis from the Be- Re-
vised $tandard
vised Standard Version Version of of the
the Bible.'
Bible. l

Chapter1,
Chapter 1,verges
verses|1&21 & 2:
.,In
"Inihe the beginning
beginning God God ereated
created the heavens and
the heavens and the earth. The
the earth. The
earth *""
earth was without
without form form and and void,
void, and darkness was upon
and darkness was upon the the
face of
fece of thethe deep;
deep; and and thethe spirit
Spirit of of God
God was moving over
was moving over the the faeeface
ofthe
of the waters."
waters."
ItIt is
is quite
quite possible
possible to admit that
to admit before the
that before Creation of
the Creation of thethe
Earth,
Earth, what
what was
was to
to become
become the
the Universe
Universe as
as we
we know
know it
it was
was cov-
cov-
ered in
ered in darkness.
darkness. To To mention
mention the existence of
the existence water at
of water this period
at this period
is however
is however quite
quite simply
simply pure
pure imagination.
imagination. We
We shall
shall see
see in the
in the
third
ifti"a part
part of
of this
tttir book
book how
how there
there is
is every
every indication
indication that
that at
at the
the
initial stage
initial stage of of the formation
formation of of thethe universe a gaseous gaseous m&ss mass
existed.
existed. It
It is
is an
an error
error to
to place water
water in
in it.
it.
Verses 33 to
Verses to 5:
5:
"And God said,
said, 'L€t
'Let there be light', light', and there was light' light. And And
"And God
God
God saw saw that
that the light
light was good; and God
God separated
separated the light
light
from the
from the darkness.
darkness. God God called
called the light light Day, and the darkness darkness he he
called Night.
ealled Night. And there was evening and there was
was morning, one
one
day."
day."
The
The lightlish,t circulating
circulating in the Universe universe is the result of complex complex
reactions
reaction* itt ttt* in the stars. We shall come
come back to them in the third
third
part of this
of this work. work. At this stage
stage in the
the Creation,
Creation, however,
however, accord-
accord-
'lights' of the
The 'lights'
ing
ing to to the
the Bible,
Bible, the the stars
stars were
were not yet formed. formed. The of the
firmament
firmament are are not
not mentioned
mentioned in
in Genesis
Genesis until
until verse
verse 14,
14, when
when they
they
were created
were created on
on the
the Fourth
Fourth day,
day, "to
"to separate
separate the
the day
day from
from the
the
night",
night", "to "to give
give light
light upon
upon earth";
earth"; all
all of
of which
which is
is accurate'
accurate.
It (lieht) on on the first
the first
Itlsis illogical,
illogieal, however,
however, to to mention
mention the the result
result (light)
day, when the
day, when the cause of cause of this
this light
light was
was created
created three
three days
days later'
later.
The morning is placedon
is placed on
The factfact that that thethe existence
existenceof of evening
evening and and morning
the first day is moreover, purely
purely imaginary;
imaginary; the
the existence
existence of
of
the first day is moreover,
evening and morning
evening and morning as elements as elements of
of a a single
single day
day is
is only
only con-
con-
ceivable
ceivabl,e after
after the thecreation
creationof of the
theearth
earth and and its rotation under
its rotation underthe the
light of its own star,
light of its own star, the Sun ! the Sun!
-verses
-verses 66to to88
,,AndGod
"And 'Let there midst of
the midst
in the of the the
Gods2.id,
said,'Let therebe beaafirmament
firmament in
waters, and let it separate the
the waters
waters from
from the
the waters''
waters.' And
And God
God
waters, and let it separate
Pub. W. Collins&& Sons and Foreign Society'
Bible Society,
Foreign Bible
1.l--prU. W. M.
nl. Collins Sonsfor
for the
the British
British and
1952.
1952.
 ,U THE
THE BIBLE,
BIBT.R,THE
TIIE QUR'AN
QUR'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

madethe
made the firmament
firmament and and separated
separatedthe the waters
waters which whieh werewere under
under
the firmament
the ftrmament from from the the waters which were above
waters which were above the firmament. the firmament.
And itit was
And wasso. so.And And GodGodcalled
calledthe the firmament
firmament Heaven. Heaven.And And there
there
was evening
was evening and and there
there was morning, a second
was morning, a second day." day."
The myth
The myth of of the
the waters
waters is is continued
continued here here with with their
their separation
separation
into two
into two layers layers by by aa firmament
firmament that that in in thethe description
description of of the
the
Flood allows
Flood allows the the waters
waters aboveaboveto to pass
passthrough
through and and flow
iiow onto
onto thethe
earth. This
earth. This image image of of the
the division
division of of the
the waters
waters into into two
two masses
masses
is scientifically
is scientifically unacceptable.
unacceptable.
-verses 9I to
-verses to 13 13
"And God
"And God said,said, 'Let'L€t the
the waters
waters under
under the the heavens
heavens be be gathered
gathered
together into
together into one place,and
one place, and let
let the dry land appear., And it
the dry land appear.' it Was
was
so.God
so. Godcalled
calledthe the dry
dry land
land Earth,
Earth, and the
and the waters that were
were gath-
ered together
ered together he he called
called Seas.
seas. And
And God God sawsaw that it was was good.
good. And Antl
God said,
ssid, 'Let 'r-Et
God the earth
earth put forth vegetation,
forth vegetation, plants yielding
yielding
seed,and
seed, and fruit
fruit trees trees bearing fruit fruit in which is their their seed,
***d, each
each
according
according to its kind upon the earth.' And it it was
was so.so. The earth
earth
brought forth forth vegetation,
vegetation, plants yielding yielding seed seed according to to their
their
kinds' and trees
own kinds, trees bearing fruit fruit in which is their their seed, each
seed, each
aecording:
according to its kind. And God
God saw that that itit was good. good. AndAnd there
there
was evening
was evening and there was morning, morning, a third third day."
day."
?he fact that
The that continents emerged emerged at the period in in the earth's
earth's
history,
history, when itit was still still covered
covered with with water, is quite acceptable acceptable
scientifically. IVhat
scientifically. What is totauy totally untenabre
untenable is that that a highly
highly organized
organized
vegetable
vegetable kingdom with with reproduction
reproduction by by seedseed could
could havehave ap- ap-
peared
peared before
before the existence existence of of the sun (in (in Genesis
Genesis itit doesdoes not not
appear
appear untiluntil the fourth fourth day),day), and likewise
likewise the the establishment
establishment of of
alternating
alternating nights nights and days. days.
-verses
-verses 14 14 to to 19
"And
"And God God said, said, 'Let'Let there
there be be rights
lights in in thethe firmaments
firmaments of of the
the
heavens to separate the
heavens to separate the day from tight; day from :night; and and let let them
them be be forfor
signs
signs and and for for seasons
seasons and and for
for days
days and and years,
years, and and letlet them
them be be
lights
lights in in thethe firmament
firmament of of the
the heavens
heavens to to give
give light
light upon
upon the the
earth.'
earth.' And And itit was was so.so. And
And GodGod mademade the the two two great
great lights,
lights, the the
greater light to rule
greater light to rule the day, the day, and
and thethe lesser
lesser light
light to to rule
rule the
the night;
night;
tre
ite made
made the the stars
stars also.also. And
And God God setset them
them in in the
the fir'mament
firmament of of
the heavens to
the heavens to give light give light upon
upon earth,
earth, to to rule
rule ovei.
over thethe dayday andand
over
over thethe night,
night, and and to to separate
separate the the light
light fromfrom the the dar.kness.
darkness. And And
tlu OlitTrrrtcrlrlntonitSdcte It

God ssw
God saw thst was good.
that itit was good. And there was
And there evening and
was evening there was
and there was
morning, fourth daY."
morning, aa fourth day!'
Here the
Here the Bibtical
Biblical author's description is
author's description acceptable. The
is acceptable. The only
only
criticism one
criticism one could
could level
level at this pagssge
at this passage is is the position itit occu'
the lnsition occu-
pies in
pies the description
in the description as as aa whole. Earth and
whole. Earth emanated, as
Moon emanated,
and Moon as
we know,
ie know, from their original
from their original Btar,
star, the Sun. To
the Sun' place
To place the the creation
creation
of the
of the Sun
Sun andand Moon
Moon afterafter the creation of
the creation of the Earth is
the Earth is contrary
contrary
to the
to the most
most ftrmly
firmly estsblished ideas on
established ideas on the formation of
the formation of tlre
the
elements of
elements of the
the Solrr
Solar SYstem.
System.
-verses 20 to
-verses to 8030
'Iret swarms of
forth swarms
bring forth of living
"Aud God said, 'Let the waters bring
"And God said, living
creatures,
creatures, and let birds
birds fly above
above the esrth
earth seross
across the firmament
of the heavens.'
of heavens.' So So God created the great sea
God created monsters and every
sea monsters
living creature
Iiving creature that that moves,
moves, with
with which the swarm, 8c'
waters swarm, ac-
cording
eording to their kinds,
their kinds, and and every
every winged
winged bird
bird according
according to its
kind. And God God saw saw that itit was was good.
good. And God God blessed them say-
blessed them say-
'Be fruitful
ing, 'Be fruitful and multiply and
and multiply waters in the seas,
and fill the waters and
seas,and
let birds multiply
Uirds multiply on on the earth.' And there
there was
was evening
evening and
and there
there
was
was morning,
morning, aa fifth fifth day."
day." .
This passage contains
T|1is passagecontains assertions assertions which
which are
are unacceptable.
unacceptable.
According
According Genegis,to Genesis, the
the animal
animal kingdom
kingdom begpn
began with the ap'
the ap-
pearance of
peerance creatures creatures of the
the sea
ses and
and winged
winged birds.
birds. The
The Biblicsl
Biblical
description
deseriptioninforms us us that it was not until the
was not day-as we
the next day-as we
shall see
shall see the in the following verses-that
verses-that the
the earth
earth itself was
was popu-
popu-
lated
latedby by animals.
animals.
It is
It is certain
eerteinthat that thethe origins
origins of life came
of life camefromfrom the the sea,
sea,but this
but this
question
questionwill will not
not bebe dealt
dealt with
with until
until the third part of
the third part of this book.this book.
From
F"o* the ttre sea,
sea,thethe earth
earth waswas colonized,
colonized,as it were,
as it were' by the animal
by the animal
kingdom. It is from animals living on
kingdom. It is from animals living on the
the surface
surface of
of the
the earth,
earth,
and in particular from
*t d in particular from one species one species of
of reptile
reptile which
which lived
lived in
in the
the
Second
secondera, era, that
that itit isis thought
thought the the birds originated.
birds originated. Numerous Numerous
biological
biologicalcharacteristics
charaeteristicscommon commonto to both speciesmake
both species makethis this de-de-
duction
ductionpossible.
possible.The The beasts
beastsof of the earth are
the earth not however
are not however men- men-
tioned
tioneduntilut tit the
the sixth
sixth day
day in in Genesis;
Genesis;after after the appearanceof
the appearance of
the
the birds.
birds. This
This order
order of of appearance,
appearance, beastsof
beasts the earth
of the earth after after
birds,
birds,isisnotnottherefore
thereforeacceptable.
acceptable.
-verses
-verses 24 24toto3131
,.AndGod
"And Godsaid, 'I-€tthe
said,'Let theearth bring forth
earthbring creaturesac-
living creatures
forth living &c-
cording to their kinds:
cording to their kinds: cattle cattle and
and creeping
creeping things
things and
and beasts
beasts of
of
 rO TIIE BIBLE,
THE BIBI.F,|,THE
THEQUR'AN
QI'N'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENGE

the earth
the earttr according
accordlng to to their
their kinds.'
kindg.' AndAnd itit was
wasso. so.And And God Godmademade
the beasts
the beasts of of the
the earth
earth according
according to to their
their kinds
kinds and the cattle
and the catfle
according to
according to their
their kinds,
kinds, and and everything
everything that that creeps
ereeps upon upon the the
ground according
ground eecordins to to its
its kind.
kind. And
And God saw that it
God saw that it was good."was good."
"Then
"Then God Godsaid, 'L€t us
said, 'Let usmake
make man man in in our
our image,
image, afterafterour our like-
like-
ness; and
ness; and letlet them
them havehave dominion
dominion (sic) (sic) over
over the fish of the
the fish of the sea,
sea,
and over
and over the the birds
birds of of the
the air,
air, and
and over
over thethe cattle,
catile, andand over
over all all the
the
earth and
earth and over
over every
every creeping
creeping thingthins thatthat creeps
creeps upon upon the the earth".
earth".
"so God
"So Godcreated
created man man in in his
his own
own image,
image, in in the
the image
image of of God
God he he
created him; male
created him; male and female and female he hecreated
createdthem."
them."
"And
"And God blessedthem,
God blessed them, and and God
God saidsaid toto them,
them, 'Be .Be fruitful
fruitful and and
multiplS and fill
multiply, and fill the earth the earth and and subdue
subdue it; it; and
and have have dominion
dominion
over the
over the fish
fish of of the
the sea
sea andand over
over thethe birds
birds of of the
the air air and
and overover
every living
every living thing that thing that moves
moves upon upon the the earth.'
earth.' And God God said,
said,
'Behold, have given you
'Behold, I have given every plant yielding seed seedwhich is is upon
upon
the face
the fsce of the earth, and every tree with with seed
seed in its fruit; fruit; you you
shall have them for for food. And to every beast beast of the earth, and and to to
every bird
every bird of the air, and to everything everythins that that creeps
creeps on on the
the earth,
earth,
everything that
everything that has the breath breath of life,life, I have given siven every green
plant
plant for for food." And it it was so. so. And God God saw everything
everything that that he he
had made,
had made, and behold, behold, it i! was very good. good. And there was *"J evening
evening
and
and there was morning, morning, a sixth day."
sixth day."
This
This is is the description of of the culmination
culmination of of the creation.
Creation. The The
author
author lists lists all
all the living
living creatures not rnentioned mentioned before before and and
describes
describes the the various kinds of of food forfor man and beast. beast.
As
As we have seen, seen, the enor error was to to place the appearanceappearance of of
beasts
beasts of of the
the earth
earth after
after thatthat ofof the
the birds.
birds. Man's
Man's *pp""rrnce
appearance is is
however
however correctly
correctly situated
situated afterafter the
the other
other species
species of of living
living things.
things.
The description of
The Cescription of the
the creation
Creation finishes
finishes in in the the first
first three
three
verses
verses of Chapter p:
of Chapter 2:
"Thus the
"Thus the heavens
heavens and and the the earth
earth were were finished,
finished, and and all all the
the
host (sic)
host (sic) of of them.
them. And And on on the
the seventh
seventh day day God
God finished
finished his his work
work
which
which he he had
had done,
done, andand he he rested
rested on on the
the seventh
seventh day day fromfrom all all his
his
work
work which which he he hadhad done.
done. so So God
God blessed
blessed the the seventh
seventh day day and and
hallowed
hallowed it, it, because
because on on itit God
God rested
rested fromfrom all all his
his work
work whichwhich he he
had
had done
done in in creation;
creation;
These
These are the generations
are the generations of of the
the heavens
heavens and and the the ear.ilr
earth rvhenwhen
they were created."
they were created."
This
This description
description of of the
the seventh
seventh day day calls
calls for
for some
some comment.
comment.
?I'h.OldTlrrtomlrln crdiGiancc n27

Firstly the
Firstty the mesning
meaning of of certain
certain words.words. fire The text taken from
text isis tsken from
the Bevised
the Revised Stendard
Standard Version
Version of of the
the Bible mentioned above.
Bible mentioned above. The The
word trosf,
word 'host' sig1nifiee
signifies here,
here, in in allall probability,
probability, the multitude of
the multitude of be-
be-
created. Ag
ings created.
ings As for
for the expression 'he
the expression 'he rested', manner of
rested', itit isis aa manner of
translating the
translsUng the Hebrew
Hebrew word word 'shabbath',
'shabbath', from from whichwhich the the Jewish
Jewish
day for
day for reet
rest isis derived,
derived, hence
hence the expression in
the expression English 'sabbath'.
in English 'sabbath'.
ItIt is
is quite
quite clear
clear that
that the the 'rest'
'rest' that
that C'od God is said to
is said have taken
to have taken
after his
after his six
six days'
days' work
work is is aa legend.
legend. There There is nevertheless &n
is nevertheless an ex-
ex-
planation for
planation for this.
this. WeWe must
must bear bear in in mindmind that that the description of
the description of
the creation
the creation examined
examined here here is is tsken
taken from from the so-called Sacerdotal
the so-called
version, written
veruio& written by by priests
priests and and scribes who who were were the the spiritual
spiritual
successors of
suecessors of Ezekiel,
Ezekiel, thethe prophet
prophet of of the the exile Babylon writing
exile to Babylon writing
in the
in the Sixth
Sixth century
century B.C. We We have already already seen seen how how the the priests
priests
took
took the
the Yahvist
Yahvist and Elohist
Elohist versions of
of Genesis
Genesis and remodelled
them after
them after their
their ownown fashion
fashion in accordance with
in accordanee with their own pre-
their o\iln pre-
the 'legalist' char-
occupations.
occupations. Father
Father de Vaux
Vaux has written
written that
that 'legalist'
acter
acter of writings was very
of these writings very essential.
essentisl. An An outline
outline of this has
of this
already
already been
been given
given above.
above.
Whereas the Yahvist
Whereas Yahvist text text of the Creation, written written several cen- cen-
turies
turies beforebefore the Sacerdotal text, makes no mention
mention of God's
God's
sabbath,
sabbath, taken after after the fatigue
fatigue of aa week's labor, the authors of
the Sacerdotal
the sacerdotal text bring
bring it
it into theirtheir description.
description. They divide
the latter
the latter into into separate days,
days, with
with the very precise indication
precise indication of
the days
the days of the week.
week. They build it
it around the sabbatic day of
rest
rest which they have
have to justify
iustify to the faithful
faithful by pointing
pointing out
out
that God was the
thst God wss the first to first to respect
respect it.
it. Subsequent
Subseguent to
to this
this practical
practical
necessity, the
necessity, the description
description that that follows
follows has has an an apparently
apparently logical log,ical
religious order,
religious order, but
but in
in fact
fact scientific
scientific data
data permit
permit us
us to
to qualify
qualify the
the
latter as being
latter as being of a of a whimsical
whimsical nature.
nature.
The idea that
The idea that successive
successivephases phasesof of the the Creation,
Creation' as as seen
seenby the
by the
Sacerdotal authors
Sacerdotal authors in in their
their desiredesire to to incite people to
incite people to religious religious
observation,
observation, could could have
have been been compressed
compressed into into the space of
the space one
of one
week
week is is one
one that
that cannot
cannot be be defended
defended from a
from a scientific point
scientific point of of
view. Today we are
view. Today we are perfectly awareperfectly aware that
that the
the formation
formation of
of the
the
Universe
universe and and thethe E'arth
Earth took took placeplacein in stages
stagesthat lasted for
that lasted very
for very
long periods. (In
long periods. (In the
the third
third part part of of the present work,
the present work, we shall we shall
examine
o*itt" this
this question
questionwhen when we we come
cometo look at
to look at the
the Qur'anic
Qur'anic data data
concerning
concernins the the Creation).
Cneation). Even Even ifif the the description came
description came to a close to a close
onon tile
the evening
*veniog of of the
the sixth
sixth day, day, without
without mentioning
mentioning the seventh
the seventh
 ?a TIrEBIBLE,
THE BIBLF.,THE
rEE QUIr ANDSCIENCE
AN AND
QIIRAITI SGXB{CE
dan the 'sabbath'when
the 'sabbath' whenGodGodisis said
day, ssid to
to have
h^Bve rested,
rested,and evenif,
snd even if,
asin
as in the
the Qur"anie description,we
Qurhnic description, perrnittodto
were permitted
\re'wgne ttlink that
to think thrt
they were
they w'ereinin fact
fact undefined periodsrather
undefinedperiods rather than
than actual
actu*l days,
day+ the
the
Sacerdotaldescription
Sacerdotal description would
would still
stiu not
not bebe any
any more
mor€ acceptable.
rcceptable.
Thesuccession
The sueeession of episodes
of episodesitit contains
containsis is an
anabsolute
absolutecontradiction
contradiction
with elementary
with elementaryscientific
scientificknowledge.
knowledge.
It may
It may be beseen
seentherefore
therefore that
that the
the Sacerdotal
Saeerdotaldescription
description ofof the
the
creation stands
Creation standsoutout as
asan
an imaginative
imaginativeand andingenious
ingeniousfabrication.
fabricafion.
Its purposewas
Its purpose guite different
was quite different from
from that
that of
of making
making thethe truth
truth
known.
known.
SecordDewvipfu
Second Description
The second descriptionof
The second description of the
the Creation
creation in Genesis
Genesisfollows
follows im-
mediately upon
mediately upon the the first
first without comment
cornmentor transitional pas- pas-
sage.It
sage. It does
doesnot provokethe
not provoke the same
sameobjections.
objections.
we must
We must remember
rememberthat this descriptiondescription is roughlyroughly three three cen-
cen-
turies older
older andand is very short.
short. ItIt allows_
allows.more
more space
spaceto the the creation
ereation
of m'an
man andand earthly paradiseparadise than to·the to'the creation
creation of the the Earth
and Heavens.
and Heavens.It It mentions
mentions this very briefly (Chapter (chapter 2, E, 4b-7):
4biTl z
"rn the day tha't
"In tha,t Yahweh
Yahweh God God made
made the earth and and the heavens,
heavens,
when
when no no plant
plant of the field was yet in the earth
field was esrth and and nono herb of the
field had yet
field had yet sprung up-for up-for yahwehYahweh God God had had not caused
caused it it to
rain upon
upon the earth, earth, andand there
there waswas nono manman to till till the ground;
ground;
bu't
but a flood
flood went up from earth and and wstered
watered the whole whole faceface ofof the
ground-then
ground-then Yahweh Yahweh God God formed'man
formed-man of of dust from the ground, ground,
and
and breathed
breathed into his nostrils the bresth breath of of life;
life; and man became became
a living
living being."
being."
This is the Yahvist text that that appears
appears in in the
the text
text of of presenL
present-
day Bibles.
Bibles. The Sacerdotal
Sacerdotal text text was
was added
added to to itit later
later on,on, but
but one
one
may
may askask ifif itit was
was originally
originally so so brief.
brief. Nobody
Nobody is in aa position
is in position to to
say
say whether
whether the the Yahvist
Yahvist texttext has
has not,
not, in
in the
the course
course of of tirne,
time, been
been
pared
pared down.
down. We We do do not
not know
know ifif the few lines
the few lines wewe possess
possess represent
represent
all
all that
that the
the oldest
oldest Biblieal
Biblical text
text of
of the
the creation
Creation had had toto say.
say.
The
The Yahvist
Yahvist description
description does does not
not mention
mention the the actual
actual formation
formation
of
of the
the Earth
garth or or the
the Heavens.
He'avens. ItIt makes
makes itit clear
clear that
that when
when God God
ereated
created man, man, therre
there was
was no no vegetation
vegetation on on Earth
Earth (it (it had
had not not yet
yet
rained),
rained), eveneven though
though the the waters
waters of of the
the Earth
Earth had had covered
covered its its
surface.
surface. The The sequel
sequel toto the
the text
text confirms
confirms this;
this: God
God planted
planted aa gpr-gar-
den
den at'at the
the same
same time time as
as manman was
was created.
created. TheThe vegetable
vegetable kingdomkingdom
rise Old
Trrc relttJmenl and
OldTectarrrcnt amil SciBrace
SctcrroD 20

therefore appears on Earth

therefore Earth at
at the
the seme time as man. This
same time This is
is
scientifically inaccurate;
scientifically inaccurate; man
man did
did not
not appear
appear on Earth
Earth until
until a
long time after vegetation
long time after vegetation had been
been growing
growing on it.
it. We do not
not
know how
know how meny
many hundreds of of millions of years separate the two
millions of two
events.
This is the only
This only critieigm
criticism that
that one can level at Yahvist text.
a:t the Yahvist text.
fact that
The fact does not place the creation of
that itit does of man in time in
in time in re-
lation to the formation
lation formation of of the world
world and the earth, unlike the
earth, unlike
Sacerdotal text,
text, which
which places
places them in same week, frees itit
in the same
from the serious obiections
from objections raised against
against the latter.
latter.

THE
THE DATE OF THE
DATE OF WORLD~S CNEATION
THE WORLD"S CREATION AND THE
AND THE
DATE
DATE OF MAN'S APPEARANCE
OF MAATS APPEANANCE ON
ON EARTH.
EANTH.
The
Ttre Jewish calendar,
calendar, which follows the data contained contained in the
Old Testament, places the dates
Testament, places above very precisely.
dates of the above precisely. The
second
second halfhalf of the Christian
Christian year 1975 1975 corresponds
eorresponds to the be- be-
ginning
ginning of the 5,736th5,736th year of the creation of the world. The
creation of man followed several several days
days later, so so that
that he hashas the
same
same numerical
numerieal age,
age, counted years, as
counted in years, as in the Jewish
Jewish calendar.
ealendar.
There is probably a correction
correetion to be be made
made on account
account of the fact
that time was was originally
originally calculated
calculated in lunar years, years, while the cal-cal-
endar
endar usedused in the West is based based onon solar years. This correction
solar years. correction
would havehave to bebe made
made if if one
one wanted to be be absolutely
absolutely exact,
exact, but
as
as itit represents
represents only 3%, 3To, it
it is of very little
little consequence.
consequenee.To sim-
plify
plify our calculations,
calculations,it is easier
easier to disregard
disregard it. \Vhat lVhat matters
here
here is the order of magnitude. It It is therefore of little
little importance
if~
if. over
over aa thousand
thousand years,
years, our calculations
ealculationsare are thirty years out.
thirty years out.
We are nearer the truth truth in following
following this Hebraic estimate estimate of
the creation of the world if if we say
say that it it happened
happened roughly
thirty-seven centuries
centuries before
before Christ.
What does
doesmodern
modern science
scieneetell us? It would
us? It would be be difficult to reply
difficult to
to the
the question
questionconcerning
concerning the the formation
forrnation of the the Universe.
Universe. All we we
can
can provide figures
figures for is the era in time when when the solar system
solar system
was
was formed. It It is possible
possible to arrive at aa reasonable
reasonable approxima-
tion of this.
this. The
The time between
betweenit and and the present is estimated
the present estimated atat
four
four andand aa half billion years.
years. We We can
can therefore measurethe
therefore measure the mar-
gin separating
separating thethe firmly
firmly established
establishedreality we today and
we know today and
the
the data
data taken
taken from
from the
the Old
Old Testament.
Testament. We
We shall
shall expand
expand on
on this
 30
30 THE
THE BOLE,
BIBT.T, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUR'AN AND
AI{D SCIENCE
SCIENCE

in the
in the third pert of
third part of the
the present
present work.
work. These
These facts
facts emerge
emerg€ fromfrom
a elose
a close scrutiny of
scrutiny of the
the Biblical
Biblical text.
text. Genesis
Genesis provides
provides veryverr pre-
pre-
cise information on
cise information on the
the time
time that
that elapsed
elapsed between
between AdamAdam and and
Abraham. For
Abraham. For the period from
the period from the
the time
time of
of Abraham
Abraham to to the
the be-
be-
ginnings of
ginnings of Christianity,
Christianity, the
the information
information provided
provided isis insufficient.
insufficient.
It must
It must bebesupported
supported byby other
other sources.
sources.

L From
1. From Adam
Adnmto to Abraham
Abtaham
Genesis provides extremely
Genesis provides extremely precise
precise genealogical
genealogical data
data in Chap-
Chap-
ters 4,
ters 4, 5,
5, 11,
11, 21
21 and
and 25.
25. They
They concern
concern all
all of
of Abraham's
Abraham's ancestors
aneestors
in direct
in direct line
line back
back to to Adam.
Adam. They
They give
give the length of time each
each
person lived,
person lived, the
the father's
father's age
age at the birth
birth of the son
son and
and thus
make it
make it easily possible to ascertain
easily possible ascertain the dates
dates of birth
birth and death
death
of each
of eaehancestor
ancestor in relation to the creation of Adam.,
Adam., as
as the table
indicates.
indicates.
All the data used
All used in this table come
come from
from the Sacerdotal
Sacerdotal text
Genesis, the only Biblical
of Genesis, Biblical text that
that provides information
information ofof
this kind. It It may be be deduced,
deduced,according to the Bible, thatthat Abra-
Abra-
was born 1,948
ham was 1,948years after
after Adam.

ABRAHAM's GENEALOGY
GENEALOGY
0/ birth
date ol birth length
langth 0/ dea,th
date of death
after orea,tion
alter creation 0/
of after
af creation
ter creation
0/ Adam
of Adam life
life 0/ Ad,am
of Adam
1. Adam
Adam 930 930
Seth 130 912
9L2 1042
Enosch 235
236 905
905 1140
1140
Kenan
Kenan 325
325 910
910 1235
1235
Mahalaleel
Mahalaleel 395 895
895 1290
1290
Jared
Jared 460
460 962 1422
t422
Enoeh
Enoch 622 365
865 987
98?
Methuselah
Methuselah 687
687 969
969 1656
1656
Lamech
Lamech 874 777
TT7 1651
1651
10. Noah
Noah 1056
1056 950
950 2006
2006
Shem
Shem 1556
1556 600
600 2156
2156
Arpaehshad
Arpachshad 1658
1658 438
438 2096
2096
Shelah
Shelah 1693
1693 433
433 2122
2122
Eber
Eber t72g
1723 464 2187
2L87
Peleg
Peleg t757
1757 239
239 1996
1996
TIte Oldfietfurlrpttt
Trlc Old TeatDmetaI &dtmtl Scfgllrcc
Scisnce 3l
31

Beu
Reu 1787
178? 239
239 20?;6
2026
Serug
Sentg 1819
1819 280
230 2049
2049
Nahor 1849
f849 148
148 r997
1997
Terah
Teratr 1878
18?8 206
205 2083
2083
Abraham
20. Abrsham
90. 1948
1948 t76
175 2l?.9
2123

J. From
2. Abraham to Tlw
Front Abralwm Beginning Ot
The Beginnings Of Christianity
Cfubtinnitrry
The Bible does
fire does not provide any numerical information information on this this
period that
period that might lead lead to suchsuch precise estimates as
precise estimates those found
as those found
in Genesis
Genesis on Abraham's ancestors. We must look
Abraham's ancestors. look to other
sources to
sources estimateestimate the time separating Abraham from
from Jesus. At
Jesus. At
present,
present, allowing for
for a slight margin of error, the time of Abrs-
Abra-
ham is situated
situated at roughly eighteen eighteen cgnturies Jesus. Com'
before Jesus.
centuries before Com-
bined
bined withwith information in Genesis
Genesis on
on the interval separating
separating
Abraham and
Abraham and Adam,
Adam, this would would place Adam at roughly thirty-
place Adam thirty-
eight centuries before Jesus.
centuriesbefore Jesus. This estimate undeniably wTong:
estirnat€is undeniably wrong:
the origins
orisins of this inaccuracy
inaccuracy arise
arise from the mistakes in the
the mistakes
Bible on on thethe Adam-Abraham period.
Adam-Abraham period. The The Jewish tradition still
Jewish tradition still
founds
founds its calendar on this. Nowadays, we
calendar on this. Nowadays, we can
can challenge
challenge the
traditional defenders
defenders of Biblical truth
truth with the
the incompatibility
betweenthe
between the whimsical
whimsical estimates
estimatesof Jewish priests Jiving
Jewish priests Jiving in the the
Sixth
Sixttt century
century B.C.B.C. andand modern
modern data.
data. For centuries, the
centuries, the events events
of antiquity
antiquity relating
relating to to Jesus
Jesuswere
were situated
situatedin time accordingto
time according
information
information based basedonon these
theseestimates.
estimates.
Before
Beforemodern
moderntimes,
times,editions
editionsof the Bible frequently
the Bible provided
frequentfyprovided
the
the reader preamble
reader with aa preamble explaining explaining the sequ€nce
historical sequence
the historical
of events
eventsthat had had come
eometo pass
to pass between
betweenthe of the
creation the world
the creation world
and the time when the books were edited.
and the time when the books were edited. The
The figures
figures vary
vary
slightly according to
slightly accordingto the time. the time. For example,
example, the
the Clementine
Clementine Vul-
Vul-
1621,
ga,te,1621,
gate, gavethis information,although
gave this information, although it did
did place
place Abraham
Abraham
aa little earlier
esrlier andandthethe Creation
Creationat roughly the
at roughly cerituryB.C.
40th ceritury
the 40th B.C.
Walton's polyglot Bible,
Walton's polyglot produced
Bible, produced in l?th century,
the 17th
in the in
century, in addi-addi-
tion
tion toto Biblical
Biblicaltextstexts inin several languagps'gave
severallanguages, gavethe the reader tables
readertables
similar
similar to to the
the one
oneshown
shownhere for Abraham's
here for ancestors.Almost
Abraham'sancestors. Almost
all
all the
the estimates
estimatescoincide
coincidewith with the given here.
figuresgiven
the figures here.WithWith thethe
arrival
arrival of of modern
moderntimes,
times,editors wereno
editorswere longerable
no longer to maintain
ableto maintain
such
suchwhimsical
whimsicalchronologies
chronologies without goingagainst
without going dis-
scientificdis-
againstscientific
covery
coverythat placedthe
that placed theCreation
Creationatat aa much earlierdate.
muchearlier They
date.They were were
content
contentto to abolish
abolishthese
thesetables
tablesand preambles,but
and preambles, but they avoided
they avoided
 38
31 TIIE BIBLE,
'IHE BIBI.q THE
TIG QUB'AN
QUN'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

warning the
warning the reader
reeder thatthat thethe Biblical
Biblical texts
texts on on which
which these
these chro-
ehro-
nologies were
nologies were based
basedhad had become
becomeobsolete
obsoreteand and could
could no longer
no longer be be
consideredto
considered to express
expressthe the truth.
truth. They
They preferred
preferred to to draw
draw aamodest
modest
veil over
veil over them,
them, and and invent
invent set-phra"ses
set-phra'sesof of cunning
eunning dialectics
dialeetics thatthet
would make
would make acceptable
acceptablethe the text
text as it hsd forrnerly been,without
as it had formerly been, without
eny subtractions
any subtractions from from it.it.
This is why the genealogies
This is why the genealogies contained contained in in the
the Sacerdotal
Sacerdotal text text ofof
the Bible
the Bible are &re still
still honoured,
honoured, even even though
thoush in in the
the Twentieth
Twentieth cen- cen-
tury one
tury one cannot
eannot reasonably
reasonably continue
continue to to count
count timetime on on the
the basis
basis
of such fiction.
of such fiction.
Modern scientific
Modern seientific data
data do do not
not allow
allow us us toto establish
establish thethe date
date of of
man's appearance
man's appearance on on earth
earth beyond
beyond aa certain
certain limit.
limit. We we maymay be be
certain that
certain that man,man, with
with the the capacity
capacity for for action
action and and intelligent
intelligent
thought that distinguishes him from
thought that distinguishes from beings that appesr to
that appear t,o be
be
ana'tomically similar
anatomically similar to him, existedexisted on EarthEarth after
after aa certain esti- esti-
mable date.
mable date. Nobody however can can say
sey at what exact date date he he ap-
ap-
peared.
peared. What What we can say today is that that remains have been been found
found
of aa humanity
of humanity capable capable of human thought thought and action whose whose age agp
may
may be be calculated
calculated in tens of thousands thousands of years. years.
This approximate
This approximate dating dating refers
refers to the prehistoric
prehistoric human human
species, the most recently
species, recently discovered beins being the Cro-Magnon
Cro-Magnon Man. Man.
There
There have of of course been been many many other
other discoveries ali all over the the
world
world of of remains
remains that that appear to be human. These relate relate toto less
less
highly
highly evolved
evolved species,
species, and their their age could be somewhere somewhere in in the
the
hundreds
hundl1!ds of of thousands
thousands of of years. But But were they genuine men men??
whatever
Whatever the the answer
answer may may be, scientific
scientific datadata are sufficienfly
sufficiently
precise
precise coneerning
concerning the the prehistoric
prehistoric speciesspecies likelike the Cro-Magnon
Man,
Man, to to be
be able
able to to place
place them
them much
much further
further back back than
than thethe epoch
epoch
in
in which Genesis places
which Genesis places the the first
first men.
men. There
There is is therefore
therefore an an
obvious
obvious incompatibility
incompatibility between between what what we we can can derive
derive fromfrom the the
numerical
numerical data data in in Genesis
Genesis about about thethe date
date of of man's
man's appearance
appearance
on
on Earth
Earth and and the the firmly
firmly established
established facts facts of of modern
modern scientific
scientific
knowledge.
knowledge.

THE FLOOD
THE FLOOD
Chapters
Chapters s, 6, 77 and
and 88are
are devoted
devoted to
to the
the clescription
description of of the
the Flood.
Flood.
In
In actual
actual faet,
fact, there
there are
are tvyo
two descriptions;
descriptions; theythey have
have notnot been
been
placed
placed side
side by
by side,
side, but
but are
are distribrited
distributed all
all the
the way through. pas-
way through. Pas-
Tlas
Trrc Old TeaftJmenI and
O|dTgrltoment ffid Science
Scta'nce 33

sages
sagesare intertroven to give
sre interwoven give the appearance
appearanceof aa coherent sue-
coherent suc-
cession
cessionof varying episodes.
episodes.In these thesethree
three chapters there are,
chaptersthere are, in
reali'ty, blatant contradictions;
reaJi.ty, contradictions; here here again explanationlies
again the explanation lies in
the
the existence
existenceof two quite quite distinct sources:
sources:the the Yahvist and Sac-
and Sac-
erdotal
erdotal versions.
versions.
It
It has
has been
beenshown
shown earlier
earlier that they they formed disparate amal-
formed aa disparate amal-
gam; each original text has
gam; each has been
been broken down into paragraphs
broken down paragraphs
phrases,elements
or phrases, elementsof one source alternating with the
one source the other,
other,
so
so that
thst in the courseeourse of the completecomplete description,
description, lvewe gogo from
one to another
one another seventeen
seventeentimes times in roughly one hundred lines
one hundred lines of
Engilish text.
English t€xt
Taken
Takenas asaa whole,
whole,thethe story goesgoesas as follows:
Man's
Man'e corruption had
had beeome
become widespread,
widespread,so so God
God decided
decidedto
annihilate
annihilate him along
along with all the other
other living creatures. He
creatures. He
warned Noah
warned Noah and and told him to construct
construct the Ark
Ark into which
which he
he
was to take
was take his wife, his three
three sons
sons andand their wives,
wives, along
along with
other living creatures.
other ereaturgs.The sourcesdiffer for the latter:
The two sources latter: one
one
passsge (Sacerdotal)
passage (Sacerdotal) says saysthat Noah Noah was take one
was to take one pair of each
each
rpeeies;then
SPeCies; then in the passagethat follows
the passage (Yahvist) it
follows (Yahvist) stated
it is stated
that God ordered him to take
God ordered seven males
take seven males andand seven females
seven females
eschof the so-called
from each so-called'pure''pure' animal
animal species,
speeies,and single pair
and aa single
from thethe'impure' species.Further on,
'impure' species. however,it is stated
on, however, stated that
Noah eetually took
Noah actually one pair of each
took one each animal.
animal. Specialists, such as
Speeialists,such as
Father de Vaux, state
de Vawe, state that the passagein question
the passage question is from an an
adaptetionof the
adaptation the Yahvist description.
description.
given
Bainwater is given as
Rainwater the agent
as the agent of the Flood
Flood in oneone (Yahvist)
passage, (Sacerdotal),
snother (Sacerdotal), the Flood
passage, but in another given
Flood is given aa double
double
rainwater and
cause: rainwater
cause: and the waterswsters of the Earth.
The
The Earth was submergedright
was submerged right up and above
up to and abovethethe mountain
mountain
peaks. perished. After
peaks.All life perished. After one year, when
one year, when the waters had
the waters had
receded,Noah
receded, emergedfrom the Ark
Noetr emerged Ark that had come to rest on
had come on
Ararat.
Mount Ararat.
One
Onemight add thst the
add that Flood lasted
the Flood lengths of time
lasted differing lengths
accordingto the
according soureeused:
the source used: forty
forty days
days for thethe Yahvist version
version
onehundred
and one
and hundredand fifty in the Sacerdotal
and fifty Sacerdotaltext.
The
The Yahvist version does
Yshvist version doesnot tell us us when event took place
when the event place
in Noah's
Noah's life, but the the Sacerdotal
Sacerdotsltext tells us that he
tells us he was
was six
hundred
hundred years years old. The latter also
old. The also provides information in its
provides information
geuealogiesthat situates
genealogies situateshim in relation Adam and
relation to Adam and Abraham.
Abraham.
u
34 THE
THE BIBLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUR'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

If
If we
we calculate
ealculateaccording
according to to the
the information
information contained
contained in in Genesis,
Genesis,
Noah
Noah was was born
born 1,056 years after
1,056years after Adam
Adam (see (see table
table ofof Abraham's
Abraham's
Genealogy)
Genealogy) and and the
the Flood
Flood therefore
therefore took took place
place 1,656
1,656 years
years after
after
the
the creation
creation of of Adam.
Adam. In In relation
relation to to Abraham,
Abraham, Genesis
Genesis places
places
the
the Flood
Flood 292 years before
292 years before the the birth
birth ofof this
this Patriarch.
According
According to to Genesis,
Genesis, the the Flood
Flood affected
affeeted the the whole
whole of the
human
human racerace and and all
all living
living creatures
creatures created
created by God God onon the face
face
of the
of the Earth
Earth werewere destroyed.
destroyed. Humanity
Humanity was was then reconstituted
by
by Noah's
Noah's three
three sons
sonsand and their wives so so that when
when Abraham was was
born roughly three centuries
born roughly centuries later, he he found aa humanity
humanity that that was
was
re-formed into separate
already re-formed
already separate communities.
communities. How Horv could
eould this re-
construction have
construction have taken place in such
taken place such aa short time? This simple simple
observation deprives
observation deprives the narration
narration of all verisimilitude.
verisimilitude.
Furthermore, historical data show
Furthermore, show its incompatibility
incompatibility with with
modern knowledge.
modern knowledge. Abraham is placed placed in the period period 1800-1850
1800-1880
8.C., and
B.C., and if
if the Flood place, as
Flood took place, as Genesis
Genesissuggests
suggests in its gene- gene-
alogies, roughly three centuries before Abraham, we would have
alogies,
place him somewhere
to place
to· somewhere in the Twenty-firstTwenty-first to Twenty-second
Twenty-second
century B.C. B.C. Modern historical knowledge knowledge confirms
eonfirms that that at this
period, civilizations had
period, had sprung up in several several parts of the world; world;
for their
for their remains have have been
been left
left to posterity.
ease of Egypt
In the case Esypt for for example,
example, the remains correspond correspond to
period preceding
the period preceding the Middle Kingdom (2,100 (2,100 B.C.) at roughly
date of the First
the date First Intermediate
Intermediate Period before the Eleventh
Dynasty. In In Babylonia it it is the Third
Third Dynasty
Dynasty at at Ur,
Ur. We knowknow
for certain that
for that there was no break in in these
these civilizations, so so that
that
there eould
could havehave been
been no destruction affecting affecting the whole of of hu-
manity, as as itit appears
appears in the Bible.Biblf'.
We cannot therefore consider that that these
these three Biblical
Biblical narra-
narra-
tions provide man with with an account of of facts thatthat correspond to
the truth.
truth. weWe are obliged to admit admit that,
that, objectively speaking, the the
texts which have come come down to to u's
us do notnot represent the the expresion
of reality. We may ask ourselves
of ourselves whether itit is possible possible forfor God
to have revealed
revealed anything
anything otherother than
than the truth.
truth. ItIt is difficult
difficult to
to
entertain
entertain the idea that that God taught taught to to man
man ideas
ideas that
that were
were notnot
only fictitious,
fictitious, butbut contradictory. We naturally naturally arrive
arrive therefore
therefore
at the hypothesis
at hypothesis that that distortions occurredoccurred that that were
were mademade by by
man or or that
that arose
arose from traditions passed
from traditions passed down
down from one genera-
from one genera-
tion to another by
tion by word
word of of mouth,
mouth, or or from
from the
the texts
texts of
of these
these tra-
tra-
The OtdTedamen
TtE IJtItI Science
Old Tetftnruml anitscJcrct 3f
35

ditions once
ditions once they
they were down. When
written down.
were written When one knows that
one knows that ra
work such as Genesis
work such as Genesis was
was adapted
adapted at
at leest
least twice
twice over
over a
a period
period of
of
not less than
not less thsn three
three centuries,
centuries, it
it is
is hardly
hardly surprising
surprising to
to find
find im-
im-
probabilities or
probabilities or descriptions that are
descriptions that are incompatible with reality.
incompatible with reality.
This is because
This is becausethe the progress
progress made
msde in
in hum.an
hum,an knowledge
knowledge has
has en-
en-
abled
abled us to know,
know, if if not everything,
everything, enough
enough at
at least
least about certain
events to be
events able to judge
be sble degree of
judge the degree of compatibility between
between
our knowledge
knowledge and the ancient descriptions of
ancient descriptions them. There is
of them.
nothing more logical than to maintain this interpretation of
more logical of Bib-
implicates man himself. It
lical errors which only implicates It is a great pity
pity
that the majority
that commentators, both Jewish
majority of commentators, and Christisn'
Jewish and Christian,
with it.
do not hold with arguments they use
it. The arguments nevertheless desenre
use nevertheless deserve
attention.
careful attention.
 I~
IY
Position Of
Position Of Ch.. i~lian
Christian
Authors Wilh
4ulho..s lfith R.eaard
R*grrd To To
Sl:ienlific:
Scientific E....o..
frror In
ln The
fhe
Biblical T
l3iblil:al exb.
Texls.
4A C..
Critical fxarrrinatiorr.
ilil:al ExaDlination.
One is struck by the diverse
One diverse nature of Christian
Christian commentators'
reactions
reactions to the existence
existence of these
these accumulated
accumulated errors, improb- improb-
abilities and contradictions. Certain commentators acknowledge acknowledge
some of them and do
some do not hesitate in their
their work
work to tackle thorny
thorny
problems. Others
problems. others pass lightly over unacceptable
pass lightly unacceptable statements and
insist on defending the text
insist text word forfor word. The latter latter try
try to
to con-
vince people
people by apologetic
apologetic declarations,
declarations, heavily reinforced
reinforced by by
arguments which are often often unexpected,
unexpected, in in the hope that that what
what is is
logically
logically unacceptable
unacceptable will will be forgotten.
forgotten.
In
In the Introduction
Introduction to his translation
translation of of Genesis,
Genesis, Father
Father de
Vaux
Vaux acknowledges
acknowledges the existence
existence ofof critical
critical arguments
arguments and and even
even
expands
expands upon their their cogency.
cogency. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, for for him
him thethe objective
objective
reconstitution of of past
p~st events
events has
has little
little interest.
interest. As As hehe writes
writes inin
his notes,
notes, the fact
fact that
that the
the Bible
Bible resumes
resumes "the "the memory
memory of of one
one or
or
two
two disastrous
disastrous floods
floods ofof the
the valleys
valleys of
of the
the Tigris
Tigris and
and Euphrates,
Euphrates,
enlarged by by tradition
tradition until
until they
they took
took onon the
the dimensions
dimensions of of aa uni-
uni-
versal
versal cataclysm"
cataclysm" is is neither
neither here
here nor there; ,'the
nor there; "the essential
essential thing
thing
is, however,
is, however, that
that the
the sacred
sacred author
author has
has infused
infused into
into this
this memory
memory
eternal teachings
eternal teachings on the justice
on the justice and
and mercy
mercy of of God
God toward
toward the the
malice
malice ofof man
man andand the
the salvation
salvation of the righteous."
of the righteous."

36
36
AGr{delErrllnffir 37

In this
In way justification
this way justification is is found
found forfor thethe transformation
transformation of of da
popular legend into
popular into an event of divine proportions-and
of divine proportions-and itit is as
that itit is
such that is thought
thought fit to present the
fit to the legend to to men's fsith-faith-
following the
following the principle
principle that
that an authorauthor has made use of of itit to
to illus-
illus...
trate religious
trate religious teachings.
teachings. An An apologetic position of of this
this kind
kind ius-jus-
tifies all
tifies all the liberties
liberties taken
taken in in the eomposition
composition of of writings
writings which which
supposed to be sacred and to contain
are supposed contain the word word of God. IfIf one
of God.
acknowledges such human interference interference in in what
what is divine, all all the
manipulations of
human manipulations of the Biblical
Biblical texts will accounted for.
will be accounted for.
If there are theological
If theological intentions, all all manipulations
manipulations become become le-
gitimate; so that
gitimat€; that those of of the 'sacerdotal'
'Sacerdotal' authors
authors of of the SixthSixth
century are justified,
century justified, including
including their their legalist preoceupations
preoccupations that that
turned into
turned into the whimsical descriptions we have.already have already seen. seen.
A large number of
A of Christian
Christian commentators have have found it it more
ingenious to explain errors, improbabilities improbabilities and contradictions
in Biblical descriptions by t:sing
in Biblical psing the excuseexcuse that that the Biblical
Biblical
authors were expressing ideas ideas in accordance
accordance with with the socialsocial fac-
tors of a different
different culture
eulture or mentality.
mentality. From From this arose arose the defi- defi-
nition of respective
nition 'literary genres'
respective 'literary genres' which was introduced into
the subtle dialectics
dialecties ofof commentators, so so that
that itit accounts
accounts for for all
difficulties. AnyAny contradictions there are between between two. two texts are
then explained by the difference
difference in the way each eaehauthor expressed
expressed
ideas in his own particular
ideas 'literary genre'.
particular 'literary genre'. This argument is
not, of course,
course, acknowledged
acknowledged by everybody everybody because
becauseit it lacks
lacks grav-grav-
ity. It
ity. It has
has not entirely
entirely fallen into disuse disuse today however,however, and we we
shall seeseein the New Testament its extravagant extravagant use use asas an attempt
to explain blatant
blatant contradictions in the Gospels. Gospels.
Another way of making acceptable
Another acceptable what would be be rejected
rejected by
logic
logie when applied to a
a litigious
litigious text, is to surround the text in
question
question with urith apologetical
apologetical considerations.
eonsiderations. The
The reader's
reader's attention
is distracted from the crucial problem problem of the the truth
truth of the text
itself
itself andand deflected
deflected towards other problems. problems.
Cardinal Danielou's reflections
Dani6lou's reflections on
on the
the Flood
Flood follow this mode mode
of expression.
expression. They appear
appear in the
the review
review Liai,ng
Living God
God (Dieu
(Dieu
Vivant) 'Flood, Baptism, (Ddluge,
Vivant)'1 underunder thethe title: 'Flood, Baptism, Judgment',
Judgment', (Deluge,
Bapteme, Jugement')
BWtdme, Jugement') where he where he writes "The oldest
oldest tradition of
of
the Church has
the Church has seen seen in the theology
the theology of
of the
the Flood
Flood an
an image
image of
Christ
Christ andand the
the Church".
Church". It is is "an
"an episode
episodeof great significance
of great significance" 11

1.
1. No.
No.38,
38,1974, pp.95-112)
1974,pp. 95-112)
$E
38 THE
TIrE BIBLE,
BrBLF,,THE
THE QUB'AN
QItn'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCTENGE

...
. . . u"B judgment striking
a judgment striking the the whole
whole human
human race."race." Having
Having quoted
quoted
from
from Origen
Origen in his Homilies
in his Homilies on on Ezekiel,
Ezehinl, he he talks
talks ofof "the
"the ship-
shif
wreck
wreck of of the
the entire
entire universe
universe savedsaved in in the
the Ark",
Ark", Cardinal
Cardinel Dan-Dan-
ielou
i6lou dwells
dwells uponupon the the value
vslue of of the
the number
number eight eight uexpressing
"expressing the the
number
number of peoplethat
of people that were
were saved
savedin in the
the Ark
Ark (Noah
(Noah andand his
his wife,
wife,
his three
his three sonsson$andand their
their wives)".
wives) ". He He turns
turns to to his
his own
own use
use Justin's
Justin's
writings
urritings in in his Dial,ogue: UThey
his Dialogue: "They represent
represent the the symbol
symbol of of the
eighth
eighth day day when
when Christ
christ rose
rose from
from thethe dead"
dead" and and "Noah,
"Noah, the first
first
born
born of of aa new
new creation,
creation, is is an&n image
image of of Christ
christ who was was to do do in
reality what
reality what Noah
Noah had had prefigured."
prefigured." He continues the comparison
between
between Noah Noah on on the
the one
one hand,
hand, who was was saved
saved by the ark made made
of wood
of wood and and the
the water
water thatthat made
made it ( "water of the Flood
it float ("water
from which aa new humanity
from humanity was born"), born"), and on the other, the
cross made
cross made of wood. wood. He stresses
stresses the value of this symbolism and
concludes by underlining
concludes underlining the Hspiritual"spiritual and and doctrinal wealth of of
saeramentof the Flood" (sic).
the sacrament
There is much that that one
one could say about such apologetical com-
parisons. We should always remember that that they are commen- eommen-
taries on an event that
taries that it possible to defend as reality,
it is not possible reality,
either on aa universal
either universal scalescale or in terms of of the timetime in which
which the
places it. With
Bible places with a commentary
eommentary such such as as Cardinsl
Cardinal Dani6lou's
Danielou's
we are back in the Middle Middle Ages, where the text text had to be accepted
accepted
as it
as it was and any discussion,discussion, other than conformist,conformist, was off off the
point.
point.
rt is nevertheless reassuring
It reassuring to to find thatthat prior
prior to that
that age of of
imposed obscurantism, hishly
imposed obscurantism, highly logical attitudes attitudes were adopted.
adopted. oneOne
might
might mention those those of of Saint
Saint Augustine
Augustine which which proceed
proceed from
from hishis
thought,
thought, that that was singularly
singularly advaneed
advanced for for the
the age he lived
lived in.
in.
At
At the time time ofof the Fathers
Fathers of of the Church, there must must have beenbeen
problems
problems of of textual
textual criticism
criticism because
because Saint Saint Augustine
Augustine raisesraises
them in in his letter
letter No. 82. The most typical typical of of them
them isis the
the follow-
follow-
ing passage:
ing passage:
"It is solely to
"rt to those books books of of Scripture
Scripture rvhich which are are called
called
'canonic'that I have learned
'canonic' that I have learned to to grant
grant suchsuch attention
attention and and respect
respect
that II firmly
that firmly believe
believe thatthat their
their authors
authors havehave made made no no errors
errors in in
writing them.
writing them. WhenWhen rI encounter
encounter in in these
these books
books aa statement
statement which
which
seems to
seems to contradict
contradict reality,
reality, II am am inin no
no doubt
doubt thatthat either
either the
the text
text
(of
(of mymy copy)
copy) is faulty,
faulty, oror thatthat the
the translator
translator has has not
not been
been faith-
faith-
ful to
ful to the
the original,
orig:lnal, oror that
that my my understanding
understanding is is deficient."
deficient."
A CriticDl EmmitItJeion
AfifificotBlolmitwfut 30
39

ItIt was
was ineonceivable
inconceivable to to Saint Augustine that
Saint Augustine sacred text
that aa sacred text
might contain
might contain an an error.
error. Saint
Saint Augustine defined very clearly
Augustine defined very clearly thethe
dogma of
dogma of infallibility
infallibility when, confronted with
when, confronted passage that
with aa passage that
seemed to
seemed to contradict
contradict the the truth,
truth, he thought of
he thought looking for
of looking for itsits
cause, without
cause, without excluding
excluding the the hypothesis
hypothesis of human fault. This
of aa human fault. This
is the
is the attitude
attitude of of aa betiever
believer withwith aa critical outlook. In
critical outlook. Saint Au-
In Saint Au-
gustine's day,
gustine's day, there
there waswas no no possibility
possibility of of a confrontation be-
a confrontation be-
tween the
I***tt the Biblical
Biblical text
text and
and scienee.
science. An open-mindedness akin
An open-mindedness akin to to
his would
his would today
today eliminate
eliminate aa lot lot ofof the
the difficulties raised by
difficulties raised by thethe
confrontation of
confrontation of certain
certain Biblieal
Biblical textstexts with scientific knowledge.
with scientific knowledge.
Present-day specialists,
Present-day specialists, on on the
the contrary, go
contrary, go to to great trouble to
great trouble to
defend the
defend the Biblical
Biblical text
text from
from any accusation of
any accusation error. In
of error. his in-
In his in-
troduction to
troduction to Genesis,
Genesis, Father
Father de Vaux Vaux explains the reasons reasons com-
pelling him to defend defend the text text atat all costs, even if,
costs, even if, quite obviously,
obviously,
itit i*is hirtorically
historically or or scientifieally unacceptable. He
scientifically unacceptable. asks not to
us not to
view Biblical
view Biblical history "according to the rules of
history "according of historical study
observed by people
observed people today", as as ifif the existence several different
existence of several
ways of
ways of writing
writing history was was possible.
possible. History, when it is told in
it in
an
an inaccurate
inaccurate fashion,
fashion, (as anyone will admit), becomes
(as anyone becomes a his- his-
torical
torical novel. novel. Here however,
however, it it does
does not have comply with
have to comply with thethe
standards
standards established
establishedby our conceptions.
conceptions.The commen-
Biblieal commen-
The Biblical
tator
tator rejectsrejects any verification of Biblical descriptions through
Biblical descriptions
geology,
geology, paleontology
paleontology or prehistorical
prehistorical data. data. "The Bible Bible is not
is not
answerable
answerableto to any
any of these
these disciplines,
disciplines,and were one
and were to
one confrontconfront
itit with
with the the data
data obtained
obtained from from these sciences,it
thesesciences, would only
it would lead
only lead
toto an an unreal
unreal opposition
oppositionor or an an artificial
artificial concordance."1
concordance."'One might One might
point
point out out that
that these
these reflections
reflectionsare are made
made on what, in
on what, Genesis,is
in Genesis, is
inin no,ro way
way in in harmony
harmony with with modern
modern scientific data-in
scientific data-in this case this case
the
the first
first eleven
elevenchapters.
chapters. When when however,
however, in in the present day,
the present day, aa
few descriptionshave
few descriptions have been
beenperfectly
perfectly verified, in this case
verifled, in this case certain certain
episodes author does doesnot fail
not fail
episodesfrom from thethe time
time ofof the
the patriarchs,
patriarchs, the the author
toto support
support the the truth
truth ofof the
the Bible
Bible withwith modern knowledge'
modernknowledge. "The "The
doubt
doubt cast
cast upon
upon these
these descriptions
descriptions should
should yield to
yield favorable
the favorable
to the
witness bear them'"' In
witness that that history
history and and eastern
eastet'narchaeology
archaeologybear them."2 In
other the Biblical
confirming the Biblical de- de-
other words:
words: ifif science
scienceisis useful
useful in in confirming
scription, the latter, reference
latter' reference
scription, itit isis invoked,
invoked,but but ifif itit invalidates
invalidatesthe
totoitit isisnot
not,permitted.
Permitted.
1.1 . Introduction
Introduction toto Genesis,
Genesis,page
Page35.
35'
2.2. Ibid., page34
Ibid.,page 34
 40
iIIT THE
THE BmLE
BIBI,4 , THE
THE QUR'AN AND
QUN'AN AND SCIEN
SCIENCE
CE

To reconc
reconcile ile the irrecon cilable, i.e.
irreconcilable, i.e. the theory of the truth truth of of
the Bible with with the inaccu
inaecuraterate nature of certain facts faets report
reported ed in
the descrip tions in the Old Testam
descriptions Testament, ent, moder
modern n theolo
theologians
gians havehave
applie
applied d their
their efforts to aa revisio revision n of the classic classicalal concep
concepts ts of
truth.
truth. It It lies
lies outsid
outside e the scope
scope of this book book to give a detaile detailed d
expose
exposdof the subtle subtle ideas
ideas that
that are develo
developedped at length in works
dealing
dealing with with the truth truth of the Bible;Bible; suchsuch as as O.o. Loretz
Loretz's 's work
work
(1972)
(1972) What whet is the Truth Truth of the Bible? (QueU (euellee est la Verite v6rit6
de
de la Bible?
Bible?)r. judgment
) 1. This judgm ent concer
concerningning science
science willwill have
have to
suffice
suffice: :
The author remark remarkss that that the Second
Second Vaticavaticann Counci
councill Hhas ,,has
avoide
avoided d provid
providing ing rules to disting uish betwee
distinguish between n error
error and truth truth
in the Bible.
Bible. Basic
Basic consid
considerations
eration s show
show that this is imposs impossible, ible,
becaus
because e the Churc
churchh cannot
cannot determ
determine ine thethe truth
truth or otherw
otherwise ise of
scienti fic metho
seientific methods ds in such
such aa way as as to decide
decidein principle
princip le andand on a
general
genera l level
level the question
the questio n of the truth
truth of the Script ures".
Scriptures".
It
rt is obviou
obvious s that the Churchchurch is not in a positio position n to rnake
make a
pronouncement
pronou nceme nt on on the value
value of scienti
scientific ,method'
fic 'metho d' as
as a means
rneansof
access
accessto knowleknowledge. dge. The
The point herehere is quite differedifferent.nt. It
It is not a
question
questio n of theorie
theories, s, but of firmly establi established
shed facts.
facts. In our day
and
and age,
age,it is not necess necessary ary to bebe highly learne
learned d to know that the
world was was not created
ereatedthirty- seven or thirty-
thirty-seven thirty-eight
eight centur
centuries ies ago.
ago.
We
we know that man man did not appear appear thenthen and and that the Biblica Bibricar l
genealogies
geneal ogies on on which this estima estimate te is based
based havehave been
been proven
proven
wrong beyondbeyond any shadow shadow of aa doubt.
doubt. The author quoted quoted here here
rnustb
must be e aware
aware of this. this. His statem
statements
ents on on science
scienceare are only aimed aimecl
at side-st
side-stepping
epping the the issue
issue so so that he
he does
doesnot have have to deal
deai with
with it it
the
the way
way he he ought
ought to. to.
The remind
reminder er of all these
these differe
differentnt atti~ud
attitudes es adopte
adopted d by Chris-
chris-
tian author
authors s when
when confro
confrontednted with the scienti scientific
fic errors of Bib-
lical
Iical texts
texts is aa goodgood illustra
illustration
tion of thethe uneasi
uneasinessness they engend
engender. er.
It recalls the
It recalls the imposs
impossibility
ibility of definin
defining g aa logical
logical positio
position n other
than by recogn reeognizing
izing their humanhuman origin
originss and and the imposs
impossibility
ibility
of acknow
acknowledging
ledging that they form part of a Revela Revelation.
tion.
The uneasi
The uneasiness prevalent
ness preval ent in Christ
christian ian circles
cireles concer
concerningning the
Revela
Revelationtion becam
became e clear
elear at the the Second
second Vaticavatieann Counci
councill (1962-
tigog-
1965)
1965) where
where it it took
took nono less
less than five
five drafts beforebefore there
there waswas any
agreem
agreement ent on on the
the final
final text,
text, after three
three years
years of discuss
discussions.
ions. It It
1. Pub.
1. P"b. Le
L. Centuri
C-nturion,
on, Paris
A CritictJl Erorm/lngdion
AGrifirnl Emmincdion 1l
41

was only
was only then
then thatthat "this
"this painful
painful situation
situation threatening
threatening to to engulf
engulf
the Council"
the Council" came came to to an
an end,
end, to to use
use His
His Grace Weber's expres-
Grace Weber's expres-
sion in
sion in his
his introduction
introduction to the Conciliar
to the Conciliar Document
Document No. No. 44 on on the
the
Revelation1.
Revelation'.
Two sentences
Two sentences in in this
this document
document concerning
concerning the the OId
Old Testament
Testament
(chap IV,IV, page
page 53) describedescribe the imperfections and obsolescence
the imperfections obsolescence
of certain
of certain texts
texts in in a way
way that
that eannot
cannot be be contested:
"In
"fn view
view of
of the human situation
situation prevailing
prevailing before Christ's Christ's
foundation of
foundation of salvation, the Boohs Books of t"he Old Testament enable
of the enable
everybody to
everybody know who is God and who is man, and also the
to know the way
way
in whieh
in which God,
God, in in his justiee
justice and mercy, hehaves behaves towards men.
These books,
These books, eaeneven though theA they contuin
contain material which is imper-
material which imper-
fect
fect and
and, obsolete,
obsolete, nevertheless
nevertheless bear witness to truly
truly divine
teachings."
There is no better better statement than the use use ofof the adiectives
adjectives
'imperfect' and 'obsolete'
'imperfect' 'obsolete' applied to certain texts, to indieate indicate
that
that the latter
latter are
sre open
open to criticism
critieism and might
might even
even be ahan'
aban-
doned; the principle
principle is very clearly acknowledged. acknowledged.
This text
text forms part part of a general
general declaration which was was defin-
defin-
itively
itively ratified by 2,344
2,344 votes
votes to 6; nevertheless,
nevertheless, one
one might
might
question
question this almost almost total unanimity.
unanimity. In actual fact, in the
commentaries
commentaries of the official
official document
document signed
signed by His Grace Grace Weber,
Weber,
there
there is one
one phrase
phrase in particular
particular which obviously
obviously corrects
corrects the
solemn
solemn affirmation of the council
eouneil on
on the obsolescence
obsolescence of certain
texts: "Certain
"Certain books books of the Jewish Bible have have aa temporary
application and and havehave something
something imperfect
irnperfect in them."
'Obsolete',the
'Obsolete', the expression
expression used used in the the official declaration, is
official declaration, is
hardly a synonym for 'temporary application',
'temporary application', to
to use
use the
the com-
com-
hardly a synonym
mentator's 'jewish' which
which the latter
the latter
mentator's phrase.phrase. As for for the
the epithet
epithet 'jewish'
curiously adds,
curiously adds, it
it suggests
suggests that
that the
the conciliar
conciliar text
text only
only criticized
criticized
the
the version
version in in Hebrew.
Hebrew. This This is is not
not at at all
all the
the case.
case.ItIt is indeed
is indeed
the Christian
the Christian Old
Old Testament
Testament alone
alone that,
that, at
at the
the Council,
Council, was
was the
the
object of
object of a a judgment
judgment concerning
eoncerning the
the imperfection
imperfection and
and obsoles-
obsoles-
cence
cenceof of certain
certain parts. parts.

1. Pub. Le
1. Pub. L€ Centurion,
Centurion, 1966,
1966, Paris.
Paris.
 Conf:lu~ion~
Conclusiorrs
The Biblical
The Biblical Scriptures
seriptures must
must bebe examined
examined without
without beingbeing em-em-
bellished artificially
bellished artificially with qualities one
with qualities one would
would like
like them
them to have.
have.
firey must
They must be be seen
seen objectively
objectively as as they
they are.
&re. This implies not
only aa knowledge
only knowledge of of the
the texts,
texts, but alsoalso of their
their history. The
latter makes
latter possible to form an
makes it possible an idea
idea of the circumstances
circumstances
whieh brought about textual adaptations
which adaptations over the centuries,
centuries, the
slow formation
slow forrnation of the collection
eollection that
that we have have today,
today, with
with its
numerous substractions
numerous substrsctions and additions.
above makes
The above makes it possible to believe
it quite possible believe that
that different
different
versions of the same
versions same description can be found in in the old
Old Testa-
menf as
ment, as well asas contradictions,
contrsdietions, historical
historical errors, improbabilities
improbabilities
end incompatibilities
and incompatibilities with with firmly established scientific data. They
firmly established
quite natural
are quite natural in human works works of of a very great -age.
very great 'age. How
How
could one fail to find them in
one fail in the books
books written
written inin the same
same con-
ditions inin which
which the Biblical
Biblical text
text was composed
composed??
At
At sa time
time when itit was not yet yet possible
possible to ask scientific ques- ques-
tions,
tions, and one could only only decide
decide on improbabilities
improbabilities or or contradic-
contradic-
tions,ra
tions"a man of of good
good sense,
sense, such
such as Saint'Augustine,
Saint' Augustine, considerecl
considered
that
that God could not not teach manman things
things that
that did
did not
not correspond
correspond to to
reality.
reality. HeHe therefore
therefore putput forward
forward thethe principle
principle that
that itit was
was not
not
possible
possible forfor an
an affHrmation
affirmation contrary
contrary to to the
the truth
truth to to be
be ofof divine
divine
origin,
origin, and
and waswas prepared
prepared to to exclude
exclude fromfrom all
all the
the sacrecl
sacred texts
texts
anything
anything that that appeared
appeared to to him
him to to merit
merit exclusion
exclusion on on these
these
grounds.
grounds.
Later,
Later, atat aa time
time when
when thethe ineompatibility
incompatibility of of eertain
certain passages
passages
of
of the
the Bible
Bible with
with modern
modern knowledge
knowledge has has been
been realized,
realized, ih*the *.*e
same
attitude
attitude hashas not
not been
been followed.
followed. This
This refusal
refusal has
has been
been soso insistent
insistent
that aa whole
that whole literature
literature hashas sprung
sprung up,up, aimed
aimed at at justifying
justifying the the

42
42
Gqu** a:t
43

that, in
fact thtq
fest in the
the face
face of of all
all opposition, texts have
opposition, texts been retained
have been retained in
in
the Bible
the that hgve
Bible that have no no reason
reason toto be there.
be there.
The Second
The second Vatican
Vatican Council (1962-1965) hss
Council (1962-1966) has greatly
greatly reduced
reduced
this
tlis uncompromising
uncompromising attitude
ettitude by
by introducing
introducing reservstions
reservations about
about
the "Books
tlts "BmkB of
of the
the Old
Otd Testament"
Testament" which
which "contain
"contain material
material thst
that
is imperfect
is imperfect and
and obsolete".
obsolete". One
One wonders
wonders if
if this
this will
will remain
remain aa
pious wish
pious or ifif itit will
wish or will be followed by
be followed change in
by aa change attitne towerds
in attitue towards
material whiclr,
ruaterial which, in Twentieth century, is
in the Twentieth longer accept-
is no longer accept-
able
able inin the books
books of
of the Bible. In
In actual
ectual fact, ssve
save for
for any human
human
manipulation,
manipulation, the latter
lattcr were destined
destined to be
be the "witness of
of
true teachings
tnre tcachings coming from
from God".
 II

The Gospels
I
Inl~odu(;lion
Many readers
Many readersof the
the Gospels
Gospelsare embarrassedand
are embarrassed and even
evenabashed
abashed
when they stop
when stop to think
think about meaning of certain
about the meaning certsin descrip-
descrip-
tions. The
tions. The same
same is true whenwhen they make comparisons
they make comparisonEbetween
between
difrerent versions
different versions of thethe same
same event
event found
found in several
several Gospels.
Goepels.
obseryationis made
This observation madeby Father Roguet book Initiation
Roguet in his book Initiatian
the Gospels
to the (Initiation a
Goapels(Initiation ir l'Evangile)t.
I'Evangile)'. With the the wide
rvide experi-
experi-
ense he
ence he has gained in his many
has gained years of answering
many years perturbed
answering perturbed
readers' letters in ae Catholic
readers' ieeklg, he
Catholic weekly, he has
has been
been able
able to assess
asgesg
just
just how greatly they have been worried by what they have
have been have
read. questionerscome
read. His questioners come from widely varying social socisl and
and cul-
tural
tural backgrounds.
backgrounds. He notes their requests
notes that their requests for explanations
explanations
concern texts that are'considered
concern are 'considered abstruse,
abstruse, ineomprehensible,
incomprehensible, ifif
not eontradictory,
contradictory, absurd
absurd or scandslous'.
scandalous'. There
There eancan be no doubt
be no doubt
that a complete
complete reading
reading of the Gospels
Gospels is likely to disturb Chris-
tians profoundly.
profoundly.
This obseruation
observation is very reeent:
recent: Father Roguet's
Roguet's book
book waswas
published
published in 19?8.
1973. Not so so very long ago, Chris-
ago, the majority of Chris-
tians knew only selected
selected sections
sections ofof the Gospels
Gospels that were read read
during services
services or commented
commented upon upon during serrnons.
sermons. with
With the ex-
ception of the Protestants,
ception of Protestants, itit was
was not customary
customary for
for Christians to
read
read the Gospels
Gospels in their
their entirety. Books
Books of
of religious instruetion
instruction
only contained
contained extrscts;
extracts; the in in eutenso
extenso text hardly circulated
circulated at
1. Pub.
Pub. Editionr
Editions du Seuil,
Seuil, Parir,
Paris, lg?B
1973

u
Th. Gorpch 15

all. At
all. At a Boman
Roman Catholie
Catholic school II had eopies copies ofof the
the works
works ofof Virgil
Virgil
and Plato,
and Plato, but
but II did
did not
not hsve
have thethe New
New Testament.
Testament. The The Greek text
Greek text
of this
of this would
would nevertheless hsve have beenbeen very
very instructive:
instructive: itit wrs was
only much
only much laterlater on that
that II reslized
realized why why theythey had had notnot set ug us
translations of
translations of the
the holy
holy writings
writings of of Christianity.
Christianity. The latter latter
could have led us to ask our teachers questions they
our teschers they would
would have
found itit difficult
found difficult toto answer.
These discoveries, made ifif one has a critical
firese critical ouUook
outlook during
during a
reading in
reading in extenso of the
erteriu,o of the Gospels,
Gospels, hsvehave led the the Church
Church to to come
to the eidaid of
of readers by helping
helping them overcome their their perplexity.
perplexity.
"Many Christians
"Many Christians need need to learn
learn how how to read the Gospels",Gospels", notes
Father Boguet.
Fether Roguet. Whether
Whether or or not one a,grees
agrees withwith the explanations
explanations
he gives, it greatly to the author's
it is greatly author's credit that he actually
credit that actually
tackles these
teckles these delicate problems. Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, it it is not always
alweys
like this in
like this many writings
in many writings on the Christian
Christian Revelation.
In editions of
In of the Bible produced
produced for widespread publication,
for widespread
introductory
introductory notes notes more often
often than not set out a collection of
ideas that
that would tend to persuade the reader that
that the Gospels
Gospels
hardly
hardly raise any problems concerning
eoncerning the personalities
personalities of
of the
authors of the various books, books, the authenticity
authenticity of the texts and
the truth
truth of the descriptions.
descriptions. In spite of the fact that there are
so
so many unknowns concerning authors of whose whose identity
identity we are ere
not at all sure,
sure, we find a wealth of precise
precise information
information in this
kind of introductory
introductory note.note. Often they present as certainty what
as a certainty
is pure hypothesis,
hypothesis, or they state that such-and-such
such-and-sueh an
an evangelist
evangelist
was
w&s an eye-witness
eye-witness of the events,
events, while specialist
specialist works claim the
opposite.
opposite. The time that elapsed
elapsed between
between the end
end of Jesus'
Jesus' min-
istry
istry and the appearance
appearance of the texts is drastically reduced.
reduced. They
would havehave one
one believe
believe that these
these werewere written
written by one one man taken
taken
from an oral tradition, when
tradition, when in fact specialists
speeialists have
have pointed
pointed out
adaptations to the texts. texts. Of course,
course, certain difficulties
difficulties of inter-
pretation
pretation are mentioned here and there, but they ride rough
shod
shod over glaring
glaring contradictions that must strike anyone anyone who
thinks about them.
about them. In the
the little
little glossaries
glossaries one
one finds
finds among
among the ap-
ap-
pendices complementing
pendices complementing a a reassuring prefacen
preface, one
one observes
observes how
how
improbabilities, contradictions
contradictions or blatant errors errors have been hid-
have been
den
den or stifled
stifled under clever arguments
clever arguments of an
an apologetic
apologetic nature'
nature.
This disturbing state state of affairs
aftairs shows
shows up up the
the misleading
misleading naturenature
of such
such commentaries.
 18 THE
TIIE BmLE,
BIBI.E THE
TIIE QUR'AN
QUN'ANAND
AIVDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

The ideas to
The ideas to bebe developed
developed in in the
the coming
coming pagespages will wilt without
without
doubt leave
doubt leave any any readers
readers stillstill unaware
un&ware of
of these problems quite
these problems quite
amazed.Before
amazed. Before going going into
into detail however, Ir will
detail however, will provide
provide an an im-im-
mediate illustration
mediate illustration of of mymy ideas
ideas with
with ansn example
example that seemsto
that seems to
me quite conclusive.
me quite eonelusive.
Neither Matthew
Neither lllatthew nor nor John
John speaks
speaks of of Jesus's
Jesus's Ascension.
Aseension. Luke Luke
in his
in his Gospel
Gospelplaces plaeesitit on on the
the dsy of the Resurreetion and
day of the Resurrection and forty
forty
days later
days later in in the
the Acts
Acts of of the
the Apostles
Aposiles of of which
which he he is said to
is said to be
be
the author.
the author. Mark Mark mentions
mentions it it (without
(without giving
giving a date) in a con-
a date) in a con-
clusion considered
clusion considered unauthentic
unauthentic today. today. TheThe Ascension
Ascension therefore
therefore
has no
has no solid
solid scriptural
seriptural basis.basis. commentators nevertheless
Commentators nevertheless ap- ap-
proach this
proach this important question with
important question with incredible
ineredible lightness.
lightness.
A. Tricot,
A. Tricot, in in his
his Little
Little Dictionary
Dictionary of of the
the New
New Testament
Teitq,meat (Petit (petit
Dietionnaire du
Dictionnaire du Nouveau
Nouveau Testament)
Testament) in the Crampon
crampon Bible, bibl",
(1960 edition) r, aa work produced
(1960 edition)!, produced for mass mass publication,
publicatioi, does does not not
devote an
devote an entry to the Ascension.Ascension. The The Synopsis
synopsis of of the Fourirou, GOB-Gos-
pels (Synopse
pels (Synopsedes desQuatre Evangiles) by Fathers Benoit Benoit and and Bois-
Bois-
mard, teachers
mard, teachers at the Biblical SchOOl sehool of Jerusalem,
Jerusalem, (1972 (lg?z edi- edi-
tion)z, informs us
tion)2, us in volume
volume II, pages pages 4514El and 452,4sz, that the con-
thattheeon-
tradietion between
tradiction between Luke's Gospel Gospel and the Acts of the the Aposiles
Apostles
may be explained
may be explained by a 'literary 'literary artifice': this is, to
artifice': this to say
say the the least,
least,
difficult to follow!
difficult follow !
In all probability,
In probability, Father Father Roguet in Initiation to
in his Ini.ti,ation to the
the Gos-
Gos-
pel, t973, (pg
pel, 1973, (pg rs?)
187) has not been been convinced
convinced by the above above argu-argu-
ment.
ment. The explanation he gives us is curious, to to say the the least:
least:
"Here, as in
"Here, in many similar
similar cases,
cases, the
the problem
problem only only appears
appears in- in-
superable
superable ifif one takes Biblieal Biblical statements literally,
literally, and and forgets
forgets
their
their religious
religious significance.
significance. ItIt is is not
not aa matter
matter of of breaking
breaking down down
the factual
the factual reality reality intointo aa symborism
symbolism which which is is inconsiste]nt,
inconsistent, but but
rather
rather of of looking
looking for for the
the theological
theological intentions
intentions of of those
those revealing
revealing
these
these mysteries
mysteries to to us
us byby providing
providing us us with
with facts
facts we we cancan appre-
appre-
hend with
hend with our our senses
senses and and signs
signs appr.opriate
appropriate to to our
onr incarnate
incarnate
spirit."
spirit."
How
How is is itit possible
possible to to bebe satisfied
satisfied by by an
an exegesi.s
exegesis of of this
this kind.
kind.
only a persou
Only a perSOll who who accepted
accepted everything
everything uneonditionally
unconditionally would would
find
find such
such apologetic
apologetic set-phrases
set-phrases acceptable.
acceptable.

11.. Pub.
Pub. Descl6e
Desclee and
and Co.,
Co., Paris.
Paris.
2. Pub.
Pub. Editions
a,
Editionsdudu Cerf,
Cerf, Paris
Paris
Trra@lc {I47

Another intenesHng
Another interesting ItDectaspect of of Father
Father Roguef,r commentary iris
Roguet's commentary
his admission that there are 'mlny
'many similar
similar cases';
e88es'; similar, thst
similsr' that
his admission that there are
is, to the Ascension in the
is, to the Ascension in the Gospels. Gospels. The
The problem
problem therefore
therefore has
has to
to
be approached as a whole,
be approached as a whole, obiectively and objectively and in
in depth.
depth. It
It would
would
seem reasoneble
Beem reasonable to to look
look forfor anan explanation
explanation by stu<Jying the
by studying the gon-
eon-
ditions attendant
ditions attendant upon upon the the writing
writing of of the
the Gospels, the rellgious
Gospels, or the religious
or
atmosphere prevsiling
atmosphere prevailing at at the
the time.
time. When adaptations of
When adaptations of thethe
original writings
original writings taken
taken fromfrom oral
oral traditions
traditions are pointed
are pointed out, and
out'
we seie
we see the
the way
way texts
texts handed
handed downdown to to us have corrupted, the
have been eorrupted, the
presence of
presenee of obscure, incomprehensible, contradictory, improb-
incomprehensible, contradictorlr, improb-
able, and even absurd
able, absurd passages
passages comes
comes as much less of of a surprise'
surprise.
The same may
The may be said of of texts
texts which incompatible with
which are incompatible with to- to-
day's proven
day's proven reality,
reality, thanks
thanks to scientific
to scientific progress. Observations
such as thesethese denote
denote the element of human participation
of human participation in in the
writing and modification of
writing of the texts.
Admittedly, in
Admittedly, in the last few few decades,
decades, objective research on the
objective resesrch
Scriptures
Scriptures has gained attention. attention. In In a recent book, Faith in
book, Fnith in the
Resurrection, Resurrection of Faith
ResurTeetion, Fuithr (Foi
l (Foi en la Resurrection,
R6surrection,
Resurrection
Rdsurreetion de de la foi),
foi), 'Father
Father Kannengiesser,
Kannengiesser, a professor at
Institute of Paris, outlines this profound change
the Catholic Institute change in
the following
following terms: "The faithful faithful are hardly hardly aware that that aa revo-
revo-
lution has has taken placeplace in methods
methods of Biblical Biblical exegesis since the
exegesis since
time of PiousPious XII"2. The 'Revolution' that the author mentions
The'Revolution' mentions is
therefore very recent. It
therefore It is beginning
beginning to be extended extended to the teach- teaeh-
ing of the faithful,
faithful, in the case caseof certain specialists
specialists at least,
least, who who
are animated by this spirit spirit of revival. "The overthrow of the the
most
most assured
assured prospects
prospects of the the pastoral tradition,"
tradition," the author
writes,
writes, "has"has more
more or less lessbegun
begun with this revolution methods
revolution in methods
of
of exegesis."
exegesis."
Father 'one should liter-
Father Kannengiesser
Kannengiesser warns that that 'one should not take take liter-
ally'
ally' facts
facts reported
reported about
about Jesus
Jesusby by thethe Gospels,
Gospels,because
becausethey they are are
'writings suited
'writings 'to combat',
suited to to anan occasion'
occasion'or or 'to combat', whosewhose authors
authors
'are writing
'are writing downdown the the traditions
traditions of of their
their own own community
community about about
Jesus'.
Jesus'.Concerning
Concerning the the Resurrection
Resurrection of of Jesus,
Jesus,which
which is the sub-
is the sub-
ject
ject of
of his
his book,
book,he he stresses
stressesthatthat none
none of of the
the authors
authors of the Gos-
of the Gos-
pels
pelscancan claim
claim toto have
havebeen beenan an eye-witness.
eye-witness.He He intimates
intimates that,that, as as
far
far asas the
the rest
rest ofof Jesus's
Jesus'spublicpublic life
life isis concerned,
concerned,the the same
samemust must
1.1 . Pub. 'Le Point
Pub. Beauchesne,
Beauchesne,ColI.
Coll. 'Le Point theologique',
theologique',Paris,
Paris, 1974
1974
2.2 . Pious
Pious XII
XII was
was Pope
Popefrom
from 1939
1989toto 1969
1969
 {I
48 TTIEBmLE,
THE BIBLE THE
TIIE QUR'AN
QUITANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE
betrue
be tme because,
because, accordinsto
according to the
the Gospels,
Gospets, none
noneof
of the
the Apostles-
Aposiles-
apart from
apart from Judas Iscariot --left Jesus
JudasIscariot--Ieft Jesusfrom
from the
the moment
momenthe he first
first
followedHim
followed Him until
until His last earthly manifestations.
His last earthly manifestations.
we have
We havecome comeaa longlong way
wsy from
from the
the traditional
traditional position,
position,which
which
wasonce
was onceagain
againsolemnly
solemnlyconfirmed
eonfirued by the SeeondVatican
by the Second Vatican Coun-
Coun-
cil only
cil only ten years ago.
ten years ago. This
This once
onceagain
again isis resumed
resumedby by modern
modern
works of
works popularization destined
of popularization destined to be read
to be read byby the
the faithful.
faithful.
Little by
Little little the
by little the truth is coming to light however.
truth is coming to light however.
It is
It is not
not easy
easyto grasp,because
to grasp, becausethethe weight
weight ofof such
suchaa bitterly
bitterly de-
de-
fended tradition
fended tradition is very is very heavy
hearryindeed.
indeed.ToTo free
free oneself
oneselffrom it, one
one
has to
has to strike
strike at at the
the roots
roots of
of the problem, Le.
the problem, i.e. examine
examine first thethe
circumstances that
circumstances that marked marked thethe birth of Christianity.
 llII

Hislo..i~al Renrinder
Historical lteRlinde..
Judeo-Chrislianity
JudEO-£h..islianit"
and Saini Paul
and Saint I>aul
The majority
Tfue majority of of Christians
Christians believe that Gospels were writ-
that the Gospels writ-
ten by direct
direct witnesses of of the life
life of of Jesus therefore consti-
Jesus and therefore
tute
tute unquestionable evidence evidence concerning
concerning the events high-lighting high-lishting
His life
His lifJ and preachings. One
One wonders, in
in the
thii presence
presence of such
guarantees of authenticity,
gUarantees authenticity, how it
it is possible
possible to discuss
discuss the teach-
ings derived from from them and how one caD
one can cast doubt upon
upon the
validity
validity of the Church as
as an institution
institution applying
applying the general
instructions
instructions Jesus Jesus Himself
Himself gave.
gave. Today's popular editions of the
Gospels
Gospelscontain commentaries
commentaries aimed aimed at propagating these ideas
these ideas
among the general public.
The value
value the authors of the Gospels Gospelshave have as as eye-witnesses
eye-witnessesis
always presented
presented to the faithful
the faithful as as axiomatic. In the middle of
the Second
Second century, Saint
Saint Justin did,
did, after all,
all, call
call the Gospels
the Gospels
'Memoirs of the Apostles'.
the 'Memoirs Apostles'. There are
are moreover
moreover so
so many de-
de-
tails proclaimed concerning
tails proclaimed eoneerning the authors the authors that
that it
it is
is a
a wonder
wonder that
that
one
one could
could ever
ever doubt
doubt their
their accuracy;
accurscy; Matthew
Matthew was was aa well-known
character 'a customs officer
character'a customs officer employed employed at
at the
the tollgate
tollgate or customs
or customs
house at Capharnaum';
house at Capharn&um'; it is evenit is even said
said that
that he
he spoke
spoke Aramaic
Aramaie and
and
Greek. Mark is also easily identifiable
Greek. Mark is also easily identifiable as
as Peter's
Peter's colleague;
colleague; there
there
Luke is is the 'dear
the 'dear
is
is DO
no doubt
doubt that
that hehe too
too was
was anan eye-witness.
eye-witness. Luke
physician'
physician' of of whom
whom PaulPaul talks:
talks: information
information on on himhim is is very pre-
very pre-
cise. John is the Apostle
eise. John is the Apostle who who was
was always
always near
near to
to Jesus,
Jesus, son
son of
of
Zebedee, fisherman on
Zebedee, fisherman on the Sea ofthe Sea of Galilee.
Galilee.

4g
49
 'II
50 THE
TIIE BIBLE,
BIBI.F"THE
TIIE QUB'AN
QT'N'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

Modern studies
Modern studies on on the
the beginnings
beginnings of of Christianity
Ghristianity show show that that
this way
this way of presenting things
of presenting things hardly corresponds to
hardly corresponds to reality.
reality. We we
shall see
shall seewho whothe the authors
authors of of the
the Gospels
Gospelsreally reaily were.
were. As As far
far asasthe
the
decadesfollowing
decades following Jesus's
Jesus's mission
mission are are concerned,
concerned, itit mustmust be be un-
un-
derstood that
derstood that events
events diddid not
not atat all
all happen
happen in in the
the way
way they
they havehsve
beensaid
been said to to have
have taken place and
taken place and that peter's arrival
that Peter's arrival in irt-Rome
Rome
inin no
no way
rpaylaid laid the
the foundations
foundations for for thethe Church.
Church. On on the
the contrary,
contrary,
from the
from the time
time Jesus
Jesus left
left earth
earth to to the
the second
secondhalf half ofof the
the Second
second
century, there
century, there was was aa struggle
struggle between
between two two factions.
factions. One one was was
whet one
what one might
might call call Pauline
Pauline Christianity
christianity and and thethe other
other Judeo-
Judeo-
Christianity. It
Christianity. It was
was only
only very
very slowly
slowly that that the the first
first supplanted
supplanted
th^- second,
the Becond,and and Pauline
Pauline Christianity
Christianity triumphedtriumphed over ou"" Judeo-
Judeo-
CfiristianiW.
Cfiristianity.
A large
A large number
number of of very
very recent
recent works are are based
based on on contempo-
eontempo-
rary discoveries
rary discoveries a})out about Christianity.
Christianity. Among them we we find
find Cardi-
Cardi-
nal Danielou's
nal Dani6lou'sname. name. In December
December1967 1g6?he he published
published an article article inin
the review Studies
the studies (Etudes) entitled: entiiled: 'A fA NewNew Representation
Representa,tion01 ol
the Origins
the origi,ns 01 of Christianity:
chri,stianity: Judea-Christianity'.
Judeo-christi,anity'. (Une (une visionvision
nouvelle des
nouvelle des origines
origines chretiennes,
chr€tiennes, Ie le juddo+hristianisme).
judeo-christianisme). Here Here
he reviews past
he past works, retraces its history history and enables enables us us to
to
place the appearance
place appearance of of the Gospels
Gospels in in quite a different
different eontext
context
from the one
from one thatthat emerges
emerges on reading accounts accounts intended for for
m&ss publication.
mass publication. what What follows is a condensed condensed version of of the
the
essential points
essential points made made in in his artiele,
article, incruding
including many quotations quotations
from
from it.it.
After
After Jesus's
Jesus's departure, the the "litfle
"little group
group of of Apostles"
Apostles" formeciformeci
aa "Jewish sect sect that
that remained
remained faithful
faithful to to the
the form
form of of worship
worshi y
practised
practised in in the
the Temple".
Temple". However,
However, when when the the observances
observances of of
converts from from paganism
paganism were were added
added to them, aa ,special
to them, 'special system'
system'
was
was offered
offered to to them,
them, as as itit were:
were: thethe Council
Council of of Jerusalem
Jerusalem in in 4g
49
A.D.
A.D. exempted
exempted them them from
from circumcision
circumcision and and Jewish
Jewish observances;
observances;
"many Judeo-christians
"many Judeo-Christians rejected rejected this this concession".
concession". This This groupgroup
was quite
was quite separate
separate from from Paul's.
Paul's. WhatWhat is more, paul
is more, Paul and and the
the
Judeo-Christians
J udeo-Christians were were in in conflict
conflict over
over the the question
question of of pagans
pagans
who
who hadhad turned
turned to Christianity, (the
to christianity, (the incident
incident of of Antioch,
Antioch, 49 49
A.D.). "For Paul, the circumcision,
A.D.). "For Paul, the circumcision, sabbath, Sabbath, and and form
form of of wor-
wor-
ship practised
ship practised in in the
the Temple
Temple were were henceforth
henceforth old old fashioned,
fashioned,
even
even for
for thethe Jews.
Jews. christianity
Christianity was was to to free
free itself
itself from
from its its politi-
politi-
B;'toncal Reminder. Judeo-Chmtianity atd
Hhtodcalftemhdet.Iudeo'Chfictianitg and SaintPaul
Saint Paul 5l51

cal-cum-religious adherence
cal-cum-religious adherence to to Judaism
Judaism and and open itself to
open itself to the
the
Gentiles."
Gentiles."
For those
For those Judeo-christians
Judeo-Christians who remained 'loyal
who remained Jews,' Paul
'loyal Jews,' Paul
an 'enemy',
was a traitor: Judeo-Christian
was a traitor: Judeo-Christian documents
documents call
call him
him an 'enemy',
accuse him
accuse him of of 'tactical
'tactical double-dealing',
double-dealing', . . . "Until "Until ?0 70 A'D.'A.D.,
Judeo-Christianity
Judeo-Christianity represents represents the
the majority
majority of
of the
the Church"
Church" end
and
"Paul remains an isolated
"Paul remains an isolated case". case". The
The head
head of
of the
the community
community at
at
that time was James,
that time was James, a relation of a relation of Jesus.
Jesus. With
With him
him were
were Peter
Peter
(at the
(at the beginning)
beginning) and and John.
John. "James
"James may may be considered to
be considered to repre-
repre-
sent the Judeo-Christian
sent the Judeo-Cfuristiancamp, which camp, which deliberately
deliberately clung
clung to
to Juda-
Juda-
ism as opposed to Pauline
ism as opposed to Pauline Christianity." Christianity." Jesus's
Jesus's family
family has
has sa
very important
very important place in
in the Judeo-Christian
Judeo-Christian Church
Church of
of Jerusa-
lem. "James's tsUgcessor
lem. "James's 'Successor was Simeon, Simeon, SOn son Of Cleopas, a COuSin
of CleOpaS, cousin
of the L,ord".
of the Lord".
Cardinal Danielou here quotes
cardinal Judeo-Christian writings
quotes Judeo-christian writings which
express
express the views on Jesus of this community which initially
Jesus of this community which initially
formed around
formed around the apostles
apostles:: the GospelGospel of the Hebrews ( coming
(coming
from
from aa Judeo-Christian
Judeo-Christian community in Egypt), Egypt), the writings
writings of of
Clement: 'Hypotyposeis', the Second
Clement: Homilies and Recognitions, Recognitions, 'Hypotyposeis', Second
Apocalypse
Apocalypse of James, James, the Gospel Gospel of Thomas.]
Thomas.' "It "It is to the Judeo- Judeo-
Christians
Christians that one one must
rnust ascribe
ascribe the oldestoldest writings
writings of Christian
Christian
literature."
Iiterature." Cardinal Danielou mentions them in detail.
Danidlou mentions
,,It was
"It was not just just in Jerusalem
Jerusalem and and Palestip.e Judeo-chris'
Palestine that Judeo-Chris-
tianity
tianity predominated
predominated during the first hundred hundred years ofyears the
of the
Church.
Church. The The Judeo-Christian
Judeo-Christian mission mission seemsseemseverywhere
everywhere to have to have
developed certainly the
is certainly ex-
the ex-
developedbefore before the the Pauline
Pauline mission.
mission. ThisThis is
planation
ptanation of of the
the fact
fact that
that the
the letters
letters of of Paul
Paul allude to a conflict'"
allude to a conflict."
They everywhere: in
meet everywhere: in
bnty were were thethe same
same adversaries
adversaries he he was
was toto meet
Galatia,
Galatia, Corinth,
Corinth, Colossae,
Colossae,Rome Rome and and Antioch.
Antioeh'
The
The Syro-Palestinian
Syro-Palestinian coast coast from from GazaGazato Antioch was
to Antioch was Judeo-
Judeo-
Christian ,nas and clem-
christian "as witnessed
witnessed by by the
the Acts
Acts of of the
the Apostles
Apostles and Clem-
entine
entine writings".
writings". IIi Iri Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, the the existence of Judeo-Chris-
existence of Judeo-Chris-
tians
tians is is indicated
indica[ed in in Paul's
Paul'sletters
letters to to the
the Galatians
Galatiansand Colossians.
and Colossians.
Papias's
Papias's writings
writings give give us us information
information about about Judeo-Christianity
Judeo-Christianity
in
in Phrygia.
ithrygia. In In Greece,
Gte*ce,Paul's
Paul's first
first letter
letter toto the
the Corinthians
Corinthisns men- men-

1.l. One to be
later to cle$ed as
beclassed ee
Onecould
could note
note here
hel.ethat
that all
all these
thesewritings
writings were
were later
Apocrypha, victorious Church which
church which
Apocryphs, i.e.
i.e.they
they had
hadtoto be
beconcealed
concealedby by the
the victorious
was in the
excigionr in
obvious excisions the
war born
norn ofof Paul's
Paul'a success.
sueeess.This
This Church
Church rt(ade
rfiadeobvious
Gospel
Goepelliterature
literoture andand retained
retained only
only the
the four
four Canonic Goepels.
canonic Gospels.
 52
52 THE
THEBIBLE,
BIBLE,THE
THEQUR'AN
QUR'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

tionsJudeo-Christians,
tions Judeo-christians,especiallyespeeiallyat at Apollos.
Apoilos.According
Aceording to to Clem-
clem-
ent's letter and
ent's letter and thethe Shepherd
Shepherd of Hermas, Rome was an 'impor-
of Hermas, Rome was an ,impor-
tant centre'.
tant centre'. For For Suetonius
suetonius and and Tacitus,
Tacitus, the the Christians
christians repre· r.epre-
sentedaa Jewish
sented Jewish sect.
seet. Cardinal
cardinal Danidlou thinks that
Danielou thinks that the the first
first
evangelizationin
evangelization in Africa
Africa was was Judeo-Christian.
Judeo-christian. The The Gospel
Gospelof of the
the
Hebrewsand
Hebrews andthe writings of
the writings of Clement
clement of of Alexandria
Alexandr.ialink link up up with
with
this.
this.
It is
It is essential
essentialto to know
know these
thesefacts
facts toto understand
understand the the struggle
struggle
betweencommunities
between communitiesthat that formed
formed the the background
baekgrounrlagainstagainst which whieh
the Gospels
the Gospelswere were written.
written. The The texts
texts that
that we rve have today, after
have 1oday, after.
many adaptations
many adaptations from from the the sources,
sources,beganbegan to to appear
appear around
around 70 ?0
4.D., the
A.D., the time
time when
when the the two
two rival
rival communities
communitieswere were engaged
engagedin in
aa fierce
fierce struggle,
struggle, with with thethe Judeo-Christians
Judeo-christians still still retaining the the
upper hand.
upper hand. With
With the the Jewish
Jewish war war andand thethe fall of Jerusalem
Jerusalem in in
70 A.D.
70 A.D. the the situation
situation was was to be be reversed.
reversed. This is is how
hory Cardinal
cardinal
Dani6louexplains
Danielou explainsthe the decline:
decline:
"After the
"After the Jews
Jews had had been
been discredited
discredited in the Empire, the the Chris-
chris-
tians tended
tians tended to detach detach themselves
themservesfrom them. them. The Hellenistic
peoples of Christian
peoples persuasion then gained
christian persuasion gained the upper hand: hand:
Paul won aa posthumous
Paul posthumous victory;
victory; Christianity
Christianity separated itself po-
separated itself
litically and sociologically
litically sociologically from Judaism; it it became
became the third third
people.
people. All All the same,
same, until
until the Jewish revolt in 140 A.D., Judeo-
in 140 Judeo-
christianity continued
Christianity continued to predominate
predominate culturally.',
culturally."
From
From 70 ?0 A.D. to a period
period sometime
sometime beforebefore 110 110 A.D. the the Gos-
Gos-
pels
pels of of Mark,
Mark, Matthew, Luke and John were were produced.
produced. They They do do
not
not constitute
constitute the first first written
written Christian
Christian documents:
documents: the the letters
letters
of
of Paul
Paul date from from well beforebefore them.
them. According
According to to o.
O. culm&nn,
Culmann,
Paul probably
Paul probably wrote wrote his his letter
letter toto the
the Thessalonians
Thessalonians in in E0 50 A.D.
A.D.
He
He had had probably
probably disappeared
disappeared severalseveral years
years prior
prior toto the
the comple-
comple-
tion
tion of of Mark's
Mark's Gospel.
Gospel.
Paul
Paul is is the
the most
most controversial
controversial figure figure in in Christianity.
Christianity. He He waswas
considered
considered to to be
be aa traitor
traitor to to Jesus's
Jesus's thought
thought by by the
the latter's
latter's fam- fam-
ily
ily and
and by by the
the apostles
apostles who who hadhad stayed
stayed in in Jerusalem
Jerusalem in in the
the circle
circle
around
around James. James. PaulPaul created
created christianity
Christianity at at the
the expense
expense of of those
those
whom
whom Jesus Jesus had had gathered
gathered around
around him him to to spread
spread his his teachings.
teachings.
He
He had had not not known
known JesusJesus during
during hishis lifetime
lifetime and and he he proved
proved the the
legitimacy
legitimacy of ofhis
his mission
mission by by deelaring
declaring that that Jesus,
Jesus, raised
raised fromfrom the the
dead, had
dead, had appeared
appeared to to him
him on on the
the road
road to to Damascus.
Damascus. ItIt isis quite quite
reasonable
reasonable to to ask
ask what
what christianity
Christianity might might havehave beenbeen without
without
Hiatorical Reminder. /udeo-Chriatianityand
HhroficalFremh1d,et.Itd,eo-chthtianitg SaintPaul
atd saint Paul 53
53

paul
Paulsndand one
one could
could no no doubt construct sll
doubt construet sorts of
all sorts hypotheses on
ofhypotheses on
this subject.
ihis suUject.As As far
far asas the
the Gospels
Gospels are
are concerned
concerned however,
however, itit isis
almost certain
almost certsin that that if
if this
this atmosphere
atmosphere of
of struggle
struggle between
between com-
com-
munities had
munities had not
not existed,
existed, we would not
we would have had
not have had the the writings
writings
we possess today.
we possesstoday. They They appeared
appeared at
at aa time
time of
of fierce
fierce struggle
struggle be-
be-
between the two communities. These
These 'combat
'combat writings"
writings', as
as Father
Father
betweenthe two communities.
Kannengiesser calls
Kannengiesser calls them, emerged from
them, emerged from the multitude of
the multitude of writ-
writ-
ings on Jesus. These
ings on Jesus.Theseoccurred occurred at
at the
the time
time when
when Paul's
Paul's style
style of
of
Christianity won through
Ctrlistianity won through definitively,definitively, and
and created
created its
its own
own col-
col-
lection of
Iection of official
official texts.
texts. These
These texts constituted the
texts constituted the 'Canon'
'Canon' which
which
condemned
condemned and excluded as unorthodox
excluded as unorthodox any
any other
other doeuments
documents
that were not suited to the line sdopted
thet 'adopted by the Church. Church.
The Judeo-Christians
The Judeo-Christianshave have now disappeared
disappeared as a communiff
as community
with any influence,
with any influence, but one still hears
one still hears people
people talking
talking about
about them
under the general term of 'Judaistic'.
'Judalstic'. This is how
how Cardinal
Cardinal
under ihe general
Danielou describes
Danidlou disappearance::
describes their disappearance
.,when
"When they were cut off from the Great
they were Church, thst
Great church, that gradu-
gradu-
ally they petered out
ally freed
freed itself from its Jewish Jewish attachments,
attachments, petered out
very however
East however it is possible to
very quickly
quickly in the the West.
West. In the the East possible to
find
find traces
tiaces of them
them in the the Third and Centuries
and Fourth Centuries A.D., es- A.D., es-
pecially
p"*i*tty in Palestine,
Palestine,Arabia,
Arabia, Transjordania,
Transjordania,Syria Syria-and and Mesopo-
Mesopo-
tamia.
tamie. Others
Others joined
joined in the the orthodoxy
orthodoxy of the Great Church, at the
the Great Church, the
same
sametimetime preserving
preservingtraces traces of Semitic culture; some
Semitic culture; some of these
these
still
still persist
persistin in the
the Churches
churchesof of Ethiopia
Ethiopia and chaldea".
and Chaldea".
 III
lll
Th
Thee Fo Forrr
u.. Go
Gospels.
spe ls.
So
Sourcc$
u... :es an
andd His
History,
lor y.
In the
the writin
writings gs that come
comefrom the the early stages
stagesof Christ
christian-
ian-
ity,
1tr' the
tne Gospel
Gospels s are not mentio
are mentioned ned until long long after thethe works of
Paul.
Peul. It It was
wes notnot until the the middle
middle of the the Second
second centur
century A.D.,
y A.D.,
after
sfter 140140 A.D.
A.D. to be precise,
be precise , that accoun
aecounts ts began
began to appea
appear r con-
con-
cernin
eerning g aa collect
collection
ion of Evang
Evangelicelic writin
writings.gs. In spite of this, "from .,from
the
lle beginn
be$nning ing of thethe Second
secondcenturcentury y A.D.,
A.D., manymany Christ
chrigtianian au-
au-
thorg clearly
thors clearly intima
intimatc te that they
they knew
knew aa great many paul's let-
many of Paul's
ter8." These
ters." Theseobserv
observations
ations are
are setset out in the Introduction
ttre Introd uction to the
Etumenieal
Ecume nical Tro,na
Trowlati,on
lation 01of tke
the Bible,
Biblc, NewNeur Testam
Testamemt (Introduc-
ent (Introd uc-
tion a l la
la Tradu
Traduction
ction oecum
oecumdnique
enique de de la Bible,
Bible, Nouve
Nouveau au Testa-
Teste-
ment) edited
ment) edited 1972).
rgzg'. They
They are
are worth mentio rnentioningning from the outset,
outset,
and it is useful
and uEefulto point out here here that the work referre referred d to is the
result of aa collect
result collective
ive effort whichwhich brough
broughtt togeth
together more than
er more
bne hundre
hne hundred d Cathol
catholic ic and protestant
and Protes tant specia
specialists.
lists.
The Gospel
The Gospels, s, later to becom
become e official
official, i.e. canoni
, Le. canonic,c, did not be- be-
come known
come known until fairly fairly late,
late, even
even though
though they were were comple
completed ted
at thethe beginn
beginning ing of the the Second
secondcentur centu"y y A.D.
e.o. hccording
According L to flr"
the
Ecumenical
Ecume rranslation,
nical Transl ation, stories
stories belong
belonging ing to themthem bee;'n
began to be be
quotedaround
quoted around the the middle
middle of the the Second
secondcenturcentury A.D. Neverthe-
y A.D. Neverthe-
less,"it
less, is nearly
"it is nearly always
alwaysdifficu
difficult decidewheth
lt to decide whether quotations
the quotat
er the ions
comefrom writte
come writtenn texts
textg that the the author
authors had next to them
s had them or if if
the latter were
the were conten
oontent evokethe
t to evoke the memor
memory y of fragm
fragments
ents of the
oral traditi
oral tradition."
on."
"Befor
"Before r40 A.D." we
e 140 we read
read in the the comm
commentaries
entaries this transla-
transla -
tion of the the Bible
Bible contai
contains, ,,there was,
ns, "there was, in any any case,
case,no no accoun
sccount, t·
1.
t. Pub.
Prb. Edition
Ed*onr s du Cerf
cerf et Lea parig.
Ler Bergers et les Mages, Paris.

54
S4
lllrcRow@h'Sorrca ordfilffit tU
55

by which ODe might have recognised a collection of evangelic

bywhichonemighthaverecognlgedaeollecfronofgvsngpllc
writings". firie
#tings". This stat€m€nt
statement isis the opposite of
the opposite what A.
of what A. Tricot
TricOt
writes (1960)
writ€E (1960) in in the
the comlnentaty
commentary to his translation of the
to his translation of the New
New
Testament: "Very
Tegtoment: "Very eerly
early on,
on, from
from the beginning of
the begiinning of th9
the Second
Second
century A.D.,
century A.D., itit became
becameaa habithabit to say 'Goapel'
to say meaning the
'Gospel' meaning the books
books
that Saint
Saint Justin
Justin around
around 160 A.D. h8d
150 A.D. aleo called 'Ttre
had also called 'The Memoirs Memoirs
thet
of the
of the Apoetles'."
Apostles'." Unfortunately, assertions of
Unfortunately, assertions of this kind anc
this kind are
sufticiently common
sgfrciently common for the public
for the publie to to have ideas on the date
have ideas on tfie date of of
the Goepels
the Gospels which whieh ereare mistaken.
mistaken.
The Gospels
The Gospels did did not
not form complete whole
form aa c'omplete whole 'very early on';
'very eerly on';
itit did
did notnot happen
happen until until more
more than centurY after
than aa centurt' after the end of
end of
Jesus's mission.
Jesus's mission. The Ecrtmertcal Translation of
Ecumenical Ttawlntimt Bibln esti'
of the Bible esti-
mates the date the four
mates four Gospels aequired the status of
Gospels acguired of canonic
canonie
literature at arsund
literature around 1?0 170 A.D.
Justin's statement
Justin'g statement which calls authors 'Apostles'
calls the authors ·Apostles' is not
aceeptable either, as
acceptable as w€we shall see.see.
far as
As far as the dste Gospels were written
date the Gospgls eoncerned, A'
written is concerned, A.
Tricot ststes that Matthew's,
Trieot states Mstthew'g, Mark's and and Luke's Gospels were
Luke's Gospels were
written
written before
before 70 exceptperhaps
acceptable,exeept
?0 A.D.: but this is not acceptable, perhaps
for Mark. Following many many others,
others, this commentatorgoes
thie commentator goesout of
his way to present pres€nt the authors of the
the authors Gospelsas
the Gospels as the apostlesor
the apostles
the
the companions
companiottsof Jesus. Jesus.For this reason reason he suggestsdates
he suggests detes of
writing
writing that tttst plaee
placethem
them very near near to the lived.
Jesuslived. As
time Jesus
the time As for
John,
John,whom*tto* A. A. Tricot has hasus us believe
believelived roughly 100
lived until roughly A.D.'
100A.D.,
Christians
christians have havealways
slwaysbeen usedto
beenused to seeing
seeinghim him depicted as
depictedas being being
very near
very near to to Jesus
Jesuson on ceremonial occasions.It
ceremonisloccasions. It is difficult
very difficult
is very
however
howeverto to assert
sssert that
that hehe is
is the
the author
author of of the
the Gospel that
Gospelthat bears bears
his
his name.
name.For For A. A. Tricot,
Tricot, as asfor
for other commentators,
other commentators, the Apostle
the Apostle
John
John (like
(like Matthew)
Matthew) was was the
the officially qualifiedwitness
offieisllyqualified witnessof of the
the
facts
fects hehe recounts,
recounts,although
althoughthe the majority
majority of critics do
of critics sup-
not sup-
do not
port
port the
the hypothesis
hypothesiswhich which says
sayshe wrote the
he wrote the fourth Gospel.
fourth Gospel.
If
If however
howeverthe the four
four Gospels
Gospelsin questioncannot
in question reasonablybe
cannotreasonably be
regarded
regardedas as the 'Memoirs'
the 'Memoirs' of of the apostlesor
the apostles or companions
companionsof of
Jesus, wheredo
Jesus,where dothey
theYcomecomefrom?
from ?
O.
o. Culmann,
culmann, in
in his
his book
book The
The New Testament(Le
NewTestament (Le Nouveau
Nouveau
Testament)
Testament)', \ says
seysof this that
of this that the evangelistswere
the evangelists were onlyonly thethe
,,spokesmen
"spokesmen of of the
theearly
earlyChristian eommunitywhich
christian community whichwrote wrote
down
down the
the oral
oral tradition.
tradition. For
For thirty
thirty oror forty
forty years'
years, the Gos-
theGos-
1.1. Pub.
P"b. Preases
FreEE€sUniversitaires
Univereitsires de
de France,
Fr'nce, Paris, 1967
Paris, 1967
 58
t0 THE
TrIE BmLE
BIELF,', THE
TIIE QUR'A
QUn?NN AND SCIEN
SCTENCE
CE

pel
pel had existed
existed as as an almost exclus ively oral traditi
exclusively on: the
tradition:
latter
latter only transm itted saying
transmitted sayingss and isolate
isolated d narrati ves. The
narratives.
evange lists strung
evangelists strung them togeth er, each
together, eaeh in his own way way ac-
cordin
cording g to his own characcharacter ter and theolog
theologieal ical preoccupations.
preoccupations.
They linked up the narrat ions and saying
narrations sayings s handed
handed down by
the prevai
prevailing
ling traditi on. The groupi
tradition. grouping ng of Jesus's
Jesus's saying
sayingrs
and
and likewi
likewise se the sequen
sequence ce of narrat ives is made
narratives made by the use use
of fairly
fairly vague
vague linking phrases
linking phrase s such
such as ,after this', 'when
as 'after ,when
he
he had'
had'etc.etc. In
rn other words, .framework'
words, the 'frame work' of of the Synop
synoptic tic
Gospel
Gospelsl st is of aa purely literarliteraryy order and is not based based on
history
history." ."
The same
sameauthor contin ues as
eontinues as follow
followss::
''It
"rt must be be noted
noted that
that the needs
needs of preach
preaching, ing, worshi
worshipp and
teachin
teaehing, g, more than biogra phical consid
biographicar erations, were what
considerationsn
guided the early commu
guided community nity when it it wrote down the tra- tra-
dition of the life of Jesus. Jesus. The apostle
apostles s illustr
illustratedated the truth
truth
of the faith
faith they
t!"y were preach
preaehing ing by describ
deseribing ing the events
events
in the life
life of Jesus.
Jesus. Their
Their sermon
Be"rnons s are what caused caused the de- de-
scripti
seriptions
ons to be be writte
writtenn down.
down. The saying sayings s of Jesus
Jesus were
transm
transmitted,
itted, in particu
partieular,
lar, in the teachin
teaching g of the catech ism
catechism
of the early ChurchChurch." ."
This is exactly how the comm commentators
entato rs of the Ecumen{,ealEcumenical
Transl
Translation
ation of the the Bible
Bibte (Tradu
(Traduction
ction oecum{
oecum€niquemique de de la
Ia Bible)
describe
describ e the writin
writingg of the GospeGospers: ls: the format
formation ion of an oral orar
tradition
traditi on influen
influencedced by the preachpreaehingrings of Jesus's
Jesus,s discipl
disciples
es and
preachers;
other preach ers; the preser
preservation
vation by- preach
preaching ing of this materi al,
materiar,
which is in actual fact faet found in the Gospel Gospels, s, by preaching,
preaching,
liturgy
Iiturgy,, and teachi
teaching ng of the faithfu
faithful;l; the slende
slenderr por*ilititv
possibility of of a
concrete
concre te form given by writin writingsgs to certain
c€ttain c0nfes
confessions faith,"
sions of faith,
sayings
saying s of Jesus,
Jesus, descrip
deseriptions
tions of the Passiopassion n for
for examp
example; le; the
fact that the evangeevangelists
lists resort to variou
variouss writte
writtenn forms as wen
as well
as
as data
data contai
containedned in the oral tradititradition.
on. They resort to these these to
produce
produc e texts
texts which
which "are suitabl
suitable e for variou
various s circles
circles, , which meet
meet
the
the needs
needsof the the Church
church,, explai
explain n observ
observations
ations on on the Scriptu
scriptures,
res,
correc
correctt errors and and even,
even, on occasio
oceasion, n, answe
answer r advers
adversaries'aries' objec-
objec-
tions.
tions. Thus
Thus the evangeevangelists,
lists, each
each accord
according ing to his own outlook ouilook,,
have
have collect
collecteded and
and record
recorded ed in writin
writingg the materi
material al given to them
by the
the oral traditi
tradition".
on".
1. The three Gospels
1. Goepelsof Mark,
Mark, Matthew and Luke.
TlcRow @qrllr,, Sowrpt sniilnb/rltg 67

This position
This position hashas been
been collectively
collectively adopted
adopted by more than
by more than one
one
hundred experts
hundred experts in in the
the exegesis
exegesis ofof thethe New Testament, botr
New Testament, both
Catholic snd
Catholic and Protestant.
Protestant. ItIt diverges
diverges widely
widely from from the line estab
the line estab-
lished by
Iished by the
the Second
Second Vatican
Vatican Council
Council in in its dogmatic constitution
its dogmatic constitution
on the
on the Revelation
Revelation drawndrawn up up between
between 1962 and and 1966. This con'
1965. This con-
ciliar document has
ciliar has already
already been
been referred
referred to above, when
to once above, when
talking of
talking of the
the Old Testament.
Testament. The Council was able to
The Council to declare
of the
of the latter
latter that
that the
the books which
which compose itit "contain"contain material
material
which is imperfect
which imperfect and obsolete", but but itit has not expressed the
not expressed the
same reservations
same reservations about about thethe Gospels,
Gospels. On the contrary' contrary, 8s as we
read in in the
the following:
following:
"Nobody can overlook the fact
"Nobody ean fact that,
that, among all all the Scriptures'
Scriptures,
even those of of the New
New Testament, the Gospels Gospels have a well-de-
served position of
senred of superiority.
superiority. ThisThis is by virtue
virtue of fact thst
of the fect that
they represent the most pre-eminent
they pre-eminent witness to the life life and
teachings of
teachings Incarnate Word, Our Saviour. At
of the Incafnate At all times and
in all places
places the Church has maintained and still still maintains
meintains the
apostolic
apostolic origin
origin of the fourfour Gospels.
Gospels. What
What the apostles aetually
apostles actually
preached on Christ'sChrist's orders, both they and the men in their their fol-
lowing transmitted, with
lowing subsequently transmitted, with the divine inspiration
inspiration of
the Spirit,
Spirit, in writings
writings which are the foundation of the faith, i.e. i.e.
the fourfold
fourfold GospelGospel according to Matthew, Mark, Luke and snd
John."
"Our
"Our Holy Mother, the Church, Church, hashas firmly
firmly maintained and and still
maintains with with the greatest
greatest constancy,
constancy, that these these four Gospels,
Gospels,
which it unhesitatingly confirms confirms are historically
historieally authentic,
authentic,
faithfully
faithfully transmit
transmit what Jesus, Jesus, Son
Son Of God, God, actually did and and
taught
taught during his his life among
among men men for their eternal salvation
until thethe day
day when
when HeHe was
was taken
taken upup into
into the heavens. . . The
the heavens.... The
sacred
sacred authors
authors therefore
therefore composed
composedthe the fourfour Gospels
Gospels in sueh aa
in such
way
way as as toto always
always give
give us
us true
true and
and frank
frank information
information on the life
on the life
of
of Jesus".
Jesug".
This
This isis an
an unambiguous
unambiguous affirmation
affirmation of of the
the fidelity
fidelity with which
with which
the
the Gospels
Gospelstransmit
transmit thethe acts
acts and
and sayings
sayings of of Jesus.
Jesus'
There
There is hardly any
is hardly any compatibility
compatibility betweenbetween the Council's af-
the Council's af-
firmation and
firmation and what what the
the authors
authors quoted
quoted above
above claim.
claim. In
In particular
particular
the
the following:
following:
The
The Gospels
GospelsHare not to
"are not to be
be taken literallg" they
taken literally" ste uwritings
they are "usri'tings
suited to an occasion" or ucombat
sutted,tO an occASiOn"Ot "cornbat Writingy". writings". Their
Their aUthOrs
authors "d're
Hare
saTE THEB18LE,
THE BI8I.F'TIlE
TTilE
QUR'AN AND
QIJN'ANANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE
ufit@. down
mUng d'owntM ttwtroditi0ft8
traditiotrt of
of tMir
tlwir own
owncommunity
eoftrrnuni,tyconcerning
ctnccrning
JUUB". (Father Kannengiesser).
Junt". (Father l(annengiesser).
TheGospels
The Gospelsare eretexts
texts which
which "are
"are suitable
suitablefor for various
various circles,
circles,
meetthe
meet theneeds
needeof of the
theChurch,
church,explain
explainobservations
observationson onthetheScrip-
scrip-
tutrt, correct
tures, eorrectenors
ertorB and and even,
even,onon occasion,
occasion,answer
answeradversaries'
adversaries'
objections.Thus,
objections. Thus,the theevangelists,
evangelistE, each
eaehaccording
aecordingto to his
his own
ownout-ouL
look,have
look, hsvecollected
collectedand raecorded
and recorded in
in writing
writing the th; material
material given
given
toto them
them by by the
the oral
oral tradition". (Ecumeni,eal,
tradition". (Ecumenical TranBlation
Translation of if the
n"
Biblal.
Bible).
rt is
It quite clear
is quite clear thatthat wewe are
are here
here faced
faced with
with contradictory
contradictory
statements:
statements: the the declaration
deelarationof of the
the Council
Councilon on the
the one
onehand,
hand,and and
more rucently adopted
gore recently adoptedattitudes
attitudes on on the
the other.
other. According
According to to the
the
declarationof
declaration of the
the Second
secondVatican
vatican Council,
couneil, aa faitltful
faithful account
accountof of
the actions
the actionsandand words
words of of Jesus
Jesusis is to
to be
befound
found inin the
the Gospels;
cospets;but but
it is
it ia impossible
impossibleto to reconcile
reconeilethis with the the existence
existencein the ttre text ofof
eontredictions, improbabilities, things
contradictions, improbabilities, thinep which
which areare materially im- im_
posgibleor statements
pouible statementswhich run contrary contrgrr to firmly established
estabiished
rnality.
reality.
rf' on
If, on the
the other hand, hand, OBe
one chooses
choosesto regard regard thethe Gospels
Gospelsas as
erpressing
expressing the personalpersonal point of view of those those whowho collected
colloLo the tn*
orel
oral treditione-
traditions that belongedbelonged to various
various communities,
communities, or or ag as
writings guited
writingr suited to an occasion
occasion or combat-writings,
combat-writings, itit does does not
not
oom€
come 8a as a gurprise
surprise to find faults in the Gospels. Gospels. All All these
these faulh
faults
rre the
are the sign that that they were were written
written by men men in circumstances
circumstances
gueh
such es as these.
these. The writerswriters may have have b*tt been quite sincere,
sincere, eveneven
though
though they they relate faets
facts without
without doubting their their inaccura*y.
inaccuracy. rn*y They
provide
provide u$ US' with
with descriptions
descriptions which
which contradiet
contradict other other authors'
authors'
nrrrationE,
narrations, or or are
are influeneed
influenced by by reasons
reasons of of religious
religious rivelry
rivalry be-
be-
tween
tween cornmunities.
communities. They They therefore
therefore present
present stories
stories about
about the the life
life
of
of Jesus
Jesus from
from aa completery
completely different
different angre
angle than
than their
their adversaries.
adversaries.
rtIt hss
has already
already beenbeen shown
shown howhow the the historical
historical context
context is is in
in
herrnony
harmony with with the
the second
second approach
approach to to the
the Gospels.
Gospels. The The data
data we we
have on
hsve on the
the t€xts
texts themselves
themselves definitively
definitively confirms
confirms it. it.

THE
THE @SPEf, GOSPEL ACCOrc,ING
ACCORDING TO TO MATTHEW
MATTHEW
Mstthew's
Matthew's isis the the first
first of
of the
the four
four Gospels
Gospels asas they
they appear
appear in
in
the New Testament.
the New Testament. This This position perfectly justined-by
position isis perfecily justified by the
the
faet that itit isis ea prolongation,
faet that prolongation, as as itit were,
were, of
of the
the oltl Testament.
Old restament.
TlpRowGrlryrlh.Sowootatdffiirltorg 50
59

ItItwss
waswrittcn
writtento showthat
to show that"Jesus
"Jesusfulfilled
fulfilled the history of
thehistory of fsr&e!",
Israel",
as
es thethe commentators
commentatorg of
of the
the Ecumenical
Eeu,rnenied, Tra.nslation
Trs,nglf,,tion af
of the
the Bibl'e
Bible
note and
note and on on which
whieh we
we shall
shall be
be drawing
drawing heavily.
heavily. To
To do
do sor
so,
Matthew
Matthew constantly
constsntly refers
refers to
to quotations
quotations from
from the
the Old
Old Testament
Testament
which show
which show how how Jesus
Jesus acted
acted 8s as ifif he
he were
were the Messiah the
the Messiah the JewsJews
were awaiting.
were awaiting.
This Gospel
This Gospel begnsbegins with
with aa genealogy
genealogy of of Jesus'. Matthew traces
Jesus 1 • Matthew traces
it back
it back to
to Abraham
Abraham via
via David.
David. We
we shall
shall presently
presently see
see the
the fault
fault in
in
the text
the text that that most
most commentators
commentators silently
silently ignore.
ignore. Matthew's
Matthew's ob-
ob-
vious intention
vious intention was was nevertheless
nevertheless to indicate the
to indicate the general
general tenortenor of of
his work
his work straightstraight away
away by
by establishing
establishing this
this line
line of
of descendants'
descendants.
The authot
The author .otttinues
continues the the same line line of thought by
of thought by constantly
constantly
bringing
bringing to
to the
the forefront
forefront Jesus's attitude
attitude toward
toward Jewish
Jewish law, the
law, the
main
main principles
principles of
of which
which (praying,
(praying, fasting,
fasting, and dispensing
dispensing char-
char-
ity)
ity) are summarized
are
-Jesus summarized here.
Jesus addresses
addresses His His teachings first first and foremostforemost to His His own own
people. This
people. This is how He speaks speaks to the twelve Apostles: "Go no-
where
whire among
smong the Gentiles,Gentiles, and enter no town town of Samaritensz2
of the Samaritans
but
but go rather
rsther to the lost sheep sheep of of the house
house of IsraeI." (Matthew
Israel." (Matthew
10,5-6).
10, 6-6). "I
"I was
wgs sent only to the lost sheep
sheep of the house
house of Israel"'
Israel".
(Matthew
(Matthew 15, L6, 24).
24',). At
At the end of his Gospel, Gospel, in second second place, place,
Matthew
Matthew extends the apostolic mission of Jesus's Jesus's first disciples
first disciples
to all
to all nations.
nations. He makes makes Jesus Jesus give the following following order: "Go
therefore
therefore and and make
make disciples
disciples of all nations" (Matthew (Matthew 28, 19) '
28' 19),
but the primary destination must be the
the 'house of
~house of Israel''
Israel'. A'
A.
but the primary destination be
Tricot
Tricot sayssays of of this
lhis Gospel,
Gospel, "Beneath
"Beneath its its Greek
Greek garb,garb, the flesh
the flesh
and
end bones
bones of of this
this book
book are are Jewish,
Jewish, and and so so is its spirit;
is its spirit; it has aa
it has
Jewish
Jewish feel feel and
and bears
bears itsits distinctive
distinctive signs".signs".
On
On the
the basis
basis of
of these
these observations
observations alone,
alone, the origins of
the origins of
Matthew's
MattheCs Gospel Gospel may may be be placed
placed in in the tradition of
the tradition s Judeo-
of a Judeo-
Christian
Christian community.
co1Rmuniff. According
Aceording to
to O.
O. Culmann,
Culmann, this
this community
community
"was trying to
to break
bresk away
away fromJudaism
from Judaism while
while at
at the
the sametime
same time
"was trying
preserving the
ttt" continuity
continuity of of the
the OldOld Testament.
Testament' The main pre-
The main pre-
p"***itg
occupations point towards
occupationsand and the
the general
genlral tenor tenor of of this
this Gospel
Gospelpoint towards
aastrained
streined situation."
situation."
1.1. The Gospelwillwill be with
dealt with
bedealt
Thefact
fact that
that itit isis in
in contradiction
contrediction with
with Luke's
Luke's Gospel
inin aaseparate
rePaf,atechapter.
chePter.
2.z. The Pentateuch; they
or Pentateuch; lived
they lived
The Samaritans' religious code
Scmeritens'ieligious codewaswasthethe Torah
Torah or
inin the expectation of the Messiah and
and were
were faithful
faithful to
to most
most Jewish
Jewish
the expectation ol th" Messiah
observances, Temple toto the oneat
the one at Jerusalem.
Jerusalem'
obreryances, but but they they had
hadbuilt
built aarival
rival Temple
 60
60 THE BIB~
THE BIBT FT THE
THE QUR·A
QUn?NN AND
AND SCIEN
SCIENCE
CE
There are also politic political al factors to be be found in the text. The
Roman
Roman occupa
oceupation tion of Palest ine natura
Palestine naturally lly height
heightened
ened the desiredesire
of this countr
countryy to see see itself
itself liberat
liberated. ed. They prayed for for GodGod to
interve
intervene ne in favour of the people people He had chosen chosenamong alI all others
others,,
and asas their
their omnip
omnipotent
otent sovere
sovereignign who could could Biv~
givg direct supposupport rt
to the affairs of men, men, as as He had alread already y done many times in the
done-many
course
course of history
history..
What
what sort of person person was was Matthe
Matthew w?? Let us us say straig
straight ht away
that
that he
he is no longer acknow acknowredged
ledged to be be one
one of Jesus's
Jesus's compa
compan- n-
ions.
ions. A. Tricot
Tricot nevert
nevertheless
heless presen
presents ts him as as such
such in his com- com-
menta
mentary ry to the transla translationtion of the New Testam Testament,ent, 1960:
tg60:
"Matth
"Matthew ew alias,
alias, Levi, was was aa custom
customs s officer
officer employ
employed ed at the toll-
gate or custom
customs s house
house at Capha rnaum when Jesus
capharnaum Jesus called
called him to
be
be one
one of His disciple s." This is the opinio
disciples." opinion n of the Father
Fatherss of the
Church
church,, Origen
origen,, Jerom
Jerome e and
and Epipha
Epiphanes. nes. This opinioopinion n is no
longer held held today.
today. Oneone point which is uncont ested is that the
uncontested
author is writin
writingg "for peoprewho speak
"for people speak Greek,
Greek, but nevert heless
nevertheress
know Jewish
Jewish customcustoms s and
and the AramaAramaic ic langua
language.,,
ge."
It
It would seem seem that for for the comm commentators
entato rs of the Ecume Ecumenicar nical
Transl
Translation,
ation, the origin originss of this Gospel Gospel are as as follow
follows: s:
"It
"rt is norma
normally lly consid
consideredered to have
have been been writte
writtenn in Syria,
syria, per-p€r_
haps
haps at Antioc
Antioch phoenicia,
(. . . ), or in Phoeni
h (... cia, becaus
because e a great many
Jews
Jews lived in these these countr
countries.r
ies. l ((.• •. •.)) we have
have indica tions of a
indications
polemic
polemi c agains
againstt the orthod
orthodox ox Judais
Judaism m of the Synag ogue and the
synagogue
Pharas
Pharaseesees suchsuch as as was
was manife
manifestedsted at the synago synagogalgal assemb
assembly ly at
Jamin
Jamina a circa
circa 8080 A.D."
A.D." In such such conditi
conditions, ons, there
there are many author authors s
who date
date the first of the Gospel Gospels s at about 80-90 g0-g0 A.D., perhaps
A.D.; perhap s
also
also aa little
little earlier
earlier;; it it is not possibl
possible e to bebe absolu tely definit
absolutely definite e
about
about this ... . . . since
since we do do not know the author author's 's exact name,
name, we
must be be satisfie
satisfied d with
with a few outline
ouflines s traced in the Gospel Gospel itself:
itself :
the author can can bebe recogn
recognizedized by his profes profession.
sion. He is well-v
well-versed
ersed
in Jewish writinwritings gs and
and traditi
traditions.
ons. He knows knows,, respec
respects,ts, but vigor-
vigor_
ously
ously challen
challenges ges the religio
religious us leader
leaders s of his people
people. . He is a past
maste
masterr in the art art of teachi
teaching ng arid
artd makin
makinsg Jesus Jesus unders tandab le
understandable
to his listene
listeners. rs. He always
arways insists on the practic practical al conseq uences
consequences
of his teachin
teachings. gs. He would fit fairly fairly well the descrip tion of an
description'
1.
t' It
tt has
t* been
t*" thought
thought that
that the Judeo-C
Judeo-Christian
hristian commu
community
nity that
that Matthew
Matthes
belonge
belongedd to might just as easily
might just eeairy have been
been situated at Alexan dria. O.
Alexandria. o.
Cubnan
culmannn refers
refers to this hypothe
hypothesis
sis along
along with
with many
many others.
otherr.
The Fow
Tlw POUt' Goqeh.
GOIpela. Soutcet
SOUt'ce,atd
and Hirtary
HiltOfll 6l
61

educated Jew
educated Jew turned
turned Christian;
Christian; aa householder
householder "who "who brings brings out out of'
of
his treasure
his treasure what what is is newnew andand what
what is is old"
old" as Matthew says
as Matthew says
(13,52). This
(1g,52). This is is aa long
long way way from
from the the civil servant at
civil servant at Caphar-
Caphar-
naum, whom
naum, whom Mark Mark and and LukeLuke call
call Levi,
Levi, andand whowho had had becomebecome one one
of the
of the twelve
twelve Apostles
Apostles ...
. ' .
Everyone agrees
Everyone agrees in in thinking
thinking that Matthew wrote
that Matthew wrote his his Gospel
Gospel
using the
using the same
same sources
sources as as Mark
Mark and and Luke.
Luke. His narration is,
His narration is, as
as
we shall see, different on several essential points.
see, different points. In In spite of of this'
this,
Matthew borrowed
Matthew borrowed heavily heavily from from Mark's Gospel although
Mark's Gospel although the the
latter
latter was not one
one of
of Jesus's
Jesus's disciples
disciples (O.
(0. Culmann).
Culmann) '
Matthew takes very
Matthew very serious liberties
liberties with with the text. text. We shall
see
see thisthis when we discuss
discuss the
the Old Testament
Testament in
in relation
relation to the
the
genealogy of
genealogy of Jesus
Jesus whieh
which is placed
placed at beginning of
at the beginning of his Gospel.
Gospel.
He inserts into into his book deseriptions
descriptions which which are quite literally literally
incredible. This This is the adjective used used in in the work mentioned above
work mentioned above
by Father
by Father Kannengiesser
Kannengiesser referring
referring to an episode
episode in the Resur-
Resur-
rection; the episodeepisodeof the guard. He points out the improbability
of
of the story referring
referring to military military guards at the tomb, "these
Gentile soldiers"
Gentile soldiers" who "report, not to their hierarchical superiors, superiors,
but to the high priests who pay them to tell lies". He adds adds how-how-
ever: "One "One must not laugh
laugh at him because
because Mattherv's
Matthew's intention
was
was extremely serious. serious. In his own way he incorporates ancient
he incorporates
data from the oral tradition tradition into his written written work. The scenario scenario
is nevertheless
neverthelessworthy worthy of Jesus JesusChrist Superslar,!"
Supersiar."'
Let us us not forget that this opinion on on Matthew comes comes from
an
an eminent
eminent theologian
theologian teaching
teaching at at the
the Catholic
Catholic Institute
Institute of Paris P*ris
(Institut
(Institut Catholique
Catholiquede de Paris).
Paris).
Matthew
Matthew relates relates in in his
his narration
narration the the events accompanying the
events accompanying the
death
death of
of Jesus.
Jesus' They
They are
are another
another example
example of
of his
his imaS:ination'
imagination.
"And torn in two, from
in two, from
"And behold,
behold, the the curtain
curtain of of the
the temple
temple was was torn
top to bottom;
top to bottom; and
and the
the earth
earth shook,
shook, and
and the
the rocks'were
rocks· were split;
split; the
the
tombs
tombs also also were
were opened,
opened, and
and many
many bodies
bodies of
of the
the saints
saints who
who had
had
fallen
fallen asleep
asleep were were raised,
raised, and and coming
coming out out of tombs after
of tombs after his his
resurrection
resurrection they they went
went intointo the
the holy
holy citycity and appearedto
and appeared many"'
to many."
This
This passage
pflssagefrom from Matthew
Matthew (27, (27,61-53)
51-53) has has no corresponding
no corresponding
passage
p*rt"g* in
in the
the other
other Gospels.
Gospels. It
It is
is difficult
difficult to
to see
see how the
how bodies
the bodies
-ot
of thettte saints
saints in in question
questioncould couldhavehaveraisedraisedfromfrom the deadat
the dead the
at the
time
time of
of Jesus's
Jesus's death
d,eath (according
(according to
to the
the Gospels
Gospels it
it was
was on
on the
the eve
eve
1.1. An
An American
American film
film which
which parodies
parodies the
the life
life of
of Jesus.
Jeeus'
 og
81 THEBIBLE,
THE BIETE,THE
THE QUR'A
QUnAN ANDSCIEN
N AND SCTENCE
CE
of the
the Sabba
sabbath) th) and
and only
only emerg
emerge e from their tombs tombsafter his his res-
res-
urrect
uveetion (according
ion (accor ding to the the same
samesource
sources on the
s on the day
day after the the
Sabbath).
Sabba th).
The
fire most
most notabl
notable e improb
improbabiliFability is perhap
perhaps s to
to be
be found
found in Mat-
thew.
thew. It It is the
the most
most difficu
difficult lt to rationa
rationalizelize of all that the the Gospel
Gospel
authors
author s claim
claim JesusJesus said.
said. He He relates
relates in chaptechapter lz, 38-40
r 12, Bg-40 the the
episode
episod concerning
e concem ing Jonah'
Jonah's s sign:
sign:
Jesus
Jesuswas was among
amongthe the scribes
scribesand pharisees
and pharis ees who
who addres
addressed sed him
him
the follow
in the following terms:
ing terms:
"Teach
"Teacher, er, wewe wish
wish to see seeaa sign
sign from you." you.,' But he he answe
answered red
them, "An evil and
them, and adulte
adurterous generation
rous genera tion seeks
seeksfor aa sign; but
no sign
no sign shall
shall be given to it except
be given exeeptthe the sign
sign of the propheiJonah.
the prophe t Jonah.
For as as Jonah
Jonahwas was three
three days
days and and three
thre* nights
night, in the
the iely
belly of the the
whale,
whale, so so will the the Son
son of Man Man be be three
three daysd"yr and
and three
three nights
nishts in
the heart of the
the the earth."
Jesustheref
Jesus therefore proclaims
ore procla ims that he he will
will stay
stay in the
the earth three three
days and
days and three
three nights
nights.. So
so Matthe
Matthew, w, along
along with Luke Luke and and Mark,
place the
place the death
death and and burial of Jesus Jesus on on thethe eve
eve of the the Sabba
sabbath. th.
This, of course
This, course, makes the
, makes the time spent spent in the the earth three three days
(treis emeras days
(treiB 6mera,e the Greek
in the Greektext), but this period period can
eanonlyonly include
inelude
two andand notnot three
three nights
nights (treis
(treis nuktas
nuktas in initre
the Greek
Greektext texi,;.
l

Gospel comm 'Father

) .
Gospel commerrtators
entators freque
frequenily ntly ignore
ignore this episod
episode. e. Fathe r
Roguet
Rogue nevertheless
t nevert points out
heless points out this improb
improbability
ability when
when he he notes
notes
that Jesus
Jesus "only stayed stayed in the the tomb" three three days (one of them
days (one them
complete)
comple and two nights
te) and nights. . He
He adds
addshowev
however er that .,it is
ttrat "it is aa set
set ex-
ex-
pression
pressio and really
n and really means
meansthree three days".
days". It rt is disturb
disturbing ing to see see
commentators
comm entators reducereduced d to using
using argum
arguments ents that do do notnot contai
contain n
positive
any positiv
any meaning.
e meanin g. It
It would
would be be much
much more more satisfy
satisfying ing intellec
intellec- -
tually to say say that aa gross
g:rosserror such such as as this waswas the
the result of aa
scribe's
scribe' s mistake
mistak e!!
Apart from these these improb
improbabilities,
abilities, what mosily mostly disting
distinguishes
uishes
lt[atthew's
Matthe w's Gospel
Gospelis that it it is the
the work of a a Judeo-
Judeo-Christian
Christ ian
community
commu nity in the the process
process of breaking
breaki ng aweyaway from Judaism
Judais m while while
remaining
remain ing in line with the the ord Old Testameni.
Testament. From the the point of
view
view of Judeo-christian
Judeo-Christian history history it it is very import
important.
ant.
1.
1JfiIn 8fith-er
another part
part of'his
of his Gospel
Gospel Matthew
Matthew again refers
refers to this
this episode
episode but
but
without being precise about the time
*ithout time (ro,
(16, 1-4).
r-l). The same
same is true
true for
for
Luke (11,29-sz).
(11, 29-32). we
We shall see
see rater
later on how in Dlark,
Mark, Jesus
Jesus is saia
said to
heve
have declared that
that no sign wourd
would be given
given to that
that s*rr*""ti*
generat ion rlt*"t
(Mark
88,, 11-12).
1t-12).
Tile tow
Tlu Cuper..
Four Gorllrh. $orroar
Sourcandad nfffir.V
Hiatorri 83

THE GOSPEL
THE GOSPEL ACCORDINC
ACCOIf,.ING TO TO MANKMAlU<
This is the shortest of the
This is the shortest of the four Gospels. four Gospels. It
It is
is also the
also the oldest'
oldest,
but in spite of this it is
but in spite of this it is not a book not a book written
written by
by an
an apostle.
apostle. At
At best
best
it was written by
it was written by an apostle'san apostle's disciple.
disciple.
O. Culmann
O. Culmann has has written
written ttrat
that he he does
does not consider Msrk
not consider Mark to to be
be
a disciple of Jesus.
s disciple of Jesus. The author The author nevertheless
nevertheless points
points out,
out, to
to those
those
who have
who have misgivings
misgivings shut about thethe ascription
ascription of of this Gospel to
this Gospel to the
the
Apostle Mark, that "Matthew
Apostle Mark, that "Matthew and Luke and Luke would
would not
not have
have used
used thie
this
Gospel in
Gospel in the
the way
way they
they diddid had they
they notnot known
known that that itit was indeed
based on the the teachings
teachings of of an apostle".
apostle". This argument is
This argument is inin no
way decisive.
way decisive. O. CulmannCulmann backs up the the reseruations
reservations he expresses
expresses
by saying
by saying that that he frequently
frequently quotes from from thethe New Testament the
New Testament the
of a certain 'John
certain 'John nicknamed
nicknamed Mark'. Mark'. These quotations
quotations
sayings of
do notnot however
however mention mention the name of of a Gospel author, and the
Gospel author, the
text of Mark itself
text of Mark itself does not does not name any author.
author.
paucity of
The paucity of information
information on this this point
point has led commentators
to dwell on details that thst seem
seem rather extravagant: using the prer
rsther extravagant: pre-
text,
text, for for example,
example, that that Mark
Mark was wss the only evangelist to relate
in
in his description
deseription of of the Passion the story story of the young man who
had nothing but aa linen cloth about his body and, and, when seized, seized,
left
left the linen cloth and ran away naked (Mark 14, (Mark t4, 51-52),' they
6L-62)
conclude
conclude that that the young man men must have been been Mark,
Mark, "the faithful
"the faithful
disciple
disciple who tried to follow the teacher" (Ecumenical Transla-
tion).
tion). Other commentators see see in this "personal memory aa sign
of authenticity,
authenticity, en anonymous signature",
an anonymous signature", which "proves "proves that that
he was an eyewitness"
he was an eyewitness" (0.
(O. Culmann).
Culmann).
O.
O, Culmann
Culmann considers
considers that that "many
"m&ny turnsturns of phrase corroborate
of phrase corroborate
the
the hypothesis
hypothesis that that thethe author
author was was of of Jewish origin,"
Jewish origin," but the
but the
presence
presenceof of Latin
Latin expressions
expressionsmight might suggest
suggest that he had
that he had written written
his
his Gospel
Gospel in in Rome.
Rome. "He "He addresses
addresseshimselfhimself moreover
moreover to to Chris~
Chris:'..
tians
tians not not living
living in in Palestine
Palestine and and is is careful
careful to to explain the
explain the Aramic Aramic
expressians
expressionshe he uses."
uses."
Tradition has
Tradition has indeed
indeed tended
tended to to see
seeMark
Mark as as Peter's companion
Peter's companion
inin Rome.
Rome. It It is
is founded
founded on on the
the final
final section
section of of Peter's
Peter's first letter
first letter
(always
(alwayssupposing
supposingthat that hehewas
wasindeed
indeedthe the author).
author). Peter wrote
Peterwrote in in
his
his letter:
letter: "The"The community
community which which is is at
at Babylon,
Babylon, which is
which is like- like-
wise
wisechosen,
chosen,sends sendsyou yougreetings;
greetings; and andso sodoes
doesmy my son sonMark."
Mark." "By "By
Babylon,
Babylon, what what is is probably
probably meantmeant isis Rome"
Rome" we read in
we read in the com-
the com-
mentar~
mentary to to the
the Ecumenical
Ecumenical Translation.
Translation. From From this, this, the com-
the com-
 U THE
THEBmLE,
BIBI,q THE
THEQUR'AN
QUn?N AND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

mentators then
mentators then imagine
imagine themselves
themselvesauthorized
authorized to to conclude
coneludethat that
Mark, who was
Mark, who was supposed to supposed to have
have been
beenwith peter
with Peter in in Rome,
Rome, was was
the Evangelist
the Evangelist ...One. . .one wonders
wonderswhetherwhether itit was 'fuasnot
not thethe same
sameline line
of reasoning that
of reasoning that led led Papias,
Papias, Bishop
Bishop of of Hierapolis
Hierapolis in in circa
circa 150 160
4.D., to
A.D., to ascribe
ascribe thisthis Gospel
Gospelto to Mark
Mark as .peter's interpreter'
as IPeter's interpreter' and and
the possiblecollaborator
the possible collaborator of paul.
of Paul.
seen from this
Seen from this point of point of view,
view, thethe composition
composition of of Mark's
Mark's Gospel
Gospel
couldbe
eould placedafter
beplaced after Peter's
Peter's death,
death,Le. i.e.at
at between
between65 66 and
and 70?0 A.D.
A.D.
for the
for the Ecumenical
EcumenicalTranslation
rranslation and and circa
circa 70?0 A.D.
A.D. forfor O.
o. Culmann.
Culmann.
The text
The text itself
itself unquestionably
unquestionably reveals r€veals aa major
major flaw;
flaw; itit is
is writ-
writ-
ten with a total
ten with a total disregarddisregard to to chronology.
chronology. Mark Mark therefore
thereiore places,
plaees,
atat the
the beginning
beginning of of his
his narration
narration (1, (1, 16-20),
16-20), the the episode
episodeof of the
tt*
four fishermen
four fishermen whom whom Jesus Jesusleads
leads to to follow
follow himhim by simply
simply saying
saying
"I will make
"I will make you you become
become fishers
fishers of of men", though they th;i do do not
not
even know
even know Him. Him. The The evangelist
evangerist shows,shows, amongamong other things, ihingr, a,
completelack of plausibility.
complete plausibility.
'a clumsy writer', 'the
As Father Roguet Roguet has has said,
said, MarkMark is la writer,, .the
weakest
weakest of all *ll the evangelists'; he he hardly
hardly knows how to write write aa
nerrative. The commentator reinforces his observation
narrative. observation by by quot-
ing passag:eabout
ing aa passage sbout how the twelve Aposfles Apostles were selected.
selected.
literal translation:
Here is the literal translation:
"And he went up into
"And into the hills, and called to him him those whom whom
he desired; and they came
he came to him. And And he made that that the twelve
were
were to be with with him,him, and to be sent out out to preach and have au- au-
thority
thority to cast out out demons; and he made the twelve and imposed
the
the name
name Simon on Peter" (Mark, g,
Peter" (Mark, 3, 18-16).
13-16).
He
He contradicts
contradicts MatthewMatthew and Luke, Luke, as as has
has already
already been been noted
noted
above,
above, withwith regard
regard to to the
the sign
sign of of Jonah.
Jonah. on On the
the subject
subject of of signs
signs
grven
given by by Jesus
Jesus to to men
men ln in the
the course
c<lurse of of Iris
His mission
mission MarkMark (g, (8,
11-18)
11-18) describes
describes an an episode
episode that
that is is hardly
hardly credible:
credible:
"The Pharisees
"The Pharisees came came and and began
began to to argue
argue withwith him,him, seeking
seeking
from
from him him aa sign
sign fromfrom heaven,
heaven, to test him.
to test him. AndAnd he he sighed
sighed deeply
deeply
in
in his
his spirit,
spirit, and said, 'why
and said, 'Why does this generation
does this generation seek seek aa sign?
sign?
Truly,
Truly, II say to you,
say to you, no no sign
sign shall
shall be be given
given to to this
this generation.'
generation.' And And
he
he left
left them,
them, andand getting
getting intointo thethe boat
boat again
again he he departed
departed to to the
the
other
other side."
side."
There
There can can bebe no no doubt
doubt that
that this
this isis an
an affirmation
affirmation coming
coming fromfrom
Jesus Himself about his
Jesus Himself about his intention not intention not toto commit
commit any any act
act which
which
might
might appear
apPear supernatural.
supernatural. ThereforeTherefore the the commentators
commentators ofof the the
The Fow
Tlw FOUf' Goqeb.
GoapelB. Sornces and Hhtosg
SouFceB and HiBtOf'!/ 65
65

Ecumenical Translation,
Ecumenical Translation, who who are surprised that
are surprised that Luke says Jesus
Luke says Jesus
will only
will only give
give one
one sign
sign (the
(the sign
sign of
of Jonah;
Jsnah; see
see Matthew's
Matthew's Gospel),
Gospel),
consider itit 'paradoxical'
consider 'paradoxical' that that Mark should say
Mark should say "no shall be
sign shall
"no sign be
given to
given to thisthis generation"
generation" seeing,
seeing, as
8s they
they note,
note, the
the "miracles
"miracles that
that
Jesus himself
Jesus himself gives
gives as sign" ((Luke
as aa sign" Luke 77,22 1'20) -
,22 and 111,20).
Mark's Gospel
Mark's Gospel as as aa whole
whole is is officially recognised as
officially recognised as being
being
canonic. All
eanonic. the same,
All the same, the the final
final section
section of of Mark's Gospel
Mark's Gospel (16,19- (16'19-
20) is
20) is considered
considered by by modern
modern authors
authors to have been
to have tacked on
been tacked on to
to
the basic
the basic work:
work: the the Ecumenical Translation is
Ecumenical Translation quite explicit
is quite explicit
about this.
about this.
This final section is not
This not contained in in the twotwo oldest complete
complete
manuscripts
manuscripts of
of the Gospels,
Gospels, the Codex
Coder Vaticanus and lhe
the Codex
Codex
Sinaiticus
Sirnitieus thatthat date from
from th~
the Fourth
Fourth century
century A.D. O.
O. Culmann
notes on this
notes this subiect
subject that:that: "More
"More recent Greek Greek manuscripts and
certain
certain versions at this point
point added
added a conclusion
conclusion on appearances
appearances
which is not drawn
which drawn fromfrom Mark Mark but from from the other Gospels." In
Gospels." In
fact,
fact, the versions
verrsionsof this added added ending are very numerous. numerous. In In the
texts there are long and short versions
texts versions (both are reproducedreproduced in
the
the Bible,
Bible, Revised
Revised Standard
Standard Version, Sometimesthe long
1952). Sometimes
Version, 1952).
version has
version has some
someadditional material.
Father
Father Kannengiesser
Kannengiesser makes makes the following comments comments on on the
ending:
ending: "The "The last verses
verses must have
have been
been surpressed
surpressed when
when his
work was
work was officially
offieially received
received (or the(or the popular version of it)
version of it) in the in the
community
community that that guaranteed
guaranteed its its validity.
validity. Neither Matthew, Luke
Neither Matthew, Luke
ot at fortiori
or the gapgap
fortior"aJohn
John sawsaw the the missing
missing section.
section. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, the
was
was unacceptable.
unacceptable.A A long
long time
time afterwards,
afterwards, when when the writings of
the writings of
Matthew, Luke and John,
Matthew, Luke and John, all of them all of them SImilar,
similar, had
had been
been in
in circula-
circula-
tion,
tion, aa worthy
worthy ending
ending to to Mark
Mark was was composed.
composed.Its Its elements
elementswere were
taken
taken from
from sources
sources throughout
throughout the the other
other Gospels.
Gospels. It It would
would be be
easy
easy toto recognise
recognisethe the pieces
piecesof of the puzzle by
the puzzle by enumerating
enumerating Mark Mark
(16,9-20). One
(16,9-20). One would would gain
gain aa more
more concrete
concrete idea
idea of
of the
the free
free wsy
way
in
in which
which thethe literary
literary genregenre of of the
the evangelic narration
evangelic narration was han- was han-
dled
dleduntil
until the
thebeginnings
beginnings of of the
the Second
Secondcentury A'D'"
century A.D."
What
what aablunt gdmissionisis provided
blunt admission provided for
for us
ushere, the thoughts
in the
here,in thoughts
of a great theologian,
of a great theologian, that
that human
human manipulation
manipulation exists
exists in
in the texts
the texts
of
of the Scriptures ! !
the Scriptures
 6S
66 THE
THE BIBLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUR'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

THE
THE GOSPELGOSPEL ACCORDING
ACCORDING TO TO LUKE LUKE
For O.
For o. Culrnann,
culmann, Luke Luke is 'chronicler',
is aa 'chronicler', and and for for Father
Father Kan- Kan-
nengiesserhe
nengiesser 'true novelist'.
he isis aa 'true novelist'. In In his
his prologue
prologueto to Theophilus,
Theophilus,
Luke warns
Luke warns us that he,
usthat he,in
in his
his turn,
turn, following
following on on from
from others
others whowho
havewritten
have written accounts
accountsconcerning
concerningJesus, Jesus,is is going
going to to write aa nar-
write nar-
rative of
rative of the
the same
samefactsfacts using
using the the accounts
accounts and and information
information of of
eyewitnesses-implying that
eyewitnesses-implying that he he himself
himself is not one-including
is not one-including
information from
information from the the apostles'
apostles' preachings.
preachings. It It isis therefore
therefore to to bebe
aa methodical
methodical piecepieceof of work
work which
which he he introduces in the
introduces in the following following
terms:
terms:
"rnasmuch as
"Inasmuch as many
many havehave undertaken
undertaken to to compile
compile aa narrative
narrative of of
the things
the things which
which have have been
beenaccomplished among
accomplishedamong us, us, just as
as they
they
were delivered
were delivered to to us
us byby those
those whowlio from the beginning were eye- eye-
witnessesand
witnesses and ministers
ministers of the word, word, it seemed
seemedgood good to me me also,
also,
having informed
having informed myself about about all things from their beginnings, beginnings,
to write
to write an an orderly account
account for you, you, most excellent
excellent Theophilus,
Thlophilus,
that you may know the truth
that you truth concerning things of which you
have beeninformed."
have been informed,"
From the very first line one
From one can see see all that
that separates
separates Luke Luke
from thethe'scribbler'
'scribbler' Mark Mark to whosewhose workwork we have have just just referred.
Luke's Gospel
Luke's incontestably a literary
Gospelis incontestably literary work writtenwritten in classical
classical
Greek free from
Greek from any barbarisms.
Luke was a cultivated Gentile Gentile convert to Christianity.
Christianity. His His at-at-
titude
titude towards the Jews Jews is immediately apparent. apparent. As o. O. Culmann
Culmann
points
points out,
out, Luke leaves
leaves out Mark's
Mark's most Judaic verses verses and high- high-
liehts
lights the Jews' incredulity
incredulity at at Jesus's
Jesus's words, throwing
throwing into into relief
relief
his good
his good relations with Samaritan~, whom
with the samaritans, whom the the JewsJews detested.
detested.
Matthew,
Matthew, on the the other
other hand,
hand, has has Jesus
Jesus ask
ask the the aposiles
apostles to to flee
flee
from
from them. This This is just just one of of many
many striking
striking examples
examples of of the
the
fact
fact that
that the
the evangelists
evangelists make make JesusJesus saysay whatever
whatever suits suits their
their
own personal
own personal outlook.
outlook. TheyThey probably
probably do do so
so with
with sincere
sincere convic-
convic-
tion. They give
tion. They give usus the
the version
version of of Jesus's
Jesus's words
words that that is is adapted
adapted
to the point
to the point of
of view
view of of their
their ownown community.
community. How How can can oneone deriy
deny
in the
in the face
face of
of such
such evidence
evidence that that thethe Gospels
Gospels are are ,combat
'combat writ-writ-
ings' 'writings
ings' oror 'writings suitedsuited toto anan occasion',
occasion', as as has
has beenbeen mentioned
mentioned
already?
already? The The comparison
comparison between between the the general
general tone tone of of Luke's
Luke's
Gospel
Gospel and and lvlatthew's
Matthew's isis in in this
this respect
respect aa good
good demonstration.
demonstration.
who
Who was was Luke?
Luke? An An attempt
attempt has has been
been made
made to to identify
identify him him
with
with thethe physician
physician of of the
the same
same namename referred
referred to to byby paul
Paul inin sev-
sev-
The Four GoIpeIa. Sourcer and Hiatory
SOUI'CB. uldil&rltry
gI
87
TlnFowcorpeb'

eral of
eral of his
his letters.
letters. The
The Ecumenical Translation notes
Ecumenical Translation notes that
that "sev-
"sev-
eral commentators
eral commentators have found have found the
the medical
medieal occupation
occupation of
of the
the
author of this Gospel
author of this Gospel confirmed confirmed by
by the
the precision
precision with
with which
which he
he
describes the sick". This
describes the sick". This assessment assessment is
is in
in fact
fact exaggerated
exaggerated out
out
of all
of all proportion.
proportion. Luke Luke doesdoes not not properly
properly speaking speaking 'describe'
'describe'
things of this kind; "the vocabulary
thingp of tt ir kind; "the vocabulary he
he uses
uses is
is that
that of
of aa cultivatcd
cultivated
man of
man of his
his time".
time". There
There was was aa LukeLuke who who was Paul's travelling
was Paul's travelling
companion,
companion, but but was he the same person?
person? O. Culmann thinks he
thinks he
was.
was.
The date
The date ofof Luke's Gospel can be estimated according to sev-
Luke's Gospel
eral factors:
ersl factors: LukeLuke used
used Mark's
Mark's and Matthew's Matthew's Gospels. Gospels. From From
what we
what we read in in the Ecumenical Translation,Translation, it seems it seems thatthat he
witnessed the siege
witnessed siege and destruction of of Jerusalem by by. Titus's
Titus's
armies in
armies in ?070 A.D. The Gospel Gospel probably dates dates from after this
from after this
Present-day critics
time. Present-day critics situate the time time itit was written written at circa
80-90
80-90 A.D., but but several
several place
place itit at an even earlier date.
even earlier date.
The various narrations
narrations in Luke show important differences
important differences
compared to his predecessofs.
when compared predecessors. An outline of this has already
been
been given. The Ecumenical
Ecumenieal Translation
Translation indicates them on pages pages
181
181 et sec.sec. O.O. Culmann,
Culmann, in his book, book, The The New Testament Testament (Le (Le
Nouveau
Nouveau Testament) page page 18, 18, cites
cites descriptions
descriptions in Luke's Gos- Gos-
pel
pel that are not to be be found anywhere else. else. And they are not
about
about minor points of detail. detail.
The descriptions
descriptions of Jesus's
Jesus'schildhood
childhood are are unique
unique to Luke's Gos- Gos-
pel.
pel. Matthew describes
describes Jesus's
Jesus's childhood
ehildhood differentlydifferently from Luke, Luke,
and
and Mark
Mark doesdoesnot mention
mention it it at
at all.
all'
Matthew and Luke
Matthew and Luke both both provide
provide different genealogiesof
different genealogies of Jesus:
Jesus:
the contradictions
the contradictions are
are so
so large
large and
and the
the improbabilities
improbabilities so
so great,
great,
from a scientific
from a scientific point
point of
of view,
view, that
that aa special
special chapter
chapter of
of this
this book
book
has been devoted
has been devoted to
to the
the subject.
subject. It
It is
is possible
possible to
to explain
explain why
why
Matthew, who
Matthew, who was was addressing
addressing himself
himself to
to Jews,
Jews, should
should begin
begin the
the
genealogy at Abraham,
genealogy at Abraham, and
and include
include David
David in
in it,
it, and
and that
that Luke,
Luke,
as
as aa converted
converted Gentile,
Gentile, should
should want want to to go go back
back even farther. We
even farther. We
shall see however that
shall see however that the the two
two genealogies
genealogies contradict
contradict eaeh
each other
other
from
from David
David onwards.
onwards.
Jesus's
Jesus's mission
mission is is described
described differently
differently on on manymany pointspoints by by
Luke,
Luke, Matthew
Matthew and and Mark.
Mark.
An
An event
event of of such
such great
great importance
importance to to Christians
Christilns as the in-
as the in-
stitution
stitution of of the
the Eucharist
Eucharist gives gives riserise to to variations between
variations between Luke Luke
 08
68 THEBIBLE,
THE BIBL4 THE
firE QUR'AN
QUn?N AND
aND SCIENCE
SCTENCE

andthe
and the other
other twotwo evangelists.
evangelists.r Father Roguet
1 Father
Roguetnotes notesin in his
his book
book
Initi'ation to
Initiation to the
the Gospel (Initiation ai ]'Evangile)
Gospel(Initiation l,Evangile) page page75 ?8, that
1 that
the words
the words usedusedto to institute
institute thethe Eucharist
Eucharist areare reported
reported by by Luke
Luke
(22,L9-24) in
(22,19-24) in aaform
form very
very different
different from
from the
the wording
wording in in Matthew
ulttnew
(26,26'29)
(26,26-29) and and in in Mark (l4,zz-24) which
Mark (14,22-24) which isis almost
almost identical.
identical.
"on the
"On the contrary"
contrary" he he writes,
writes, "the
"the wording
wording transmitted
transmitted by by Luke
Luke
isis very
very similar
similar to to that
that evoked
evokedby by Saint paul" (First
saint Paul" (First Letter
Letter to to the
the
Corinthians, 11,23-25).
Corinthians, 11,23-96).
As we
As we have
have seen,
seen,in in his
his Gospel,
Gosper,Luke
Luke expresses
expressesideas ideas on on the
the
subject of
subject of Jesus's
Jesus's Ascension
Aseension whichwhich contradict
contr*a-i*t whatwhat he says in
he says in
the Acts
the Acts of of the
the Apostles.
Apostles. He He is is recognized
recognized as as their
their author
author and and
they form
they form an an integral
integral part
part of of the
the New
New Testament.
Testament. In In his
his Gospe]
Gospel
he situates
he situates the the Ascension
Ascension on on Easter
Easter Day,
Day, and in the Acts forty
and in the Acts forty
days later.
days later. We
we already
already knowknow to to what
what strange
strange commentaries
eommentaries this this
contradiction has
contradiction has ledled Christian
christian experts
experts in
in exegesis.
exegesis.
commentators wishing
Commentators wishing to be be objective, such as
objective, such as those
those of of the
the
Ecumenical Translation
Ecumenical rranslation of the Bible, have have been
been obliged to recog-
obliged to recog-
nise as
nise general rule the fact that for
as aa general for Luke "the ,,the main
**in preoccu-
preoccu-
pation was
pation was not to write write facts
faets corresponding to material materi"l accu- *..u-
racy". When
racy". when Father
Father Kannengiesser
Kannengiesser compares
compares the descriptions in in
the Acts
the Acts of of the Apostles written written by Luke himself himself withwith the the de-de-
seription
scription of of similar
similar facts on Jesus Jesus raised fromfrom the dead dead by by paul,
Paul,
he pronounees
he pronounces the following
following opinion on Luke: Luke: ,,Luke
"Luke is the the most
most
sensitive
sensitive and literary
literary of of the four
four evangelists,
evangelists, he has all all the
the qual_
qual-
ities
ities of of a true
true novelist".

THE
THE GOSPEL
GOSPEL ACCORDING
ACCONDINC TO TO JOHN
IOHN
John's
John's Gospel
Gospel is is radically
radically different
different from
from the
the three
three others;
others; to to
such
such an an extent
extent indeed
indeed that
that Father
Father Roguet
Roguet inin his book Initiation
his book Initiation
to
to the (Initiation ia I'Evangile),
Gospel (Initiation
the Gospel l'Evangile), having
having commented
commented on on the
the
other
other three,
three, immediately
immediately evokes
evokes aa stariling
startling image
image for
for the
the fourth.
fourth.
He calls itit '' different
He calls different world'.
world'. ItIt is
is indeed
indeed aa unique
unique book;
book; differ-
differ-
ent
ent in in the
the arrangement
arrangement and and choice
choice of of subject,
subject, description
description andand
speech;
speech; different
different in in its style, g:eography,
its style, geography, chronology;
chronology; there
there are
are
even
even differences
differences in in theological
theological ouilook
outlook (o.(0. Culmann).
Culmann). Jesus's
Jesus's
1. not possible
1. ItIt isis not possible to
to establish
establish aa comparison
comparison with
with John
John because
because he
he does
does
not
not refer
refer to
to the
the institution
institution of
of the
the Eueharist
Eucharist during
during the
the Last
Last supper
Supper
prior
priortotothe the Passion.
Passion.
ru Fotn
Tlrc eo.peq. Sowcet
Four @h. Source, atrd Hutory
and Hiacorg 69
69

words are
words are therefore
therefore differently
differently recorded
recorded by by John
John fromfrom thethe other
other
evangelists: Father
evengelists: Father Roguet
Roguet notes
notes onon this
this that
that whereas
whereas the the synop-
synop-
tics record
tics record Jesus's
Jesus's words
words in in aa style
style that
that isis "striking,
"striking, much much nearer
nearer
to the
to the oral
oral style",
style", inin John
John all
all is
is meditation;
meditation; to to sueh
such an extent in-
an extent in-
deed that "one
deed that "one sometimes
sometimes wonders
wonders ifif JesusJesus is is still speaking or
still speaking or
whether His
whether His ideas have have not
not imperceptibly
imperceptibly been been extended by by the
the
Evangelist's own
Evangelist's own thoughts".
thoughts".
Who was the author author?? This
This is a highly debated question and
highly debated
extremely
extremely varying
varying opinions have been
been expressed
expressed this subject.
on this
A. Tricot and
A. Tricot snd Father Father Roguet belong to a camp that
that does not
does not
have the slightest misgivings: John's Gospel Gospel is the work work of of an
eyewitness, its
eyewitness, its author
author is John, son of Zebedee and brother
of Zebedee brother of of
James.
James. ManyMany details are known
known about this
this apostle and are set out
in works
in works for for mass
mass publication. Popular Popular iconography puts him him
Jesus, as
near Jesus, as in the Last prior
Last Supper prior to the Passion. Passion. Who eould
could
imagine that that John's Gospel
Gospel was not the work work of John the Apostle
whose
whose figure is so so familiar?
familiar ?
The fact that that the .fourth
fourth Gospel
Gospel was written written so so late is not a
serious
serious argument against this opinion. The definitive version
was probably written
was written around the end end of the First First century A.D. A-D.
To situate the time it it was
was written years
written at sixty years after Jesus
after Jesus
would be be in keeping
keeping withwith an apostle
apostle who was was very young young at the the
time of Jesus
Jesusand and who
who lived to be be almost
almost aa hundred.
hundred.
Father
Father Kannengiesser,
Kannengiesser, in his study on Resurrection, ar-
on the Resurrection,
rives at the conclusion
eonclusion that none none of the New Testament authors,
Testament authors,
save
gavePaul,
PaUI,cancan claim
claim toto have
have been
been eyewitnesses
eyewitnessesto Jesus's Resur-
Jesus'sResur-
rection.
rection. John
John nevertheless
neverthelessrelated
related the appearanceto aa number of
the appearance
the
the assembled
assembledapostles,
apostles,of which he was probably aa member,
he was member, in
the
the -absence
absence of
of Thomas
Thomas (20,19-24),
(Z0,Lg-24), then
then eight
eight days
days later
later to the
to the
full
full group
group of
of apostles
apostles (20,25-29).
(20,25-29).
O.
O. Culmann
Culmann in in his work The
his work The New NeusTestament
Testamenfdoes doesnot subscribe
not subscribe
to this view.
to this view.
The Ecumenical
The Ecumenieal T1'anslation
Translntion of of the
the Bible
BiItIe states that the
states that ma-
the ma-
jority of critics do not
jority of critics do not accept accept the
the hypothesis
hypothesis that
that the
the Gospel
Gospel was
was
written by John, although
written by John, although this this possibility
possibility cannot
cannot be
be entirely
entirely
ruled
ruled out.
out. Everything
Everything points points however
however towards
towards the fact that
the fact the
that the
text we know today
text we know today had severalhad several authors:
authors: "It
"It is
is probable
probable that
that the
the
Gospel
Gospelas asitit stands
standstoday
today was
was putput into
into circulation
circulation by by the author's
the author's
disciples
disclples whowho added
added chapter
chapter 21 21 and
and very likely SEveral annota-
very likely several annota-
 70
70 THE BIBT F,, THE
THE BIBLE THE QUR'A
QURANN AND
AND SCIEN CE
SCIENCE

tions (i.e.
(i.e. 4,2
4,2 and
and perhap
perhaps s 4,1;
4,1 ; 4,44; 7,37b;
T,g7b; 11,2;
l1,Z; 19,35)
lg,BE).. With
With
regard to the story of the adulte rous woman (7,53-8
adulterous (?,69-g,ll),
,11), every-
*u""y-
one
one agrees
agrees that that itit is aa fragm
fragment ent of unkno
unknown wn origin
origin inserte
insertedd later
later
(but
(but nevert heless belong
nevertheless belonging ing to canoni
canonic c Script
scripture)ure)". passage
Passag e
'signature' ".
19,35
19,35 appear
appears s as
&s aa 'signa .eyewitness'
ture' of an 'eyewi tness' (0.(o. Culma
culmannJ, nn),
the only explicexplicit it signat
signature ure in the wholewtrole of John's
Johnis Gospe
Gospel; l; bui
but
comm entato rs believe
commentators believe thatthat it it was probab
probably ly added
added later.
later.
O.
O. Culma
Culmann nn thinks that that latter
latter additio
additions ns are obviou
obvious s in thisthis
Gospe
Gospel; l; such
such as as chapte
chapterr 21 zl which is probabprobably ly the work
work of ,,dis-
of a "dis-
ciple who may well have have mademade slight
slight alterat ions to the main body
alterations
of the Gospel
Gospel". ".
It
It is not necess
necessary ary to mentio
mentionn all the hypoth
hypotheses eses sugges
suggested ted by
expert
expertss in exeges exegesis. is. The remarkremarkss record
recorded ed here made **a" by the
most emineeminent nt Christ
christian ian writer
writerss on the questio
questions ns of
of the author
author--
ship of the fourth fourth Gospel
Gospel are suffici ent to show
sufficient show the extent of of the
confus
confusion ion reigni
reigning ng on the subjecsubjectt of its author ship.
authorship.
The histori
historicalcal value
value of John's stories has has been
been contes
eontested ted to a
great extent
extent.. The discrepdiscrepancyancy betwee
between n them and the other three
Gospel
Gospels s is quite blatan
blatant. t. O.
o. Culma
culmann offers an explan ation for
explanation this;
for this;
he seessees in John aa differe different nt theolog ical point of view from
theological from the
other evange
evangelists.
lists. This aim "direc ts the choice
"direcis choice of stories from from
the Logia
Logia'1 record
recorded, ed, as as well as as the way in which they are repro-
duced
duced ... . . . Thus the author often prolon p"oiorg* gs the lines and makes makes
the histori
historicalcal Jesus
Jesus say what the iTolv Holy Spirit
slpirit Itself
Itself reveale
revealed d to
Him".
Him". This, This, for the exeget exegete question,'is
e in questio n, is the reason
reason for for the
discrep
discrepancies.
ancies.
It is of course
It course quite concei conceivable
vable that
that John, who was writin writingg
after the other evange
after evangerists,
lists, should
should have
have chosen
chosen certain stories
suitab
suitable le for illustr
illustrating
ating his own theorie theories.s. One
one should
should not be be sur-
sur_
prised by the fact that certain descrip
prised deseriptions
tions contain
contained ed in the other
Gospel
Gospels s are missin
missing g in John.
John. The The Ecume
Ecumenical
nical Transl ation picks
Translatr.on
out aa certain numbe numberr of such such instanc
instances (page 282).
es (page zgz). Certai gaps
certainn gaps
hardly seem seemcredib
credible le howev
however, er, like the fact that th"t the
ttr" Institu
Institutiontion of
the
the Eucha
Eucharist rist is not describ
deseribed. ed. ItIt is unthin
unthinkable
kable that an episod episode e
so
so basic
basic to Christ
christianity,
ianity, one one indeed
indeed that was was to be be the rnainstay
mains tay
of its liturgy
liturgy,, i.e.
i"e. the
the mass,
mass, should
should not be be mentio
mentioned ned by John,John, the
most pre-eminently
most pre-em infmtly medita
meditative tive evange
evangelist.
list. The fact is, is, he limits
himsel
himself, f, in thethe narrat
narrative ive of the the supper
supper prior
prior to the Passio passion, n, to
1. Words.
1. W""drl
Tln Forrl' Gotpeh. Sowcet ed Hhtotg 7l
71

simply describing
simply describing the the washing
washing of of the
the disciples' feet, the
disciples' feet, the predic-
predic-
tion of
tion of Judas's
Judas's betrayal
betrayal and and Peter's
Peter's denial.
denial.
In contrast
In contrast to to this,
this, there
there areare stories
stories which
which are unique to
are unique to John
John
and not
and not present
present in in the
the other
other three.
three. The Ecumenical Translation
The Ecumenical Translation
mentions these
mentions these (page
(page 2S3).
283). Here
Here again,
again, oneone could that the
infer that
could infer the
three authors
three authors did did not not see
see the
the importance
importance in episodes that
these episodes
in these that
John saw
John saw in them. ItIt is
in them. is difficult
difficult however
however not not toto be taken aback
be taken aback
when one finds in
when in John
John a description
description of of the appearance of
the appearance of Jesus
Jesus
raised from the deud,
ra,ised,from dead toto his
his disciples beside the
disciples beside the Sea of of Tiberias
Tiberias
21,1-14). The description is nothing
(John 21,1-14). nothing Iess than the repro-
less than
duction (with(with numerous added added details) of miracle catch of
of the miracle of
which Luke
fish which Luke (5,1-11) presents as an episode episode that that oceurred
occurred
during ,Iesus's
duri,ng Jesus's life. In his description Luke alludes
lif e.Inhis alludes to the presence
presence
of the Apostle John who, as tradition
of tradition has it, it, was the evangelist.
evangelist.
Since this
Since this description in Gospel forms part
in John's Gospel part ofof chapter 21, 21,
agreed
agreed to be a later
later addition, one
one can easily imagine that
that the
reference to John's name in Luke could have led to its its artificial
artificial
inclusion in the fourth fourth Gospel.
Gospel. The necessity transforming a
necessity of transforming
description from from Jesus's
Jesus's life
life to a posthumous
posthumous description in no
prevented the evangelical
way prevented evangelical text text from
from being manipulated.
Another important
important point on which John's John's Gospel
Gospel differs from from
the other threethree is in the the duration of Jesus's mission. Mark, Mat-
Jesus'smission.
thew and Luke tuke place
place it over aa period of one one year. John spreads spreads
it over
over two years.
years. O.
O. Culmann
Culmann notes
notes this fact.
fact. On
On this subject
subject the
Ecumenical
Ecumenical Translation expresses
expresses the
the following:
following :
"The
"The synoptics
synoptics describe
describeaa long period in Galilee
long period followed by aa
Galilee followed
march that
march that was was more
more or
or less
less prolonged
prolonged towards
towards Judea,
Judea, and finally
and finally
aa brief stay in Jerusalem.
brief stay in Jerusalem. John,
John, on
on the
the other
other hand,
hand, describes
describes fre-
fre-
quent
quent journeys
journeys from from oneone area
area to to another
another and mentions aa long
and mentions long
stay
stay inin Judea,
Judea,especially
especiallyin in Jerusalem (1,L9-51; 2,13-3,36;
Jerusalem (1,19-51; 2,13-8,36;5,1- 5,1-
47; 14,20-31). He
47; L4,20-31).He mentions mentions several
several Passover
Passover celebrations
celebrations (2'13;
(2,13;
5,1;
5,1; 6,4; 11,55) and
6,4; 11,55) and thus
thus suggests
suggestsaa ministry
ministry that that lasted more
lasted more
than two years".
than two years".
Which
Which one one of of them
them should
should one one believe-Mark,
believe-Mark, Matthew, Matthew, Luke Luke
or John?
or John?

SOURCES OF
SOURCES OF THE GOSPELS
THE GOSPELS
The given here
The general outline that has beengiven
general outline that has been of the
here of Gospels
the Gospels
and which emerges from a critical examination
and which emergesfrom a critical examination of
of the
the texts
texts tends
tends
 72
71 TIIE BmLE,
THE THE
BIBT,E,THEQUR'AN
QUR'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

toto mak~
maku one onethink
think of of aa literature
literature which ,,disjointed, with a
which isis "disjointed, with a
plan
plan thatthat lacks
lacks continuity"
continuity" and ,'seemingly
and "seemingly insnperable
insuperahle contra- contra-
dictions". These
dictions". ?heseare are the
the terms
terms used usedin in the judgement passed
the judgement passedon on
them by
them by the
the commentators
commentators of the Ecumenical
of the Ecumenical Translation
Translation of of the
the
Bible.It
Bible. It isis important
importan't to to refer
refer to to their
their authority
authority because
becausethe the con-
con-
sequencesof
sequences of an
an appraisal
appraisat of of this
this subject
subject areare extremely
extremely serious. serioug.
ItIt has
has already
already been beenseenseenhow how aa few few notions
notions concerning
concerning the the re-
re-
Iigious history
ligious history of of the
the time
tirne whenwhen thethe Gospels
Gospelswere were written
written helpedhelped
to explain
to explaln certain
certain disconcerting
disconcerting aspects aspects of of this
this literature
literature ap- ap-
parent to
parent to the
the thoughtful
thoughtful reader.
reader. It It isis necessary
necessaryto to continue, how-
continue, how_
ever' and
ever, and ascertain
ascertain what present-day works
what present-day works cancan telltell us
us about
about the the
sourcesthe
sources the Evangelists
Evangelists drew drew on on when
when writing
writing their texts.
their texts. It It isis
also interesting
also interesting to to see
seewhether
whether the the history
history of of the
the texts
texts once
once theythey
were established
were establishedcan can help
help to to explain
explain certain
certain aspects
aspectsthey they present
present
today.
today.
The problem of sources
The problem sources was \ilas approached
approaehed in aa very simplistic simplistic
fashion at the time of the Fathers
fashion Fatheis of the Church. church. In the early
the'early
centuries of Christianity,
centuries christianity, the only source source available was
was the Gos-
the Gos-
pel that
pel that the complete
complete manuscripts provided first, Le. i.e. Matthew's
Matthew,s
Gospel.
Gospel. The problem problem of of sources
sources only concerned concerned Mark Mark and and Luke Luke
beeauseJohn eonstituted
because constituted a quite separate separate case.case. Saint Augustine
saint Augustine
held
held that
that Mark,
Mark, who appearsappears second second in in the traditional
traditional order order of of
presentation,
presentation, had been been inspired
inspired by Matthew Matthew and had summarized summarized
his
his work.
work. He further
further considered
considered that that Luke, who comes comes third third in in
tfte
the manuscripts,
manuscripts, had used used data from from both;both; iri.
his prologue suggestssuggests
this,
this, and
and has
has already
already beenbeen diseussed
discussed.
The
The experts
experts in in exegesis
exegesis at this per.iod
at this period werewere as as able
able asas we we are
are
to
to estimate
estimate the the degree
degree of of corroboration
corroboration between bptween the the texts
texts andand find
find
aa large
large number
number of of verses
verses commoncommon to to two
two or or three
three synoptics.
synoptics.
Today,
Today, the the commentators
commentators of of the
the Eeumenical
Ecumenical rranslatiin
Translation of the
of the
Bible provide
Bible provide the the following
following figures:
figures:
verses
verses common
common to to allall three
three synoptics
synoptics ___--_---___.- .__330
---..--Bg0
verses
verses common
common to to Mark
Mark and and Matthew
Matthew 178
..-_-_---1?g
verses
verses common
common to to Mark
Mark and and Luke
Luke ---__-- __ ._. 100
100
verses
verses common
common to to Matthew
Matthew and and LukeLuke ._ .. __. 230
230
The
The verses
verses unique
unique to to each
each of of the
the first
first three
three Gospels
Gospels are are as as fol-
fol-
Iows:
lows: Matthew
Matthew3S0, 330,lllark
MarkEB, 53,and and Luke
Luke800. 500.
From
From the the Fathers
Fathers of of the
the church
Church until until the
the endend of of the
the Eigh-Eigh-
tcenth
teenthcentury
centuryA.D., one and
A.D., one and aa halfhalf millenia
millenia passed
passed without
without any any
The Forar,GOBpez..
TIu Four Goapch, Source,
Sotncet and
atrldHiatOf'!/
Hhtory 73

new problems being being raised on the sourcessources ofof the evangelists:
continued to
people eontinued to follow
follow tradition.
tradition. ItIt was not until modern
not until
times that
times that itit was realized, on the the basis ofof these data, howhow each
material found in
evangelist had taken material in the others and compiled
his own specific
his narration guided by his own personal views.
specific narration
Great weight
Great weight was attached to to actual
actual collection
collection ofof material for the
material for
narration. It
narration. came from
It came from the oral
oral traditions
traditions ofof the communities
from which
from which itit originated
originated on the one one hand, and from from a common
common
written Aramaic
written Aramaic source
source that
that has not been rediscovered on the
been rediscovered
This written
other. This written source
source could have formed a compact mass or
compact mass or
been composed
have been composed of of many fragments
fragments of different narrations
of different narrations
used by each
used each evangelist to construct his own original original work.
in circa the last hundred years have led
studies in
More intensive studies
which are more detailed and in time will
to theories which will become
become even
even
more complicated.
complicated. The firstfirst of
of the modern theories is the so-called
so-called
'Holtzmann Two Sources
'Holtzmann ( 1863) . O.
Sources Theory', (1863). O. Culmann and the
Ecumenical Translation
Translation explain that, according to this this theory,
Matthew
Matthew and Luke may have been been inspired by Mark one
Mark on the one·
hand and on the other by a common document which which has since
been
been lost. The first
first two moreover eacheach had his own sources.
sources, This
leadsto the following diagram:
leads
Mark
Mark Common
Comtnon Document
Document

Matthcw's own Luke- .Luke'e own

Luke-Luke's ou)n source,
Eourccs

Culmann
Culmann criticises
criticises the
the above on the following points:
aboveon
1. Mark's work, used
1. used by both Luke and
and Matthew, was was prob-
ably not the author's
ably author's Gospel
Gospelbut an
an earlier version.
version.
2.
2. The
The diagram does does not lay enough
enough emphasis
emphasis on on the oral
tradition. This appears
appears to be paramount importance
be of paramount importance be-be-
cause
causeit alone
alone preserved
preservedJesus's
Jesus'swords
words and the descriptions
and the descriptions
of
of his mission
mission during aa period of thirty
thirty or forty years'
forty years,
as each of
as each of the
the Evangelists
Evangelists was
was only the spokesman for
the spokesman for
the
the Christian
Christian community
community which wrote down the oral
down the tra'
oral tra-
dition.
dition.
 71
74 THE
THEBIBLE,
BIBLE,THE
THEQUR'AN
QURANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

This isishow
This possibleto
how itit isis possible to conclude
concludethat that thethe Gospels
Gospelswe we pos-
pos-
sess today
sess today are aa reflection of
are refleetion of what
what thethe early
early Christian
Christian communi-
communi-
ties knew
ties knew of of Jesus's
Jesus'slife life and
and ministry.
ministry. TheyThey also also mirror
mirror their
their
beliefs and theological
beliefs and theological ideas, ideas,of of which
which thethe evangelists
evangelists were were thethe
spokesmen.
spokesmen.
latest studies
The latest
The studies in in textual
textual criticism
criticism on on the the sources
sources of of the
the
Gospelshave
Gospels have clearly
elearly shown
shown an an even
even more
more complicated
complicated formation
formation
processof
process of the
the texts.
texts. A A book
book by by Fathers
Fathers Benoit
Benoit and and Boismard,
Boismard,
both professors
both professors at at the
the Biblical
Biblical School
schoolof of Jerusalem
Jerusalem (1972-1973),
(lg?p-lg?B),
called the
called the Synopsis
Sgnopsis 01 of thethe Four
Four Gospels
Gospels (Synopse
(Synopse des des quatres
quatres
Evangiles)
EvangiIes) stressesstressesthe the evolution
evolution of of the
the text
text inin stages
*iag*r parallel
p"""u"l to to
the evolution
the evolution of of the
the tradition.
tradition. This This implies
implies the the conquences
conquencesset set
out by
out by Father
Father Benoit
Benoit in in his
his introduction
introduction to to Father
Father Boismard's
part
part of of the
the work.
work. He presents them
He presents them in the the following
following terms:terms:
"(. . .) the wording
"(. . .) the wording and form of description
and description that result result
from aa long
from long evolution
evolution of tradition
tradition are not as as authentic as as
in the
in the original.
original. Somesome readers
readers of this work will will perhaps
perhaps be be
surprised or embarrassed
surprised embarrassed to learn that certain eertain of of Jesus's
Jesus's
sayings, parables,
sayings, parables, or predictions of His destiny were were notnot
expressed in the way we read them today, but were
expressed were altered
altered
and adapted
and adapted by those those who transmitted
transmitted them to us. us. This
This may
may
come 8s a source
come as source of amazement amazement and even even scandal
scandal to to those
those
not
not used
used to this
this kind
kind of of historical
historical investigation."
investigation."
The
The alterations
alterations and adaptations to the texts made by by those
those
transmitting
transmitting them to us were done done in in a wayway that that Father
Father Bois-
Bois-
mard
mard explains by means means of of a highly
highly complex
complex diagram. ItIt is is aa
development
development of so-called 'Two
of the so-ealled 'Two Sour***
Sources ttt*ory',
Theory', and and is is the
the
product
product of of examination
examination and and comparison
comparison of of the
the texts
texts which
which itit isis
not possible
not possible to to summarize
summarize here. here. Tnose
Tnose readers
readers who are interested
who are interested
in
in obtaining
obtaining further
further details
details should
should consult
consult the the original
original workwork
published
published by by Les
Les Editions
Editions du Cerf, paris.
du Cerf, Paris.
Four
Four basic
basic documents-A,
documents-A, B, B, CC and
and e_represent
Q-represent the
the original
original
sourcn.s
sources ofof the Gospels (see
the Gospels (see general diagram). page
general diagram). Page ?6.
76.
Document
Document AA comes
comes from
from aa Judeo-christian
Judeo-Christian source.
source. Matthew
Matthew
and
and Mark
Mark were
were inspired
inspired by
by it.
it.
Document
Document BB isis aa reinterpretation
reinterpretation of of document
document A,
A, for
for use
use inin
Pagan-cum-Christian
Pagan-cum-Christian churches:
churches: all all the
the evangelists
evangelists were
were inspired
inspired
by
by itit except
except Matthew.
Matthew.
TlreFow Gntpcb, Sorlr.cr;tsndfl:iltor9 75
75

DocumeutC
Document inspired Mark,
C inspired Mark, Luke and John.
Luke and John.
Document Q
Document constitutes the
Q constitutes the majority of sourcessoureescommoncommonto to
Matthew and
Matthew and Luke; it is is the 'CommonDocument'
the 'Common Document' in the 'Two
the 'Two
theory referred
Sources'theory
Sources' refened to earlier.
earlier.
None of these
None these basic
basic documents
documentsled led to production of the
the production
to the the
definitive texts
definitive texts we know today.
we know boday.Between
Betweenthem them andand the final ver-
the final ver-
eionlay the
sion the intermediate
interrrediate versions:
versions: Intermediate
Intermediate Matthew,
Matthew, Inter-
mediateMark,
mediate Intermediate Luke
Mark, Intermediate and Intermediate
Luke and Intermediatc John. John. TheseThese
intermediste documents
four intermediate documentswere were to
to lead
lead to the final
to the final versions
versionsof
the four Gospels,
the Gospels,as as well
well asas to inspire
inspire the final corresponding
the final corresponding
versionsof other
versions other Gospels.
Gospels.OneOneonly
only has
hasto consult
consultthe the diagram
diagram to
seethe
see the intricate relationships
relationshipsthe the author
author has revealed.
has revealed.
The results
The regultsof this scriptural researchresearchare great importance.
are of great importance.
They show
They show how
how the the Gospel
Gospeltexts
texts not only have
not only have aa history (to be be
discussed
discussed later) but alsoalsoaa'pre-history',
'pre-history', to to use
useFather
Father Boismard's
Boismard's
expression.What
expression. Whst is meant meant is that beforebefore the final versions
the final versions ap- ap-
peared, they underwent
peared, alterations at the
underwent alterations the Intermediate
Intermediate Docu- Docu-
ment stage.
ment stage.Thus
Thus it possibleto explain,
it is possible explain, for example,
example,how how aa
well-known story from Jesus's
well-known Jesus's life, such
such as as the miracle catch
the miracle catch
fish, is shown
of fish, shownin Luke Luke to be be an
an event
eventthat happened
happenedduring His
Iife, and
life, and in John
John to be be one
one of His appearances
appearancesafter His
Resurrection,
Resurrection.
The conclusion
The conclusionto be be drawn from the the above
above is that thst when
rrhen we we
read
read the Gospel,
Gospel,we e&nno
we can longer be
no longer be at all sure
sure that we we are read-
are read-
Jesus's word.
ing Jesus's word. Father Benoit addressesaddresseshimself to the the readers
readers
of the Gospel
Gospelby warning them and and giving them them the following
compensation:"If
compensation: "ff the
the reader obligedin more
reader is obliged more than
than oneone.pase
. case to
grve
give up the notion
notion of hearing
hearing Jesus's
Jesus's voice
voice directly,
directly, he he still hears
hears
the volce
voice of the ChurchChurch andand he he relies
relies upon
upon itit as as the
the divinely
appointed
appointed interpreter of the Master Master whowho long long ago
ago spoke
spoke to us us
on earth and and who
who notry
now speaks
speaks to us us in His glory".
How can can one
one reconcile
reconcile this formal statement
statement of the inauthen-inauthen-
ticity
ticity of certain texts with with the phrase
phrase usedused in the dogmaticdogmatic
constitution
constitution on on Divine Revelation
Revelation by the SecondSecond Vatican
Vatican Council
Council
assuring
assuring us to the contrary, contrary, i.e.Le. the faithful
faithful transmission
transmission of
Jesus's words:
Jesus's "These four Gospels,
words: "These which itit (the
Gospels, which Church) un-
(the Chureh) un-
hesitatingly confirms are historically
hesitatingly confirrns historically authentic, faithfully trans-
authentic, faithfully trans-
mit what Jesus,
mit Jesus, SonSon of God,
God, actually
actually did and and taught during his
76
76 THE BIBLE,
BIBTE, THE QURtAN
QURAN AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

life
life among
among men
men for their
their eternal salvation, until
until the day when
he
he was taken up into the heavens"?
heavens" ?
It is quite clear that the work of the Biblical School
It School of
of Jeru-
salem
salem flatly contradicts the Council's
Council's declaration.
declaration.

M.
M. E.
E. BOISMARD
BOISMARD
SYffOPSISOF THE
SYNOPSIS FOAN GOSPELSl
THE FOUR @SPEf,S'
GENERAL
GENENAL DIAGRAM
DIAGNAI|,il
( 1) Synapse
(1) Synopsedes quatre Evangiles
desquatre Evangiles

DocumentsA, B,
Documents B, C,
C, Q =
A - Basic
Basic documents
documents used
used in the compiling
compiling
of the t€xts.
texts.
Intermediate
Intermediate := Intermediate
Intermediate version
version of the text
The Fow Gcnpe&.
Tlw Four Goqeh. Source, atd Hiltory
Sowcer arad Hitl,otg 77
77

HISTORY
HI'$'TONY OF
OF THE TEXTS
THE TEXTS
One
One would be mistaken
mistsken in thinking
thinking that
that once
onee the Gospels
Gospels were
written
written they constituted
constituted the basic Scriptures
Scriptures of the newly born
Christianity
Christisnity and that people referred
that people referred to them the same same way they
referred to the Old Testament. At
referred At that
that time, the foremost author-
author-
ity
ity was the oral tradition
tradition as as a vehicle
vehicle for
for Jesus's
Jesus's words and the
teachings
teaehings of the apostles.apostles. The firstfirst writings
writings to circulate were were
Paul's letters and they occupied occupied a prevalent position long before
the Gospels.
Gospels.They were, after
They'were, after all, written
written several
several decades
decadesearlier.
It
It has already been been shown, that that contrary
contrary to what
what certain
certain com-
mentators are still still writing
writing today, before 140 140 A.D. there was was nono
witness to the knowledge that that a collection of Gospel Gospel writings
writings
existed.
existed. It It was not until
until circa 1701?0 A.D.
A.D, that
that the four Gospels
Gospelsac- ac-
quired the status of canonic canonic literature.
literature.
In
In the early days days of Christianity,
Christianity, many writings
writings on JesusJesus
were in circulation. They were not subsequently subsequently retain~d
retained as
as being
worthy
worthy of authenticity
authenticity and the Church ordered ordered them to be be
hidden,
hidden, hence their
hence their name
name 'Apocrypha'.
'Apocrypha'. Some
Some of the texts of thesethese
works have been been well preserved because because they "benefitted
"benefitted from
from
the fact that that they were generally quote
valued", to quote the Ecumen-
Ecumen-
ical Translation.
Translation. The same same was true true for
for the Letter
Letter of Barnabas,
Barnabas,
but unfortunately
unfortunately others were rvere "more brutally
brutally thrust
thrust aside" and
only fragments
fragments of them remain. They were considered considered to be be the
messengers
messengers of error error and were removed removed from
from the sight
sisht of the
faithful.
faithful. Works such such asas the Gospels
Gospelsof the Nazarenes,
Nazarenes,the Gospels
Gospels
of the Hebrews and the Gospels Gospelsof the Egyptians, known through
quotattons
quotations taken from the Fathers of the Church, Church, were neverthe-
neverthe-
less fairly closely
less fairly closely related to the canonic Gospels.
canonic Gospels. The same
same holds
holds
good for
good for Thomas's
Thomas's Gospel
Gospel and Barnabas's Gospel.
Barnabas's Gospel.
Some
Some of these
these apocryphal
apocryphal writings
writings contain imaginary
imaginary details,
details,
the product of popular fantasY. fantasy. Authors of works on the Apoc-
rypha
rypha alsoalso quote
quote with
with obvious passageswhich are
obvious satisfaction passages
literally
literally ridiculous. Passages
Passages such such as
as these
these are however to be be
found in all the Gospels.
Gospels.One One hashas only to think imaginary
think of the imaginary
description of eventsevents that :Matthew
trfiatthew claims took place place at Jesus's
Jesus's
death.
death. It It is possible
possible to find passageslacking seriousness
find passages seriousnessin all the
writings of Christianity:
early writings Christianity: One One must be be honest
honest enough
enough to ad-ad-
mit
mit this.
T8
78 TlIE
fiIE BmLE, TIIE QUR'AN
BIBLE THE SCIENCE
QUN'AN AND SCIENCE

The abundance
abundance of of literature
literature concerning Jesus Jesus led the Church
to make certain
certain excisions while while the latter
latter was in the processprocess of of
becoming organized.
organized. PerhapsPerhaps a hundred Gospels Gospels were wers sup-sup-
pressed.
pressed. Only four four were retained and put put on the official
offieial list
list of
of
neo-Testament writings
writings making
making up what 'Canon'.
what is called the 'Canon'.
In
In the middle of of the Second
Seeondcentury A.D., Marcion of Sinope Sinope
pressure on the ecclesiastic
put heavy pressure ecclesiasticauthorities to take a stand stsnd
on this. He was an ardent ardent enemy of the Jews and at that that time
time
rejected the whole of of the Old Testament and everything everything in in
writings
writings produced after after Jesus
Jesus that
that seemed
seemed to him him too close close to
the Old Testament or to come come from
from the Judeo-Christian tradition. tradition.
Marcion
Marcion only acknowledged the value of Luke's Gospel Gospel because,
because,
he believed
believed Luke to be be the spokesman
spokesman of Paul and his writings. writings.
The Church declared
declared Marcion
Marcion a heretic and put into its canon
put into canon
.Letters of Paul,
all the ~Letters PauI, but but included the other other Gospels
Gospels of
Matthew,
Matthew, Mark,
Mark, Luke and John. They also also added
added several other
works such as as the Acts of the Apostles. The official list list never
theless
theless varies withwith time
time during
during the first
first centuries of Christianity.
of Christianity.
For
For a while, works that that were later later considered not to be valid valid
(i.e. Apocrypha)
Apocrypha) figured in it, while other works contained in
today's New Testament
Testlment Canon were excluded from from it it at this
this
time. These
These hesitations lasted until until the Councils of Hippo llippo Regius
in
in 393
393 and Carthage in 397. 89?. The fourfour Gospels
Gospels always figuredfigurrcd in it it
however.
One may join
One join Father
Father Boismard
Boismard in in regretting
regretting the disappear-
ance
ance of quantity of
of a vast quantity of literature
litersture declared apocryphal by the
Church although
elthough it it was of historical
historical interest.
interest. The aboveabove author
author
indeed gives it it a place in his Synopsis
Synopsis of of the Four Gospelt along-
Four Gospels
side that
that of
of the official Gospels.
Gospels. He notes that that these
these books
books still
still
existed
existed in libraries
libraries near the end of the Fourth Fourth century
eentury A.D.
This was the century
eentury that that saw things
things put put into
into serious order.
The oldest
oldest manuscripts of the G6spels Gospels date date from
from this period.period.
Documents
Documents priorprior to this, i.e. papyri from
i.e. papyri from the Third
Third century A.D.
and one possibly dating from
one possibly Second, only transmit
from the Second, transmit frag- frag-
ments to us.us. The two oldest oldest parchment manuscripts are Greek, Greek,
Fourth
Fourth century A.D. They are the Codex Coden Vaticanus, preserved
Vatieo,nus, preserved
in the Vatican
Vatican Library
Library and whose place of discovery
whose place discovery is unknown,
and the Codex
Coder Sinaiticus,
Sir:p;iti,an, which was discovered
discovered on Mount Sinai
 Four Gupeh.
The Font
Tlle Source. and
Goapez,. Sourcer Hiatory
lind Hhtorg 7g
79

and is
and is now
now preserved
preserved in in the
the British
British Museum, London. The
Museum, London. The second
second
contains two apocryphal
contains two apocryphal works. works.
According to
According to thethe Ecumenical
Ecumenical Translation,
Translation, two hundred and
two hundred and
fifty other
fifty other known known parchments
parchments exist throughout
exist throughout the
the world, the
world, the
last of these being from the
last of these being from the Eleventh centuryEleventh century A.D.
A.D. "Not
"Not all
all the
the
copies of the
copies of the New New Testament that
that have come
eome down to
to us
us are iden-
tical" however. "On
tical" contrary, itit is possible
"On the contr&ry, possible to to distinguish
distinguish
differences of of varying
varying degreesdegrees of importance between them, but
of importance but
important they may be,
however important be, there is always a large number
of them. Some
of Some of of these
these only concern differences
differences of of grammatical
grammatical
detail, vocabulary or or word
word order. Elsewhere however, however, differences
differences
between manuscripts
between manuscripts can be seen seen which
which afrect
affect the meaning of
the meaning of
whole passages".
whole passages". If If one
one wishes to see see the extent of textual differ-
of textual differ-
ences, one
ences, one only has to glance glance through Novum Testamentum
through the iVounm Testamentum
Graece.
Graeee.r 1
This work
This so-called 'middle-of-the-road'
work contains a so-called 'middle-of-the-road' Greek
text. ItIt is a text
text ofof synthesis
synthesis withwith notes containing all the varia-
notes containing varia-
tions found in the different different versions.
versions.
The authenticity
authenticity of a text, text, and of of even
even the most venerable
manuscript, is always open debate. The Codex
open to debate. Vaticanus is a
Coder Vaticanus
good
good example
example of this. The facsimile reproductions edited edited by the
Vatican
Vatican City, 1965, 1965, contains
contains an accompanying
accompanying note note from its edi- edi-
tors informing
informing us us that
that "several centuries
centuries after
after it it was copied
was copied
(believed
(believed to havehave been been in circa the Tenth or Eleventh century), century),
aa scribe inked over all the letters except those those he thoughtthought
were
qrere aa mistake".
mistske". There are passages passagesin the text where the orig- orig-
inalletters
inal letters in lightlight brown still show show through, contrasting visibly
with
with the rest of the text which is in dark brown. There There is is no
no
indication that
indication that it it was
was aa faithful
faithful restoration. note
restoration. The note states states
moreover
moreover that that "the"the different
different hands
hands thatthat corrected
corrected and anno-
and anno-
tated
teted the
the manuscript
manuscript over over the
the centuries
centuries havehave not yet
not yet been defini-
been defini-
tively
tively discerned;
discerned; aa certaincertain number
number of of corrections
corrections were undoubt-
were undoubt-
edly
edly made
made when when the the text
text was
was inked
inked over."
over." In all the
In all religious
the religious
manuals
manuals the the text
text is is presented
presentedas as aa Fourth
Fourth century
century copy. hss
One has
copy. One
to
to go
go toto sources
sources at at the
the Vatican
Vaticsn to to discover
diseover that hands
various hands
that various
may
may have
have altered
altered the the text
text centuries
centuries later.
later.
Onemight
One might reply
reply thatthat other
other texts
texts may
may be be used
usedfor comparison,
for comparison,
but
but how
how doesdoes one one choose
ehoose between
between variations
variations that change the
that change the
meaning?
meaning? It It is
is aa well
well known
known fact
fact that
that aa very
very old comec-
scribds correc-
old scribe's
1.1. Nestle-Aland
Nestla'Alend Pub.
Pub. Unit.ed
United Bible
Bible Societies,
Societies, London,
London, 1971.
1S?1'
 80
80 THE
THE BmLE,
BIBI.4 THE
THE QUR'AN
QUN'AN AND
AND SCmNCE
SCIENCE

tion
tion cancan lead
leed toto the
the definitive
definitive reproduction
reproduction of of the
the corrected
corrected text.
text.
We
\il'e shall
shall seeseefurther
further on on how
how aa single word in a passage
single word in a passege from
from
John
John concerning
concerning the the Paraclete
Paraclete radically
radically alters
alters itsits meaning
meaning and and
completely
eompletely changes changes its its sense
sense when
when viewed from a theological
viewed from a theological
point of
point of view.
view.
O.
O. Culmann,
Culmann, in in his
his book,
book, The
The New Testarnenf, writes
New Testament, writes the
the fol-
fol-
Iowing on
lowing on the
the subject
subject of of variations:
variations:
"Sometimes
"Sometimes the the latter
latter are are the
the result
result ofof inadvertant
inadvertant flaws: the
copier misses
copier missesaa wordword out,out, oror conversely
conversely writes it twice, twice, or aa whole
whole
section of
section of aa sentence
sentenceis is carelessly.
carelessly.omitted
omitted because
becausein the manu-
script
script to to bebe copied
copied it it appeared
appeared between
between two identical words. words.
Sometimes it
Sometimes it is
is aa matter of deliberatedeliberate corrections,
correetions, either the
'correcting
copier has
copier has taken the liberty liberty of ·correcting the text text according to
his own ideas or he
own ideas he hashas tried to bringbring itit into line withwith aa parallel
text in aa more more or less less skilful
skilful attempt to reduce reduce the number of
discrepaneies. As,
discrepancies. As, little
little by little, the New Testament writings writings
broke away from from the rest of early Christian Christian literature,
literature, and camecame
to be be regarded as as Holy
lloly Scripture, so so the copiers
copiers became
became more
and more hesitant about taking taking the same same liberties as as their
their
predecessors: they thought
predecessors: thousht they were copying the authentic
text, but in fact wrote down the variations. variations. Finally,
Finally, a copier
sometimes wrote annotations in the margin
sometimes margin to explain an ob-
scure passage. The following
scure passage. following copier, thinkingthinking that that the sentence
sentence
he found in the margin margin had been been left
left out of of the passage
passage by his
predecessor,
predecessor, thought thought itit necessary
necessary to include the margin margin notes in in
the text. This This process
process often made the new text text even more
obscure."
The scribes of of some
some manuscripts
manuscripts sometimes
sometimes took exceedingly
great liberties with
great liberties with the texts. texts. This
This is
is the
the case
case of of one of
of the
the most
most
venerable manuscripts
manuscripts after after thethe two
two referred
referred to to above,
above, the the
sixth
Sixth century
century coden Codex Bezae Ca,nta,bri,giensis.
Cantabrigiensis. The The scribe
scribe prob-
prob-
ably
ably noticed the the difference between between Luke's
Luke's ancland Matthew's
Matthew's gene-gene-
alogy of Jesus, so he put
of Jesus, Matthew's genealogy
put Matthew's genealogy into into his
his copy
copy of of
Luke, but but as the the second
second contained
contained fewerfewer names
names thanthan the
the first,
first,
he padded
he padded itit outout with
with extra names (without
extra names (without balancing
balancing them
them up).up).
Is itit possible
Is possible to say that
to say that the
the Latin
Latin translations,
translations, such such asas Saint
Saint
Jerome's
Jerome's sixth Sixth century
century Vulgate,
Vulgate, or or older
older translations
translations (V (Vetus
etw
Itala),
Itala), or or Syriae
Syriac and and Coptic
Coptic translations
translations are are anyany more
more faithful
faithful
than
than the the basic
basic Greek
Greek manuscripts
manuscripts? ? They
They might
might havehave been
been made
made
The Fovt
Tlaa GoJpeIB. Sourcer
Four Gola,elr,. and Hhtwg
Source, ond Hiatory

from manuscripts
from manuscripts olderolder than
than the
the ones
ones referred
referred to above and
to above and sub-
sub-
sequently lost
sequently lost to
to the
the present
present day.
day. WeWe iust
just do
do not
not know.
know.
ItIt has
has been
been possible
possible to
to group
group the the bulk
bulk ofof these versions into
these versions into
families all
families all bearing
bearing Ia certain
certain number
number of of common traits. Accord-
common traits. Accord-
ing to
ing to O.
O. Culmann,
Culmann, one one can
can define:
define:
-a
-a so-called
so-called Syrian
Syrian text,
text, whose
whose constitution
constitution eould have led to
could have to
the majority
the majority of of the
the oldest Greek manuscripts;
manuscripts; this text was
this text was
widely disseminated
widety disseminated throughout
throughout Europe from from the Sixteenth
century A.D.
century A.D. onwards
onwards thanks to to printing; specialists say that
printing; the specialists that
itit is probably
probably the worst
worst text.
text.
-a so-called
-a so-called Western text, with Latin versions and the Coden
with old Latin Codex
Bezae Cantabri,giensis
Bezae Cantabrigiensis which is in in both Greek and Latin Latin;; accord-
accord-
ing to the Ecumenicel
ing Ecumenical Translation, one one of its characteristics is
of its
explanations, paraphrases'
a definite tendency to provide explanations, paraphrases, inaccu-
rate data and 'harmonizations'.
'harmonizations'.
-the so-called Neutral
-the so-called Neutral text, eontaining
containing the CodexCoder Vaticanus and and
the
the Codex
Coden Sinaiticus,
Si,nai,tinus,is said to have a fairly level of purity;
fairly high level purity;
modern editions of of the New Testament readily follow it, although
it
it tootoo has
has its flaws' (Ecumenical
(Ecumenical Translation).
Translation) .
All
All that
that modern textual criticism
criticism can can do respect is to
do in this respect
try
try and snd reconstitute
reconstitute "a "a text
text which has
has the most likelihood
likelihood of
coming
coming near negr to the original. In any case, case,there cancan be hope of
be no hope
going back to the original original text itself."
itself." (Ecumenical Translation)
Translation)
 IV
IY
The Go~pEI~
ThE Gospels andand
~odE ..n ~t::iEn(:E.
Modcrrr ScierrcG,
The GEnEilIOIiE~
Th~ Genealogies of of JE~US.
Jesrrs.
The Gospels
The Gospels contain very few passages passages which give rise to aa
confrontation with modern modern scientific
scientific data.
data.
Firstly however,
Firstly however, there are many descriptions
descriptions referring
referring to mir-
mir-
acles which hardly lend themselves
acles themselves to scientific comment. comment. The
miraeles concern
miracles people-the healing
concern people-the healing of the sick (the insane, insane,
blind, paralytic; the healing of lepers,
blind, paralytic; Lazarus) -
lepers,resurrection of Lazarus)-
as well as
as as the purely material phenomena that
material phenomena that lie outside the
laws of nature (the description
laws description of Jesus Jesus walking on water that that
held
held him up,
up, the changing
changing of the watOr wat~r into wine). sometimes
Sometimes
phenomenomis seen
aa natural phenomenom seenfrom an unusualunusual angleangle by virtue
virtue ofof
the fact that the time element
element is very short:short: the immediate calm-
ing of the storm, the instantaneous
instantaneous withering
withering of of the fig tree,
the miracle eatch
catch ofof fish,
fish, asas ifif all the fish
fish in the sea sea had come
come
together at exactly the place place where the nets were cast. cast.
God intervenes
God intervenes in in His
His omnipotent
Omnipotent Power in in all these
these episodes.
episodes.
One need
one need not be surprised by what what He is i~ able to achieve;
achieve; by by
human standards
standards itit is stupendous,
stupendous, but but for
for Him
Him itit is
is not.
not. This
This does
does
not at all mean
mean that
that a believer should should forget
forget science.
science. A A belief
belief inin
divine miracles and in in science
science is is quite
quite compatible:
compatible: one one isis on
on aa
divine scale,
scale, the other on a human human one. one.
Personally,
Personally, II am veryvery willing
willing to to believe
believe thatthat Jesus
Jesus cured
cured aa
leper,
leper, but
but II cannot accept
accept thethe fact
fact that
that aa text
text isis declared
declared authen-
authen-
tic
tic and
and inspired
inspired by God when
by God when II readread that
that only twenty genera-
only twenty genera-
tions existed
tions existed between
between thethe first
first man
man and
and Abraham.
Abraham. Luke Luke says
says this
this

82
82
 8ll
83
The Goapell tmd
Tlw GoWb Modem Science
andMdnnr Sclnrlao

Gospel (8,
his Gospel
in his
in 23-28). we
(3, 23-28). We shall see in
shall see mome nt the
in a moment reasons
the ressons
like
text, like
Luke's text,
why iuke's the Old Testam
Testament ent text
text on the the
that show why
that
same theme,
same simply a
theme, is quite simply product
produc t of
of human imagin ation.
imagination'
Gospels t}te
The Gosrcrr (like tn. Qur'an ) giu"
the bo"'"tt) give us thg description of
the same description of
The
origins. The
biological origins.
Jesus's biological format
The formation ion of
of Jesus
Jesus in
in the
the matern
materngl al
Jesus's
circumstance
in circumstances s which
which lay
lay outsiae
outsiile the laws
laws of
of
occurred in
uterus occurred
uterus
common to all
nature common
nature all human beings.beings. The ovule produced produced by the
ovary did not need
mothe r's ovary join
need to join with with a sperma tozoon, yhich
spermatozoon'- which
mother's
father ,
his father,
from his to form
form the embry
embryo o and hence
should have come from
phenomenon of
infant . The phenomenon of the birth
birth of
of a norma
normal l indi-
indi-
a viable infant. 'parthe-
fertiliz ing action
withou t the fertilizing of the male is caned
called 'parthe -
vidual without
kingdom, parthe
anima l kingdom,
In the animal nogen
parthenogenesis esis can
can.be be ob-
nogenesis'. In
nogenesis,.
conditions. This
served under certain conditions.
served This is true for various
true for insects,
variou s insects'
brates and,
and, very occasio
very occasionally, nally, a select
select breed of
of
certain inverte
invertebrates
bird. ByBy way of of experi ment, it
experirnent, been
it has been possible,
possibl e, for
for examp
example, le, in
in
bird.
mammals if.*"le
certain mammal* rabbit s), to obtain
(female rabbits), the beginn
beginnings ings of
a develo pment of the ovule into
development embryoo at an extrem
into an embry extremely ely rudi-rudi-
menta
mentary ry stage withoutt any interve
stage withou ntion of spermatozoon' was
intervention sperma tozoon . It
It
not possib
possiblele to go any furthe however and an examp
furtherr however example le of com-
plete parthe nogenesis, wheth
parthenog"enesis, whether er experi menta
experimental l or natura
natural, l, is un-
Jesus is an unique case.
known.. Jesus
known ea$e.Mary Mary was a virgin
virgin mothe
mother. r. She
she
preser ved her virgin
preserved virginityity and did not have have any childre
children n apart
apart from
from
Jesus.
l*to*. Jesus
Jesus is a
a biologi
biologicalcal except ion.
exception'l l

THE GENE
THE ALOG IES OF JESUS
GENEALOGIES JESUS'.
The two geneal ogies contai
genealogies ned in Matthe
contsined Matthew'sw's and Luke's Gos-Gog-
p"Jbl**,ms of verisim
pels give rise to proble
pels ilitude, and confor
verisimilitude, mity
conformity with
with
scienti fic
scientific data, and hence
hence authen ticity.
authenticity. These
These ms are aa
problems
proble
assme nt to Christ ian comm
Christian entato becaus
commentators rs becausee
sourceof great embar
source embarassment
latter refuse to see
the latter see in them whatwhat is very obviou sly
obviously the prod-
imagin
uet of human imagination.
uct ation. The author
authors s of the Sacerd otal text of
Sacerdotal
Genesi Sixftr-centur
s, Sixth y B.C.,
cettlo"y had alread
8.C., had already been inspire
y been d by imag-
in.spired
Genesis,
men' It
ogies of the first men. inspiredd
It again inspire
ttreir geneal
for their
ination for
ination genealogies
'brothers'and'sist€rs'
Jesus'g'brother
to Jesus's (Matth€w
s' and 'sisters ' (Matthe w
1. C*prls sometim
The Gospels
i]Tt-u sometimes refer to
es refer
ls,46-60
13,46-6 0 and 64-68; *rl* 6,e,1-6;
rl-68;Mark f+i i9rr17,?,.1
John 3 and 2, 12). The Greek worda
T9,u'11]J *:S:::j:"*
""a
adelpho i and adelpha indeed
i, indeed sigsify
signify biolosical
biologic brothers
al brother s and rir
andai...
used,
ililr?"-r#J;;'irtpioi,
are *ori
most pioUtUty
probabl y aa detective
defectiv e translation
translat ion of
of the originrll
the origina
ters; they
ters; they
perbrpr
were perhaps
""*which
semitic words
Semitic worde just mean
which just mesn'kin'; this instanc
in this
'kin'; in they were
inctsncee they
cousins.
couging.
 84
84 THEBmLE
THE BTBLE,
, THE
THEQUR'AN AND
QUn'ANANDSCIEN
SCTENCE
CE

Matthew
Matth ew andand Luke
Luke for
for the
the data
data they
they did
did not
not take
take from
from theth.eOld
ord
Testament.
Testam ent.
one must
One must straig
str-aight
ht away
away note
notethat
that the
the male genearogies
maregeneal ogies have
absolutely have
absolu tely nonorelevan
relevanee to Jesus.
ce to Jesus.Were
were oneoneto give aa geneal
to give genealoHr
ogy to
Mary's only to
Mary's only son,
son,who
who waswas withou
withoutt aa biologi cal father
biologicat ratrrer,
, it
ii would
wourd
haveto
have to be
be the
the geneal
genealogy
ogy ofof his
his mothe
mother r Mary.
Mary.
Hereis
Here is the
the text
text of
of the
the Revise
Revisedd Standa
standardrd Versio
versionn of
of the
the Bible,
Bibre,
1952:
1952:
genealogy
Thegeneal
The according
ogy accord ing to
to Matthe
Mattheww is
is at
at the
the beginn
beginning
ing of his
his
Gospel:
Gospel :
,,THE BOOK
"THE BOOK OF
OF THE
THE GENE
GENEALOGY
ALOG Y OF OF JESUS
JESUS CHRIS
CHRIST, T,
THE SON
THE SON OFOF DAVID
DAVID,, THE
THE SON
SON OFOF ABRA
ABRAHAM.
HAM.
Abraham
Abraha m was the
was the father
father of
of Isaac
fsaac
fssac
Isaac was the
was the father
father of
of Jacob
. Jacob
Jecob was the father
fether of Judah and his brother
brotherss
Judah
Judah wes the father
was perez and Zerah by Tamar
father of Perez Tamar
Perez
Perez was the father
father of
of Hezron
Hezron
Hezron was the father
father of RamRarn
Ram was the father
father of Ammin
Amminadab
adab
Amminadab
Ammin adab was the father
fsther of
of Nahsho
Nahshon n
Nehshon
Nahsho n was the father
father ofof Salmon
Salmon was the father
father of
of Boaz
Boez by
by Rahab
Rahab
Boaz was the father
father of
of Obed
Obed ti,
by n"ti-
Ruth
Obed
Obed was the father
father of
of Jesse
Jesse
Jene
J.esse was the father
father ofof Devid
David the king
king
David
David was the father
father ofof solomon
Solomon by by th-e
the wife
wife of
of uriah
Uriah
Solomon was the
the father
father ofof Rehoboam
Rehoboam
Rehobosm
Rehoboam was the
the father
father ofof etijatr
Abijah
Abijah
Abijah was the father
father ofof Asa
Asa
Ate
Asa was
was the
the father
father ofof Jehoshaphat
J ehoshap hat
Jehochaphat
Jehosha phat was
was the
the father
father ofof Joram
Joram
Jorsm
Joram was
was the
the father
father ofof Uzziah
Uzziah
Uzziah
Uzziah was
was the
the father
father ofof jotnam
Jotham
Jotham
Jotham was
was the
the father
father ofof Ahaz
Ahaz
Ahaz
Ahaz was
was the
the fother
father ofof iezekiah
Hezekia h
Ilezekiah
Hezekia h war
was the
the father
father oiof llarre"g"h
Manass eh
lflqnslreh
Man&l8eh was
was the
the father
father ofof A-os
Amos
Amol
Amos wes
was the
the father
father of of iogiah
Josiah
Jorirh
Josiah wae
was the
the father
father of of iechoniah
Jechoni ah and
and his
his brothers
brother s
at
at the
the time of
of the
the deportation
deport ation to
to Babylon:
Babylon:
After
After the
the deportation
deport ation to
to Babylon:
Babylo n:
Jeehonieh
Jechoni ah war
was the
the father
father of
of Shealtiel
Shealtie l
Sherltiel
Shealtie l wal
was the
the father
father of
of Zerubbrbel
Zerubba bel
 85
E
lTu Gotrrrh ardModrirn Sclalrr

Zerubba bel
Zcmbbabel was
wer frther of
the father ol Abilld
Abtud
Abilld
Abtud was
wrr the fethsr of
t'lre father of EliaJdm
ElieHn
EliaJdm
Elilkin was
wrr fether of Azor
th€ father
the Alor
Azor was
wer fether of
the father ol Zadok
Zrdok
Zadok
Zrdok was fether of Achim
wer the father Achin
Achim
Aehln wer the
was father of Eliud
tbe father Eliud
Eliud
Eliud was father of Eleazar
*ar the father Eleazer
Eleazar
Elerzu was Metthann
frther of Mattha
*u the father
Mrtthann
Mattha was father of Jacob
war the father Jacob
Jacob
Jscob wer the father
was hurband of Mary
Jorcph the husband
father of Joseph Maty
of whom JJesus
olwhom e ru rwwas a rc acalled
h o w was
rn ,wwho
e l b oborn, Christ.
l l e dC hri rt.

tions from Abrah

generations
So all the genera
So Abraham am to David were were fourte
fourteen en
and from David to the deport
tions, and
generations,
genera deportationation to Babylo
Bsbylon n four'
four-
tions, and
generations,
teen genera
I*o from the deport
and from deportationation to Babylon to the
t9_pabylon
Christ fourte
fourtcen generatiolls".
en genera (Matthew,
tions". (Matth ew, I, t'17)1-17)
genealogy
Tlre geneal
The given
ogy given by Luke (3,
(8, 23-38) is differe
23-38) different nt from
Matthe
Matt;ew. The GJ
w. The text reprod uced
reproduced here
here is from the Revise
Revised d Stan-
Stan-
Version
dard Versio n of the Bible:
"Jesus when he
, when began his minist
he began ministry, sbout thirty
was about
ry, was years of
thirty years
"J€sus,
being the son
ege being
age, (as was
son (as was suppos
supposed) ed) of JosephJos€ph, , the sonson of Heli,
Heli'
tt son
the *o ofoi Matth
Uattttot,at, the son
soo of l*tti,
Levi, the son
son of Melchi
Melchi, , the son
son of
"
annai, the son
JJannei, son of Joseph
oi Joseph, , the son
son of Mattat
Mattathias, hias, the son
son of
Atttog,the SOD
Amos, Nahum, the son
son of Natrum, eon of Esli, the son Naggai, the
eon of Naggai,
soo of
son Maath,, the son
oi Maath of Mattat
son Mattathias, hias, the son
son of Semein
Semein, the son
, the son
oseeh, the SOD
of JJoseeh, son of oda,
sf JJoda, the son
son of J oanan,
Josnan, the
the son
son of Rhesa,
Rhesa'
Zembbabel,
son of Zerubb
the SOD abel, the son son of Shealt
Shealtiel, the son
iel, the son of Neri, the
Melchi,, the son
son of Melchi
son son of Addi, the son
son of Cosam
cosam, , the son son of
Elmedam,
Elmad gon
am, the son of Er, the son
son of Joshua
Joshua, , the son
son of Eliezer'
Elieze r,
son of Jorim, the son
the son Matth
son Matthat,
of at, the son
son of Levi, the son
son of
Simeo
simeon, n, the son Judatr, the
son of Judah, son of Joseph
ttre son Joseph, , the son onam,
son of JJonsm'
Eliskim,, the son
son of Eliakim
the son son of Melea,
Melea, the
the son
son of Menna
Menna, , the son
son
of Mattat
Mattatha,ha, the son son of Natha
Nathan, n, the son son of David,
David, the son
son of
Obed,the son
son of Obed, son of Boaz,
Boaz, the son
son of Sala,
Sala, the son
son
Jesse,the son
Jesse,
of Nahsh on, the
tihe son
son of Ammi
Amminad*b,nadab, the sonson of Admin Admin,, the son son
Nsh8hon,
gon of Hezron
the son
Arni, the
of Ami, Hezron, son of Perez,
, the son Perez, the son
son of Judah'
Judah,
the son of J&Cob,
Jacob, the
ttre son
son of Isaac,
Isaac, the
the son
son of Abrah
Abraham, am, the son son of
sou
lr"nor,, the son
son of Nahor serug, the
eon of Serug, the son
son of R-eu,
Reu, the
Terah, the son
Terah,
Eber, the son
sonof Eber, sonof Shelah
Shelah, , the son
son of Csinan'
Cainan ,
Peleg,the son
sonof Peleg,
son
xad, the son shem, the son
son of Shem, son of Noah, Noah, the son
son
son of Arpha
the son Arphaxad,
h, the of Methu selah,
Methuselah, the son
son Enoch,, the son
of Enoch son of
lra,mech,th. Bon
of Lamec SOD
 t6
88 lUE BULE
THE EIDI4 , THE
THE QUI\'AN AND
AND SCIEN
$CTENCE
QITnAN CE
Jared,
Jarcd, the
the son
sonofof Xahala
Mahalareel,
lee), the
the son
son of
of Cainan
ceinen,, the
the son
son of Enos.
Enos
the son
the sonofof Seth,
seth the
the son
sonofof Adam,
Adam, the
the son
sonof Gad."
God."
gpnealogies
The geneal ogies appea
rpp€srr more
moro clearly
clearly when
when presen
presented
ted in two
tables,
tables, one
one showin
showing g the genealogy
the geneal ogy before
beiore David
Devid and
snd the
the other
rfter him.
after him.

GENEALOGY OF
GENEALOCY OF JESUS
JESUS,, BEFO RE DAVID
BEFORE DAVID
According
Accord ing to
te Matthe
Urtthsr w AceordiDtr to Luke
Aecordilg LuLo
1I Adam
Adru
22 Seth
SGth
8I Enos
Enor
"{ Caman
Celnrn
6 MahaJa
trhrlrlcclleel
80 Jared
Jurd
7 Enoch
Euoch
8I Methu.
Uethurelrh
elah
90 Lamech
Lrncch
Matthe
Urtthflr w does
doe! not
not mention
mention 10
10 NoahNoeh
an)'
rny name
ntns before
bsfors Abraha
Abrrhln" m. 11
f 1 Shem
Shen
12
l2 Arphas
Arphurdad
18
18 Cainan
Crlnrn
ghGtrh
1{ Shelah
14
ftr Ebsr
16 Eber
16 Pclcg
16 Pelel'
17 Beu
17 Rea
fB Serue
18 Settg
19 Nrhor
19 Neor
20 TerrhTerah
11 Abnhrn m
Abraha 2l
21 Abrahe,m
Abraha m
2 Inec
Isaac AD
22 Inec Isaac
8I Jecob
Jacob 28
23 JecobJaeob
I Judeh
Judah
" 65
86
Pcr.sl
Peru
Eca;r.o,n
Baron
21
24 Judrb
26
25 Perez
26 Eezron
Judah

Huron
7 BrE
Ram 27 Ami Ami
?fi
28 AdrnlnAdmin
8 Ann'inrdab
Ammin adab 29 Amminadab
29 Anmindrb
90 Nrhrhon
Nahllhon 80
30 Nrhrhon
Nah.ho n
10
10 Srhon
Salmon g1
31 Sdr Sala
11
11 Borr
Boas 82
32 Boer Bou
12
12 Ob€d
Obed 88
33 Obcd Obed
l8
18 Joso
Jeaee 8{
34 Jcue J....
1l
14 Drvld
Da-.fd gE
85 DrvldDavid
 st
87
n. Gnrylah
fTc SdMee
and ModernScftnot
Coapela crdffiod.rn

OF JESUS,
GENEALOGY OF
GENEAI.oGY AFTE R DAYID
JESUS, AFTER DAVID

Matthe w
to lfiettber
According to According to Luti
According to Luke
Accordlng
David 35 David
86 David
ltI j Drvid
86 Nethen
86 Nathan
16
16 Solomon
Solomon g?
16 Rehoboam 37 Mettsthr
Mattath a
16 Rehoboa'n gB
17 Abijab 38 Mennc
Menna
1? AbUah
18 Au 89 lfielee
Sg Melea
18 Are
19 J ehoshap hat 40 Eliakim
{0 Eliakim
19 JehorhePhet
20 Joram 41 Jonem
4l Jonam
20 Joram
21 Uzzlah 42 Joreph
12 Joseph
2l Uzzith
22 Jotham 43 Juilrb
48 Judah
22 Jotfian
28 Ahu 44 Simeon
41 Simeon
2g Aher
24 Hezekiah 46 L€vi
{6 Levi
21 Eezekiah Mattha t
26 Manus eb 46 Uatthat
26 tenarreh
26 Amos
Amor
47 Jorlm
1l Jorim
28
27 Josiah 48 Eliezer
48
27 Joslch
28 Jecboni ah
Jechonleh
49 Jorhua
49 JOlhua
28 60 Er
60 Er
Deporta tion to Babylon
BebYlon 51 Elmaden
61 Elmada m
DePortetion Corem
62 Cosam
62
63 Addi
63
29
29 Shealtiell
Shealtie
Melchi
il Kelchi
g0
30 Zerubba bel 54
Zerubbebel
81 Abiud 66 Neri
66
31 Sheeltiell
66 Shealtie
66
32
82 Eliakim
Eliekim
33 Azor 67 bel
Zerubbebcl
67 Zerubba
88 Azor Rheu
68 Rhesa
84 Zadok 58
84 Zedok Josnan
35 Achim 69 Joanan
69
85 Achiu Joda
86 Eliud 60 Joda
60
86 Eliud Jorech
37 Eleazar 61
61 JOleeh
87 Eleazar Semein
62, Semein
62
38
88 Matthann
Mattha
Msttsthier
ial
89 Jacob 63
63 Kattath
80 Jrcob Meeth
40 Josepb 64
64 Maath
{0 JorePb 66 Neg8:ci
6E Naggai
41
41 Jeaul
Jerur
66 Esli
66 Esli
Nehun
6? Nahum
67
Amos
68 Amos
68
Mattsthiar
69 Mattath
69 ial
JorePh
?0 Joseph
70
Jannai
?1 Jannai
71
72 Melchi
72 Kelchi
73 LeYi
?8 Levi
74 Matthatt
74 Mattha
75 Heli
76 Heli
JosePh
76 Joseph
76
77 Jeeus
77 Jesus
 E8
88 TIrEBmLE
THE DIBL4, THE
THEQUR'AN AND
QUnaN at\tDSCIEN CE
$crENCE
VARIATIONS
VARIATIONS IN
IN THE
THE MANU SCRIPTS AND
ITIANUSCRIPTSAND
IN RELA
IN RELATION
TION TO TO THETHE OLD OLD TESTATESTAMNWT.MENT .
Apart from
Apart from variati
variations
ons in in spellin g, the
spelling, the follow ing must
following mugt be be
mentioned:
mentio ned:
a) Matth
a) Mattheut,a
ew's Gospel
Goepel
The genealogy
The geneal ogy has
has disapp
disappeared
eared from
from the theCodex
cod,euBezae
BezaeCanta-
canta_
brigiensis,
brigien siB, aa very
very impor
impo"trttantt- Six
six centur
century y manus
manuscriptcript inin both
both
Greekand
Greek and Latin.
Latin. It
It has
hagcomple
completery
tely disapp
air"pi*redeared from
from the
the Greek
Greek
text and
text andalsoarsoaa large
rargepart
part ofof the
the Latin
Latil text.
td;. It It may
may quite
quite simply
simpry
bethat
be that the
the first
first pages
page, were
were lost.
lost.
One must
One must notenote here
here the great liberti
the great libertieses Matthe w has
with the
the Old
Matthew has taken
teken
with old Testam
Tegtament.
ent. He
He has p*d down
rr*r pared ;;; the
the geneal
genearosies
ogies for
the sake
the sakeof of aa strang
strange numericai
e numer ical demon
a**onstration
---stratio n (which
(which,, in the the
end,he
end, he does
doesnot give, as
not give, as we
we shall
shall see).
-*).
b) Luke's
b) Luke'eGospel
Gospel
l.-Before
I.-Bef Abraham
ore Abrah am:I Luke
Luke mentio
mentionsns 20
Z0 names
names; ; the
the Old
Old Testa-
Tests_
ment only
ment only mentio
mentions (eeetable
19 (see
ns 19 tableof Adam' s descen
otaaam,s dants in
descendants
the Old
the ord Testam
Testament section of this work)
ent section **tl. . Af;;After iipr,"*"a
Arpha xad
(No. la),
(No. 12), LukeLuke has
hasadded
addedar p*"r*
person ."ir*a
called Cainan
cainan (No.(No. 13),
rB) ,
who is not mentio
who mentioned
ned in Genesi
Genesis s as the ,o'
as trr* son of Arphaxad.
Arpha xad.
Z'-Fromm Abrah
2.-Fro Abraham am to David:
David : 14 14 to 16 names are found ac_
16 names ac-
cording
cordin g to the manuscripts.
manus cripts.
B.-From
S.-Fr om David to Jesus.
Jesus.
The
The most
most important
impor tant variation
variati on is thethe cod,eu
Codex BezaeBezae cantabri.g-
Cantabriu-
iewis which attributes
iensia attribu tes to Luke a whimsical
whimsical genealogy
genealogy taken
from
from Matthew
Matthe w and to which the seribe scribe rr"-laa-d
has added five names. names. un_Un-
fortunately,
fortun ately, the genearoxgy
genealogy of of Matthew,s
Matthe w's co*p*r
Gospel has has disappeared
disapp eared
from thiethis manuscript,
manus cript, sJlhat
so that comparison
comparison is is no
no ronger
longer possibre.
possible.
CruTICAL
CRITI CAL EXAMEXAilTINATION
INATI ON OF OF THE TEXTS
TEXTS, .
we
We sr*
are here
here faeed
faced with
with two
two different
differe nt genearogies
genealogies havin*i
having one
one
essential
essential point
point in
in common,
common, i.e.
Le. they
they both;;;,
both pass via
via Abraham
Abrah am and
and
David.
David. To
To make
make this
this examination
exami nation easier,-we
easier, we shail
shall separate
separa te the
the
whole
whole into
into three
three critical
critica l sections:
section s:
-From
-From Adam
Adam toto Abrahsm.
Abrah am.
-From
-From Abraham
Abrah am to to David.
David.
-From Dsvid
-From David to to Jesus.
Jesus.
 Scisrrcc EE
88
Thc eo.pela
T'M andfuf
furr,r;h lind don Scfncs
Modem

1. The
I. Peadodfrom
TIu Period frcm Mam to Abra1Ic
Adam to Jm
Abtullwm
Matthew began
Matthew began his genealogy
genealogy with Abrah am so
with Abratram so we are not
concerned with
concerned with his text here. Luke alone
text here. alone provides information
provides infotmation
ancestors going
Abrah am's ancestors
on Abraham's going back Adam : 20
back to Adam: names, 19
20 Ua'mes' 19 of
which sre are to be Genesis (chapterg
found in Genesis
be found (chapt ers 4' 4, 65 and 11),ll), as has
as has
alread y been
elready stated.
been ststed.
Is itit possible believe that only 19
possible to believe 19 or 20 20 generafionE
generations of
human beings
human existed before
beings existed Abrah am?
before Abraham? The
The problem
proble m hashas beenbeen
examined in the discussion
examined discussion of the Old Testsment. Testam ent. If
If one
one looks
looks at
descendants, based
Adam's descendants,
table of Adam's based on
on Genesi
Genesis s and
and giving
the table
figures for the time elemen
figures element t contain
contained Biblical tert'
ed in the Biblieal text, oneone
can see
can nineteen centur
roughly nineteen
see that roughly centuriesies passed
passed between
betwee n man's
man's
appear
sppesrance ance on *a*tr and
on earth and the birth Abraham. Today
birth of Abraham. Today it it is esti-
esti-
*at*a that Abrah
mated Abraham am was alive in circa
was alive 1860
eirce 1850 B'C'
B.C. snd
and it
it has
has been
been
deduce
deduced d from
from this that the ation
information
inform provided
provid ed by the Old old
Testam
Testament man's appear
placesman's
ent places sppearanee ance on on earth at roughly
roughl y thirty·
thirty'
centuries
eight centur B.C. Luke was
ies B.C. was obviou
obviously guidedby these
sly guided thesedata data for
his Gospel
Gospel. . He expres
expresses ses aa blatan untruthh for
blatantt untrut having copied
eopied
them down
them down and and we have alread
we have alregdy seenthe decisiv
y seen decisive e historical
histori cal argu-
ments leadin
ments leading g to this statem
stetement. ent.
The idea
The idea that Old Testam
old Testament data are
ent data are unacce ptable in the
unacceptable
to the
the 'obsolete'
'obsole mate-
te' mate-
present
presen day is duly admitt
t day admitted; ed; they
they belong
belong
rial referre
refe""ea the Second
d to by the Second Vstican
Vatica n Counci
Council' l. The
The fact,
fact, however
howev er
iial
that thethe Gospel
Gospeh Lke up
s take up the same
the same fically
scientifically
scienti incom patible
incompatible data
data
an extrem
is an extremely seriour observ
ely serious observation ation which may msy be used-to oppose
be used oppos€
those who
those defend the
who defend the histori
historical cal accura
accuracy cy of the
the Gospel
c'ospel texts.
t€xts.
Comm entato rs have
have quickly sensed
quickly sensedthis danger danger. They try
. They try to
commentators genes-
round the
g"i round
get the difficu saying that it
lty by saying
difficulty i.onot aa comple
it is complete te genea-
tree, that the
the evange
evangefis1 list has
has missed
missed names
names out' They
out. They
Iogical tree,
logical
done quite
was done quite deliber ately, and
deliberately, and th*!that his sole
sole
claim that this was
claim
,,intentior,
"inten *""toto establi
tion was establishsh the lines or essent
broad lines
ihe broad essential ial elements
elemen ts
basedon
t based on histori
historical reality."'
cal reality There is
."1 There is nothing
nothin g
line of descen
of aa line descent
permits
th;; permit them to
s them to form this hypoth hypothesis' esis. In the
the
texts that
the texts
in the
text it says quit.
quite clearly
clearly: : A was
was the
the father
father of B,
B, or B was the
was the
says
the part preced preceding Abraham
ing Abrah particular,
am in particular, the the
son of A. For the
son

New Testam ent (Petit Dietion naire

1. . T r Tricot,
l . A A. t t e D i cDiction
i c o t , L i tLittle o | t hofe Nthe
t i o n a t yary c w T c t t o m e n t ( P e t i t D i c t i o n nPcris)
aire
u Testam ent in "La "La Sainte Bible", Bible", Deselee
Descl6e, Pub' Paris)
, Pub.
du Nouvea
Nouveau Testament
 00
80 THEBmLE
THE BIBLE' THEQUR'A
, THE AIrtDSCIEN
N AND
QUnAN $CIENCE
CE
€vrngelist
evange draws moreo
list draws moreoverver on
on the
the Old
old Testam
Testamentent where
where the
gBnealogi'E the
geneal ogies are&reset
set out
out in
in the
the follow
following
ing form:
form:
TvhenX
When x had
had lived
lived n? years,
years,hehebecam
beeame-the
e the father
fsther of y ...
of Y . . . When
when
Y had
Y had lived
lived n,0years,
years, he
he becam
became ilre father
e the father of of,Z....
z. . . .
theru is
There is theref
therefore no break.
ore no brealc.
The part of
The part of Jesus's genealogy
Jesus'sgeneal ogy accord
according
ing toto Luke,
Luke, which
which pre-
pre-
eedes
cedesAbrah
Abraham,am, isis not
not accept
seceptabie
able inin the
the light
rt"rrt of
of modem
modern knowl-
knowr-
edgp
edge.

2, The
J. TIla Period
Pedd from
frcm Abrah
Ahralnm
am to
JoDaoid.
Daold.
Here
Eere the
the two geneal
genealogies
ogies tally (or almos
almost),
t), except ing one
excepting one
name':: the
or two names the differe
difference may be
nce may be explain
explaineded by copier
copieis,
s' errors
errors..
Does this
Does thig mean
mean that
thst the
the evange
evangehJts
lists are
are to bebe consid
considered
ered
accurate?
accura te?
Historyy situate
Histor situetes
s David at circaeircs 1000
1000 B.C.
B.c. and
and Abrah
Abraham
am at
1E00-1850
1800-1 B.c.: 14
860 B.C.: 14 to 16 generations
16 genera tions for roughl
roughry
y eight
eight centur ies.
c;uries.
Can one believe
con one believe this?
this ? One
one might say say that
trrat for
ror this
tnls period
p*"ioa the
Gospoltexts trr"
Gospel t€rts are
are at
et the
the very
ve|ry limit
li;it ofor the
ihe admiss
admissible.
ible.
$,TlrcPort
3. The Poat-D Drordpeid"
Goid Period.
It great pity, but unfortunatery
rt is a great unfort unatel y the texts no no longer
longer tally at
ell when
aU rrten it
it comes
comesto establi
establishing
shing .lo"pt;,
Joseph 's iine
line from David,
David, and
and
figtrrrtlvely
figurat epcakin&
ively speaki ng, Jesus's,
Jesus's , folr
for th"
the b"gp€I.
Gospel.
_ r-caving
Leavin g aside
aside the obvious
obvious falsific
falsification
ation in the cod,en
Codex Beza,e
Bezae
Canfahrigiewis
Ca.'llttJ,brigienris concerning
concer ning Luke,
Luke, let us us now
now compare
compare what the
two most
most venerabre
venera ble manurr"ipt.g
manus cripts have;;tr*":
have to offer: thethe cod,en
Codex Vati-
vati_
ffinw
eGn. and the Cod,euCodez Sinaiti
Sinaiitiarn.
cus.
_ rnIn the genea_logy
genealogy aceordins
accord ing to Luke 42 42 nomes
names are praced
placed after
after
Devid
David (No. sE) 35) down
down to Je-sus
Jesus (No. ??). 77). In the genearogy
genealogy ac-
ac-
eording
cordin g to Matthew
Matth ew rI
27 are mentioned
mentioned after David (No. 14) 14) down
down
Jesus (No. 4l).
to Jesus 41). The
The number
numbe r of of (fictitious)
(fictitious) ancestors
ancest ors given
given to
JesuE
Jesus after
after David is therefore
theref ore different
differe nt in the two Gospels.
Gospels. The
namoE
names themselves
themselves are different
differe nt as well.
This is not all.
Matthew tens us
Matth ew tellg us that he discovered
discovered how Jesus,s
Jesus's genearogy
genealogy
rplit
split up after
after Abraham
Abrah am into threethree g,roups
groups of of 14 names ; n.rt
14 nurir**; first
group from AbrahamAbrah am toto David;
David ; second
second fro*
from David to to the de_
de-
portstion
portat ion to Babylon;
Babylo n; third
third from
from the deportation
deport ation to
to Jesus.
Jesus. His
His
 gt
91
fir.Gplryrrbordilodrlruscftilcc

text does
tnrt does indeed
indeed contain
contain 14 names in
14 names the first
in the two groups'
first two groups, but but
in the third-from
in the third-from the
the deportation
deportation to
to Jesus-there
Jesus-there are
are only
only 18
13
and
end not not 14,
14, as
as expected;
expected; the
the table
table shows
shows that
that Sheatthiel
Shealthiel is
is No'
No. 29
29
and Jesus
and JesusNo. No. 41.
41. There
There is
is no
no variation
variation of
of Matthew
Matthew that
that gives
gives 14
14
names for
nemes for this
this group.
group.
To enable
To eneble himself
hims€lf have 14
to have
to names in
14 nemes second group'
his second
in his group,
Matthew
Matthew takes
takes very
veIT great
great liberties
liberties with
with the
the Old
Old Testament
Testament text.
text.
The names
The ns.mesof of the
the first
first six
six descendants
descendants of
of David
David (No.
(No. 15 to
to 20)
20)
tally with
tally with the the data
data in
in the
the Old
old Testament,
Testament, but
but the
the three
three descend-
descend-
ants of
rnts of Ioram (No. 20), 20), giiven
given in Chronicles IIII of
in chronicles of the Bible as
the Bible
Ahaziah,
Ahmislt, Joash, Joash, and Amaziah,
Amaziah, are suppressed
suppressed by Matthew. Else-
Else-
where, Jechoniah
wherg Jechoniah (No. 28) is for
for Matthew the son
son of
of Josiah'
Josiah,
although Kings II
although II ofof the Bible tells us thst Eliakim comes
that Eliakim comes be- be-
tween Josiah
tween Josiah and J echoniah.
Jechoniah.
It mey
It may be seen from this that Matthew has
be seen altered the genea-
has altered genea-
logical lines
logical linee in the Old
Old Testament
Testament to present
present an artificial group
group
of 14 names
fn Damesbetween between David
Dsvid and
and the deportation
deportation to Babylon.
Babylon.
There
fitere is also also the fact that one on€ name missing in Matthew's
name is missing Matthew's
third
thiril group,
group, so
so that none
none of the present-day
present-day Gospel
Gospel texts
texts eontains
contains
the 42 names mentioned.
4? namesmentioned. What is surprising is not so
so much
much the
the
existence
existence of the
the omission
omission itself (explained
(explained perhaps
perhaps by a
a very
very old
old
aeribe's
ecribe's error that was
was subsequently
subsequently perpetuated),
perpetuated), but the
the almost
almost
gileneeof commentators
total silence commentstorson on this subject.
subject.How How cancan ODe miss
one miss
this omission?
thie omission?W. W. Trilling
Trilling breaks
breaks this
this pious
pious conspiracy
conspiracy of silence
silence
in
in his bookThe
his book TheGospel
Gospel, According
Aecordingto (L'Evangile selon
Matthew (L'Evangile
to Matthew selon
Katthieu) by
Matthieu)' by devoting
1 devoting one
one line
line to
to it.
it. It
It is
is aa fact
fact whieh
which is
is of
of con-
con-
siderable importance
siderable importance because
because the
the commentators
commentators of
of this
this Gospel,
Gospel,
including
lncluding the the Ecumenical
EeumenicslTranslationTranslation and and Cardinal Dani$lou
Csrdinal Danielou
among others,
among:oth*"r, stress stress the
the great
great symbolical
symbolical significance
significance of
of Matth-
Matth-
ew's S x 14. This significance
ew'ssx14'Thissignificaneewagsoimportantforthe was so important for the evan-
evan-
gelist
gelist that
that he he suppressed
suppressed Biblical
Biblical n&mes
names without
without hesitation
hesitation to
to
arrive at his numerical
arrive at his numerical demonstration.
demonstration.
To
Tomake
makethis this hold
holdgood,
good,commentators
commentatorswill, nodoubt,
will, no construct
doubt,construct
some reassuring statements of
of an
an apologetic
apologetic nature,
nature, justifying
justifying
Eomereessuring stat€ments
the
the fact
fsct that
that names
ttt*"t have havebeen beencraftily suppressedand
craftily suppressed carefully
andcarefully
avoiding the omission
avoiding the omission that
that undermines
undermines the
the whole
whole point
point of what
of what
the evangelist was
the evangelist wss trying trying to
to show.
show.

1.1. Pub. tParole et

Pub. Deael'e,
Deecl6e,colI.
coll. 'Parole et Priere',
Pri&re', Paria.
Paril'
 9g
92 TIIE BOLE,
THE BIELE, THE
TIIE QUR-AN
QUn'AN AND
AnrDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

COMMENTANIES OF
COMMENTARIES OF MODERN
MODENN EXPERTS EXPENTS IN IN EXEGESIS.
EXEGESIS.
In his
In his book bookTherhe Gospels
Gospelsof of Childhood
child,Iwod (1967)
(196?) LesLes Evangiles
Evangiles de de
I'Enfance) 1,1, Cardinal
l'Enfance) Cardinal DanielouDanidlou invests
invests Matthew's ,numerical
Matthew's 'numerical
schematisation' with
schematisation' with aa symbolic vslue of
symbolic value of paramount
paramount importance
importance
sinceit
since it is
is this
this that
that establishes
establishesJesus's
Jesus'sancestry,
ancestry, which
whieh is is asserted
asserted
also by
also by Luke.
Luke. ForFor himhim LukeLuke andand Matthew
Matthew are 'historiang' who
are 'historians' who
'historicsl investigations', and the 'gene-
have completed
have completed their their 'historical investigations', and the ,gene-
alogy' has
alogy' has been 'taken down
been 'taken down fromfrom thethe archives
arehives of of Jesus
Jesus family'.
family'.
It must
It must be be added
added herehere that
that the
the archives
archives havehave never
never been
been found.'
found.r
Cardinal Danielou
Cardinal Danidlou condemns
condemnsout out ofof hand
hand anyone
anyone whowho criticizes
his point of
his point of view:
view: ult "It is is the
the Western
Western mentality, ignorance of of
Judeo-Christianity and
Judeo-Christianity and thethe absence
abseneeof aa Semitic outlook that that have
have
made so
made so many
many experts
experts in exegesis
exegesis looseloose their
their way when inter- inter-
preting
preting the the Gospels.
Gospels.They have have projected their their own categories
categories
onto them:
onto them: (sic) (sic) Platonic,
Platonie, Cartesian,
cartesian, Hegelian and Heidegger-
ian. It is
ian. It is easy easy to see seewhy everything
everything is mixed up in their their minds."
minds."
Plato, Descartes,
Plato, Descartes, Hegel Hegel and Heidegger obviously have nothing nothing
to do
to do with
with the critical
critieal attitude one one may have have towards
towsrds these whim-
these whim-
genealogies.
sical genealogies.
sical
search for
In his search for the meaning of of Matthew's
Matthew's B 3 x 14, author
14, the author
expands on strange suppositions.
expands suppositions. They are worth worth quoting
quoting here:
here:
"what may be meant are the common
uWhat common ten weeks weeks of of the
the ]ewish
Jewish
Apocalypse. The first
Apocalypse. first three, eorresponding
corresponding to the time time fromfrom
Adam to
Adam to Abraham, would have been been subtracted;
subtracted; seven
seven weeke
weeks ofof
years
years would then remain, the first first six
six would correspond to to the
the
six times
times seven seven representing the three groups of of fourteen
fourteen and and
leaving
leaving the seventh,seventh, started
started by by Christ
Christ with
with whom the seventh age age
of
of the
the world
world begins." Explanations
Explanations like like this
this are
are beyond
beyond comment
comment!!
The commentators
commentators of of the
the Ecumenieal
gcumenical Trawtation-Neut
Translation-New Testo- Testa-
vvvsnf,-a,lso
ment-also give give us numerical
numerical variations
variations of of an
an apologetic
apologetic nature
nature
which are equally unexpected: unexpected:
F
FororM atthew'sB
Matthew's 3 XX 114:
4:
11.. Pub.
Pub. Editions
Editions du Seuil, Parig.
du Seuil, Paris.
2.
2. Although
Although the
the author
author &ssures
assures ue
us that
that he
he knows
knows of of the
the exist€nce
existence of of thec€
thel:5e
supposed
supposed family
family archives
archives from
from the
the Ecclesiaetic
Ecclesiastic rristory
History byby Euaebiua
Eusebius
Pamphili (about
Pamphili whose respectability
(about whose respectability much
much could be said),
could be said), itit isis dificult
difficult
to
to see
see why
why Jesus's
Jesus's family
family should
should have two genealogical
have two genealogical treer
trees thatthat were
were.
necessarily different just
necessarily different just because
because each
each of
of the
the two so-called .higtorienl'
two so-called 'historians'
g:ave
gave aa genealogy
genealogy substantially
substantially difrerent
different from
from the
the other
other coneerning
concerning the the
names
names ofof those
those who
who figure
figure among
among Jesus's
Jesus's encestors.
ancestors.
The G,ocpeh
Tlw and Modem SciefICfI
Go8pez, ardffi&rnscterlw,e 93
03

a) 14 could
could be be the
the numerical total of the
numerical total the B consonants in
3 consonants in the
the
Hebrew name
Hebrewname Dsvid David (D:4,
(D=4, V:6),
V=6) , hence
hence 4+6*4:14.
4+6+4=14.
b) 38 xX 14 -= 6 xX 7 and "Jesus"Jesus came
came atat the end of the sixth week
end of week
of Holy history beginning
of beginning with
with Abraham."
For Luke, translation gives
Luke, this translation names from Adam
gives 77 names Adam to Jesus,
Jesus,
allowing
allowing the number
number 7 to come
come up again,
again, this time by dividing
77 by 7 (?
77 (7 X 1l11 := ??). It is quite
77). It apparent that for Luke
quite apparent Luke the
number
numher of variations where words
where words are added
added or subtracted
subtracted is
such
such that a list of 77 names is completely
tist af.7T names completely artificial. It
It does
does how-
how-
ever have
ever have the advantage adapting itself to these
advantage of adapting these numerical
numerical
games.
g8mes.
The genealogies
genealogies of of Jesus
Jesus as they appear in the Gospels Gospels may
perhaps be the subject that that has led Christian
Christian commentators' to
commentators'to
perform their
perform their most characteristic
characteristic feats of of dialectic acrobatics,
acrobaties,
on par indeed with
indeed with Luke's and Matthew's imagination.
imagination.
 Conl.. adi~lions and
Contradiclions and
l-probabilities
Irnp..obabililies in
in the
the
l)escriptiorrs.
()Es.:.. iplions.
Each of the four
four Gospels
Gospels contains aa large number
number of descrip-
events that may be
tions of events be unique
unique to one
one single Gospel
Gospel or com-
com-
mon to several if if not all of them. When they are unique to one one
Gospel,
Gospel, they sometimes
sometimes raise serious problems. Thus, in the case
serious problems. case
considerable importance, it
of an event of considerable it is surprising
surprising to find
the event mentioned by only one one evangelist
evangelist;; Jesus's
Jesus's Ascension
Ascension
heaven on the day of Resurrection, for
into heaven
into for example.
example. Elsewhere,
Elsewhere,
numerous events
numerous events are differently
differently described-sometimes
described-sometimes very dif- dif-
fently indeed-by
fently indeed-by two two or more evangelists.
evangelists. Christians
Christians are very
very
astonished at the existence
often astonished existence of
of such
such contradictions between
between
the Gospels-if
Gospels-if theythey ever discover them. This This is because
because they
they
have been
been repeatedly toldtold in
in tones of the greatest assurance
tones of assurance that
that
the New
New Testament
Testament authors
authors were the eyewitnesses
eyewitnesses of of the events
they
they describe !
Some of
Some of these
these disturbing
disturbing improbabilities
improbabilities and contradictions
contradictions
have been
been shown in in previous chapters. It later
It is however the later
events of Jesus's life
of Jesus's in partieular,
life in particular, along with
with the events
events follow-
follow-
ing
ing the Passion,
Passion, that
that form
form the subject of of varying
varying oror contradictory
contradictory
descriptions.
descriptions.

DESCN/?flOilS OF THE
DESCRIPTIONS OF THE PASSIOff
PASSION
Father
Father Roguet himself
himself notes that
that Passover
Passover is
is placed at
at differ-
differ-
ent
ent times
times in
in relation
relation to
to Jesus's
Jesus's Last
Last Supper with
with IIis
His disciples
disciples in
in
g4
94
ContTtJdictiona atdlmptob&ilttiu
Conttdictlotrt and Improbabilllie, intlp
in the Dermiqtions
DeacriptiOfll 05
95

the Synoptic
the Synoptic Gospels
Gospels and and John's
John's Gospel. John places
Gospel. John places thethe Last
Last
'before
Supper 'before the
Supper the Passover celebrations' and
Passover celebrations' and the other three
the other three
evangelists place
evangelists place itit during
during thethe celebrations themselves. Obvious
celebrations themselves. Obvious
improbabilities emerge
improbabilities emerge from this divergence:
from this certain episode
divergence: aa certain episode
becomes impossible
becomes impossible because
because of the position
of the position of Passover in
of Passover in relation
relation
it. lVhen
to it. When oneone knows importance itit had in
knows the importance Jewish liturgy
in the Jewish liturgy
importance of
and the importanee of the meal
meal where Jesus bids farewell to his
where Jesus
disciples, how is itit possible
disciples, believe that
possible to believe memory of
that the memory of one
one
event in
event in relation to the other could could have faded to such
have faded such an extent
in the trsdition recorded later by the evangelists?
tradition recorded evangelists?
more general
On a more general level, descriptions of
level, the descriptions Passion differ
of the Passion
from oneone evangelist
evangelist to another,
another, and more partieularly
and more particularly between
between
John and
John and the first three Gospels. The
three Gospels. Supper and
The Last Supper and the Pas- Pas-
sion in John's
sion John's Gospel
Gospel are both very long,
are both twice as
long, twice long as
as long as in
Mark and and Luke,
Luke, andand roughly one one snd
and a times as
a half times as long
long asas
Matthew's text. John
Matthew's John records
records a speech of Jesus
long speech
a very long Jesus to His
disciples
discipleswhich
which takes
takes up up four chapters
chapters (14 (14 to 17) Gospel.
17) of his Gospel.
During this erowning
erowning speech,
speeeh,Jesus
Jesusannounces
snnouneesthat thst He will leave
will leave
His last
last instructions
instructionsand gives them
and gives them His lastlast spiritual testament.
spiritual testament.
There
There is no no trace
trace of this
this in the
the other Gospels.The
other Gospels. The same process
sameprocess
can
can work the the other
other way
way however;
however; Matthew,
Matthew, Luke Luke and and Mark all all
relate
relateJesus's prayer in the
Jesus'sprayer the Garden
Gardenof Gethsemane,
Gethsemane, but John does
John does
not
not mention
mentionit.

TOHI\FSGOSPEL
JOHNS G;OSPELDOES DOES NOT NOjr DESCRIBE
DESCNIBE THE THE
INSTITA?ION OF THE
INSTITUTION EACHARIST.
THE EUCHARIST.
The
The most
mostimportant
important fact
fact that
that strikes the reader
strikesthe readerof the Passion
the Passion
in John's Gospel
in John's Gospel is
is that
that he
he makes
makes absolutely
absolutely no
no reference
reference to the
to the
institution of
institution of thethe Eucharist
Eucharist during
during the
the Last
Last Supper
Supper of
of Jesus
Jesus
with
with His
His Apostles.
Apostles.
There
There isis not
not aa single
single Christian
Christian who who does know the
not know
doesnot icon-
the icon-
ography of the Last Supper,
ography of the Last Supper, where
where Jesus
Jesus is
is for
for the
the last
last time
time
seated among
seatedamongHis His Apostles
Apostles at
at table.
table. The
The world's
world's greatest
greatest painters
painters
have
havealways
alwaysrepresented
representedthis
this final gathering with
final gathering sitting
John sitting
with John
near Jesus, John
near Jesus,John whom whom we
we are
are accustomed
accustomed to
to considering
considering as the
asthe
author of the Gospel
author of the Gospel bearing
bearing fhat
fuat name,
name.
However
Howeverastonishing
astonishingitit may
may appear
appearto rnany,the
to many, majority of
the majority of
specialists do not consider
specialistsdo not considerJohn John to
to have
have been
been the
the author
author of
of the
the
 90
98 TIlE
IIIE BmLE,
EIBLF"THE
TrrE QUR'AN
QUR'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCTENCE

fourth Gospel,
fourth bospel,nor nor does
doesthe the latter
latter mention
mention the the institution
institution of of the
the
Eucharist. The
Eucharist. The consecrationconsecrationof of thethe bread
bread andand wine,
wine, which
which be- be-
comethe
come the body
body and and blood
blood of of Jesus,
Jesus,is is the
the most
most essential
essentialact act of
of
the Christian
the Christian liturgy.
liturgy. The
The other other evangelists
evsngelists referrefer to to it,
it, even
even if if
they do
they doso soinin differing
differing terms,
terms, as a$we we have
have noted
noted above.
above.John John does
does
noLsay
not anything about
say anything about it.
it. The
The fourfour evangelists'
evangelists'descriptions
descriptionshave have
only two
only two single points in
single points in common:
common: the the prediction
prediction of peter's de-
of Peter's de-
nial and
nial and of of the
the betrayal
betrayal by by oneoneof of the
the Apostles
Aposiles (Judas
(Judas Iscariot
Iscariot is is
only actualIy
only actually namednamed in Matthew and
in Matthew and John).
John). John's
John's description
description
is the
is the only
only oneone which
which refers
refers to to Jesus
Jesus washing
washing his his disciples'
disciples'
feet at the beginning
feet at the beginning of of the
the meal.
meal.
How can
How can this
this omission
omission in in John's
John's Gospel
Gospel be be explained?
explained?
rf one
If one reasons
reasonsobjectively,
objectively, the the hypothesis
hypothesis that springssprings immedi-
ately to mind (always
ately (always supposing
supposing the story story asas told by the other other
three evangelists is exact) is that aa passage passage of John's Gospel Gospel
relatitg the said
relating said episode
episode was was lost.
lost. This is not the conclusion conclusion
arrived at by Christian
arrived Christian commentators.
Let us us now examine
examine some some of the positions positions they have have adopted.
adopted.
In his Little Di,cti,onara0/
Little Dictionary of the New Neus Testament
Testament (Petit (petit Dic-Dic-
tionnaire du Nouveau
tionnaire Nouveau Testament) A. Tricot Tricot makes
makes the following
following
entry under Last
entry Last Supper
Supper (Cime):(C6ne) : "Last.,Last meal Jesus partook
Jesus partook of of
with
with the Twelve Disciples Disciples during
during which he institutedinstituted the Euchar-
ist. It
It is described
described in in the synoptic
Synoptic Gospers"Gospels" (references
(references to Matth- Matth-
ew, Mark
Mark and Luke). Luke). ,.. ".... . and the fourthfourth Gospel
Gospel gives us further further
details" (references
details" (references to John). John). In In his entry
entry on the Eucharist
Eucharist
(Eueharistie),
(Eucharistie), the same same author
author writes following: ,,The
writes the fottowing: "The insti-
insti-
tution
tution of of the Eueharist
Eucharist is briefly briefly related in in the first
first three Gos- Gos-
pels:
pels: itit was an extremely important part
extremely important part ofof the Apostolic system
of
of religious
religious instruction.
instruction. saint Saint John John hashas added
added an indispensable
indispensable
complement
complement to to these
these brief
brief descriptions
descriptions in in his
his account
account oi of Jesus's
Jesus's
speech
speech on on the
the bread
bread of life (6,
of life (6, 82-68)."
32-58)." The The commentator
commentator conse- conse-
quently
quently fails
fails toto mention
mention that that JohnJohn does
does notnot describe
describe Jesus's
Jesus's in- in-
titution
titution of of the
the Eucharist.
Eucharist. The The alrthor
apthor speaks
speaks of of .complementary
'complementary
details',
details', butbut they
they are are not
not complementary
complementary to to the
the inJtitution
institution of of
the Eucharist (he
the Eucharist (he basically
basically describes
describes the the ceremony
ceremony of of the
the wash-
wash-
ing
ing ofof the
the Apostles'
Apostles' feet).
feet). The The commentator
commentator speaks speaks of the ,bread
of the 'bread
of
of life',
life', but
but itit isis Jesus's reference (quite
Jesus's reference (quite separate
separate from from thethe Last
Last
Suppe)
Suppt!r) to to Godls daily gift
God's daily gift of of manua
manna in in the
the wilderness
wilderness at at the
the
time
time of of the
the Jews'
Jews' exodus
exodus led led byby Moses.
Moses. John
John isis thethe only
only oneone of of
COfllrtulidionl
Crn/r'rudlfctfrlnttmtIlmprobcJbililie,
odlmpohabilitir;t the Derctiptiotu
in rtu
in De,cri"Uoru 97
91

the evangelists
the evangelists who
who records
records this
this allusion.
allusion. In
In the following pass-
the following pass-
of his
age of his Gospel,
Gospel, John
John does,
does, of mention Jesus's reference
of course, mention
the Eucharist
to the
to Eucharist in
in the
the form
form of digression on the bread, but
of sa digression but no
other evangelist speaks
other speaks ofof this
this episode.
episode.
is surprised
One is surprised therefore
therefore both
both byby John's what the
John's silence on what the
other three evangelists
other evangelists relate and their silence on what, accord-
their silence accord-
ing Jesus is said to have predicted.
ing to John, Jesus predicted.
commentators of
The commentetors Ecumenical Translation
of the Eunnenical Translation of of the Bible,
Testament, do actually acknowledge
New Teetament, acknowledge this omission in
this omission in John's
Gospel. This
Gospel. This is the explanation they come come up with account for
with to account for
fact that
the fgct that the description of of the institution
institution of of the Eucharist
Eucharist
missing: "fn
is missing: general, John is not very interested in the tradi-
HIn general, tradi-
tions sndand institutions
institutions of bygone Israel. This may have
of a bygone have dis-
suaded
suaded him him from establishment of the Eucharist
from showing the establishment Eucharist in
Passover liturgy".
the Possover Are we seriously to believe
liturglp". Are believe thatthat itit was a
laek of
lack of interest in the Jewish Passover
Passover liturgyliturgy that led led John not
to describe
deseribe the institution
institution of the most fundamental act in the
Ii turgy of the new religion?
liturgy religion ?
The experts in .exegesis
-exegesis are so so embarrassed
embarrassed by the problem prohlem
that
thst theologians
theologians rack theirtheir brains to find prefigurations or equiv- equiv-
alents
alents of the Eucharist
Eucharist in episodes
episodes of Jesus'sJesus's life reeorded by
life recorded
John.
John. O. O. Culmann for example,
example, in his book, book, The
The New
I:'leu Testament
Testament
(Lc Nouveau
(Le Nouveau Testament), states states that "the changing of the water
into wine and the feeding feeding of the five thousand prefigure the
five thousand the
sacrament
sacrament of the Last Supper Supper (the(the'Eucharist')".
'Eucharist')". It It is to be re-
be re-
membered that the water was
membered was changed
changed into wine because the
because the
latter
latter had
had failed at aa wedding in Cana. Cana. (This was was Jesus's
Jesus's first
miracle,
miracle, described
described by John in chapter 2, 2, 1-12.
1-12. He is the the only
evangelist to do
evangelist do so).
so). In the
the case
caseof of the
the feeding
feeding ofof the
the five thou-
five thou-
sand,
sand, this was wss the number
number of peoBlewho
of people who were
were fedfed on on 55 barley
loaves
loavesthat
that were
were miraculously
miraculously multiplied.
multiplied. When When describing
describing thesethese
events,
events, John
John makes
makes no no special
special comment,
comment, and and the parallel exists
the parallel exists
only
only inin the
the mind
mind of of this
this expert
expert in in exegesis.
exegesis.One One can can no more
no more
understand the
understand the reasoning
reasoning behind
behind the parallel he
the parallel he draws
draws than his
than his
view
view that
thst the
the curing
curing ofof aa paralized
paralized man man and and of
of aa man blind
born blind
man born
'predict the
'predict 'the water from
issuing from
blood issuing
the baptism'
baptism' andand that
that 'the water and and blood
Jesus's side after
Jegus'gside after his his d~th
death unite
unite in
in aa single
single fact'
fact' a
a reference
reference to
to
both baptism and the Eucharist.
both baptism and the Eucharist.
 98
98 THE
THE BmLE,
BIBLF.'THE
THE QUR·AN
QUn ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCTENCE

Another parallel drawn

Another parallel drawn by by the
the same
same expert
expert in
in exegesis
exegesis con-con-
concerning the
concerning the Eucharist quoted by
Eueharist isis quoted by Father Roguet in
Father Roguet in his
his book
book
Initintion to
Initiation to the
the Gospel (Initiation ai l'Evangile).
Gospel (Initiation ,,Sometheo-
I'Evangile). "Some theo-
logians, such
logians, such as as Oscar
osear Culmann,
Culmann, see see in the description of
in the description of the
the
washing of
washing of the
the feet
feet before
before the
the Last
Last Supper
Supper aa symbolical
symbolical equiva-
equiva-
lent to
lent to the
the institution
institution ofof the
the Eucharist
Eucharist ...". . ."
It is
It is difficult
difficult to
to see
seethe
the cogency
cogency of of all
all the
the parallels
parallels that
that com-
com-
mentators have
mentators have invented
invented to to help
help people accept more readily the
people accept more readily the
most disconcerting
most disconcerting omission
omission in in John's
John's Gospel.
Gospel.

APPEANAIVCES OF
APPEARANCES OF JESUS
JESU$ RAISED
ftAISED FROM
FnoM THE
THE DEAD.
DEILD.
A prime example
A prime example of of imagination
imagination at work in aa description has has
already been
already given in the portrayal
been given portrayal of the abnormal phenomena phenomena
said to
said to have
have accompanied
aecompaniedJesus's
Jesus's death
death given in Matthew's
Matfhew's Gos- Gos-
pel. The
pel. The events
events that followed the Resurrection provided material material
contradictory and
for contradictory and even
even absurd descriptions
descriptions on the part part of all
evangelists.
the evangelists.
Boguet in his Initiation
Father Roguet Ini.tiati,on to the Gospel (Initiation ea
Gospel (Initiation
I'Evangile), page page 182, provides examples
182, provides exampres of the confusion,
confusion, dis- dis-
and contradiction reigning in these
order and these writings:
writings:
"The list of
"The list of women
women who came came to the tomb is not exacfly exactly the the
same in
same in each
each of of the three Synoptic Gospels. Gospels. In In John onlyonly one
woman came: Mary Mary Megdalene.
M&gdalene. She speakb speak'S in in the plural
plural how-
how-
ever,
ever, asas ifif she accompanied: 'we
she were accompanied: 'we do not know where they
have laid him.'
him.' InIn Matthew
Matthew the Angel Angel predicts to the women,that
women. that
they
they will
will seesee Jesus
Jesus inin Galilee.
Galilee. A A few
few moments
moments laterlater however,
however,
Jesus joins
Jesus joins them beside beside the
the tomb.
tomb. Luke Luke probably
probably sensed
sensed thisthis
difficulty and altered the the source
source aa litile.
little. The
The Angel says: ,.Re-
Angel says: "Re-
member how how he told you,
he told you, while
while he he was
was still
still in Galilee .. . .'.' rn
in Galilee In
faet,
fact, Luke
Luke onlyonly actually
actually refers
refers toto three
three appearances
appearances ...."-"John
. ."-..Jsfun
plaees
places twotwo appearances
appearances at at an
an interval
interval of of one
one week
week inin the
the upper
upper
room
room atat Jerusalem
Jerusalem and and the
the third
third beside
beside thethe lake,
lake, inin Galilee
Galilee there-
there-
fore. Matthew
fore. Matthew recordsrecords only
only one
one appearance
appearance in in Galilee.,'
Galilee." The The
commentator
commentator excludesexcludes from
from this
this examination
examination the the last
last section
section of of
Mark's Gospel concerning
Mark's Gospel concerning the the eppearances
appearances because because he he believes
believes
this 'probably
this was
was 'probably written written by by another
another hand'.
hand'.
AII
All these
these facts
facts contradict
contradict thethe mention
mention bf ·of J"*u*'s
Jesus's appearances,
appearances,
contained
contained in in Paul's
Paul's First
First Letter
Letter to to the
the corinthians
Corinthians (18, (15, b-?),
5-7), toto
 the Dercfiptiow gg
99
Contradictiona atd
Confiadictiont Imptobabilitiecinira the
tJntllmprobtJbilitie, De,cnptioru

more than
more than five five hundred
hundred people people at once, to
at once, James, to
to James, all the
to all the
Apostles and'
Apostles and, of ofcourse,
course, to to Paul
Paul himself.
himself.
Afterthis,
After this, ititisis surprising
surprising therefore
therefore to find that
to find Father Roguet
that Father Roguet
stigmatizes, in in the
the samesame book, book, the 'grandiloquent
the 'grandiloquent and and puerile
puerile
stiematizes,
phantasms of
phantasms of certain
certain Apocrypha'
Apocrypha' when talking of
when talking the Besurrec-
of the Resurrec-
tion. Surely
iion. Surely these terms are
these terms are perfeotly appropriate to
perfectly appropriate to Matthew
Matthew
and Paul
and Paul themselves:
themselves: they they areare indeed
indeed in in complete contradiction
complete contradiction
with the
with the other
other Apostles
Apostles on on the
the subiect
subject of of the appearances of
the appearances of
Jesus raised
Jesus raised from from thethe dead.
dead.
Apart from
Apart from this,
this, there
there is contradiction between
is aa contradiction between Luke'sLuke's de- de-
scription, in
seription, in the
the Acts
Acts of of the
the Apostles,
Apostles, of Jesus's appearance to
of Jesus's appearance to
paui
Paul andand what what PaulPaul himself
himself suecinctly
succinctly tells tells usus ofof it. has led
This has
it. This led
Father Kannengiesser
Father Kannengiesser in in his
his book, Faith in
book, Faith in thetft.e Resuryection,
Resurrection,
Resurrection
Resu.ITecti,onof of Faith
Faittt, (Foi Resurrection, R{surrection
(Foi en la R6surrection, Resurrection
de la
de la Foi)
Foi),, 1974, stress that
Lg'l4, to stress that Paul, who was 'the sole eyewitness
'the sole eyewitness
of Christ's
of Christ's resurrection, whose whose voice comes directly to us from
comes directly from
his writings',
his writings!, never speaks speaks of of his personal encounter with
personal encounter with Him
Him
Who
Who was raised from from the dead-'... except for
dead-'. . . except for three extremely
discreet
discreet references
references ...'-'he. . .'-'[s refrains
refrains moreover from deseribing
from describing
it.'
it.'
The contradiction
eontradiction between between Paul, who was was the sole eyewitness
sole eyewitness
but
but is dubious,
dubious, and the Gospels Gospelsis quite obvious. obvious.
O.
O. Culmann
Culmsnn in his book, book, TheThe New TestamentTestament (Le (Le Nouveau
Nouveau
Testament),
Testament), notes notes the
the contradictions between between Luke and Matthew'
and Matthew.
The
The first
first situates
situstes Jesus's appearances in
Jesus's appearances in Judea,
Judea, the the second
second in in
Galilee.
Galilee.
One
One shouldshould also also remember
remember the the Luke-John contradiction'
Luke-John contradiction.
John
John (21, (21, 1-14)
1-14) relates
relates an an episode
episodein in which
which Jesus Jesus raised from
raised from
the
the dead
dead appears
Bppears to to thethe fishermen
fishermen besidebeside the the Sea of Tiberias;
$ea of Tiberias;
they
they subsequently
subsequently catch catch so so many
many fish fish that
that they they are unable to
are unable to
bring
bring them them all all in.
in. This
This is is nothing
nothing other
other thanthan aa repetition of
repetition of the the
miracle
miracle catch catch of of fish
fish episode
episodewhichwhich took place at
took place the same
at the spot
same spot
and
and waswas alsoalsodescribed
describedby by Luke (6, 1-11)' as
Luke (5,1-11), asan an event of Jesus's
event of Jesus's
life.
life.
When
When talkingtalking of of these
these appearances,
appearances, Father Father Roguet assures
Roguet assures
us 'their and disordered
us in in hishis book
book thatthst 'their disjointed,
disjointed, blurred
blurred and disordered
character facts gogo to show
to show
character inspiresinspires confidence'
confidence'because becauseall all these
thesefacts

.No other
1.1. 'No other New
New Testament
Testament author
author can
can claim
claim that
that distil.dion', he notes.
distirrction" he notes'
 l0o
100 THE
THE BIBLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'A
QUR'AN AND SCIEN
N AND SCTENCE
CE
that there
there was
was no
no conniv ance betwee
connivance between n the
the evange
evangelists',
lists 1 , other-
wise
wise they would
would definit ely have
definitely have co-ord
co-ordinated
inated their stories
stories. . This
is indeed
indeed aa strang
strangee line of argum ent. In actual
argument. actual fact,
fact, they could
could
all have
have record
recorded,
ed, with comple te sinceri
comprete ty, traditi
sincerity, ons of the
tr.aditions the com-
com-
muniti es which
munities which (unkno
(unknownwn to them)
them) an all contain
containeded elemen
elements ts of
fantasy
fantasy.. This hypoth esis in unavoi
hypothesis dable when
unavoidable when oneone is faced
faced with
so
so many contra diction s and
contradictions and improb abilitie s in the descrip
improbabilities descriptiontion of
of events
events..

ASC^ENSIOil
ASCE NSION OF OF JESUS
tEsus
Contra diction s are presen
contradictions presentt until the very end end of the descrip
descrip- -
tions becaus
because e neithe
neitherr John nor Matthe
Matthew w refer to Jesus's
Jesus's Ascen-
Ascen-
sion.
sion. Mark
Mark and Luke are the only onry one ""i"" of it.
one to speak
speak
- For Mark (16,
(16, 19), Jesus
Jesus was 'taken
was'tak.n up into heavenheaven, , and
and sat
down at the right risht hand of God' God' withou
withoutt any precise
p"".ise date being
given in relatio
relationn to His Resurr
Resurrection.
ection. It "ny howev
rt must however er bebe noted
noted
that the final passag passage e of Mark
Mark contai ning this senten
containing sentencece is, for
'invented' for
Father
Father Rogue
Roguet, t, an 'inven ted' text, althou
althoug:hgh for
for the Churc
churchh it it is
canoni
csnonic c r!
There remain
remainss Luke, the only onry evange
evangeristlist to provid
providee an undis-
puted text of the Ascens
puted Ascension
ion episod
episode e iZl,
(24, 51): ,he parted from
Of ), 'he from
them2
them 2
and was carried up into heaven heaven'. '. The
Tire evange
evangeristlist places
praces the
event at the end of the descrip description
tion of the Resurr ection and ap-
Resurrection
pearance
pearan ce to the eleven
eleven Apostl es: the details of the Gospel
Aposiles: Gospel de- de_
scripti
scriptionon imply
imply that
that the Ascens
Ascension
ion took place
place on the day of the
Resurr
Resurrection.
ection . In In the Acts of the ApostlAposfles,es, Luke (whom every- every_
body believe
believes s to be
be their
their author
author)) describ
describes es in chapte
chapterr 1,l, 3
B Jesus's
Jesug,s
appear
appearanceance to the ApostlApostles,
es, betwee
between n the Passion
Passio n and the Ascen- Ascen-
sion,
sion, in the follow
following
ing terms:
"To
"To them he presented
presen ted himself
himsel f alive after
after his passion
passion by many
proofs,
proofs, appear
appearing ing to them during
during forty days, and speaki
forty days, ,p"rkingng of
of the
kingdo
lu'ngdom m of of God." "rrd
The placing
placin g of of the Christ ian festiva
christian festivarl of Ascension at forty
of the Ascension
. forty
days after
after Easter,
Easter , the Festival
Festiv al of
of the Resurrection,
Resurr ection , originates
origin ates
from
from this
this passage
pass,age inin the Acts
Act$ of
of the Apostles.
Apostles. The date is there- there-
1. It is dificult
l. It difficult to s€e
see how
bow there
there could have been!
2.
?' i.e.
i'e. the eleVel:l
eleverr Apostle s; Judos,
Aposiles; J udos, the twerfth,
twelfth , ras
was already
already dead.
dead.
Cffitiota ondrmrnob&ikifrcrln t+c Delr,ri?front l0r
101

fore set
fore set inin contradiction
contradiction to to Luke's
Luke's Gospel: none of
Gospel: none the other
of the other
Gospel texts say anything to justify
Gospel texts say anything to iustify this this in
in a
a difrerent
different w&y'
way.
The Christian
The Christian who who isis awere
aware of of this
this situation highly dis-
situation isis highly dis-
concerted by
concerted the obviousness
by the obviousness of of the contradiction. The Eeurn'enF
the contradiction. The Ecumen-
ical Translation
ieal Translation of of the
the Bib|e, acknowledges the
Testament, ackno'wledges
Bible, New Testa'ment, the
facts but
fects but does
does not
not expand
expand on on the
the contradiction. itself to
limits itself
contradiction. ItIt limits to
noting the
noting the relevsnce
relevance thethe forty
forty days may have
days may had to
have had to Jesus's
Jesus's
mission.
miggion.
Commentators wishing
commentators wishing to to explain everything and
explain everything reconcile the
and reconcile the
irreconciliable provide
irreconciliable provide some interpretations on
strange interpretations
some strange on this
this
subject.
subject.
Synopsis of
The Sgnopsis
The of the Forr
Four Gospels
Gospels edited
edited inin 19?2
1972 bv the Bibli'
by the Bibli·
cal School
cal School of
of Jerusalem (vol. 2, page
page 451)
461) contains, for
for example,
example,
some very
some very strange
strange commentaries.
The very
The very word word 'Ascension'
'Ascension' is criticized follows: "In
criticized as follows: "In fact
fact
there
there was no ascension
ascension in
in the actual physieal
physical sense
sense because
because God
God
is no more 'on
'on high' than he is 'below'
'below'" (sic).
(sic). It
It is difficult
difficult to
is no more high' "
grasp
grgsp the sense sense of of this comment beeause because oneone wonders how Luke Luke
could
eould otherwise
otherwise have have expressed
expressed himself.
'literary
sees as 'literary
Elsewhere,
Elsewhere, the author of this commentary sees
artifice'
artiftce' in the fact that "in "in the Acts, the Ascension Ascension is said said to
'artifice'
have taken
have taken place
place forty
forty days
days after
after the resurrection";
resurrection" ; this 'artifice'
is
is "intended Jesus's ap·ap-
"intended to stress stress the notion that the the period of Jesus's
pearances on
Ilearances on earth is earth is at
at an
an end".
end". He
He adds
adds however,
however, in relation to
the fact that in Luke's
the fact that in Luke's Gospel, "the Gospel, "the event
event is
is situated
situated during
during the
the
evening does not put
not put
evening of of Easter
Easter Sunday,
Sunday, because becausethe the evangelist
evangelist does
any breaks between the
the various
various episodes
episodes recorded
recorded following
following the
the
any breaks between
discovery of
discovery of the emptythe empty tomb
tomb on
on the
the morning
morning of
of the
the resurrec-
resurrec·
tion
tion ..."-"...
. . ."-... , . surely
ru"Lly this this isis also
also aa literary
literary artifice, intended
artifice, intended
to allow a certain
to allow a certain lapse lapse of
of time
time before
before the
the appearance
appearance of Jesus
of Jesus
raised from the
raised from the dead." dead." (sic)
(sic)
The
The feeling
feeling of of embarrassment
embarrassmentthat that surrounds
surrounds these interpreta-
theseinterpreta.
tions is even more obvious
tions is even more obvious in Father in Father Roguet's
Roguet's book'
book. He
He discerns
discerns
not
not one,
one,but but two
two Ascensions!
Ascensions!
"Whereas from
from Jesus's
Jesus'spoint point of of view
view the
the Ascension coincides
Ascensioncoincides
"Whereas
with disciples'point of view itit does
point of view does
with the the Resurrection,
Resurrection'from from the the disciples'
not take place until Jesus ceases definitely to
to present
present Himself
Himself to
to
not take place until Jesus ceasesdefinitely
them, so that the Spirit may be given
given to
to them
them and
and the
the period
period
them, so that the spirit may be
ofof the
the Church
Church may may begin."
begin."
 rO2
102 THE BmLE,
THE BIBLE,THE
TIIE QUR'AN
QUR'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

To those
To thosereaders
readerswhowho are
are not quite able
not quite abletoto grasp
grasp thethe theological
theological
subtlety of
subtlety of his
his argument (which ha.s
argument (which ha.sabsolutely
absolutely no no Scriptural
Scriptural
basiswhatsoever),
basis whatsoever), the the author
author issues
issuesthethe following
following general
general warn-
warn-
ing, which
ing, which is is aa model
model of
of apologetical
apologetical verbiage:
verbiage:
"Here, as
"Here, as in in many
many similar
similar cases,
cases,the
the problem
probrem only only appears
appears
insuperable if
insuperable if one
onetakes
takes Biblical
Biblical statements
statements literally,
riterally, and
and forgets
forgets
their religious
their religious significance.
significance.It It is
is not
not aa matter
matter of of breaking
breaking down
down
the factual
the faetual reality
reality into
into aa symbolism
syrnbolism whichwhich is inconsistent, but
is inconsistent, but
rather of
rather of looking
looking forfor the
the theological
theological intentions
intentions of of those
those reveal-
reveal-
ing these
ing these mysteries
mysteries to to us
us by providing us
by providing us with
with facts
facts we
we can
can
apprehend with
apprehend with ourour senses
sensesandand signs
signs appropriate
appropriate to to our
our incar-
incar-
nate spirit."
nate spirit."

JESUS'S
JESUS'S LAST
LAST DIALOGUES.
DIALOGUES.
THE PARACLETE
THE PARACLETE OF JOHNS
IOHIVS GOSPEL.
John is the only evangelist to report the episode episode of the last last
dialogue with
dialogue with the Apostles.
Aposfles. It It takes place
place at the end end of of the
the
supper and before Jesus's
Last Supper Jesus's arrest. It It ends
ends in a very long long
speech: four chapters
speech: chapters in John's
John's Gospel
Gospel (14 to 17) l?) are
are devoted
devoted
to
to this
this narration
narration which is not mentioned
mentioned anywhere in the other other
Gospels.
Gospels. These
These chapters of of John nevertheless
nevertheless deal
deal with
with questions
questions
of prime
of prime importance and fundamental significance to the future future
outlook.
outlook. They are set out with with ail
all the grandeur
grandeur and solemnity
solemnity
that
that characterizes
characterizes the farewell
farewell scene
scene between
between the Master
Master and and
His
His disciples.
discipIes.
This
This very
very touching farewell scene scene whieh
which contains Jesus's
Jesus's spir-
spir-
itual
itual testament,
testament, is is entirely
entirely absent
absent from
from Matthew,
Matthew, Mark
Mark and Luke.
Luke.
How
How cancan the
the absence
absence of of this
this description
description be be explained
explained?? one
One might
might
ask
ask the
the followins:
following: did did the
the text
text initiaily
initially exist
exist in
in the
the first
first three
three
Gospels?
Gospels? was Was itit subsequenily
subsequently suppressed?
suppressed? why? Why? ItIt must
must be be
stated
stated immediately
immediately that that no
no answer
answer cancan bebe found;
found; thethe mystery
mystery
surrounding
surrounding this huge gap
this huge gap inin the
the narrations
narrations of of the
the first
first three
three
evangelists
evangelists remains
remains as as obscure
obscure as as ever.
ever.
The
The dominating
dominating feature
feature ofof this
this narration-seen
narration-seen in in the
the crown-
crown-
ing
ing speech-is
speech-is the the view
view of
of man's
man's future
future that
that Jesus
Jesus describes,
describes, HisHis
care
care inin addressing
addressing His His disciples, and through
disciples, and through them
them the
the whole
whole of of
humanity, Hirs recommendations
humanity, His recommendations and and commandments
commandments and and His His
concern
concern to to spe:ify the guide
spe~ify the guide whom
whom man man must
must follow
follow after
after His
His de-
de-
 and Improb tlrv De,cnp
in the
abilities in tions
Derctiptiow r03
103
Cont1'a dictiom atd
confidiction lmptobabilities

partur e. The
perture. text of
The text John's Gospel is the
of John's the o$y only one to design ate
to desigRate
him **
iri* as Parakl etos in
Parakletos in Greek, which in
Greek, which Englis
in English h has becom
become e 'Para-
'Para-
following are the
clete'. The following the essential passages:
essential passag es:
,,If
"If you love me, you will keep my
will keep commandments. And
my commandments. And II will will
and he will will give you anothe
another r Paracl
Paraclete."ete." (14'
(14,
pray t-t
pray Father , *rrd
the* r"*t*r,
15-16)
16-16)
What does
What does 'Paraclete'
'Parac lete' mean? The presen presentt text of of John's Gos- Gos-
explai ns its
pel explains its meaning follow
meani ng as follows: s:
.,But Paracl ete, the Holy
"But the Paraclete, Spirit, whom the Father
Holy spirit, Fathe r willwill send
send
will teach you all things
things, , and bring
bring to your
your re-
in my
in name, he will
my name,
memb rance all that
*"*Lt*nce have said to you"
that I have you" (14' 26).
(14, 26)'
witnes s to me" (15'
will bear witness
"he will (15, 26) .'
.,it
"it is to youryour advan
advantage that II go away, for
tage that for ifif II do do not go
away, the Paraclete will not come
Paracl ete will come tJ to you; but if
if I
I go,
go, I
I will send
will send
you. And when he comes, comes, he he will convin
will convince ce the world of sin
him to you.
and of righteo
tight"ousness judgment
usness and of judgm ent ..." ' ' '" (16'
(16, 7-8).
7-8) '

"When the Spirit

"When Spirit of truth comes,
truth comes' he will guide you into all the
will
will not speak on his own author
authority,ity, but whatewhatever ver
truth; for he will
truth; speak
speak, and
wiit speak, he will
will declare
declare to you the things that
that
he hears he will
are to come.come. He will glorify me
will glorify me ...". . '" (16, 13-14).'
(16' 13-14)
(It must be noted that
(It that the passagpassages es in John, chapte chapters rs 14-17,
L4-t7,
which have have not beenbeen cited here, in no
cited here, no way alter the genera general l mean-
mean-
ing of thesethese quotat ions).
quotations).
on a cursor
On a cursory y readin
reading, text which identif
g, the text identifies Greek word
ies the Greek
,paraclete'wiih
lete' with the Holy Spirit Spirit is unlike
unlikely attractt
ly to attrac much
much atten-
atten-
'Parac
ally true when when the subtitl subtitleses of the text are
are
tion. This is especi especially
genera
generally used for
lly used ior transla tions and the termin
ttanslations comme
ology commenta-
terminology nta-
[o"* employ
tors .*!loy in works for mass
mass public ation
publication direct the reader to-
wards the the meani
meaning these passag
ng in these p"**"g"* es that an exemp exemplary lary ortho-
doxy would like them to have. Should one
have. Should have the slighte
one have slightest st diffi-
culty in compr compilt ehension, there there are are many explan ations available,
explanations available'
""*ion, Tricot in his Little Littte Dictio
DietionarAnary of the the
such as
such as those ;i".; by A. Tricot
those given
(Petii Dictio
ent (Petit nnaire du
Dictionnaire du Nouve
Nouveau Testament) to
au Testam ent)
New Testam
New Testa,meit
enligh ten one on this subjec
one on subject. t. In his entry on on the Paracl
Paraclete ete this
enlighten
comm writes the
entato r writes
commentator the follow ing:
following:
,,This name from the
ted from Greek is
the Greek only used
is only used in
"This name or or title transla
translated
ent by John: he usesit
he uses four times
it four in
in his account
accoun t
the New
the New Testam
Testament
 104
104 THEBmLE
THE BIBLE,
, THE
THEQUR'A
QUrAN ANDSCIEN
N AND SCIENCE
CE

of
of Jesus's
Jesus'sspeech
speechafterafter the
the Last
Last Suppe
supper' (14,16
r1 (14, 16 and
and 26;
26; 15,lE, 26;
26;
16,
l8' 7)
?) and
snd once
oncein in his
his First
First Letter
L,etter(2,(2, 1).
L). In John's
John'sGospel
Gospelthethe
word
wgrd is is applie
applied d toto the
the Holy
Holy Spirit
spirit;; inin the
the Letter
Letter it refers
reiers to
Christ 'Paraelete'
christ.. 'Parac lete' waswas aa term
term in curren
currentt usage
usageamong
among the
the Hel-
Hel-
-,defender,
lenist
lenist Jews,
Jews,First
First centur
century y A.D.,
A.D",meani
meaning ,intereessor,,
ng 'interc essor', 'defen der'
(. . . )) Jesus
(... predicts
Jesuspredic ts that
that thethe Spirit
spirit will
witt bebe sent
sent byby the
the Father
Father
and
and Son.
son. Its
rts missio
mission n will be be to
to take
take the placeof the
the place the Son
son in thethe
role he
role playedduring
he played during hishis mortal
mortal life as a* helperhelper for the the benefit
benefit
of his
of his discipl
disciples.
es. TheThe Spirit will interve
intervene"rne and
and act
act as
as aa substit
substitute
ute
for Christ
for christ,, adopti
adopting ng the
the role paracrete
rore of Paracl ete or omnip omnipotent
otent inter-
cessor
ceggor,tt."
This comm
commentary
entary therefo
therefore re makes
makes thethe Holy
Hory Spirit
spirit into the ulti-
mate guide of man
mste guide man after Jesus's
Jegus'sdepart ure. How does
departure. does itit square
square
with John's
John's text?
It
It is aa necess
necessary ary questio
question n becaus
because e a pr"iori
pTi01'i it seems
seemsstrang
strange e to
ascribe
ascribe the the last paragr
paragraphaph quoted
quoted above
above to the Holy Spirit spirit: :
"for
"for hehe will
wilt not speak
speak on on his own author authority,ity, but whatev
rvhatever er he
he
hears he
hears he will speak,
speak,and and hehe will declare
declare to you vou the
ilre things that are
to come."
come." It rt seems
seems inconc
inconceivabre
eivable that one on! could
could ascribe
ascribe to the
Holy Spirit
spirit the ability
a-birityto speak
speak and
and declare
decrarewhatev
whatever er he hears
hears ...
...
Logic deman
demands ds that this questio
question n be
be raised,
raised, but to my knowleknowledge,dge,
it is
it is not usually
usually the subjecsubjectt of comm
commentaries.
entaries.
To gain an exact exact idea
idea of the proble
problem,m, oneone has
has to go back
back to the
basic Greek
basic Greek text. This is especia especiarry
lly impor
importanttant because
because John is
universally
univer sally recogn
recognizedized to havehave writte
writtenn in Greek
Greek instead
instead of of an_
an-
other langua
language.ge. The GreekGreek text consul
consulted
ted was the NNoattm ovum Testa-
Testa-
mentum
mentu m Graece
Graecez, 2
•

Any seriou
Any serious s textua
textuall criticis
criticism m begins
begins withwith a search
search for
for varia-
tions. Here
tions. Here it it would
would seem seem that in all the known manuscripts manus cripts of of
John's Gospel
John's Gospel, , the only
onry variation
variati on rikery
likely to change
change the meaning
meani ng
of the senten
senteneece is in pessage
passag e 14,14, 26
26 of famous palimpsest
of the famous Palimp sest
version written
version writte n in Syriac:
syriac'.l. Here it it is not the Holy spirit Spirit that
that is
mentioned,
mentio ned, but quite quite simply the spirit. Spirit. Did ttre the scriue
scribe merely
lJ" In fact,
1. f".tJ"rfor John
John itit was during
during the Last
Last supper
Supper itserf
itself that
that Jesus
Jesus
delivered
delivere d the long epeech
speech that mention s the paraclete.
that mentions Paracle te.
2. Nestle and Aland. pub.
2' Nestld Pub. united
United Bibles
Bibles societies,
Societie s, London,
London, lg?r.
1971.
3.
3. This
This manuacript
manusc ript was written
written in the Fourttr
Fourth oror ritth
Fifth century
century A.D.
A.D. ItIt
was discovered
discove red in 1gl2
1812 on Mount sinai
Sinai by Agnes s.-Lewis
S.-Lewi s and
and is
is so
so
named
named because
because the first
first text
text had been
been cove.*J
covered tyby aa later
later one
one which,
which,
when obliterated,
oblitera ted, revealed
revealed the original.
original .
Contradictiona and Improbabilities in tile Deacriptiotll
t atdhmptobobilitbtlntlnDarc'rlptionr ros
105
conttdtrctiot

missout
miss outaa\rord
wordor, or,knowing
knowingfull wellthat
fullwell thatthe texthe
thetext hewaswasto tocopy
copy
claimed to
claimed to make
make the the HolyHolySpiritSpirit hear
hear and speak, did he
and speak, did he perhaps perhaps
lack the
lack the audacity
audacity to to write something thst
write something that seemed absurd to
seemed absurd to him?
him?
Apart from
.lp"* from this this observation
observation there there isis little need to labour the
little need to labour the
other variations,
ot-h*" variations, they they &re are grammatical
grammatical and and do do not change the
not change the
general meaning.
general meaning. The The impor'tant
important thing thing is what has
that what
is that has been
been
demonstrated here
Iemonstrated here with
with regard
regard to to the meaning of the verbs
exact meening
the exast of the verbs
.to
'to hesr'
hear' and and 'to'to speak'
speak' shouldshould applyapply to other manuscripts
the other
all the
to all manuscripts
of John's
of John's Gospel,
Gospel, as as is is indeed
indeed the the case.
case.
'ahou6'
The verb
The verb 'to'to hear,
hear, in in the translation is
the translation is the Greek verb
the Greek verb 'akouo'
meaning to
meaning to perceive
perceive sounds.sounds. ItIt has, has, for example, given
for example, given us us the
the
word 'acoustics',
word'acoustics', the science
science of
of sounds.
sounds.
'Ial'e6'
The verb'to
verb 'to speak'
speak' in translation is the Greek
in the translstion Greek verb 'laleo'
which has has the general
general meaningmeaning of 'to
of 'to emit sounds' sounds' and the spe- spe-
cific meaning
cific meaning o1 of 'to
'to speak'.
speak'. This verb occurs
occurs very frequently in
the Greek
the Greek text of the Gospels.
bospels. It
It designates
designates a solemn
solemn declarstion
declaration
made by Jesus
made Jesus during His preachings. preachings. It therefore becomes
It therefore becomes clearclear
that the communication
communication man whieh to man which He here
here proclaims
proclaims does
does not
in any way consist
any way consist s statement of a statement inspired
inspired hy
by the egency
agency of the
Holy Spirit. It has
Holy spirit. It has a very obviousa very obvious material
material character
character moreover'
moreover,
which
which comes comesfrom the the idea
idea of the emissionof sounds
the emission conveyed
soundsconveyed
by the Greek
by the Greek word word that defines
defines it.
The' 'akou6' and 'lnleri' therefore
and 'laZeD' definecon-
therefore define con-
The two two Greek
Greek verbs verbs 'akouo'
crete
crete actions
sctions whichwhich can can onlyonly be be applied
applied to to aa being with hesring
being with hearing
and
andspeech
speechorgans.
organs.It It is
is consequently
consequently impossibleto
impossible applythem
to apply themto to
the
theHoly
Holy Spirit.
Spirit.
For
For thisthis reason,
reason,the thetexttext of of this passagefrom
this passage Gospel,as
John'sGospel,
from John's as
handed down to
handeddown to us in Greek us in Greek manuscripts,
manuscripts, is
is quite
quite incomprehensi-
incomprehensi-
words'Holy
the words 'Holy Spirit'
ble
bleif if one
onetakes
takesitit as asaa whole,
whole,including
includingthe Spirit'
in passage 14, 26:
in passage14, 26: "But the "But the Paraclete,
Paraclete, the
the Holy
Holy Spirit,
Spirit, whom
whom the
the
Father will send
Father will sendin my name"in my name" etc.
etc. It
It is
is the
the only
only passsge
passage in
in John's
John's
Gospel
Gospelthat that identifies
identifiesthe theParaclete
Paracletewith with thetheHoly $pirit'
HolySpirit.
If
If the
thewords
words'Holy'Holy Spirit'
Spirit' (to pneum,a
(to pneuma totoagion)
agion)are ommitted
areommitted
from
fromthe thepassage,
passage, the
thecomplete
completetext textof Johnthen conveys aamean-
ofJohn then conveys mean-
ing
ingwhich
whicttisi* perfectly
p*"t*tly clear. elear.ItIt isisconfirmed
confirmedmoreover, by
moreover,by another snother
text by
uy the
the same
sam* evangelist,
*t"ng"list, the
the First
First Letter,
Letter, whereJohn
where Johnuses uses
teit
the
thesame
sameword 'Paraclete'
word'Parac1ete' simply simplytotomean meanJesus,Jegus, the interce$sor
the intercessor
 106
108 THE BmLE
BIBLq , THE QUR'AN AND SCmN
SCIENCE
CE
QUR'AN
at God's
God's side
sider.
1
• Accord
Aeeording ing to John,
John, when
when Jesus
Jesus says (14, 16):
says (14, 16) :
'lAnd I will pray
"And the Father
the Father,, and
and he give you
he will give you anothe
another para-
r Para-
clete", what
clete", what He He is saying
saying is that
that'another'intercessor
'anoth er' interce ssor will be be sent
sent
to man,
man, as as He
He Himse
Himself was at God's
lf was God'sside
side on
on man's
man's behalf
behalf during
His earthl
egrthly y life.
According
Accord ing to thethe rules
rules of logic
logic therefo
therefore,re, one
one is brough
broughtt to
seein John's
see John's ParaeI
Paraclete ete aa human
human being
being like Jesus, possessiig
Jesus,posses sing the
the
faculties
faculti es of hearin
hearing g and
and speech
speechformal
formally implied
ly implie d in John's
John's Greek
Greek
text. Jesus
text. Jesustheref
therefore predicts
ore predic ts that GodGod will
witi later sendsend aa human
human
being to Earth to take
being take upup the
the role
role defined
definedby John, John, Le.
i.e. to
to be
be aa
prophet
prophe who hears
t who hears God's
God'sword
word andand repeat
repeats his messag
s his message e to man.
man.
This is thethe logical
Iogical interp
interpretation
retatio n of John's
iohn's texts
texts arrive
arrived d at ifif
one attribu
one attributestes to thethe words
words their proper
proper meanin
meaning. g.
The presence
The presen ce of the ,Holy Spirit'
the term 'Holy spirit' in today'
today's s text could
could
easily
easily have
have come
comefrom aa later additio addition n made quite deliber
made quite deliberately.
ately.
rt may
It may have
have been
beenintend
intended ed to change
changethe the origina
origin*ll meani
m*"rringng which
which
predicted
predic ted the
the adven
advent prophet
t of aa prophe subsequent
t subseq uent to to Jesus
Jesusandand was
was
therefore
theref ore in contra
contradiction
diction with the the teachin
teac-hings
gs of the the Christ
Christian
ian
churches
church es at thethe time of their forma formation;
tion; these
these teachin
teachingsgs main-
main-
tained that Jesus
tained Jesuswas was the
the last
last of the prophets.
the prophe ts.
1.
l. Many
M""y translat ions and commen
t"*slations commentaries
taries of the Gospel,
Gospel, especial
espeeially
'Congoler' ly older
ones,
oneB' use
use the word 'Consol er' to transla te this, but
translate but it is totally
it is totally inaccur ate.
inaJcurat€.
 vr
~I

Con€:lusions
Conclusions
recorded here
The facts recorded here and commentaries quoted
and the commentaries quoted from
several
several extremely
extremely eminent
eminent Christian experts
experts in exegesis
exegesis have
have
affirmations of orthodory
refuted affinnrations supported by the line adopted
orthodoxy supported adopted
by the last Council
Council on the absolute historical authenticity of the
absolutehistoricsl
Gospels.
Gospels.These
fireee are said fsithfully transmitted what Jesus
have faithfully
said to have Jesus
actually did and taught.
and taugbt.
Several
Several different kinds kinds of argument
argument have have been given.
been given.
Firstly, quotationsfrom the Gospels
Firstln quotations Gospelsthemselves
themselvesshow con-
show flat con-
tradictions. It
tradictions. It is impossible
impossibleto believe
believe two facts contradict
facts that contradict
each
each other.
other. Neither can can one
one accept improbabilities and
accept certain improbabilities and
affirmations
affirmations that go
go against
against the
the cast-iron
casLiron data
data provided
provided by mod-
mod-
ern knowledge.
knowledge. In this respect,respect, the genealogiesof Jesus
the two genealogies Jesus
given in the
given the Gospels
Gospels and
and the
the untruths implied
implied in them
them are
are quite
quite
conclusive.
conclusive.
These
These contradictions,
contradictions, improbabilities
improbabilities and incompatibilities
and incompatibilities
pass unnoticed
pass unnoticed by many many Christians.
Christisns. TheyThey are astonishedwhen
are astonished when
they
they discover
discover them because
them beesusethey they have
have been
been influenced
influenced by their
reading
reading of commentaries
eommentaries that provide
provide subtle
subtle explanations
explanations calcu-
calcu-
latcd to reassure
lated reassurethem them and
and orchestrated
orchestrated by an apologeticlyric-
an apologetic
ism. Some
ism. Some very typical examples
examples have
have been
been given
given of the em-
the skill em-
ployed
ployedby certain experts
certain experts in exegesis
exegesis in camouflaging
camouflaglng what
what they
they
modestly
modestly call 'difficulties'. There
call 'difficulties'. There are&re very few passagesindeed
few passages indeed
in the Gospels
the Gospels that have been
have been acknowledged
acknowledged as
as inauthentic
inauthentic al-
al-
though the Church
though the Church declares
declares them
them canonic.
canonic"
According
According to Father Kannengiesser,
Kannengiesser,works works of modern textual
modern textual
criticism have revealed data
data which
which constitute
constitute a
a 'revolution
'revolution in
eriticism have revealed
methods of Biblical exegesis'
methods Biblical exegesis' that so
so that the
the facts
facts relating
relating to
to Jesus
Jesus
recordedin the
recorded the Gospels
Gospelsareare no longer'to
no longer 'to bebe taken
takenliterally', they
literally', they

107
 r08
108 TIIE BIBLE,
THE BIBI4 THE
lIrE QUB'AN
QIrn'ANAND
AiltDSCIENCE
$CIENGE
'writings suited
are 'writings
are suitedto to an
an occasion'
occasion'or 'combatwritings'.
or 'combat writings'. Modem
Modern
knowledgehas
knowledge has brought to light the history of Judeo-Christianity
brought to light the history of Judeo-Christianity
and the
and the rivalry
rivalry between
betweencommunities
communities which which accounts
accountsfor for the
the
existenceof
existence of facts
facts that
that today's
today's readers
readers findfind disconcerting.
disconcerting.The The
conceptof
concept of eyewitness
eyewitnessevangelists
evangelistsis is nono longer.
longer defensible,
defensible,al- al-
though numerousChristians
though numerous Christians still retain it
still retain it today.
today. The
The work
work done
done
at the
at the Biblical
Biblical School
Schoolof of Jerusalem (Fathers Benoit
Jerusalem (Fathers Benoit andand Bois-
Boia-
mard)
mard) showsshowsvery very clearly
elearlythat
that the
the Gospels
Gospelswere were written, revised
revised
andcorrected
and eorrectedseveral
severaltimes.
times.TheyTheyalsoalsowarn
warn the the reader
readerthat he he is
is
"obliged in
"obliged in more
more than
than oneonecase
caseto give up
to give up the
the notion
notion of hearing
hearing
Jesus'svoice
Jesus's voicedirectly".
directly".
The historical
The historieal nature
nature of the the Gospels
Gospels is is beyond question.
beyond question.
Through descriptions
Through descriptions referring to to Jesus
Jesus however,
however, these
these docu-
docu-
ments provide us
mentsprovide us above
aboveall with information about about the
the character
character
of their authors,
of authors, the the spokesmen
spokesmenfor the the tradition of the early
Christian communities
Christian communitiesto which which theythey belonged,
belonged,and and in particular
about the
about the struggle
struggle between
betweenthe the Judeo-Christians
Judeo-Christiansand paul: Car-
and Paul: Car-
dinal Danielou's
dinal Dani€lou'swork is authoritative on on these points.
thesepoints.
why be
Why be surprised
surprised by the fact that some some evangelists
evangelists distort
certain events
certain eventsin Jesus's
Jesus'slife with the object object of defending
defending a a per-
per-
sonal point of view?
sonalpoint view? Why be be surprised
surprised by the omissionomission of certain
events? Why be
events? be surprised by the fictitious nature of of other events
events
described?
described?
This leads
leadsus us to compare
comparethe GospelsGospels withwith the narrative poems poems
found
found in Medieval
Medieval literature. A vivid vivid comparison
comparison could could bebe msde
made
with the Song Song of Roland
Rola,nd,(Chanson
(Chanson de de Rotand),
Roland), the most well- weIl-
known
known of all aU poerns
poetns of this kind, which relates relates a real event in in a
fictitious light. It It will
will bebe remembered
remembered that itit describes describes an actual
actual
episode:
episode: RolandRoland was was leading
leading Charlemagne's
Charlemagne's rear-guardrear-guard whenwhen itit
was
was ambushed on the pess
ambushed on pass atat Roncevaux.
Roncevaux. The episode episode which wss was
of minor importance,
importance, is said said to have taken place
have taken place on thethe l6th
15th
August,
August, ?78 778 according
according to historical records (Eginhard).
historical records (Eginhard). ItIt was was
raised
raised the stature of
to of a great feat of of arms, aa battle
battle in
in aa war
war ofof
religion. rt It is a whimsical
whimsical description,
description, but but the
the imaginary
imaginary element
element
does not obliterate one
does one ofof the
the real
real battles
battles that
that Charlemagne
Charlemagne hsd had
to fig:ht
fight in in order to proteet
to protect his his frontiers
frontiers against
against the
the attemptg
attempts
made
made by neighbouring peoples
by neighbouring peoples to to penetrate
penetrate his his borders.
borders. That
That isis
the element of truth
element of truth and the and the epic
epic style
style of
of nsrrative
narrative does
does notnot r+
re-
move
move it. it.
Cone.....
Collrl&rfplnt r00
109

The same
The same hotds
holds tnre
true for
for the
the Gospels: Matthew's phsntasms'
Gospels: Mattheq/s phantasms,
the flat contradictions
the flat contrsdictions between
between Gospels,
Gospels, the
the improbabilities,
improbabilities, the
the
incompatibilities
iucompatibilities with
wittr modem
modern scientific
scientific data,
data, the
the successive
successive dis-
dis-
tortions of
tortions of the text-all these
the text--all these things add up
things add to the
up to that the
fact that
the fact the
Gospels contain
GospelEcontein chapterschapters and
and passages
passages that
that are
are the
the sole
sole product
product
of the
of the human
human imagination. flaws do
These flaws
imagination. These do not however csst
not however cast
doubt on
doubt on thethe existence
existence of
of Jesus's
Jesus's mission:
mission: the
the doubt
doubt is
is solely
solely con-
con-
to the course
fined to course itit took.
 II

fhe Qo..'an
The Qrrr'arr and
-rnd
Dlodern
~ode ..n St:ient:e
Scierrce
odu~lion
lntroducliorr
Inl..
The relationship between
The relationship betweenthe the Qur'an
eur'an and scienceis a priori
and science priori aa
surprisg espeeiallywhen
surprise, especially when it turns out to be be one
one of harmony
harmony and and
diseord.A confrontation
not of discord. eonfrontation between
betweenaa religious book and
religious book and the
secular ideas
secular proclaimed by science
ideas proclaimed scieneeis perhaps,
perhaps, in the eyes eyes of
many people
many people today, today, something
somethingof aa paradox.
paradox. The The majority
majority of to-
day's scientists,with aa small
day's scientists, small number
number of exeeptions
exceptions of course,
course, are
indeedbound
indeed bound up in materialist theories,
theories, and
and have
have only indifference
indifference
contempt for religious
or contempt religious questions
questions which they often consider consider to
be
be founded
founded on on legend.
legend. rn In the WestWest moreover,
moreover, when when seience
science snd
and
religion are discussed,
discussed, people
people are quite willing
willing to mention
mention Juda-
ism and and Christianity
Christianity amongamong the religions referred to, but but they
hardly ever think think of Islam. So So many false judgements
judgements based based onon
inaccurate
inaccurate ideasideas have
have indeed
indeed beenbeen made
made about it, it, that
that today
today itit is
is
very difficult to form form an exact
exact notion of of the
the reality
reality of
of rslam.
Islam.
As sa prelude
prelude to any confrontation between between the the Islamic
Islamic Revela-
Revela-
tion and science,
science, itit would
would seemseem essential
essential that
that an
an ou,iline
outline bebe given
given
of a religion
of religion that
that is
is so
so little
little known
known in in the
the West.
West.
fire
The totally
totally erroneous
erroneous statements
statements mademade about
about Islam
Islam inin the
the West
West
are
are sometimes
sometimes the the result
result ofof ignorance,
ignorance, and
and sometimes
sometimes of of system-
system-
atic denigration.
atic denigration. TheThe most
most serious
serious ofof all
all the
the untruths
untruths toldtold about
about
itit are
are however
however those
those dealing
dealing withwith facts;
facts; for
for while
while mistaken
mistaken opin-
opin-

tt0
110
 Ifllroducfion
rffin lll
III

ions are
ions are excusable,
excusable, the the presentation
presentation of of facts
facts running contrary to
running contrarT to
the reality
the reality is is not.
not. ItIt is is disturbing
disturbing to to read
read blatant untruths in
blatant untruths in
eminently respectable
eminently respectable works works written
written by by authors
authors who priori arc
who aa Priori are
highly qualified.
hishly qualified. The The following:
following is is an
an example
example taken taken fromfrom the the
Universalis EncAclopeilia
uniaersatis Encyclopedia (Eneyclopedia Universalis) vol.6.
(Encyclopedia Universalis) vo1.6. Un-Un-
der the
der heading Gospels
the heading (Evangiles) the
Gospels (Evsngiles) author alludes
the author alludes to to the
the
differences between
differences between the the Istter
latter and and the the Qur'an:
Qur'an: "The "The evangelists
evangelists
(. .. .)
(. .) do not not (. (. . .),.), 8sas inin thethe Qur'an,
Qur'an, claimclaim to transmit en
to transmit an
autobiography that
autobiogrsphy that God miraculously
miraculously dictated dictated to the Prophet
to the Prophet
,...".
. .". InIn fact,
fact, thethe Qur'an
Qur'an has nothing nothing to with an autobiogra-
to do with autobiogra-
phy: itit is
phy: is a preaching;
preaching; a consultation
consultation of of even the worst trans'
the worst trans-
lation would
iation would have made thet that clearclear to the author. The statement
the author. statement
we have quoted is as far
we far from reality as ifif one were to
from reality to define
a Gospel
a Gospel as an account of of an evangelist's life. life. The person re-
sponsible for
sponsible for this
this untruth
untruth about the Qur'an is a professor
the Qur'an professor at at the
Jesuit
Jesuit Faculty
Fsculff of
of Theology, Lyon!
Lyon ! The fact
fact that
that people
people utter
utter such
untruths
untruths helps
helps to give a false impression of
of the Qur'an
Qur'an and
Islam.
Islam.
There is hope hope today however howeyer because because religions are no longer
as inward-looking
as inwardJooking as as they were and many of them are seeking
ane seeking
for
for mutual understanding. One
One must indeed
indeed be
be impressed
impressed by aa
knowledge
knowledge oi' 0: the fact that an attempt is being made
made on
on the
highest
highest levellevel of the hierarchy by Roman
Roman Catholics
Catholics to establish
establish
contact
contact with with Muslims; they are trying trying to fight incomprehension
incomprehension
and
and are doing their utmost to change
change the
the inaccurate
inaccurate views on
views on
Islam that are so so widely held.
held.
In
In the
the Introduction
Introduction to to this
this work,
work, II mentioned
mentioned the great change
the great change
that
that hashas taken
taken placeplace in in the
the last
last fewfew years
years and quotedaa document
and II quoted document
produced
produced by by thethe Office
Officefor for Non-Christian
Non-Christian Affairs Affairs at at the Vatican
the Vatican
under the
under title Orientations
the title Ori,enta,tionsfor for aa Dialogue
Di,aloguebetween Chrwtians
between Christians
and
anil Muslims
Muslims (Orientations
(orientations pour pour un un dialogue
dialogue entre entre chretiens
chr6tiens et et
musulmans).
musulmans). It It is is aa very
very important
important document document in in that it shows
that it shows
the
the new
new position
position adopted adoptedtowards
towards Islam. Islam. As As we read in
we read in the
the third
third
edition
edition of of this
this study
study (1970),
(f9?0), this this new position calls
new position for'a
eallsfor 'a revi- revi-
sion
sion ofof our
our attitude
attitude towardstowards itit and and aa critical
critical examination
examination of our of our
prejudices'
prejudices' ... ''We
. . . 'We should
should firstfirst set
set about progressively changing
about progressively changing
the
ih" way*"y ourour Christian
Christian brothersbrothers see seeit. it. This
This isis the
the most important
most important
of 'out-dated image inherited
image inherited
of all.'
all.' ...
. . . WeWe must must clear
clear awaysway the the 'out-dated
from
from the the past,
past, or or distorted
distorted by prejudice
by prej udice and and slander' and
slander' .. .. .. ,, and
 II8
111 THE
THEBmLE,
8IBI.q THE
TIIE QUR'AN
QUN'ANAND
AI\IDSCIENCE
SCIENCE
'recognize the past
Crecognize the past injustice
injustice towards
towards the the Muslims
Muslims forfor which
which the the
west, with
West, with itsits Christian
christian education,
education, isis to to blame.'t
blame." TheThe Vatican
Vatican
document is
document is nearly
nearly 150 pages long.
tgo pages long. ItIt therefore
therefore expands
expands on on the
the
refutation of
refutation of classic
classic views
views heldheld byby Christians
christians on Islam and sets
on Islam and sets
out the
out the reality.
reality.
Under
Under the title Emancipating
the title Emaneipa,ti,ng ourselves
ourael,aesfrom
from our
our worst
rnornt prej-
rrei-
ud;ices (Nous
udices (Nous liberer lib6rer de de nos
nos prejuges
pr6jug6s les les plus
plus notables)
notables) the the
authors address
authors address the the following
following suggestions
suggestions to to Christians: i He""
christian*: "Here
also,we
also, we must
must surrender
surrender to to aa deep
deeppurification
purification of of our
our attitude.
attitude. In In
particular,
particular, what what is is meant
meant by by this
this are
are certain .set judgements'
certain cset
that are
that are all
all too
too often
often and and tootoo lightly
lighily made
made about
about Islam.
Islam. It It is
is
essential
essential not not toto cultivate
cultivate in in the
the secret
secret of of our
our hearts views such such
as these,
as these, tootoo easily
easily or or arbitrarily
arbitrarily arrived
arrived at, 8t, and which
which the the
sincere Muslim
sincere Muslim findsfinds confusing."
confusing."
Oneextremely
One extremely important
important view of this kind is the attitude attitude which
which
leads people to repeatedly
leads people repeatedly use .Allah' to mean
use the term 'Allah' mean the the God
God
of the Muslims, as as ifif the Muslims believed believed in a God God who was was
difierent from
different from the God God of the Christians.
Christians. At Inh means Cthe
Al ldh .the
Divinity' in Arabic:
Divinity' Arabic: it it is a single God, implying
God, implying that that a correct
transcription can only render
transcription render the exact meaningmeaning of of the word
word withwith
the help of of the expression
expression 'God'.'God'. ForFor the Musllm,
Muslim, al ldh is none
al lfr,h
than the God of
other .than of Moses
Moses and Jesus. Jesus.
The document produced by the office Office for
for Non-christian
Non-Christian Affairs
Affairs
at the vatican
Vatican stresses
stresses this this fundamentar
fundamental point point in
in the following
following
terms:
terms:
"It would seem
"It seem pointless to to maintain
maintain that that Alleh
Allah is
is not
not really
really
certain people in
God, as do eertain in the
the West
West!! The
The conciliar
conciliar documents
documents
have put put the
the above assertion in its proper
in its proper place.
place. There
There is is no
no
better
better wayway of of illustrating
illustrating Islamic
Islamic faith
faith inin God
God than
than by by quoting
quoting

1.
1. At certain priod
At aa certain period of of history,
history, hostility
hostility toto lalam,
Islam, in in whatever
whatever ehape
shape or or
form,
form, even
even coming
coming from
from declared
declared enemies
enemies of of the
the church,
church, wae
was received
received
with
with the
the most
most heartfelt
heartfelt approbation
approbation by by hish
high dignitaries
dignitaries of of the
the Catholic
Catholic
chureh.
Church. Thus
Thus Pope
Pope Benedict
Benedict xrv,XIV, who
who isis reputed
reputed to to have
have been
been thethe
greatest
greatest Pontifr
Pontiff of
of the
the Eighteenth
Eighteenth century,
century, unhesitatingly
unhesitatingly sent sent his
his blear-
bleS&-
ing
ing to
to Voltsire.
Voltaire. This
This waEwas inin thanks
thanks for
for the
the dedication
dedication to to him
him ofof the
the
tragpdy
tragedy Mohamtncd
Mohamm6d or or Fanaticrszr
Fanaticism (Mahomet
(Mahomet ou ou leIe Fanatisme)
Fanatisme) 1?41,
1741, ea
coar8e
coarse satire
satire that
that any
any clever
clever scribbler
scribbler ofof bad
bad faith
faith could
could have
have written
written
on
on any
any rubject.
subject. rn
In spite
spite of
of aa bad
bad start,
start, the
the play
play gained
gained suffcient
sufficient pres-
pres-
ti8e
tige to
to be
be included
included inin the
the repertoire
repertoire"olof the
the comddie-Francaiae.
Comedie-Francaise.
lnlrodu ction llg
113
lntrr/luctior.

following extracts
the following extrac ts from Gentium!: 'The
from Lumen Gentium': Muslims
'The Muslims
profess
profes s the iaith faith of Abrah am
of Abraham and worshi
worship p with
with us sole
the sole
mercif ul God,
merciful God, who is the future judge
future iudge of
of men on the Day of
of
Recko
R n i n .g . .. . '" "'
e c k oning
One can therefore
One Muslims' protest
unders tand the Muslims'
therefo re understand protes t at the all too
atthe
of 'Allfih' instead
'Allah'
freque nt custom
frequent custom in European langua ges
Europ ean languages of saying
of .dod'
'God' ... Cultivated Muslims
. . . Cultivated Muslims have praised Masson's French
praise d D. Masson's
transla tion of
translation of the Qur'an for for having 'at
'at last' writte n 'Dieu'3
written 'Dieu'2
instead of 'Allah'.
instead 'Allah'.
Vatica n docum
The vatican document "Allih is the
following: "Allah
ent points out the following:
word that
only word Arabic -speak ing Christ
that Arabic-speaking ians
Christians have
have for
for God."
God"'
Muslims and Christ
Muslims worshi p a single
ians worship
Christians single God.
God'
vaticann document
The Vatica critica l examin
undert akes a critieal
document then undertakes examinationation
of the other false iudgements made on Islam.
judgem ents made Islam'
'Islamic
'Islami c fatalis
fatalism' m' is a widely prejudice;
-spread prejud
widely-spread ice; the docum
document ent
examin es this and quotin quotingg the Qur'an for for suppor
support,t, it
it puts in
examines
tion to this the notion of the respon sibility
responsibility man has,
has, who
opposi
opposition
is to bebe judged by his actions It shows
actions.. It that the concep
shows that concept t of an
m is false; on the contra ry, it
contrary, oppose
it opposes s the sinceri ty
sincerity
Islamicc legalis
Islami legalism
faith to this
of faith ttris by quotin quoting phrases
trvo phrase
g two s in the Qur'an that are
highly misund
highly misunderstood erstoo d in the West:
,,There is no compu
"There lsion in religio
compulsion n"
religion" verse 256)
2, verse
(sura 2, 256)
,,(God)
U
you in religio
upon you
has not laid upon
(God) has religion n any hardsh ip"
hardship"
(sura 22,
22, verse
verse 78)
'Islam,
The docum ent oppose
document opposes s the widely -spread notion of 'Islam,
widely-spread
'is1am, love'-l
religionn of love'Jove
to 'Islam, religio one's neighb
ove of one's neighbor or
religionn of fear'
religio fear'to
God. It
faith in God.
on faith refutess the
It refute falsely spread
spread notion that
based on
based
and the other notion
exists and
ty hardly exists shared by
notion,, shared
Muslim morali
Muslim morality
Jews and Christ ians, of
christians, Islami
Islamic c fanatic ism.
fanatieism. It makes
It makes
so many Jews
so
the follow ing comme
following comment on this:
nt on "In
this: "In fact, Islam was hardly
hardly any
more fanatic during its history
al during
fanatical than the sacred
sacred bastion
bastions s of
ianity whene
wheneverver the Christ ian
Christian faith
faith took on,
on' as
as it
it were'
were,
Christ
Christiantty
aa politic al value." At
political At this point, the author quote expres
authorss quote sions
expressions
'Holy
'Holy
how, in
show how, the West,
west, the expres sion
expression
Qur'an that show
from the Qur'an
from

title of aa docume
document produced
nt produce second Vati-
d by the Second Ysti-
1. Lumen
1. Gcntium is the title
L,umen Gentium
can Council (1962-1 965)
(1962-1965)

I.
2. God.
ffi.
 r14
114 THE
TEE BIBLE
BIBLE,, THE QUR"AN AND SCIEN
QUN'AN CE
SCIENCE

War'l
war" hashas been
beenmis-tr anslate d; "in
mis-translated; ,.i' Arabic it is Ai
it jihad Iift,sabil
.4t iihnd sabtt
Allah,
Alld"h,the
tlre effort on on God's
God's road", ,,the effort to spread
road", "the spread Islam and and
defend
defend it it agains
against t its aggres sors." The
aggressors." The Vatica
vaticann docum
document ent con-
con-
tinues
tinues asas follow
follows: s: "The
"The jihad
iihad is not at all the Biblica Bibl ical l kherem
kherem;;
it does
doesnotnot lead
lead to to exterm ination , but to the spread
extermination, sp,readinging of God's
God,s
and
and man's
man's rights to to new
ner,vlands.
lsnds."-"The
"-"Th e pastpast violenc
violence e of the jihad
tn* iihad
generally
genera lly followe
follorved d the
the rules
rttles of war;
rvar; at the time of the the Crusad
Crusades es
moreo
moreover,
ver, it wasrras not always
alrvays the the l\fuslim
Il{uslims s that perpet
perpetrated
rated the
worst
rvorst slaugh
slanghters."
ters."
Finally
Finally,, the
the docum
document ent deals
deals with
*'ith the prejudice
the prejud ice accord
aceordinging to
which
rvhich"Islam
"Islam is is aa hide-b
hide-bottnd
ound religio
religion n which
rvhichkeeps
keepsits follow
followers
ers in
aa kind of supera
superannuated
nnuate d Middle
Middle Ages, Ages, makin
making g them unfit to
adapt
adapt to the the technic
technical al conque
conquests sts of the modermodern n age."
age.', ItIt com-
com-
pares analog
pares analogousous situati
situationsons observ
observed ed in Christ
christianian countr
eountriesies and
states
statesthe
the follow
follorving:
ing: "we"11,efino, (. . .)) in the
find, (... the traditi onal expans
traditional ion
expansion
of Muslim
Muslim though
thought, principle
t, aa princip le of possibl
possible e evoluti
evolutionon in civilia n
civilian
society
society."
."
am certain
I am certain that this defens defense e of Islam
Isram by the Vatica vaticann wilr
will
surprise
surpris many believe
e many believers rs today.
torla1..be be they
the.yMuslim
Muslims, s, Jews
Jews or Chris_
Chris-
tians. It
tians. It is aa demon
demonstration
stratio n of sinceri
sincerity ty and
and open-m indedn ess
open-mindedness
that is is singul
singularly
arly in contra
contrast st with
rvith the attitud
ttre attitudes es inherit
inherited ed from
the past. The
the past. The numbe
numbe'r of people people in the the \Vest
west who are aware aware of of
the new
the new attitud
attitudeses aoopte
adopted d by
b.v the
the highes
highest t author ities in the
authorities
Catholic
Cathol ic Churc
Church h is
is howev
hourever er very small.
small.
Once
once oneone isis aware
aware of this fact, faet, it comes
comesas as less
less of a surprise
surpri se
to learn
to learn of thettreaction
actions s that sealed
sealedthis reconciliation:
reconc iliation : firsfly,
firstly, ih*..
there
was the official
was offficialvisit made made by the president
the Presid ent of the officeOffice forfor
Itlon-christian
Non-C hristia n Affair
Affairss at the Vatica vaticann to King King Faisal of of saudi
Saudi
1' Transla
1. Translators
tors of the Qur'an, even
even famous ones,
ones, have
have not resisted
resisted the secu-
secu-
lar habit of putting
putting into their
their translations
translat ions things that
that are not realiy
really in
in
Arabic text
the Arabic text at all. One
one can
ean indeed
indeed add
add titles to the text
text that
that are not
not
in the original
original without
without changin
changing g the text
text itself, but
but this
this addition
addition changes
changes
the general meaning
meaning.. R. Blacher
Blachire,e, for
for example,
example , in his well-known
well-kn own trans-
trans-
lation (Pub. Maisonn
Maisonneuve Larose, paris,
euve et Larose, Paris, 1966,
1966, page rlb)
115) inserta
inserts a
that does
title that does not figure in the eur'an
Qur'an:: Duiics
Duties of'
01 the-Hory
the Holy warWar touri-
(Obli-
gations de Ia guerre sainte). This is at
de la at the beginning
beginni ng ofof a passage
passage that
that
is indispu
indisputably
tably a call to arms, but doesdoes not have
have the character
charact er that
that hac
haH
been aseribed to it. After
been ascribed After reading this, how can the reader who only only har
has
accessto the Qur'an via
access via translations
translat ions fail
fail to think
think that
that a Muslim's-duty
Muslim 's duty
is to wage holy war?
war?
 ltllrocfucdoa
h*ffir fftr
liS

Arabia; then
Arabia; then the
the official reception given
official reception given by Pope Peul
by Pope Paul VI VI tn to the
the
Grand Ulema of Saudi
Grand ulema of saudi Arabia in the Arabia in the course
course of
of 19?4.
1974. Henceforth,
Henceforth,
oneunderstands
one understands more moreclearly
clearly the the spiritual significance of
spiritual significance ofthethe fact
fact
that His Grace Bishop EIchinger
thst His Graee Biehop Elchinger received received the
the Grand
Grand Ulema
Ulema at
at
his cathedral in Strasbourg
his cathedral in Strasbourg and invited and invited them
them during
during their
their visit
visit
to pray
to pray in in the
the choir.
choir. ThisThis they they did did before
before the altar, turned
the altar, turned
towards Ma,kka.
towards Makka.
Thus the
Thus the representatives
representatives of of the
the Muslim
Muslim and Christian worlds
and christian worlds
at their
at their highest
highest level,
level, who
who shareshare aa faithfaith in the same
in the same God God and and aa
mutual respect
mutual respect for for their
their differences
differences of opinion, have
of opinion, agreed to
have agreed to
open aa diatosue.
open dialogue. ThisThis being
being so, so, itit is surely quite
is surely natural for
quite natural for other
other
aspects of
aspects of each
each respective
respective Revelation
Revelation to to bebe confronted. The The subsub-
ject of
ject of this
this confrontation
confrontation is the examination of
the examination the Scriptures
of the Scriptures
in the
in the light
light of scientific data and knowledge eoncerning
of scientific concerning the the
authenticity
authentieity of
of the texts. This
This examination is to be undertaken
for the
for the Qur'an
Qur'an as as itit was forfor the Judeo-Christian Revelation' Revelation.
The relationship
The relationship between between religions and science
science has not always
been the
been the same same in anyone
any one place or time. It
It is a fact
fact that there is
that
no writing
no writing belonging to a monotheistic religion that
that condemns
condemns
science.
science.In In practise
practise however,
however, it
it must be
be admitted
admitted that scientists
scientists
have
have had had great difficulties with
with the religious authorities of certain
creeds.
creeds. For many centuries,
centuries, in the Christian
christian world, scientific
scientific
development
developmentwas was opposed
opposedby the the authorities
authorities in question,question,on on their
own initiative
own initiative and and without reference
reference to the
the authentic
authentic Scriptures.
Scriptures.
We
We already
already knowknow the the measures
measures taken taken against
against those those who sought
who sought
to enlarge science,
to enlarge science,measures measures which
which often
often made
made scientists
scientists go
Eo into
into
exile to avoid being
exile to avoid being burnt burnt at
at the
the stake,
stake, unless
unless they
they recanted,
recanted,
changed
changedtheir their attitude
attitude and andbegged
beggedfor pardon.The
for pardon. The casecaseof of Galileo
Galileo
isis always cited in this
always cited in this context: context: he
he was
was tried
tried for
for having
having aceepted
accepted
the
the discoveries
discoveriesmade madeby by Copernicus
copernicus on on the
the rotation
rotation of Earth.
the Earth.
of the
Galileo was condemned
Galileo was condemned as
as the
the result
result of
of a
a mistaken
mistaken interpretation
interpretation
ofof thethe Bible,
Bible, since
since not not aa single
single Scripture
Scripture could reasonablybe
could reasonably be
brought against
brought against him. him.
In
In the
thecase
caseof of Islam,
Islam,the theattitude
attitude towards
towards science
sciencewas, generally
was' generally
speaking',
speaking, quite quite different.
different. Nothing
Nothing could clearer
could be clearer than
be than the the
famous
famousHadithHadith of of the
theProphet:
Prophet: "Seek "seekfor for science,
seience, even in china",
even in China",
or or the
the other
other hadith
hadith whichwhich says saysthat that the
the search
searchfor knowledgeisis
for knowledge
aa strict
strict duty
duty for
for every
every Muslim
Muslim man man and woman.
and woman. As As we we shall
shall
seeseefurther
further on on inin this
this section,
section,another another crucial fact is
crucial fact is that the that the
 lt0
118 THE
TIIE BmLE,
BIDLE,THE
IIIE QUR'AN
QUB?N AND
AIttDSCIENCE
$GrnN6'g

Qur'an,
Qur'an, while
while inviting
inviting us usto to cultivate
cultivate science,
scienee,itself contains many
itself contains many
observations on
observations on natural
natural phenomena
phenomena and and includes
includes explanatory
explanatory
details which
details which are are seen
seen to to bebe inin total
total agreement
agreement with with modem
modern
scientific
scientific data.data. ThereThere isis no no equal
equalto to this
this inin the
the Judea-Christian
Judeo-christian
Revelation.
Revelation.
ItIt would
would nevertheless
neverthelessbe be wrong
wrong to to imagine
imagine that,that, inin the
the history
history
of Islam,
of Islam, certain
certain believers
believers had had never
never harboured
harboured aa different
different atti-
atti-
tude towards
tude towards science.
science.It It isis aa fact
fact that,
that, atat certain
eertain periods,
periods, the the
obligation to
obligation to educate
educate oneself
oneself and and others
others waswas rather
rathei neglected.
neglected.
It is
It is equally
equally truetrue that
that in in the
the Muslim
Muslim world,world, as as elsewhere,
elsewhlre, an an
attempt was
attempt was sometimes
sometimesmade made to to stop
stop scientific
scientific development.
development. AlI AII
the same
the same it it will
will bebe remembered
remembered that that atat the
the height
heisht of of Islam,
Islam,
between the
between the Eighth
Eighth and and Twelfth
rwelfth centuries
centuries A.D.,A.D., i.e.Le. at
at aa time
time
when restrictions
when restrictions on on scientific
scientific development
development were were in force
force in in the
the
christian world,
Christian world, aa very large large number of studies studies and discoveries
discoveries
were being
were being mademade at Islamic universities.
nniversities. It It was
was there that that thethe
remarkable cultural resources
remarkable resourcesof the time were to be be found. The
The
califs library
Calif's library at Cordoba
cordoba contained
contained 400,000
400,000 volumes.
volumes. Averroes
Averro€s
was teaching there, and Greek, Greek, Indian persian sciences
Indian and Persian sciences werewere
taught. This is why scholars scholars fromfrom all over Europe went to to study
study
Cordoba, just
at Cordoba, just asas today people
people go to the United States States toto perfect
perfect
their studies.
their studies. A A very great number of of ancient manuscripts have have
come down to us thanks to cultivated
come cultivated Arabs Arahs who acted as as the
the
vehicle
vehicle forfor the culture
culture of of conquered
conquered countries. we Weareare also greatly
greaily
indebted
indebted to Arabic Arabic culture
culture for for mathematics (algebra *"s was an an
Arabic
Arabic invention), astronomy, physics
invention), astronohr, physics (optics), g*logy, geology, botany,
botany,
medicine (Avicenna)
medicine (Avicenna) etc. For the
etc. For the very
very first
first time,
time, science
science toqk
took onon
an
an international
international character in in the
the Islamic
Islamic universities
universities of of the
the Mid-
Mid-
dle
dle Ages.
Ages. At At this
this time,
time, men
men rvere
were more more steeped
steeped in in the
the religious
religious
spirit
spirit than
than they
they areare today;
today; but but inin the
the Islamic
Islamic world,
world, this
this diddid not
not
prevent
prevent them them from from being
being bothboth believers
believers and and scientists.
scientists. Science
Science
was
was the the twin
twin of of religion
religion andand itit shourd
should never
never have
have ceased
ceased to to be so.
be so.
The
The Medieval
Medieval period period was,
was, for for the
the christian
Christian world,world, aa timetime of of
stagnation
stagnation and and absolute
absolute conformity.
conformity. ItIt must must be be stressed
stressed thatthat
scientific
scientific research
research was was not
not srowed
slowed down down by the Judeo-christian
by the Judeo-Christian
Revelation
Revelation itself,itself, but
but rather
rather by those people
by those people who who claimed
claimed to be
to be
its
its servants.
servants. Following
Following the the Renaissance,
Renaissance, the the scientists'
scientists' natural
natural
reaction
reaction was was to to take
take vengeance
vengeance on on their
their former
former enemies;
enemies; thiq thi&
vengeance
vengeance still still continues
continues today,
today, to to such
such anan extent
extent indeed
indeed thatthat inin
Inlroducliora
I*&tfutt
u7
117

West, anyone who

the west,
the talks of
who talks of God in scientific cireles
in scientific really does
circles really does
attitud e affects the
This attitude
out. Ttris thinki ng of
the thinking all
of all young
young people
Beople
stand out.
who receive
who a univer
universitysity educat
education, ion, Muslim
Muslims s include
included' d.
Their thinking
Their could hardly be different
thinki ng could-hardly different from from what what itit is con-
siderin g the extrem e positions
the exireme adopte d by
positions adopted by the the most emine nt
most eminent
sidering
scienti sts. A
scientists. A Nobel prize winne r tor
prize winner Medicine has tried
for ltleaicine tried in the last
in last
people, in intend ed for
in a book intended for mass publi-publi-
few years to perso*fl"
few persua de people,
cation, that
cstion, matter
living matter
that living was able to create itself
itself by chance from from
compo nents. Startin
Starting, g, he says,
says, with
with this
this primitive
primit ive
severa l basic .oriporr.nts.
several
matter , and
living matter,
living under the influen
influence ce of
of variou
various s extern
external al cir-
cir-
cumstances, organized
cumstanees, living beings were formed,
organi zed living resulti ng in
formed, resulting in
formidable complex
the formidable complex beingbeing that
that consti
constitutestutes man.
Surely these
Surely marve ls of
these marvels contem porary scientific
of contemporary knowledge in
scientific knowledge in
life should
of life lead a thinkin
thinking g person
person to the opposi
opposite te
the fieldfietd of should
organi zation
sion. The organization presiding
presid ing over the birth
birth and main-
conclu
conclusion.
tenanc e of life surely appear
of life appears s more and more complicated complicated as one
as one
tenance
it; the more*or" details one knows
one knows, , the more admira
admiration tion it
it
studies it;
studies
comma nds. A A knowle
knowledge dge of this organi organizationzation must surely lead
commands.
er as less and less
as less probable
less probab le the part chance has
part chance has to
one to consid
one consider
play in the phenom phenomenon enon of life. The further furthe r one
one advanc
advances es along
the road to knowle knowledge, dge, especia
especially lly of the infinite
infinitely ly small, the more
eloque nt are the argum favor of
ents in favor
*"go**rrts the existen
existence ce of a Creato
Creator' r.
eloquent
Instea d of being filled with with humili
humility ty in the face
face of such
such facts,
facts' man
Instead
is filled with with arroga nce. He sneers sneers at any idea idea of God, God, in the
"l""ogrn.e.
ao* anythi detrac
ng that detracts ts from
from his pleasure
pleasu re
same way he
same he runs down anything
and enjoym
enjoyment. ent. This is the image of the materialist materi alist society
society that
is flouris
flourishing presentt in the West.
hing at presen West'
What spiritu
what spiritual al forces
forces can
can be
be used to oppose
used oppose this polluti pollution on of
thoughtt practis
though practised ed by many contem contemporaryporary scientiseientists?sts?
Judais
Judaism m and Christ
and christianityianity make
make no
no secret
secret of their inabili
inability ty to
cope with
cope with the tide of materi alism and
materialism and invasio
invasion n of the West by
are comple tely taken off guard, and from
oft guard,
atheism.. Both of them are
atheism comrlletely
decadeto the
one decade
one the next one
one can
can surely
surely see
see how
how seriou
seriously sly dimin-
their resista nce is
is to
to this tide that threate
threatens ns to sweep
sweep
ished their
ished resistance
everyt away. The
hing away. materi
materialistalist atheis
atheist t sees
sees in classic
classic Chris-
evenrthing
system constrconstructeducted by men over the
men over
nothingg more than aa system
tianity nothin
tianity
last two thousa thousand design
nd years designed
years ed to ensure
ensure the
the author
authority ity of aa
minor their fellow
over their
ity over men.
fellow **tt. He
He is
is unable
unable to
to find
find in Judea-
Judeo-
minority
Christ ian writin
writings any langua
gs any language that is
ge that even vaguel
is even vaguely similarr to
y simila to
Christisu
 ll8
118 THE
TIIE BmLE
BIBLq , THE
TIIE QUR'AN AND SCIEN
QURAN SCIENCE
CE
his
his_own;
own; they contai contain n soso many improb abilities, contra
improbabilities, diction s
eontradictions
and
and incom
ineompatibilities
patibilities withwith modem
modern scienti fic data, that
scientific that he refuse
refusess
to take texts into consid eration that
consideration that the vast major majorityity of theo-
logian
Iogians s would like to see seeaccept
aceepted ed as
as an insepa rable whole.
inseparable whote.
When
When one one mentio
mentions ns Islam to the materi alist atheist
materialist atheist,, he smiles
smileg
with
with aa compla cency that
eomplaeency that is only equal equal to his ignora
ignorancence of of the
subjec
stlb;gctt. Inrn commo
common n with
with the major maiorityity ofof wester
westernn intelle ctuals,
intellectuals,
of whate
whatever ver religio
religious us persua
persuasion,
sion, he has has an impres sive collect
impressive ion
collection
of false
false notion
notions s about Islam.
One
one must,
must, onon this point, allow him one one or two excuse
excuses: s: Firstly
Firsfly, ,
apart from the newly- adopted attitud
newly-adopted attitudes es prevai
prevailing
ling among the
highes
highestt Cathol
catholicic author ities, Islam
authorities, Isram hashas always
arways been
beJn subjec
subjectt in
the West
west to aa so-call
so-called 'secular
ed 'secula r slande
slander'.r'. Anyon
Anyonee in the West west who
has
has acquir
aequired ed aa deep
deep knowle
knowledg.e dge of Islamrslam knows just just to whstwhat
extent its history
history,, dogma
dogma, , and aims have have been
been distort
distorted.ed. One
One
must alsoalso take into accoun accountt the fact that that docum ents pubrished
documents published
in Europ
European ean langua
Ianguages ges on this subjec subjeett (leavin
(reavingg aside
aside highly
hishly
special
speeialized
ized studie
studies) s) dodo not makemake the work work of of a person wiling
willing
to learn
learn any easier.
easier.
_ A knowle
knowledge dge of the Islami
Isramic c Revela tion is indeed
Revelation indeed fundam
fundamentalental
from
from this point point of of view. Unfort unatel y, passages
unfortunatery, passag es fromfrom the
Qur'an
Qur'an,, especia
espeeially
lly those
those relatin
relatingg to scienti
seientincfic data, are badly
transla
translated ted and interpr
interpreted,
eted, so so that
that a scienti
scientist st has every rightright to
make
make critici
critieisms-with
sms-w ith appare apparent nt justification-that
justifi cation -that the Book
does
does not actuallactuallyy deserv
deserve e at all. This detail is worth worth rting )ting
henceforth:
hencef orth: inaccu
inaccuracies
racies in transla
translationtion or errone ous commen_
erroneous commen-
taries (the one one is often associa
associated ted with
with the other),
other) , which would
not have
have surpris
surprised ed anybod
anybody y one
one or two centuries'ago,
centur ies ago, offend to-
day's
day's scienti
seientists.
sts. When
when facedfaced with
with a badly transrated
transla ted phrase con- con-
taining
taining a scientiscientificalry
fically unacce
unaeceptable
ptable statem
statement,ent, the scientist
scienti st is
prevented
preven ted from
from taking
taking the phrase phrase intointo serious
serious consideration.
consideration. rn In
the chapte
chapterr on human reproduction,
reproduction, a very typical typical example
example will will
be given of this kind of
be of error.
enor.
Why
why do do such
such errors in transla
translation tion exist?
exist? They may be be explained
explained
by the fact that that modern
modern translators
transla tors often take up, rather rather uncriti-
uncriti -
cally,
cally, the interp
interpretations
retatio ns given by older commentators. commentators. In In their
their
day,
day, the latter
latter had an excuse excuse for for having
having given an inappropriate
inappr opriate
definit
definitionion to an Arabic
Arabic rvordword containins
contai ning r.rr"""t
several possiul
possible *"rn-
mean-
ings; they could could not possibly
possibly havehave understood
understood the real sense sense of of
 - -----

lralrodudiort
Iffin ll0
118

the word
the word or or phrase
phrase which which has has onlyonly become
become clearclear inin the the present
present
day thanks to scientific
day thanks to scientific knowledge. knowledge. InIn other
other words,
words, the
the problem
problem
isis raised
raised of of the
the n€cessary
necessary revisionrevision of translations and
of translations and com- com-
mentaries.
mentaries. It was notIt was not possible
possible to
to do
do this
this at
at aa certain
certain period
period in
in
the past, but
the past, but nowadays wenowadays we have
have knowledge
knowledge that
that enubles
enables us
us to
to
render their true
render their true sense. These sense. These problems
problems of
of translation
translation are
are not
not
present for
preent for the
the texts
texts of of the
the Judeo-Christian
Judeo-Christian Revelation: Revelation: the the case
case
described here is absolutely unique
described here is absolutely unique to the Qur'an' to the Qur'an.
These scientific
These scientific considerations,
considerations, which which sre are very specific to
very specific to the
the
Qur'an, greatly
gfeatly surprised
surprised me
me at
at first.
first. Up
Up until
until then,
then, I
I had
had not
not
Qur'an,
thought itit possible
thought possible for for oneone toto find
find so so many statements in
many statements in aa tnxt
text
compiled more more thanthan thirteen centuries ago referring
thirteen centuries referring to extremely
to extremely
"o*piled
diverse subjects
diverse subjects and and all all ofof them
them totally
totally in keeping with
in keeping with modernmodem
scientific knowledge.
scientific knowledge. In In the beginning, II had no faith faith whatsoever
in Islam.
in Islam. II began
began lhis this examination of of the texts with with a completely
open mindmind and and a total "**mination
objectivity. IfIf there
total obiectivity. there was any influence
open
acting uponupon me, me, it it was gained from from what what II had been been taughttaught in in
".ting of 'Muhamma-
my
my youth;
youttr; people
people did not speak
speak of Muslims, but of 'Muhamma-
dans',
dens" to to make
mahe it it quite clear that that whatwhat was meant was a religion religion
founded
founded by by a
a, man
tttttt and which could
could not therefore have
have any
any
kind
kind of vslue in terms of God.
of value God. Like many in the West, west, I could could
have retained
hsve retained the the same
same false notions about Islam;
Islam; they are so
so
widely-spread
widely-spread today, today, that that II am am indeed
indeed surprised
surprised when I come come
across anyone,
across &nyone, other
other than
than a
a specialist,
specialist, who
who can
can talk
talk in
in an
an enlighL
enlight-
ened before II was
that before was
ened manner
manner on on this
this subject.
subject. II therefore
therefore admit admit that
given view of
glven aa view of Islam
Islam different
difrerent from from the the one receivedin
onereceived in the west'
the West,
II was myself extremely
was myself extremelY ignorant.
ignorant.
II owe
owe the fact that
the fact that II waswas ableable to to realize
realize the the false nature of
false nature the
of the
judgements generally
judgements generally made made in
in the
the West
West about
about Islam
Islam to
to excep-
excep-
tional
tional circumstances.
circumstances.It It was
wasin in Saudi
saudi ArabiaArabia itself that an
itself that inkling
an inkling
was given to me of the
was given to me of the extent to extent to which
which opinions
opinions held
held in
in the
the West
West
on this subject are liable
on this subject are liable to error. to error.
The
The debt
debt of of gratitude
gratitude lowe I owe to to thethe late
late King Faisal, whose
King Faisa!, whose
memory I salute with deepest respect, is
is indeed
indeed very
very great:
great: the
the
memory I salute with deepestrespect,
fact him speak on
fact that
that II was wasgiven
giventhe thesignal
signalhonour honourof hearing him speak on
of hearing
Is1am
Islamand andwas wasable ubl.totoraise
raisewithu'ithhim himcertain problems
certainproblems concerning concerning
the
theinterpretation
interpretationof of the
theQur'an
Qur'aninin relation relationtotomodernmodernscience scienceisis
aa very great privilege
very cherished
cherishedmemory. memory.ItIt was was an an extremely
extremelygreat privilege
 180
110 THE
TIIE BmLE,
BBLE THE
fiIE QUR'AN
QI'R'AN AND
ANDSCIENCE
SCTENGE

for me
for metotohave gathered so
havegathered somuch
much precious
preeiousinformation
information from
from him
him
personally and
personally andthose
thosearound
around him.
him.
sinee Ir had
Since had now
now seen seenthethe wide
wide gapgap separating
separating thethe reality
reality ofof
Islsm
Islam fromfrom the
the image
image we we have
have of
of itit in
in the
the West,
west, II experienced
experienced
great need
aagreat needto to learn
learn Arabic (rvhieh II did
Arabie (which did not
not speak)
speak) toto be
be suffi-
suffi-
ciently well-equipped to
ciently well-equipped progress in
to progress in the
the study
study ofof such
suchaa misunder-
misunder-
stood religion.
stood religion. MyMy first goal was
first goal was toto read
read thethe Qur'an
eur'an and
and to
to make
make
a sentence-by-sentenee
a sentence-by-sentence analysis analysis of of it it with
with the
the help
help of
of various
various
commentaries essential
commentaries essential to to aa critical
eritical study.
study. MyMy approach
approach was was toto
pay special attention
pay special attention to to the
the description
deseription of of numerous
numerous natural
natural
phenomenagiven
phenomena given in in the
the Qur'an;
eur'an; the the highly
hishly accurate
accurate nature
nature of of
certain details
certain details referring
referring to to them
them in in the
thJ Book,
BLok, which
which was
was only
only
apparent in
apparent in the
the original,
original, struck
struek meme by by the
the fact
fact that
that they
they were
were
in keeping
in keeping with present-day ideas,
with present-day ideas, although
although aa man living
man living: at at the
the
time of
time of Muhammad
Muhammad could could not havehave suspected
*urp..t.d this at all. all. II sub-
sub.
sequently read
sequently read several
several works writtenwritten by Muslim authors on on the
the
scientific aspects
scientific aspectsof the Qur'anic
eur'anic text: they were \4rereextremely helpful
helpful
in my
in my appreciation of it, but I have have not so far discovered
sofar discovereda a general
study of this subject
study subjeet mademade in the West.West.
What initially
What initially strikes the reader confronted for for the first
first time
time
with a text
with text ofof this kind
kind is the sheer sheer abundance
abundance of of subjects dis- dis-
cussed:
cussed: the
the Creation, astronomy, the explanation of of .*"t*in
certain maL mat-
ters
ters concerning
concerning the earth, and the animal animal and vegetable
vegetable kingdoms,
human
human reproduction.
reproduction. whereas
Whereas monumental e*ors errors areare to
to be
be found
found
in
in the
the Bible,
Bible, II could not
not find a single
single error
error inin the
the eur'an.
Qur'an. II hadhad to to
stop
stop and
and ask myself
myself:: ifif aa manman waswas thethe author
author of of the
the eur'an,
Qur'an,
how
how could
could hehe have
have written
written factsfacts inin the
the Seventh
Seventh century
century A.D. that
A.D. that
today
today are
are shown
shown to to be
be in in keeping
keeping with with modern
modern scientific
scientific knowl-
knowl-
edge?
edge? There
There was was absolutely
absolutely no no doubt
doubt about
about it:it: the
the text
text ofof the
the
Qur'an we
Qur'an we have
have today
today is is most
most definitely
definitely aa text
text of of the
the period,
period, ifif
II may
may be
be allowed
allowed to to put
put itit in
in these
these terms
terms (in(in the
the next
next cirapter
chapter of of
the present
the present section
section of
of the
the book
book II shall
shall bebe dealins
dealing withwith this
this prob-
prob-
lem).
lem). lVhat
What human
human explanation
explanation can can there
there be
be for
for this
this observation?
observation?
In
In my
my opinion
opinion there
there isis no
no explanation;
explanation; there there isis no
no special
special reason
reason
why
why an an inhabitant
inhabitant of of the Arabian peninsula
the Arabian Peninsula shouid
should,, atat aa time
time
when
when King
King Dagobert
Dagobert was was reigning
reigning inin France
France (629-689
(629-639 A.D.),
A.D.),
have
have had
had scientific
scientific knowledge
knowledge on on certain
certain subjects
subjects thatthat waswas tenten
centuries
centuries ahead
ahead ofof our
our own.
own.
 /rrrfrtdluc'drr;
lfllrodu clloa lll
III

established fact that

It is an establistred
It that at the time of the Qut'anic Revela-
Qur'an ic Revela'
within a period of roughly
tion, i.e. within roughly twentytwenty years straddling stradd ling
Hegira (622 knowledge had not progressed
scientific knowledge
(622 A.D.), scientific progressed for for
centuries and the
eenturies period of activit
activity y in Islami
Isla,mic c civiliz ation,
civilization, with
witlh
accompanying scientific
its accompanying
its came after
upsurge, ci1lne
scientific upsurgp' a,fte:r the cloeeclose of of the
Revelation.
Qur'anic it"tr.t*t]on. Only ignorance
ignora nce of such
such religio
religious us and
and s€culrr
secula r
eur'anic hesrd
data ean
a"t" lead to the
can lead following
follow ing bizarr
bizarre e sugges
suggestion tion I have
have heard
statem ents of
surpri sing statements
several times: ifif surprising
several scientific nature
of sa scientifie
exigt in the Qur'an
exist Qurran,, they may be
be accoun
accounted ted for
for by the fact fact t,hst
that
Arab scienti
Arab sts were so
scientists so far ahead
fer shesd of their
their time and Muham
Muha'mmad mad
influenced by their
was influenced
was their work. Anyone
Anyon e who knows
knows anything
anythi ng sbout
about
aware that
history is aware
Islemicc history
Islami that the period of the Middle ASeB Ages which
and scienti
culturall and scientific upsurg
fic upsurge e in the Arab
Arab world
world came
came
sew the cultura
saw
after MuhamMuhammad, mad, and and wouldwould not therefo
therefore re indulge
indulg e in such
such
whims.. Sugge
whims stions of this kind are
Susgestions are particula"lry
particu larly ofi
off the mark
becaus
because major ity of scienti
the-maiority
e the scientific facts which are either sug-
fic facts 8ug-
gested or very clearly
gested *t**itv record
recorded ed in the Qur'an
Qut'an have
have only bo€n
been
confirm
confirmed ed in moder
modern n times.
times.
e88yto see
It is easy
It seetheref
therefore ore how centuries
how for centur ies comm entators on
commetrtators on
(including ing those writingg at the height
those writin of Islamic
Islami c
Qurtan (includ
the Qur'an
culture)) have
culture inevitably
have inevita bly mademadeerrors of interp retatio
interTretation n ilF"
in the csse
ease
of certain
certain verses
verses whose
whose exact
exact meani
meaning ng could
could possibly
not possib have
ly have
was not until much
It was
d. It much later, at aa period
period not far
far
been graspe
been rasped.
from our own, own, that it possible
was possib
it was le to transla
translate and interp
te and interaretret thert
them
correc tly.
eorreetly. This
Thi; implie
implies s that
thal a
a thorou
thorough gh linguis
linguistic tic knowle
lrnowledge dge is not
itseli suffici
in itself ent to unders
sufficient understand these verses
tand these verses fromfrtm the Qurtan'.
Qur'an
neeaeaalongabng with this is aa highly hishly diversi
diversifiedfied knowledge
knowle dge
what is needed
What
of science
science. study such
. A study gs
such as the the presen
frresent embraees
one embra
t one ces many
many
ines and is in that sense
sense encycl opedic
encyclopedic. . As
As qrrestions
the questio
the ns
dise,iplinesand
discipl
raisedare-dis
raised cussed, the
are'discussed, the variety of scientiscientific fic knowle
lrnowledgB essent
dge essential ial
the unders
to the tandin
understanding g of certain
certain verses
verses of the Qur'an
Qur'an become
will becom
will e
clear.
clear.
doesnot not aimaim at explai eertain laws
ning certain
explaining gpverning
lsws govern ing
Qur'an does
The Qur'an
The
the Univer
universe,se, howev
however; er; it hashas anan absolu
absolutely tely basic
bssic religio
religious us objec-
objec-
The descrip
tive. The
tive_ tions of Divine
descriptions Divine OmnipOmnipotence otence are sre what princi-
reflect on
*an to reflect the
on the works
works of Creati
Creation' They are
on. They are
pally incite man
accompanied by referen reference$ ces to facts
fscts access
aceessible ible to
to human
human observl-
observ a-
"."i*p"nied
tion or to laws defined by
lawshefined by God who
God who presides
presid es over
over the
the organi zation
organization
both in the
se both the science
sciences nature and
s of nature and as regard'r
as regard man'
s man.
the univer
of the universe
 lll
10 1'IJE
TF BmLE
BIBLE, THE QUR'A
QTTRAN AND SCIEN
N AND SCTENGE
CE
One part
One pert of of these asserti
assertionsons is easily
eesily unders
understood,
tood, butbut the mean-
mean_
ing of the other can only be
ing grasped
be graspe d if
if one
one has
has the essent ial scien-
essential scien-
ti{tc knowl
tific knowledge
edge it it require
requires. s. This means
means that that in forme
formerr times, man
could
eould only disting
distinguish uish an appareapparent nt meani
meaning ng which
which led him him to
draw
draw the wrongwrong concluconclusionssions on accoun
aecountt of the ttre inadeq
inaa.qo**y
uacy of his
lnowledge
knowle dge at the time time in questio
guestion. n.
It possible
It is possib le that
that the choiceehoiee of verses
verses from
from the Qur'an eur'an which
whieh
are to be be studie
studied d for
for their
their scienti fic conten
scientific contentt may perhap plrhapss seemseem
too small for for certain
certain Muslim
llruslim writer
writerss who have have- alread
aireadyy drawn
d""*r,
attention
atte.nti on to them before I have. have. In genera
general, l, I believe I have
r_etained
retaine d aa slightl
slighflyy smalle
smallerr numbe
numberr of versesvers"* thanth*n they have. have. Onon
the other hand,hand, I have have singled
singred out severaseverall verses
verses which until untir
now have not, in my opinio opinion, n, been grantedd the import
been grante importance
ance they
deserv
deserye e from
from-aa scientific point point of view. Where
whereu"" ver I may**" have
_scientific
mistakenly
mistak enly failed to take verses verses into consid
eonsideration
eration for for this study
that were selecte
that seleeted d by these
these writer
writers,s, I hope
hope thatthat they will will not hold
it agains
it againett me.
me. I haveheve also found, on occasio oceasion, n, that
that certain
certain books
contain
contai n scienti
scientificfic interp
interpretations
retatio ns which do do not appeaappearr to me to
be correc
correct; t; it
it is with
with an open open mind and aa clear elear conscie
eonscience nce that
that I
provided
have provid personal
ed person al interp
interpretations
retatio ns of such such verses
verses. .
By
By the same
same token,
token, I have have tried
tried to find referen
references ces in the Qur'an
phenomena eur'an
to phenom ena access
accessibre ible to human compr comprehension
ehensi on but which have h^ave
not been
been confirm
confirmed ed by modermodernn science
science- . In
In this
this contex
context, t, I think
think I
may have found referen references ces in the Qur'an eur'an to the presen presence ce of
planetss in the Unive
planet universe rse that
that are simila
similarr to the Earth.Earttr. It tt must be
added
added thatthat many scienti scientistssts think
think this is a perfectly
perfec tly feasibl
feasible e fact,
althou
although gh moder
modern n data cannot provide provid e any rr,y hint
hirrt of of certain
certainty.ty. I
though
thoughtt lowed
r owed it it to myself to mentio mention n this, whilst
whilst retain
retaininging all
atl
the attend
attendantant reserv
reservations
ations thatthat might
might be be applied
appried..
Had this
this study been been mademade thirty
thirty years ago, ago, it it would have been been
necess
necessary ary to add anotheranothe r fact predicted
predic ted by the eur'an Qur'an to what what
would have been been eited
cited concerning
concer ning astron omy; this fact is the con-
astrotto*y;
quest of
quest of space.
space. At At that time, time, subseq
subsequentuent to the first trials trials of
of
ballistic missiles,
ballistic missiles, people
people imagined
imagin ed a day when when man rvould would perhaps
perhap s
have the material
have materi al possibirity
possib ility of reaving
leavin g his earthly habitat habita t and
explor ing space.
exploring space. It It was then known ttrat that a verseverse existed
existed in the
Qur'an predicting
predic ting how one one day man would make this conquest. conquest.
This statement
This statem ent has now been been verified.
verified.
Introduction
htfioilwfutt 12tl
123

The present
The present confrontation
confrontation between between Holy Scripture and
Holy Scripture and science
science
brings ideas into play,
bringS id""s into play, both for the both for the Bible
Bible and
and the
the Qur'an, which
Qur'an, which
concern scientific truth. For
concern scientific truth. For this confrontation this confrontation to
to be
be valid'
valid, the
the
scientific arguments to
scientific arguments to be relied upon be relied upon must
must be
be quite
quite soundly
soundly
established and
established and must
must leaveleave no no room
room for doubt. Those
for doubt. Those who who balk
balk
at the
at the idea
idea of of accepting
accepting the the intervention
intervention of science
of science in an appreci-
in an appreci-
ation of
ation of the
the Scriptures
Scriptures deny deny thatthat itit is is possible
possible for science to
for science to
constitute a valid tenn
constitute a valid term of comparison of comparison (whether
(whether it
it be
be the
the Bible'
Bible,
which does
which does not not escape
escape the the comparison unscathed-and we
comparison unscathed-and we have
have
seen why--or the Qur'an,
seen why-or the Qur'an, which has nothing which has nothing to
to fear
fear from
from sci-
sci-
ence). Science,
ence). Science, they they say, is changing with with the times and a fact
fact
accepted today
aceepted today may may be rejected later. later.
This last comment calls for
This following observation: a dis-
for the following
tinction must be drawn
tinetion drawn betweenbetween scientific theory and duly con-
trolled observed
trolled observed fact. Theory Theory is intended to explain a phenomenon phenomenon
or aa series
or series of of phenomena
phenomena not readily understandable. In
readily undershandable. In many
instances
instances theorytheory changes:
changes: it it is liable to be modifiedmodified or replaeed replaced
by
by another
another theory when scientific progress makes makes it easier to
it easier
analyse facts and invisage a more viable explanation. On the
analyse
other
other hand, an observed observed fact checked experimentation is not
checked by experimentation not
liable
liable to modification:
modification: it it becomes
becomeseasier easier to define character-
define its character-
istics, but it
istics, it remains the same. same. It It has
has been established that the
been established
Earth
Earth revolves
revolves around the Sun Sun and and the Moon Moon around the Earth, Earth'
and
and .this
this fact will will not be be subject
subjeet to revision; all that may be done
be done
in
in the
the future
future is to definedefine the the orbits
orbits more clearly.
more clearly.
A regard
A regard for for the
the changing
changlng nature nature of theorY is,
of theory is, for example,
for example,
what
what mademade me me reject
reiect aa verse verse from from the the Qur'an
Qur'an thought thought by by aa
Muslim
Muslim physicist
physicist to
to predict
predict the
the concept
concept of
of anti-matter,
anti-matter, a
a theory
theory
which
which is is at
at present
present the the subject
subject of of much debate' One
much debate. One can, can, on the
on the
other
other hand,
hand, quite
quite legitimately
legitimately devote devote greatgreat attention
attention to verse
to aa verse
from
from thethe Qur'an origins of pheno-
life, aa pheno-
of life,
Qur'an describing
describing the the aquatic
aquatic origins
menon
menonwe we shall
shall never
never be beable
ableto to verify,
verify, but which has
but which has many argu-
many argu-
ments
ments that
that speak
speak in
in its
its favour.
favour. As
As for
for observed
observed facts
facts such
such as
as the
the
evolution
evolution of
of the
the human
human embryo,
embryo, it
it is
is quite
quite possible
possible to
to confront
confront
different
different stages
stagesdescribed
describedin in the
the Qur'an
Qur'an with with thethe datadata of modern
of modern
embryology
embryology and
and find
find complete
complete concordance
concordance between
between modern
modern sci-
sci-
ence
ence and
and the
the verses
verses of
of the
the Qur'an
Qur'an referring
referring to
to this
this subject'
subject.
This
This confrontation
confrontation between between the the Qur'an
Qur'an and sciencehas
and science been
has been
completed
completed by by two
two other
other comparisons:
comparisons: one
one is
is the
the confrontation
confrontation
 I'g1
124 TIIE BmLE,
THE BIBI.FO
TIIE QUB'AN
THE ANDSCIENCE
QIIN'AI{AND SCIEN@
of modern
of modernknowledge
knowledgewith with Biblical
Biblieal data
data on
on the
the same
samesubjects;
subjects;
and the other
and the other isis the
thecomparison
comparisonfrom from the
thesame
samescientific
seientificpoint
point of
of
view between
view betweenthethe data
date inin the
the Qur'an,
eurran, the
the Book
Book ofof Revelation
Bevelation
transmitted by
transmitted by God
Godtoto the
the Prophet,
Prophet,and
andthe
the data
data in
in the
the Hadiths,
Hadiths,
booksnarrating
books narrating the
the deeds
deedsand and sayings
sayings ofof Muhammad
Muhammadthat that lie
lie
ouLgidethe
out.CJide the written
written Revelation.
Revelstion.
At the
At endof
the end of this,
this, the
the third
third section
sectionof of the presentwork,
the present work, the
the
detailed results
detailed results of of the
the comparison
comparison between
between the the Biblical
Biblical and
and
Qur'anic descriptionof
Qur'anic description of aa single
single event
event are
are given,
given, along
along with
with an
an
aceount of how the
account of how passagefared
the passage fared when
whensubjected
subjectedto to the
the scientific
scientific
criticism of
criticism of each
eachdescription.
description.An An examination
examination has,has, for
for example,
example,
been made in
been made in the the case
caseof of the
the Creation
Creationandand of the
the Flood.
Flood. In
In each
eaeh
instance,the
instance, incompatibilitieswith science
the incompatibilities sciencein thethe Biblical
Biblical descrip-
descrip-
tion have
havebeen
beenmade
madeclear.
clear. Also
Also to be seen
to be seenis is the
the complete
completeagree-
agree-
ment betweenscience
ment between scienceand
and the
the descriptions
descriptionsin thethe Qur'an
eur'an referring
referring
to them.
them. We
We shall
shall note preciselythose
note precisely those differences
differencesthat makemake one
one
description seigntifically acceptable
description sci~ntifically acceptablein the present day
the present day and
and the
other unacceptable.
other unacceptable.
firis observation
This observationis of prime prime importance,
importanee,sincesince in the West,
west,
Jews, Christians
Jews, Christians and and Atheists are unanimous
unanimous in stating (without
(without
a scrap
scrap of evidenee
evidence however)
however) that lvruhammad
Muhammad wrote wrote the
the eur'an
Qur'an
or hadhad itit written
written asas an imitation
imitation of the Bible. It It is claimed
claimed thet
that
stories
stories of religious
religious history in the Qur'an
Qur'an resume
resume Biblical stories.
stories.
This attitude is as as thoughtless
thoughtless as as saying that
that Jesus
Jesus Himself
duped
duped Iris His contemporaries
contemporaries by drawing inspiration from the old Old
Testament
Testament during His preachings:preachings: the wholewhole ofof Matthew's
Matthew's Gos- Gos-
pel
pel is basedbased on this
this continuation of of the
the old
Old restament,
Testament, as we we
have
have indeed
indeed seen
seen already.
already. What
What expert
expert inin exegesis
exegesis would
would dream
dream
of
of depriving
depriving Jesus
Jesus of
of his
his status
status agas God's
God's envoy
envoy for
for this
this reason?
reason?
This
This is is nevertheless
nevertheless the way thst
the way that Muhammad
Muhammad is is judged
judged moremore
often
often than than not
not in
in the
the West: "all he
West: "all he did
did was
was to
to copy
copy ttre
the Bible".
Bible".
rtIt is summary judgement
is aa summary judgement thatthat does
does not
not take
take account
account ofof the
the faet
fact
that the
that the Qur'anQur'an and
and the Bible provide
the Bible provide different
different versions
versions of of aa
single
single event.
event. People
People prefer
prefer not to talk
not to talk about
about the
the difference
difference inin the
the
descriptions.
descriptions. They are pronounced
They are pronounced to to be the same
be the same and
and thus
thus sciep-
sciep-
tific
tific knowledge
knowledge needneed not
not be
be brought
brought in.in. we
We shall
shall enlarge
enlarge onon these
these
problems
problems when when dealing
dealing with
with the
the description
description ofof the
the Creation
Creation and and
the
the Flood.
Flood.
IffiuLcro,l_ lgt
125

The collection
The collection of of hadiths
hadiths are are to Muhammad what
to Muhammad what the the Gospels
Gospels
are to
are to JesUs:Jesus: descriptions
descriptions of
of the
the actions
actions and
and sayings
sayings of the
of the
Prophet. Their
Pnophet. Their authors authors were
were not
not eyewitnesses.
eyewitnesses- (This
(This applies
applies at
at
least to the compilers
leas,tto the compilers of
of the
the collections
collections of
of hadiths
hadiths which
which are
are said
said
to be
to be the
the moet
most authentic
authentic and and were collected much
were collected much later later thanthan the the
time when
time when MuhammadMuhammad was
was alive).
alive). They
They do
do not
not in
in any
any way
way con-
con-
stitute books
stitute books containing
containing the the written Revelation. They
written Revelation. They are not the
are not the
word of God, but
word of God, but the sayings the sayings of
of the
the Prophet.
Prophet. In
In these
these books,
books,
which are
which are very
very widely
widely read,
read, statements
statements are are toto be found containing
be found containing
errors from a scientific
errors from a scientific point
point of
of view,
view, especially
especially medical
medical remedies'
remedies.
We naturally
We nsturally discount dis'count anything
anything relating
relating to
to problems
problems of
of aa relig-
relig-
ious kind,
ious kind, since they
they are not
not discussed
discussed here
here in
in the
the context of
of the
the
hadiths. Many
hadiths. Many hadiths hadiths are of
of doubtful
doubtful authenticity;
authenticity; they
they are
discussed by
discussed by Muslim
Muslim scientists themselves. themselves. When the scientific
nature
nature of of one of
of the hadiths is touched
touehed upon in the present present work' work,
it is essentially
it is essentially to put
put into relief
relief all that
that distinguishes them from
from
the Qur'an
the Qur'an itself itself when seen
seen from
from this
this point
point of
of view, since
since the
latter does
latter does not contain a single scientific statement that
that is unae-
unac-
ceptable.
ceptable. The difference,
difference, as as we shall see, startling.
see, is quite startling.
The above
The above observation makes
makes the hypothesis advanced
advanced those
by those
who see
who see Muhammad as
as the author of the Qur'an quite untenable.
untenable.
How
How could
eould aa man,
man, from being illiterate, illiterate, become
becomethe most impor-
tant author,
tant author, in terms of literary
literary merit,
merit, in the whole of Arabic Arabic
literature?
literature? How could
could he he then pronounce
pronounce truths
truths of a
a scientifie
scientific
nature
nature thatthat nono other
other human
human being being could possibly have
could possibly developed
have developed
at the time, and
at the time, and all thisall this without
rvithout once
once making
making the
the slightest
slightest error
error
in his pronouncements on
in his pronouncements on the subject? the subject?
The
The ideas
ideas in in this study are
this study are developed
developedfrom from aa purely purely scientific
scientific
point of view. They lead
point of view. They lead to the to the conclusion
conclusion.that that it
it is
is inconceivable
inconceivable
for
io" a human
human being being living
living in in the
the Seventh'
Seventh century
century A.D. A.D' to have
to have
made " statements in
inade statements the Qur'anin the Qur'an on
on a
a great
great variety
variety of
of subjects
subjects that
that
do not belong
do not belong to his to his period
period and
and for
for them
them to
to be
be in
in keeping
keeping with
with
what
what was was toto be
beknown
known onlyonly centuries
centuries later. later- For Fdr me, there can
me, there can be be
no human explanation to
no human explanation to the Qur'an. the Qur'an.
 II
il
Authenticity
4.uthEntit:il}' of the
of the Qo..'an.
Qur'arr,
Ho~
How It lt CaIRE
Carrre
To l3e
To Be W ..illen.
Wrillerr.
Thanks to
Thanks to its
its undisputed
undisputed authenticity, the text of the the Qur'an
eur'an
holds a unique
holds a unique place place among
among the books books of Revelation,
Revelation, sharedslared
neither by the Old
neither old nor the New Testament.
Testament. In the first two two sec-
sec-
tions of this work, aa review was
tions rvas made
made of the alterations under- under-
gone by the Old
gone old Testament
restament and the Gospels Gospels before they they were
were
handed
handed down to us us in the form
form we know today. The same same is is not
not
true for
true for the Qur'an for for the simpre
simple reason
reason that
that itit was.
was. written
written
down at
down at the time
time ofof the prophet;
Prophet; we shall see see how itit came
came to to be
be
written, i.e. process
written, Le. the process involved. involved.
In
In this
this context, the differences
differences separating
separating the eur'an
Qur'an from from the
the
Bible
Bible areare in in no wayway due to question*
questions *sr.nlially
essentially ioncerned
concerned with with
date. Such questions
date. such questions are constanfly
constantly put put forward
forward byby certain
certain people
people
without
without regard
regard to to the cireumstanees
circumstances prevailing
prevailing at at the
the time
time when
when
the
the Judeo-christian
Judeo-Christian and and thethe eur'anic
Qur'anic Revetations
Revelations werewere written;
written;
they
they have
have an an equal
equal disregard
disregard for for the
the circumstances
circumstances surrounding
surrounding
the
the transmission
transmission of of the
the eur'an
Qur'an to the prophet.
to the Prophet. ItIt is is suggested
suggested
that
that aa seventh
Seventh century
century texttext had
had more
more rikelihood
likelihood ofof cominstown
coming down
to
to usus unaltered
unaltered than than other
other texts
texts that
that are
are asas many
many as as fifteen
fifteen cen-
cen-
turies
turies older.
older. This
This comment,
comment, although
although correct,
correct, does
does notnot constitute
constitute
aa sufficient
sufficient reason;
reason; itit is
is made
made more
more to to excuse
excuse the
the alterations
alterations made made
in
in the
the Judeo-christian
Judeo-Christian texts texts in in the
the course
course of of centuries
centuries than to
than to
underline
underline the the notion
notion that
that the
the text
text ofof the
the eur'an,
Qur'an, which
which was was more
more
recent,
recent, hadhad lessless to
to fear
fear from
from being
being' modified
modified by by man.
man.

rg0
126
Authenticity tM Qut'an.
of tllo
Autlrrlnffitg ol Qrdan. How ltIt CanP be Written
to be
Came to L27
127

In the
In the case
ease ofof the
the Old
Old Testament,
Testament, the the sheer
sheer number
number of of authors
authors
who tell
who tell the
the same story,
story, plus plus all
all the
the revisions
revisions carried
carried out out on thethe
text
text of
of certain
certain books from
from the
the pre-Christian
pre-Christian era, constitute
constitute as
many reasons for
msny for inaccuracy contradiction. As
inaccuracy and contradiction. As forfor thethe
Gospels, nobody can claim that
Gospels, that they invariably contain faithful
they invariably faithful
accounts of of Jesus's words
words or description of
or a description his actions strictly
of his strictly
in
in keeping with
with reality.
reality. We have seen
seen how successive
successive versions
of the texts
of texts showed a lack lack of of definite authenticity and moreover
definite authenticity moreover
that their authors
that their authors were not
not eyewitnesses.
eyewitnesses.
Also to be underlined is the distinction distinction to be made between between
the Qur'fln,
Qur'an, a book of written Revelation, and the hadiths, col-
written Revelation,
leetions of of statements concerningconcerning the actions and sayings of of
Muhammad. Some Some of Prophet's companions started
of the Prophet's started to write write
them down from from the moment of his death. element of hu-
death. As an element
man error
error could have slipped in, the collection
collection had be resumed
to be resumed
later
later and subjeeted
subjected to rigorous criticism
rigorous criticism so
so that
that the greatest
credit
credit is in practise
prsctise given to documents
documents that came
that came along after
after
Muhammad. Their Their authenticity
authenticity varies, like that that of the Gospels.
Gospels.
Not
Not a single Gospel
Gospel was written written down at the time of Jesus Jesus (they
were all written
written long after after his earthly
earthly mission had come come to an
end), and not a single collection collection of hadiths was was compiled during
compiled during
the time of the Prophet.
The situation is very different for the Qur'an. As the Revelation Revelation
progressed,
progressed, the Prophet and and the believers
believers following
following him recited
the text by heart and it was was also
also written
written down
down by the the scribes
scribes in
his following. It It therefore starts off with
with two elements
elements of authen-
authen-
ticity
ticity that the Gospels
Gospels do do not possess.
possess. This continued
continued up
up to the
Prophet's death.
Prophet's death. At aa time when not everybody
lvhen not everybody could
could write, but
everyone was able to recite,
everyone was able to reeite, r'ecitntion recitation afforded
afforded a
a considerable
considerable
advantage
advantage becausebecause of the the double-checking possible when
double-checkingpossible when the the
definitive
definitive text was compiled.
was compiled.
The
The Qur'anic
Qur'anic Revelation
Revelation was was made
made by by Archangel Gabriel to
Archangel Gabriel to
Muhammad.
Muhammad. It took It took place
place over
over a a period
period of
of more
more than
than twenty
twenty
years
years of of the
the Prophet's
Prophet's life, life, beginning
beginning withn'ith the
the first verses of
first verses of
Sura 96, then resuming after
Sura 96, then resuming after a three-year a three-year break
break for
for a
a long
long period
period
of
of twenty
twenty years
years up up toto the
the death
death ofof the
the Prophet
Prophet in in 632 A.D., Le.
632 A.D., i.e.
ten
ten years
years before
before Hegira
Hegira and and ten years
ten years after Hegira.l
after Hegira. 1

1. Muhammad's
1. Muhsmmad's departure
departure from
from Makka
Makka to
to Marlina, A'D'
622 A.D.
Madina,622
 I88
118 TTIEBmLE,
TIlE BIBI,4 THE
MIE QUR'AN
QT'N'ANAIID SCIENCE
AND SCIENCE

fire following
The following was wssthettrefirst
first Revelation
Revelation(sura (sure96,
96,verses
verses1I to 6)1r: :
to 5)
"Read:
"Bead: In In the
the name
narneof of thy
thy Lord
Inrd whowhocreated,
created,
Slho erested
Who created man from man from something
somethingwhich whieh clings
clings
Read! Thy
Read! Thy Lord
Iord is is the
the most
mostNoble
Noble
TVhotaught
Who taught by by the
the penpen
Iilho taught
Who taught man man whatwhat he hedid
did not
not know."
know."
Professor Hamidullah
Professor Hamidullah notes notesin in the
the Introduction
Introduction toto his
his French
French
tranelstion of
translation of the
the Qur'an
Qur'an that that one
one of of the
the themes
themes of of this
this first
first
Revelation was
Revelation wasrthe 'praise of
the 'praise the pen
of the pen as as aa means
means of of human
human
knowledge'which
knowledge' which would 'explain the
would 'explain prophet's concern
the Prophet's concernfor for the
the
pnesenration
preservation of the the Qur'an
Qur'an in writing.'
Texts formally prove
Texts prove that long long before
before the prophet left Makka
the Prophet Msl*s
Madina (i.e.
for Madina (i.e. long
long before
before Hegira),
rlegrra), the the Qur'anic
eur'anie text so
so far
revealedhad
revealed had been
been written down. down. 'Ve
lve shall
shall see
seehow
how the
the Qur'an
eur'an
authentic in this.
is authentic this. WeWe know
know that M:uhammad
llluhammad and and the
the Believers
Believers
who surrounded
who surrounded him were accustomedto reciting the
were accustomed the revealed
revealed
text from memory.memory. It It is therefore
therefore inconceivable
inconceivablefor the the Qur'an
eur'an
to refer to facts facts that did not square square with reality becausebecausethe
Iattcr could
latter could so so easily
easily be checkedwith people
be cheeked prophet's
people in the Prophet's
following, by asking
following, asking the authors
authors of the transcription.
Four surassuras dating from a period period prior
prior to Hegira refer to the
urriting
writing dourn down of the Qur'an Qur'an beforebefore the prophet
Prophet left Mskka
Makka in
622 (sura
622 (sura 80, 80, verses
verses 11 1l to 16) 16)::
"By no means
"By means!! Indeed
Indeed itit is a message
message of instruction
Thenefore
Therefore whoeverwhoever wills, should should remember
remember
On
On leaves
leaves held
held in honor
Exalted, purified
In
In the hands
hands of of seribes
scribes
Noble
Noble and and pious."
pious."
Yusuf
Yusuf Ali, Ali, in
in the
the commentary
commentary to to his
his translation,
translation, rg84,
1984, wrote
wrote
that when
thst when the the Revelation
Revelation of of this
this sur&
sura waswas made,
made, forty-two
forty-two or or
forty-five
forty-five others
others had had been
been written
written and and were
were kept
kept by
by Muslims
Muslims in in
Maleka (out
Mskka (out of of sa total
total ofof 114).
114).

1.
1. Muhemmad
Muhammad wac was totslly
totally overwhelmed
overwhelmed by by these
these words.
words. WeWe shall
shall retrrn
return to
to
an
an interpretation
interpretation ofof them,
them, especially
especially with
with regard
regard to the fect
to the fact that
that Mu-
Mu-
hrnmgd
hammad could
eould neither
neither reed
read nor write.
nor writo,
Au'henticityof
AuJheaticitgof tle Qur'an. Hotp
,he Qufan. How" Came tobeWdtten
ItCamr* be Written '0 129
129

-Sura
-Sura 85, 85, verses
verses 21 21 and
and 22:22:
"Nay, this
"Nay, this is is a
a glorious
glorious reading
readingr 1

On aa Preserved
On preserved tablet"
tablet"
-Sura
-Sura 56, 56, verses
verses 7? 77 toto 80:
80 :
"This is
"This is a a glorious
glorious reading
reading' 1

In aa book
In book well
well kePt
kept
Which none but
\4lhich none but the the Purified
purified teach.teach.
This
This is a Revelation
Revelation from
from the
the Lord of
Lord of the
the Worlds'"
Worlds."
-Sura
-Sura 26, 25, verse 5: 5:
"They said: Tales of
"They ancients which he has caused
of the ancients caused to be
written
written and they are dictated to him
him morning
morning and evening."
evening."
Here
Here we have a reference to
to the accusations
accusations made
made by
by the
Prophet's
Prophet's enemiesenemies who treated him
him as an imposter. They spread
spread
the rumour that that stories
stories of antiquity rvere
of antiquity were being dictateddictated to him
and he was rvriting
and writing them down or having them transeribed transcribed (the (the
meaning of of the word is debatable,
debatable, but one one must rememberremember that that
Muhammad
Muhammad was illiterate). illiterate) . However this may be, verse refers
be, the verse
to this act of making making a written
written record.
reeortl which is pointed out by
Muhammad's enemies themselves.
enemies themselves.
A sura that came came after
after Hegira makes makes one one last mention of the
leaves
Ieaveson on which these
these divine instructions were written:
were written:
-Sura 98,
-Sura verses
98, verses and 2 and 3:
"An
"An (apostle)
(apostle) from God God recites
recites leavesleaves
Kept pure where where are are decrees
decrees right
right and straight."
and straight."
The Qur'an
Qur'an itself therefore provides
provides indications as the fact
as to the
that it was set down
that it was set down in writing in writing at
at the
the time
time of
of the
the Prophet.
Prophet. It is
It is
aa known fact that
known fact that there werethere were several
several scribes
scribes in
in his
his following,
following,
the
the most
most famous
famous of of whom,
whom , Zaid Zaid Ibn Ibn Thabit,
ThAbit, has has leftleft his name to
his name to
posterity.
posterity.
In
In the
the preface
preface to to his
his French
French translation
translation of the Qur'an
of the (19?1) '
Qur'an (1971),
Professor Hamidullah
Professor Hamidullah gives
gives an
an excellent
excellent description
description of
of the
the condi-
condi-
tions that
tions that prevailed
prevailed when
when the
the text
text of
of the
the Qur'an
Qur'an was
was written,
written,
lasting
lasting up up until
until the
the time
time of of the
the Prophet's
Prophet's death: death:
"The
"The sources
sourcesall all agree
agree in in stating
stating that rvheneveraa fragment
that whenever fragaent of of
the Qur'an was revealed,
the Qurtan wag revealed, the Prophet the Prophet called
called one
one of
of his
his literate
literate
companions
companions and and dictated
dictated itit to to him, indicating at
him, indicating at the same time
the same time
the exact position
the exact position of the newof the new fragment
fragment in
in the
the fabric
fabric of
of what
what
had
had already
already beenbeenreceived
received... . . . Descriptions
Descriptions note note that Muhammad
that Muhammad
1.l* In
fo the tcxt: Qu,.'
tn" text: ci-n which
Qtlr'dln which also
elsomeans 'reading'.
meang'reading''
 130
130 THE
THEBIBLE,
BTBLE,THE
TrIEQUR'AN
QUR'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

nskedthe
asked thescribe
scribetoto reread
rereadto to him
him whatwhat hadhadbeenbeendictated
dictated so sothat
that
hecould
he couldcorrect
correctany any deficiencies
deficiencies. .. . . . Another
Another famous story tells
famous story tells
how every
how every year year in in the
the month
month of of Ramadan,
Ramadan,the prophet would
the Prophet would
recite the rvhole of
recite the whole of the Qur'an ilre eur'an (so far(so far revealed)
revealed)to to Gabriel
Ganriel . . .,
0 0 0'

that in
that in the
theRamadan
RamadanprecedingprecedingMuhammad's
Muhammad'sdeath, death,Gabriel
Gabriel hadhad
made him recite it
made him recite it twice ... twiee . . .It
It isis known
known how horvsince
sincethe prophet's
the Prophet's
time, Muslims
time, Muslimsacquiredaequiredthe the habit
habit of of keeping
keepingvigil
vigil during
during Rama-
B"*"-
dan, and of reciting
dan, and of reciting the the whole
whole of of the
the Qur'an
eur'an in in addition
addition to to the
th"
usual praysl* expected
usualprayers expectedof of them.
them.Several
severalsources
sourcesadd add that
that Muham-
Muham-
mad's scribe
mad's scribe Zaidzaid was present at
was present at this
this final
final bringing-together
bringing-together of of
the texts' Elsewhere,
the texts. Elsewhere, numerous nurnerousother other personalities
personalitiesare are mentioned
rnentioned
aswell."
as well."
Extremely
Extremely diverse diverse materials
materials were were used
used forfor this
this first
first record:
record:
parchment, leather,
parchment, leather, wooden
wooden tablets,
tablets, camels' scapula, soft
camels' scapula, soft stone
stone
for inscriptions,
for inscriptions, etc. etc.
At the
At the same
same time however,horvever, Muhammad
Muhammad recommendedrecommendedthat that the
the
faithful learn
faithful learn the the Qur'an
Qur'an by heart. heart. They did this for aa part part ifif
not all of the
not the text recited
recited during prayers. prayers. Thus there were were
Hafi.zil,nwho
lJaf~zun rvho knew
knerv the the whole
whore of the Qur'an eurian by heart and and spread
spread
it abroad.
it abroad.The method method of doubly
doubry preserving
preserving the text both in in writ-
writ-
ing and
ing and by memorization
memorization proved proved to be extremely
extremely precious.
precious.
Not
Not long after the prophet's
long after Prophet's death death (682),
(632), his successor
successor Abu Abu
Bakr,
Bakr, thethe first
first caliph
Caliph of of tsram,
Islam, askedasked Muhammad's
Muhammad's former former headhead
scribe, zaid lbn
scribe, Zaid Ibn Thdbit,
Thtibit, to make make a copy; this he did. on On omar's
Omar's
initiative
initiative (the (the future second second caliph),
Caliph), zaid Zaid consulted
consulted all the the in-
in-
formation
formation he could could assemble
assemble at at Madina:
Madina: the the witness
witness of of the
the
lfaf~zun, copies
Vafizun, copies of of the
the Book
Book written
written on on various
various materials
materials belong-
belong-
ing to private
ing to private individuals,
individuals, all all with
with the the object
object of of avoiding
avoiding possible
possible
errors
errors in in transcription.
transcription. Thus Thus an an extremely
extremely faithful
faithful copy copy ofof the
the
Book
Book waswas obtained.
obtained.
The
The sources
sources tell tell us
us that
that caliph
Caliph omar,Omar, Abu Abu Bakr's
Bakr's successor
successor in in
634,
634, subsequently
subsequently made made aa single volume (mushnf)
single volume (mufllJaf) that that hehe pre-
pre-
served and gave
served and gave onon his
his death
death to to his
his daughter
daughter Harsa,
Hafsa, the the prophet's
Prophet's
widow.
widow.
The
The third
third caliph
Caliph of of Islam,
Islam, uthman,
Uthman, who who heldheld thethe caliphate
caliphate
from 644 to 655, entrusted
from 644 to 655, entrusted aa commission commission of of experts
experts with with the
the
preparation
preparationof thegreat
ofthe greatrecension
recensionthat thatbears
bearshis name.ItItchecked
hisname. checked
the
theauthenticity
authenticityof ofthe
thedocument
documentproduced producedunder underAbu AbuBakr Bakrwhieh
which
had remained in
had remained in Hafsa's possession
Hafsa's possession until until that
thattime.
time. TheThecommis-
commis-
 oftthe
AutJumlicityol
Autlenticttg E Qufan. It Clime tobeWfitten
Qur'an. How ItCamc to be Written l3l
131

sion consulted
sion consulted Muslims
Muslims who who knerv
knew thethe text by heart.
text by The critical
heart. The critical
analysis of
analysis of the
the authentieity
authenticity of of the
the text
text was carried out
was earried very rigor-
out very rigor-
ously. The
ously. The agreement
agreement of of the
the witnesses
witnesses waswas deemed necessary be-
deemed necessary be-
fore the
fore the slightest
slightest verse
verse containing
containing debatable material was
debatable material was re-
re-
tained. ItIt is
tained. is indeed
indeed known
known how how some verses of
some verses of the Qur'an correet
the Qur'an correct
others in
others in the
the case
case ofof prescriptions:
prescriptions: this this may
may be readily explained
be readily explained
when one
when one rem€mbers
remembers that that the
the Prophet's period
Prophet's period of apostolic activ-
of apostolic activ-
ity stretched
ity stretched over twenty years (in
twenty years round figures). The result
(in round result is
text containing
a text containing an order order of of suras thatthat reflects the orderorder fol-
fol-
lowed by
lowed by the Prophet in complete recital of
in his complete of the Qur'an during
during
Ramadan, as mentioned above.
Ramadan, above.
One might
One might perhaps
perhaps ponder
ponder the motives that led the first three
motives that
Caliphs, especially
Caliphs, especially Uthman, to commission collections and recen-
commission collections recen-
sions of
sions reasons are in fact very simple: Islam's
of the text. The reasons
expansion in the very first decades
expansion Muhammad's death
decades following Muhammad's death
was very rapid indeed
was indeed and
and it it happened among peoples
happened among whose na-
peoples whose
tive language
language was was not Arabic. It It was
was absolutely necessary to
absolutely necessary
ensure
ensure the spreadspread of aa text that retained retained its original purity: purity:
Uthman's recension
recensionhad had this as as its objective.
objective.
Uthman sent sent copies
copiesof the the text of the recensionto the centres
the recension centres
of the
the Islamic
Islamic Empire and and that is why, why, according Professor
according to Professor
Hamidullah,
Hamidullah, copies copiesattributed to Uthman exist Tashkent and
exist in Tashkent and
Istanbul. Apart from one
Istanbul. possiblemistakes
oneor two possible mistakesin copying, the
copying, the
oldest
oldest documents
documentsknown known to the present day,
the present day, that are be found
are to be found
throughout
throughout the the Islamic
Islamic world,
world, are are identical;
identical; the sameis
the same for
is true for
documents
documentspreserved
preservedin in Europe
Europe (there(there are
are fragments in the
fragments in the Bib- Bib-
liotheque
lioth}que Nationale
Nationale in in Paris
Paris which,
which, according
accordingto the experts,
to the date
experts,date
from
from thethe Eighth
Eighth and and Ninth
Ninth centuries
centuriesA.D., the Second
i'e. the Second and
A.D., Le. and
Third
Third Hegirian
Hegirian centuries).
centuries).The The numerous
numerousancient texts that
ancienttexts that are are
known
known to to be
be inin existence
existenceall all agree
agree except
exceptforfor very minor varia-
very minor varia-
tions
tions which
which do do not
not change
changethe generalmeaning
the general meaningof the text
of the all'
at all.
text at
If
If the
the context
context sometimes
sometimesallowsallows more
more than
than one interpretation,
one interpretation, it it
may
may well
well have
haveto to do
do with
with thethe fact
fact that
that ancient writing rvas
ancientwriting was sim- sim-
pler
pler than
than that
that ofof the
thepresent
Presentday.1day.'

1.1. The
The absence
absence ofof diacritical
diacritical marks,
marks, for
for example,
example, could
could make verb either
make aa verb either
active or passive
passive and
and in
in some
some instances,
instances, masculine
masculine or
or feminine,
feminine. More
More
active or
often great cmsequence sinee
often than
thsn not
not however,
however, thisthis was
was hardly
hardly ofof any
any great c'lnseguence since
the context indicated
the context indicsted the
the meaning
meaning in
in many
many instances.
instances'
138
131 TIIE BIBLE,
THE BIEI,E,TIlE
IIIE QUB'AN ANDSCIENCE
QI,R'ANAND SCIENGE

The 114
The 114 auras
suras were arranged in
were arranged in decreasing
decreasingorder
order of
of length;
length;
there were
there were nevertheless
neverthelessexceptions.
exceptions.The The chronological
chronologicalsequence
sequence
of the
of the Revelation
Revelationwas
wasnot not followed.
followed.In In the
the majority
majority of
of cases
caseshow-
how-
ever,this
ever, this sequence
sequence is known.
is known.A A large
large number
numberof of descriptions
descriptionsare
are
mentionedat
mentioned at several points in
severalpoints in the
the text,
text, sometimes
sometimesgiving rise to
giving rise to
repetitions. Very
repetitions. Very frequently passagewill
frequently aa passage will add
add details
details to
to aa de-
de-
scription that appears
scription appearselsewhere
elsewherein an an incomplete
incompleteform.
form. Every-
Every-
conneetedwith modem
thing connected modernscience
scienceis,is, like
like many
meny subjects
subjectsdealt
dealt
with in thethe Qur'an, scatteredthroughout
Qur'an, scattered throughout the the book
book without anyany
semblanceof classification.
semblance classification.
 ril
III
The Creation
The of the
C..ealion of the
Hea.ens and
Heaverrs the Earth.
and the Earth.
DIFFERENCES FROM
DIFFEREIVCES FROM AND RESEMBLENCES TO
AND NESEMBLENCES TO
THE BIBLICAL
THE BIBLICAL DESCRIPTION.
DESCNIPTION'
In contrast
In contrast to to the Otd Old Testament, the Qur'an Qur'an does not provide
does not provide
a unified
a unified description
description of the Creation.
of the Creation. InsteadInstead of continuous nar-
of a continuous nar-
ration, there
ration, there are passages
passages scattered all all over the Book which which dc'al
d(·:ll
with certain
with certain aspects
aspects of of the Creation and provide information information on on
the
the successive
successive events marking marking its development with varying de-
with varying
grees
gTe€sof detail. To giin
of detail. g1Iin a clear idea of how these these events are pre- pre-
sented,
sented, the the fragments
fragm*nt* scattered
r.*ttered throughout
throughout a large number number of of
suras
sur88 have
have to be brought
brought together.
togPther'
This
This dispersal
dispersal throughout the Book Book of references
references to the same same
subject
subject is not unique to the theme of the Creation. Many import- import-
ant
ant subjects
subjects are treatedtreated in the the same
same manner in the Qur'an:
earthly
earthly or or celestial
celestial phenomena,
phenomena,or problems concerning
or problems concerning man that
man that
are
are ofof interest
interest to to scientists.
scientists. For For each
each of of these themes, the
these themes, same
the same
effort
efrort has
has been
been made
made here
here to
to bring
bring all
all the
the verses
verses together'
together.
For many
For ma4y European
European commentators,
commentators, the the description
description of of the Cre-
the Cre-
ation
stion in
in the
thC Qur'an
Qur'an is
is very
very similar
similar to
to the
the one
one in
in the
the Bible
Bible and
and they
they
are
are quite
quite content
content to to present
present the the two
two descriptions
descriptions side side' II
by side.
side by
believe this concept
believe this concept is
is mistaken
mistaken because
because there
there are
are very
very obvious
obvious
differences.
difrerences.On On subjects
subjects that that are are byby no
no means
meansunimportant
unimportant from from
aa scientific
scientific point
point of
of view,
view, we
rve find
find statements
statements in
in the
the Qur'an
Qur'an whose
whose
equivalents
eguivalents we we search
search for for in in vain
vain in in the
the Bible.
Bible. The con-
latter con-
The latter
tains descriptions
taing descriptions that
that have
have no
no equivalent
equiyalent in
in the
the Qur'an.
Qur'an.
The
The obvious
obvious resemblances
resemblaneesbetween between the the two two textstexts are well
are well
known; among
knowu; emong them them is
is the
the fact
fact that,
that, at
at first
first glance,
glance, the
the number
number

133
133
 134
134 TrrEBIBLE,
THE BrBL4 THE
THEQUR'AN
QIrn'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIEnGE
grvento
given to the
the successive
successivestages
stagesof
of the
the Creation
Creationisis identical:
identical: the
the
sixdays
six daysinin the
theBible
Biblecorrespond
correspondto
to the eurran. In
the six days in the Qur'an.
six days in the rn
fact however,
fact however,the problemisis more
the problem more complex
complexthan
thsn this
this and
and it
it is
is
worth pausingto
worth pausing toexamine
examineit.
it.
TheS&
The Periods of
SlcPerioih of the
tLeCreafion.
Cretfnn.
There is
There is absolutely
absolutelyno no ambiguity
ambiguity whatsoever
whatsoeverin in the
the Biblical!
Biblical'
descriptionof
description of the
the Creation
Creationin in six
six days
daysfollowed
followedby by aa day
day of
of rest,
rest,
the sabbath,
the sabbath,analogous
analogouswith with the days of
the days of the
the week.
week. Itrt has
hss been
been
shownhow
shown howthisthis mode
modeof of narration practicedby
narration practiced by the
the priests
priests ofof the
the
sixth century
Sixth century B.C.
B.c. served
serrredthe purposeof
the purpose of encouraging
encouragingthe the people
people
to observe
to obserrrethethe sabbath.
sabbath. AllAll Jews
Jews were expeetedto rest'
were expected restr on
on the
the
sabbathas
sabbath as the
the Lord
rnrd hadhad done
doneafter he he had
had laboured
labouredduring the the
six days
six daysof of the
the week.
week.
The way
The way the
the Bible
Bible interprets
interprets it, the
the word 'day' means
word 'day' meansthe the inter-
val time between
val of time betweentwo successive
successivesunrises
sunrises or sunsets
sunsetsfor an an
inhabitant of the the Earth. WhenWhen defined
definedin this way,wey, the
the day
day is con-
con-
ditionedby
ditioned by the
the rotation
rotation of thethe Earth on on its own axis. It
own axis. It is obvious
obvious
logically-speakingthere
that logically-speaking there can
can bebe no
no question ,days' as
questionof 'days' as de-
de-
fined just now,
fined just now, if if the
the mechanism
meehanismthat causes causesthem
them to appear-i.e.
appeal-i.g.
the existence
the existenceof the the Earth and and its
itg rotation around
around the Sun-has
Sun-has
already been
not already beenfixedfixed in the early etages
stages of the Crestion
Creation sccord-
accord-
ing to thethe Biblical
Biblical description.
description.This ifirpossibility
itnpossibility hashas slresdy
already
beenemphasized
been emphasizedin the first part of the present present book.
book.
When we
When we refer to the majority
majority of translations th~Qur'an,
translations of the-eur'an,
we
we read
read that-analogous
that-analogous with with the Bibliesl
Biblical description-the
description-the prr> pro-
eess
cess of the Creation
Creation for for the Islamic Revelation
Revelation alsoalso took place
place
over a period
period of six days.days. It
It is difficult to hold against
against the trans-
lators the fact that that they havehave translated
translated the Arabic word word by by its
its
most
most common
common meaning.
meaning. This is how itit is usually usually expressed
expressed in in
translations
translations so so that in the Qur'an,Qur'an, verse
verse 84, reads as
54, sura ?7 reads as
follows:
follows:
uYour Iord
"Your Lord is is God
God whoWho created
created thethe heavens
heavens and and the
the earth
earth
in
in six days,"
days."
1. The
The Btblied
Biblical description
description mentioned
mentioned herehere isis taken
taken from
from the
the so-cglled
so-called Se-
Sa-
eerdotal
cerdotal vergion
version discussed
discussed inin the first part
tbe first part of of this
this rork;
work; thethe degcripdon
description
taken
taken from
from the the so-called
so-called Yahvist
Yahvist version
version hasbas been
been comprecged
compressed into into the
the
tpace
space of of aa fer
fe'w lines
lines in
in today'r
today's vergion
version ofof the
the Bible
Bible and
and isis too insubstan-
too ingubstan-
tial
tial to
to be
be congidered
conllidered her.e.
here.
'Sabbstht
2. 'Sabbath' in in llebrew means ,to
Hebrew means 'to rert'.
rest'.
The Cteation
TIw oftlw
Creationof HetJ.,em ald
the Heaoew the Eafih
andthe Earth f35
135

Thereare
There arevery
veryfew
fewtranslations
translationsand commentaries of
andcommentaries ofthetheQur'an
Qur'an
that notenote how how thethe word 'days'
word 'days' should really be taken to
should really be taken to mesn
mean
that
'periods'.
'periods'. ItIt has has moreover
moreover been maintained that
been maintained that ifif the
the Qur'anie
Qur'anic
texts on
texts on the the Creation
Creation divided
divided its its stages into 'days',
stages into was with
'days', itit was with
the deliberate
the deliberate intention
intention of of taking
taking up up beliefs held by all the Jews
beliefs held by all the Jews
and Christians
and Christians at at the
the dawn
dawn of of Islam
Islam andand of avoiding aa head-on
of avoiding head-on
confrontation rvith
confrontation with such
such aa widely-held
widely-held belief.
belief.
Without in
Without in any
any way
way wishing
wishing to reject this
to reject way of
this way seeing it,
of seeing it, one
one
could perhaps
could perhaps examine
examine the the problem
problem aa little more closely and scru-
little more elosely and scru-
tinize
Li'nizein in the
the Qur'an
Qur'an itself, more generally
and more
itself , and generally in in the language of
the lang:uage of
the time,
the time, the the possible
possible meaning
meaning of of the
the word many translators
that many
word that translators
'day'i
themselves still
themselves still continue to to translate
translate by by thethe word
word 'day': AQ,unL,yaum,
plural agyd,m
plural ayyam in in Arabic.'
Arabic. 1
Its most common
Its common meaning is 'day' 'day' but stressed that
but itit must be stressed that
it tends
it tends more to mean mean the diurnal light than the length of
diurnal light of time
time
that lapses
that lapses between
between one one day's sunset and the next. The plural
day's sunset plural
ayyam *"r,
aEgd,m can **tn,
mean, not iust 'days',
just 'days', but also also 'long
'long length of of time',
'pe-
an ind.finite
*tt indefinite period of time (but always always long). The meaning meaning 'pe-
riod
riod of time' time' that the word contains contains is to be elsewhere in
be found elsewhere in
the
the Qur'an.
Qur'an. Hence Hence the following:
-sura
-Sura 32, 32, verSe5:
verse
,,. . . in aa period
"... period of time (yaum) (aattm) whereof
whereof the measure is
the measure is aa
thousand
thousand years years of your reckoning."
reckoning."
(It
(It isis toto be
be noted
noted that the the Creation
Creation in six periods is
six periods precisely
is precisely
what the verse preceding
what the verse preceding verse 5 verse 5 refers
refers to)
to). '
-sura
-Sura 70, 70, verse
verse 4:4:
",,.
.... . in
in aa period
period of of time (yattm) whereof
time (yaum) whereofthe measureis
the measure is 50,000
50,000
years."
years."
The 'yaum'could period of
meanaa period that
time that
of time
The factfact that
that the
the word
word 'yaum' could mean
was
was quite
quite different
different fromfrom the period that
the period that we mean by
we mean word
the word
by the
.day' struck
'day' struck very very early
early commentators
commentators who, who, of course, did
of course, not
did not
have
have the the ltnowledge length of
the length of
hnowledgewe we possess
possesstoday today concerning
concerning the
the
the stages
stagesin in the
the formation
formation of of the
the Universe.
Universe. In Sixteenth
the Sixteenth
In the
century
century A.D.
A.D. for
for example,
example, Abu
Abu al
al Sii'ud,
s['ud, who
who could
could not
not havehad
have had
any
any ideaidea of of the
the day
day as as defined
definedastronomically
astronomically in in terms of
terms of the the
Earth's
Earth's rotation,
rotation,thought
thought that that forfor the
the Creation divisionmust
Creationaa division must

1.1. See Latin

betweenLatin
Seetable
table on
on last
last page
pageof
of present
present work
wolk for
for equivalence
equivalencebetween
and
andArabic
Arabic letters.
letters.
 I38
136 THE BmLE,
THE BIBI.E,THE
IIIE QUR'AN
QURANAND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENGE

be considered
be consideredthat that waswas notnot into
into days
days as as we
we usually
usually understand
understand
the word,
the word, but but into 'events' (in
into 'events' (in Arabic
Arabie nauba).
nauba) .
Modern commentators
Modern commentators have gone back
have gone back to to this
this interpretation.
interrpretation.
Yusuf Ali
Yusuf (1934), in
Ali (1934), in his
his commentary
commentaryon on each
eaehof of the
the verses
versesthat
that
deals with
deals with the the stages
stagesin in the
the Creation,
Creation, insists
insists onon the
the importance
importance
of taking the
of taking the word,
word, elsewhere
elsewhereinterpreted
interpreted as as meaning 'days', to
meaning 'days', to
mean in
mean in reality 'very
reality 'very long long Periods,
Periods, or or Ages,
Ages, oror Aeons'.
Aeons'.
It is
It is therefore possibleto
therefore possible to say
say that
that inin the
the case
easeof of the
the Creation
Creation
of the
of the world,
world, thethe Qur'an
Qur'an allows
allows for for long
long periods
periods of of time
time number-
number-
ing six.
ing six. It It is
is obvious
obviousthatthat modern
modern science
scieneehas has not
not permitted
permitted man man
to establish
to establish the the fact
fact that
that thethe complicated
complicated stages stages in in the
the process
process
leading to
leading to the
the formation
formation of of the
the Universe
Universe numbered
numbered six, six, but itit
has clearly
has clearly shown shown that long periods of time were
long periods were involved
involved com-
com-
pared to
pared to which 'days' as
whieh 'days' as we
we conceive
conceivethem them would
would be be ridiculous.
ridiculous.
one of the
One the longest passagesof the
Iongest passages the Qur'an,
eur'an, which deals
deals with
the Creation,
the Creation, describes
describesthe the latter by juxtaposing an an aeeount of
account
events and
earthly events and one
one of celestial
celestial events.
events.The The verses
verses in question
question
are verses
are verses9I to 12, 12, sura
sura 41:
(God is speaking
(God srreakingto the Prophet)
"Say:
"say: Do you you disbelieve
disbelieve Him Who who created
ereated the earth in two
periods?
periods? Do you you ascribe
ascribe equals
equals to Him. He is the Lord of the
Worlds.
Worlds.
"He set set in the (earth) mountainsmountains standing
standing firm. He blessed blessed it.
He measured
measured therein its sustenance sustenance in four four periods,
periods, in due due
proportion,
proportion, in aceordanceaccordance with with the needs needs ofof those
those who ask
for (sustenance?
for (sustenance? or information?).
"Moreover (!umma) (!umma) He turned to heaven heaven when itit was smoke smoke
and said said to itit and to the earth: come come willingly
willingly or or unwill-
ingly
ingly!! They said: we come come in in willing
willing obedience.
obedience.
"Then
"Then He He ordained
ordained them them sevenseven heavens
heavens in in two
two periods,
periods, and
He
He assigtred
assigned to to each
each heaven
heaven its its mandate
mandate by by Revelation.
Revelation. And And
we
We adorned
adorned the the lower
lower heaven
heaven with with luminaries
luminaries and and provided
provided
itit aa guard.
guard. suchSuch is is the
the decree
decree of of the
the AII
All Mighty,
Mighty, the the Full
Full of
of
Knowledge."
Knowledge."
These
These four four verses
verses of of sura
sura 41 41 contain
contain several
several points
points to to which
which
we shall
we shall return: return: the the initially
initially gaseous
gaseous state state ofof celestial
celestial matter
matter
and
and the
the highly
highly symbolic
symbolic definition
definition of of the
the number
number of of heavens
heavens as as
seven.
seven. We We shall
shall seesee the
the meaning
meaning behind behind thisthis figure.
figure. AlsoAlso of
of aa
symbolic
symbolic nature nature is is the
the dialogue
dialogue between
between God God on on thethe one
one hand
hand
The Crcation
TIle of the Eeaosan
Creationol Heaoena atd theMh
and tln EtmIa f$f
137

and the
and the primordial
primordial sky sky and
and earth
earth onon the
the other: however itit
here however
other: here
is only to express the submission
is only to express the submission of of the
the Heavens
Hes'rens and
and Earth,
Earth, once
once
they were fanned, to
they were formed, to divine order$.divine orders.
Critics have
Critics have seen
seen inin this
this passage contradiction with
passage aa contradiction with the
the state-
state..
ment of
ment of the
the six
six periods
periods of of the Creation. By adding the two peri-
the Creation. By adding the two peri-
ods of
ods of thethe formation
formation of the Earth
of the Earth to to the four periods
the four periods of of the
the
spreading of
spreading of its
its sustenance
sustenance to to the inhabitants, plus
the inhabitants, plus the two peri-
the two peri-
ods of
ods of the
the formation
formation of of the
the Heavens,
Heavens, w€ we arrive
arrive at eight periods.
at eight periods.
This would
This would then then be be inin contradiction
contradiction with with thethe six periods
six periods men-
men-
tioned above.
tioned above.
In fact
In fact however, this this text,
text, whieh
which leads reflect on divine
leads man to refleci divine
Omnipotence, beginning
Omnipotence, beginning with with the EarthEarth and ending with with the
Heavens, provides
Heavens, provides twotwo sections that that are expressed by the Arabie
by the Arabic
'tulntna',
word 'tumma', translated by 'moreover', but 'moreover', which also means
but which means
word
'furth&more'or'then'.
'furthermore' or 'then'. The sense sense of a 'sequence'
'sequence' may therefore
implied referring
be implied referring to a sequence
sequence of events series of m&n's
events or a series man's
reflections on the events
reflections events mentioned here. It It may equally be a
simple reference events juxtaposed without
reference to events intention of
without any intention
bringing
bringing in the notion of the one one following
following the other. However
this
this may be, be, the periods of the Creation Creation of the Heavens may just just
as
as easily coincide
coincide with
with the two periods of the Earth's Earth's creation. A
little
Iittle later we shallshall examine
examine how the basic process of the forma-
basic process
tion of the Universe is presented presented in the Qur'an and we shall see
shall see
how it can can be jointly applied to the Heavens
be jointly Heavens and Earth in
and the Earth
keeping
keeping with with modern
modern ideas.
ideas. We shall realize how perfectly
ehall then realize
reasonable
reasonablethis way is of conceiving conceiving the the simultaneous
simultaneous nature of
the
the events
events here described.
described.
There
There does does notnot appear
appear to to bebe any
any contradiction
contradiction betweenbetween thethe
passage
passage quoted
quoted here here andand thethe concept
concept of of the formation of
the formation the
of the
world
world in in six
six stages
stagesthatthat isis to
to be
be found
found inin other
other texts
texts in the Qur'an.
in the Qur'an'

THE
THE QUR'AN
OUR'ANDOES DOESNOT NOr LAY DOWN AA SEQUENCE
LAv DOWN SEQ_AENCE
FORTHE
FOR TEE CREATION
CnEATION OF OF THE EILRTHAND
THE EARTH IIEAvENS.
AI\ID HEAVENS.
In
In the
the two
two passages
passagesfrom
from the
the Qur'an quoted above,
Qur'an quoted reference
above,reference
was made in one of the verses to the Creation
was made in one of the verses to the Creation of
of the
the Heavens
Heavens and
and
the
the Earth
Earth (sura
(sura 7,
?,verse
verse54),
54), and
and elsewhere to the Creation
elsewhereto the Creation of the of the
Earth and the Heavens (sura 41,
Earth and the Heavens (sura 41, verses verses 9
I to
to 12).
12). The
The Qur'an
Qur'an does
does
not
not therefore
therefore appear
appear toto lay
lay down
down aa sequence
sequencefor the Creation
for the of
creation of
the
the Heavens
Heavens and and the
the Earth.
Earth.
 r38
138 THE
THEBmLE,
BIEI.E,THE
TTIEQUR'AN
QUN'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

The number
The number of of verses
versesin in which
which the the Earth
Earth isis mentioned
mentioned firstfirst is
is
quite small,
quite small, e.g.
e.g.sura
sura 2,2, verse
verse29 29 and
and sura
sura 20, verse 4, where aa
20, verse 4, where
reference isis made
reference made to to "Him
"Him Who who created
created the the earth
earth and
and the
the high
high
heavens". The
heavens". The number
number of of verses
verses where
where the Heavens are men-
the Heavens are men-
tioned before
tioned beforethe theEarth
Earth is, is,on
onthethe other
other hand,
hand, muchmuch larger:
larger: (sura
(sura
7,7,verse
verse54; 54;surasura10, 10,verse
verse3; 3; sura
sura11, ll, verse ?; sura 25,
verse 7; sura zb, verse
verse59; 6g;
sura 32,
sura 32,verse
verse4; 4; sura
sura 50,50, verse
verse38; 38; sura
sura 57, F?, verse
verse 4;4; sura
sura 79,?g,
verses27
verses 27 toto 33;
33; sura
sura 91, gl, verses
verses5E to to 10).
10).
In actual
In actual fact,
fact, apart
apart fromfrom sura
sura 79,?g,there
there isis not
not aa single
single passage
passage
in the
in the Qur'an
Qur'an that that lays
lays down
down aa definite
definite sequence;
sequence;aa simple simple co- co-
ordinating conjunction
ordinating conjunction (wa) haa) meaning
meaning 'and' .and' links
links two
two terms,
terms, or or
the word
the word lumma
tummn which, which, as as has
has been
been seenseen in in the
the above
above passage,
passage,
can indicate
can indicate either
either aa simple
simple juxtaposition or or aa sequence.
sequence.
There appears
There appears to to meme to to bebe only
onry one one passage
passage in the the Qur'an
eur'an
where aa definite
where definite sequence
sequenceis plainly establishedestablished between different
between
events in the
events the Creation.
Creation. It It is contained
contained in verses verses 27 z? to 33,
BB,sura 79: ?g:
"Are you
"Are you the harder to create er.eateor is it the heaven heaven that (God)
built? He raised raised its canopycanopy and and fashioned
fashioned it with with harmony. He He
made dark the night ~nd
made 4nd he
he brought out the forenoon.
forenoon. And after after
that (bu' ( bu' da
dn !1.alikn)
daliln) He spread spread it it out. Therefrom
Therefr.om he he drerv
drew outout its
its
water and
water and its pasture.
pasture. And the mountains mountains He has has fixed
fixed firmly.
firmly.
Goods for
Goods for you
you and your your catile."
cattle."
This
This listlist of
of earthly gifts gifts from
from God God to man, which is expressed expressed
in
in a languag:e
language suited to farmers farmers or or nomads
nomads on the the Arabian-penin-
Arabian Penin-
sula,
sula, is is preceded
preceded by by an invitation
invitation to r.eflect
reflect on the the creation
creation of of the
the
heavens.
heavens. The reference reference to the the stage
stage rvhen
when God God spreads
spreads out out the
the
earth
earth and and renders itit arable arable is very precisely
is very precisely situated
situated in in time
time after
after
the
the alternating
alternating of of night
night and and day
day hashas been
been achieved.
achieved. Two Two groups
groups
are
are therefore
therefore referred
referred to to her.e,
here, oneone of of celestial
celestial phenomena,
phenomena, and and
the
the other
other of of earthll'
earthly phenomena
phenomena articulated
articulated in in time.
time. The
The refer-
refer-
enee
ence made made here here implies
implies that that thethe ear.th
earth mustmust necessarily
necessarily have have
existed
existed before
before beingbeing spread
spread out out and
and thatthat itit consequenily
consequently existed
existed
when
when God God ereated
created the the Heavens.
Heavens. The The ideaidea ofof aa concomitance
concomitance there- there-
f,ore
fore arises
arises fromfrom the the heavenly
heavenly and and earthly
earthly evolutions
evolutions with with thethe
interlocking
interlocking of of the two phenomena.
the two phenomena. Hence, Hence, one one must
must notnot look
look for
for
any
any special
special significance
significance in in the
the reference
reference in in the
the eur'anic
Qur'anic text
text to to
the
the creation
Creation of of the
the Earth
Earth before
before thethe Heavens
Heavens or or the
the Heavens
Heavens be- be-
fore
fore the the Earth:
Earth: the the position
position of of the
the words
words does does notnot influence
influence the the
T7a.Cf'ctrdd{'trofiheEaoanr o'i'ilt..Mh 139
130

order in
ord€r in which
which the took place,
the Creation took however itit is spe-
unless however
place, unless spe-
stated.
cifically statcd.
cifically

THE
TNE BASICBASIC PNOCESS
PROCESS OF OF TEE FOHMATION OF
THE FONMATION OF THETHE
UNIVERSE AIVD
UIVIT/EASE AND THE RESULTING COMPOSITION
THE NESULTING COMPOSITIOIV
OF THE
OF WORLDS.
THE ITONLDS.
The Qur'an presents
Ttre presents in two verses verses a brief synthesis of
brief synthesis of the
phenomena
phenomena that that eonstituted
constituted the basie process
basic process of of the formation
formation
of the Univense.
of Universe.
-€ur:a
--aura 21, 21, verse
verse 80:
"Do not the Unbelievers
"Do Unbelievers see see that heavens and the earth
that the heavens
were joined together,
were together, then We clove clove them asunderasunder and We gpt
and TVe got
every living
every living thing out of the water. Will Will they not then believe?" believe?"
--aura 41,
+ura verse 11: C'od
41, verse orders the Prophet to speak
God orders after inviL
speak after invit-
ing him to reflectreflect on subiect of the earth's
on the subject ereation:
earth's creation:
"Moreover
"Moreover (God) (God) turned to the Heaven Heaven when when it it was smoke
was smoke
and said to it
and said it and
and to the earth
earttr . . ."
There
There thenthen follow the orders orders to submit,
submit, referred to on page
on page
186.
186.
We shall
ehall come
comebackback to the aquatic
aquatic origins of life and examine
and examine
them
them along
along with other biological problems raised
biological problems raised by the Qur'an. Qut'an.
fire important things to remember
The rememberat present present are the following:
are the
a)
s) The
fire statement gaseousmass
existence of aa gaseous
ststement of the existence mass with fine
with fine
perticles, for this is how
particles, how the 'smoke' (dukin,
the word 'smoke' (dufiEn in Arabie)
Arsbic) is
to be be interpreted.
interpreted. Smoke generally made
Smoke is generally made-up gaseous
up of aa gaseous
substratum,
substratum,plus, plus, in more
more or less
lessstable suspensioil,fine
stablesuspension, particles
fine particles
that may belongto solid
msy belong solid and
and even
evenliquid states statesof matter at high
or low
low temperature;
tempereture;
b) The referenceto aa separation
T[e reference process (fatq)
separetionprocess (fatql of an an primary
single
singlemassma$t whose
whoseelements
elementswere were initially fusedfusedtogether (rotql.
together (ratq).
It must
must be be noted
notedthatthat in
in Arabic 'fatq' is the
Arabie'fatq'is the action breaking'
actionof breaking,
diffusing,
diffusing, separating,
separating,and 'rntq' is
and that 'ratq' is the action of fusing or
the action
binding
binding together
togetherelements
elementsto to make
makeaa homogenous
homogenouswhole. whole.
This concept
This concept of
of the
the separation
separation of
of a
a whole
whole into
into several parts
several parts
is noted in other
is noted in other passeges
passages of
of the
the Book
Book with
with reference
reference to
to multiple
multiple
worlds.
worlds. The The first
first verse
verseof of the first sura
the first sura inin the
the Qur'an proclaims,
Qurtan proclaims,
after the opening
after the opening invocation,
invoeation, the
the following:
fonowing: "In
"In the
the name of
name of
God, the Beneficent, the Merciful",
God, ttte Beneficent,the Merciful", "Praise "Praise be
be to
to God,
God, Ltlrd
Lord of
of
the Worlds."
the lVorlds."
140
140 THE
THE BmLE,
BIBLE, THE
TIIE QUB'AN
QT'R'ANAND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENGE

The terms
The 'worlds' reappears
terms 'worlds' reappearsdozens dozensof of times
times inin the
the Qur'an.
Qur'an.
The Heavens
The Heavensare are referred
referred to to as
as multiple
multiple as as well,
well, not
not only
only on on
accountof
account of their plural form,
their plural form, butbut also
also because
becauseof of their
their symbolic
symbolic
numerical quantity: 7.
numericalquantity: 7.
This number
This number is is used
used24 24 times
times throughout
throughout the the Qur'an
Qur'an for var-
iousnumerical
ious quantities.It
numericalquantities. It often
often carries
carries the
the meaning
meaningof 'many''many'
althoughwe
although we do not know
do not know exactly
exactly why why this meaning
meaning of the the figure
figure
was used.
was used.The The Greeks
Greeksand and Romans
Romansalso also seem
Beemto havehave used
used thethe
number7? to
number meanan
to mean an undefined
undefinedidea idea of plurality. In the the Qur'an,
eur'an,
the number 7? refers
the number refers to to the
the Heavens
Heavensthemselves (aamd,utdt).It
themselves(samciwcit). It
slone is
alone is understood
understood to to mean 'Heavens'. The
mean 'Heavens'. The 7r roads
roads of the the
Heavensare
Heavens are mentioned
mentionedonce: once:
-,gUfA 2,
-sura 2, verse
VefSe 2929::
" (God) is
"(God) is the
the One
one Who
who created
erebtedfor you you all that is on on the
the earth.
earth.
Moreover He
Moreover He turned
turned to the heavenand
the heaven and fashioned
fashionedsevensevenheavens
heavens
harmony.He
with harmony. He isis Full of Knowledge
Knowledgeof all things."
things."
-SUfa 23,
-sura 28, verse
Verse17: 17:
"And We havecreated
we have ereatedabove
aboveyou you seven paths: We
sevenpaths: have never
we have never
beenunmindful
been unmindful of the the Creation."
Creation."
-sura 67,
-sura 6?, verse
verse33::
" (God; is the One
"(God) one Who
who created
created seven heavens one
sevenheavens one sbove
above an-
other. Thou
other. Thou canst
eanst see
seeno no fault in the the creation Beneficent.
creation of the Beneficent.
Turn thethe vision
vision again!
again! Canst
Canstthouthou see rift?"
seeany rift?"
-sura 71,
-sura 71,verse 15-16:
veree15-16:
you see
"Did you seehow God ereatedseven
Godcreated heavens one
sevenheavens one above
above another
another
and made the
and made the moon
moon a light therein
therein andand made
made the sun sun a lamp
lamp F" ?I"
-sura 78,
-sura 78, verse 12:
verse 12:
"we have
"We have built above you
built above seven strong (heavens)
you seven (heavens) and placedplaced
a blazing
blazing lamp,"
lamp."
Here
Here thethe blazing lamp is the Sun.
blazing lamp Sun.
The commentators
commentators on the Qur'an are in agreement agreement on all these these
verses: the number
verses: number ? means no
7 means more than plurality.t
no more plurality.2
1. ItIt is to be noted
is to noted that
that while
while the
the Bible
Bible callr
calls both
both Sun
Sun and Moon .ligbte',
and Moon 'lights',
here,
here, as alwaya
always in
in the
the Qur'an,
Qur'an, they
they are
are difrerently
differently named;
named; the
the firrt
first tris
called 'Light' (nilrl
called'Light' (nur) and the
the second
second isis compared
compared in in this
this verre to a.lamp
verse to a 'lamp
(sird.i)
(_ira;) producing
producing light'.
light'. We
We shsll
shall see
see later
later how
how other
other epithete
epithets are
are aD-
ap-
plied
plied toto the
the Sun.
Sun.
2. Apart
Apart from from the
the Qur'an,
Qur'an, we we often
often find
find the
the number
number ?7 meaning
meaning plurality
pluralitJ
in
in texts
texts from
from Muhammad's
Muhammad's time,
time, or
or from
from the
the ffrst
first eenturier
centuries folloring
following
him, which record
him, which record hir words (hadithr).
his words (hadiths).
The Creation
Tlw of the
Crcation ol tlle Heaoet18 and tln
Heaoeta atd the Eafih
Earth t4t
141

There are therefore

therefore many Heavens Heavens and Earths, comes as
Earths, and itit comes
no small surprise to the reader of of the Qur'an to find thatthat earths
such as our our own may be found in in the Universe, a fact
fact that
that has not
been verified by man in
yet been in our time.
Verse 12 of of sura 65 does however predict the following:
does however following:
"God is the One One Who createdcreated seven
seven heavens
heavens and of of the earth
(ard) a similar
(ar{) similar number. The Command Command descends
descends among them
so that
so that you know that that God
God hashas power over all things and eom- com-
prehends all things in His knou'ledge."
prehends knowledge."
Since ?
Since indicates an indefinite
7 indicates plurality (as we have
indefinite plurality seen), itit
have seen),
is possible
possible to conclude
conclude that that the Qur'anic text text clearly
clearly indicates
indicates
the existence of of more than than one single Earth, our own Earth
Earth, our Earth
(ard); ; there are others like it
(ard) it in the Universe.
Another observation
Another observation which may surprise the Twentieth Twentieth cen-cen-
tury
tury reader of the Qur'an is the fact that
that verses
verses refer
refer to three
groups of things created, created, i.e.Le.
-things in the Heavens
-things Heavens
-things on the Earth
-things Earth
-things between
-things between th~ thg Heavens
Heavensand the Earth Earth
Here are severalseveral of these
these verses:
verses:
-Sura 20,
-sura 20, verse
verse 6;
"To Him Him (God)
(God) belongs
belongs what is in the heavens,heavens,on earth, be-
earth, be-
tween
tween them and
and beneath
beneath the soiL"
soil."
-sura 25,
-sura 25, verse
verse 59:
59:
".• •. •. the One
ct One Who created
created the heavens,
heavens, the earth and and what is
between
between them periods."
them in six periods."
-Sura 32,
-sura 32, verse
verSe4:
"God is is the One
One Who created
created the heavens,
heavens,the earth and and what is
between
between them
them in six periods."
periods."
-sura 50,
-sura 50, verse
verse 38:38:
"We
"W'e created the heavens, heavens, the earth and what is between between them
in six periods,
periods, andand nono weariness
wearinesstouchedtouched US."1
IJs."'
The reference
reference in the the Qur'an to 'what 'what is between
between the Heavens
Heavens
and
and the
the Earth' is is again
again to be be found
found in the the following verses: sura
verses: sura

1. This
1. This statement
statement that
that the
the Creation
Creation did
did not
not make
make God at all
God at all weary stands
weary stands
out
out asas an
an obvious
obvious reply
reply to
to the
the Biblical
Biblical description,
description, referred
referred to in the
to in the
first
first part
part of
of the
the present
present book,
book, where
where God
God is
is said
said to have rested
to have on the
reeted on the
seventh
seventh day
day from
from the
the preceding
preceding days' work!
days'work!
141
t12 THE BIBLE,
BrBLB THE
firE QUR'AN
QIJR'AN AND SCIENCE
SCTENCE

21,
21, verse
verse 16; sura 44,
44, verses
verses7 and 38; sura 78, verse 37; sura 15,
78, verse 16,
verse
verse 85;
86; sura 46,
46, verse
verse 3; sura 43,
43, verse
verse 85.
85.
This
firis Creation
Crestion outside the Heavens and outside the Earth, Earth, men-
tioned several times, is a pri,on
Jtioned priori difficult
difficult to imagine. To under-
stand these
these verses,
verses, reference must
must be made to the most recent
human observations on the existenceexistenee of cosmic extra-galactic
extra-galagtic
material
material and one one must indeed go back to ideas established by
contemporary
contemporory science formation of
science on the formation of the Universe, starting
starting
with
with the simplest and proceeding
proceeding to the most complex. These are
complex. These
the subject of the following
following paragraph.
paragraph.
passing on to these
Before passing these purely scientific matters
matters however,
however,
it advisable to recapitulate the main points on which the
it is advisable
Qur'an
Qur'an gives us information
information about the Creation. Aceording
According to
quotations, they are as
the preceding quotations, as follows:
follows:
1) Existence of six periods for for the Creation in general.
general.
·2)
2) Interlocking
Interlocking of stages
stages in the Creation
Creation of of the Heavens and the
Earth.
Earth.
3)
8 ) Creation the Universe
Creetion of the Universe out of an initially unique
an initially unique mass
mass
forming aa block
forming block that subsequently
subsequentlysplit up. up.
4l Plurality
4) Plurality of the
the Heavens
Heavensandand of the Esrths.
the Earths.
6) Existence
5) Existenceof anan intermediary creation 'between the Heavens
creation 'between Heavens
and the
and the Earth'.

SOME MODERN
SOME MODENN SCIENTIFIC
SCIENflFIC DATA
DATA CONCERNING
CONCERIVIIVG
TIIE FONUATION OF THE UNIVERSE.
THE FORMATION UIVIYERSE.

The SolanSyatem.
Tfu Solar Sgilen.
Earth and planets rotating
The Earth rotating around the Sun sun constitute
constitute an
organized world of dimensions
organized dimensions which,
whieh, to our human scale,
scale, appear
colossal. The Earth
quite colossal. Earth is, after
after all, roughly
roughly 93 gs million
million miles
from the Sun.
from Sun. This is a very great distance
distance for
for a human being,
it is very small in comparison
but it comparison to the distance
distance separating the
from the furthermost
Sun from furthermost planet from from itit in the solar system
system
(Pluto) ; in round numbers it
(Pluto) it is 40
40 times the distance from the
distance from
Earth to the Sun,
Earth i.e. approximately
Sun, i.e. approximately 3,6723,672 minion
million miles away.
distance, when doubled,
This distance, doubled, represents
represents the largest dimension of of
system. The Sun's
our solar system. light takes nearly 6 hours to reaeh
Sun's light reach
Trrc Crog-lfonof tlrc E.guocrl aniltlp Mh 143
l4it

Pluto, and yet

Pluto, and the journey
yet the journey is made at
is made at the
the terrifying speed of
terrifying speed of over
over
186,000 miles per
186,000 miles per second.
second. The
The light coming from
light coming from stans on the
stars on the
very confines
very eonfines of
of the
the known
known celestial
celestiel world
world therefore
therefore takes
takes billions
billions
of years
of years to
to reach
reach ug.
us.

The CaltJsie,.
TlnfuI&t.
The Sun,
fite Sun, ofof which we are & a satellite like the other planets
planets
surrounding it,
surrounding element among
it, is itself an infinitesmally small element among
hundred billion stam
a hundred stars. that form a whole, called a galaxy.
whole, called galaxy. On a
fine summer
fine summer night, the whole whole of space seems to be
space seems with stara
be filled with stars
that make
thst make up what is known as Milky Way. This group has
as the Milky has
extremely large dimensions.
extremely Whereas light
dimensions. Whereas light could cross the solar
could crosft
system in units of one
system would require
hour, itit would
one hour, something like
require something
90,000 years to go
90,000 years go from one extreme to the other of the most
one extreme most
compact group
compact group of stars
stars that make
make up up our galaxy.
galaxy.
The
The galaxy
galaxy that we belong to however,
we belong however, even though it
even though so
it is so
incredibly huge, small part of the Heavens.
huge, is only aa small Heavens.ThereThere are
giant
grsnt agglomerates
agglomeratesof stars stars similar to the MilkyMilky WayWay that lie
outside galaxy. They
outsideour galaxy. They were
were discovered over fifty
discoveredaa little over year"s
fifW years
ago,
agp, when
when astronomy
astronomywas was able make use
able to make use of an optical instru-
an optical
ment
ment as as sophisticated
sophistieatedas as the
the one
onethat made possiblethe
madepossible construc-
the construc-
tion of thethe Mount
Mount Wilson
Wilson telescope
telescopein thethe United
United States. Thus aI
Statcs. Thus
very large
large number
number indeed
indeedof isolated galaxiesand
isolatedgalaxies massesof gal-
and masses gnl-
axies
axies have
have been
been discovered
discoveredthat are are so away that it was
so far away was
necessary light-years, the 'parsec'
the 'parsec'
necessaryto to institute aa special
special unit of light-years,
(the
(the distance
distancelight travels
travels in 3.26 years at 186,000
8.26 years 186,000miles per
miles per
second).
second).

Formation
F ormafu and Eoohfion of
ard Eooluticm ol CaltJsie"
&Iarilrl4 Stars atd
Stan and
PlanetatY Sgficmt.
PIanenw Sf/stema.
What
What waswas there
there originally
originally in in the
the immensely large space
immenselylarge spscethethe
galaxies
galaxiesnow
now occupy?
occupy?Modern
Modernsciencesciencecan only answer
canonly answerthis ques'
this ques-
tion as
tion as of
of ae certain period in
eertsin period in the
the evolution of the
evolution of Universe; it
the Universe; it
cannot
eannotputput into
into numbers
numberst.he the length
length of that separates
time that
of time this
separatesthis
period
period from
from us.us.
At
At the
the earliest
earliest time
time itit can provideus
canprovide with, modern
uswith, h88
sciencehas
modernscience
every reason
evely reason to
to maintain
maintain that
that the
the Universe
Universe was
was formed
formed of
of as
 ru
144 THE
TIIE BmLE,
BIBLE, THE
TrIE QUR'AN
QUn'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

gaseousmass
gaseous principally composed
mas$ principally composedof of hydrogen
hydrogen and and aa certain
certain
amount of
amount of helium
helium that that waswas slowly
slowly rotating.
rotating. This This nebula
nebula subse-subse-
quently split
quently split upup into
into multiple
multiple fragments
fragments with with very
very large
large dimen-
dimen-
sionsand
sions andmasses,
masses,so solarge
large indeed,
indeed,thatthat specialists
specialistsin in astrophysics
astrophysies
are able
are able toto estimate
estimate their their mass
mass fromfrom 1r to to 100
100 billion
billion times
times the the
present mass
present massof of the
the Sun (the latter
Sun (the latter represents
representsaa mass mass that that is is over
over
300,000times
300,000 times that
that of of the
the Earth).
Earth). TheseThesefigures
figures give
give an an idea
idea of of
the large
the large size
size ofof the
the fragments
fragments of of primary
primary gaseous
gaseousmass mass that that
were to
were give birth
to give birth to to the galaxies.
the galaxies.
A new
A new fragmentation
fragmentation was was to to form
form the the stars.
stars. There
There then fol-
lowed the
lowed the intervention
intervention of of aa condensing
eondensing processprocess where
where gravita-
gravita-
tional forces
tional forces came
came into play, (since
into play, (since these
these bodies
bodies were moving
were
and rotating more
and rotating more and and moremore quickly), along along with pressures
pressuresand and
the influence
the influence of magnetic
magnetic fields fields and
and of radiations. The stars
became shiny as
became as they contracted
contracted and and transformed the gravita- gravita-
forces into thermal energy.
tional forces energy. Thermonuclear reactions reactions came came
play, and heavier atoms
into play, atoms were formed by fusion at the expense expense
others that were
of others were lighter;
lighter; this is how the transition was made made
from hydrogen to helium, then to carbon carbon and oxygen,
oxygen, ending with
with
metals and metalloids.
metals metalloids.Thus the stars have have a life of theirtheir own and
modern astronomy classifies classifiesthem according to their their present stage stage
evolution. The stars also
of evolution. also have
have a death; in the final stage stage of of
their evolution,
their evolution, the violent implosion implosion of of certain stars has has beenbeen
observed so
observed so that
that they become veritable ,corpses'.
become veritable 'corpses'.
The planets,
planets, and in particular
particular the Earth, Earth, originated in in a separ-
separ-
ation process
process starting
starting from from an initial
initial constituent that that in in the
beginning was the primary primary nebula.
nebula. A A fact
fact that
that has no no longer
been
been contested
contested for twenty-five years is that
for over twenty-five that thethe Sun Sun con-con-
densed
densed inside the single nebula nebula and that the planets
that the planets diddid thethe same
same
inside the surrounding nebnlar. nebular disc.disc. one
One mustmust stress-and
stress-and this this
is of prime
is of prime importance for for the
the subject
subject in in hand-that
hand-that there there was was
no
no sequence
sequence in in the
the formation
formation of of the
the celestial
celestial elements
elements such such as as
the
the Sun nor in the
nor in the formatiou
formation of of an
an earthly
earthly element.
element. ThereThere is is an
an
evolutionary parallelism
evolutionary parallelism r,r'ith with thethe identity
identity of of origin.
origin.
Here, science
Here, science can can give give usus information
information on the period
on the period duringduring
which
which the events just
the events just mentioned
mentioned took took place.
place. Having
Having estimated
estimated
the
the age
age of our galaxy
of our galaxy at at roughll'
roughly ten ten billion
billion years,
years, according
according to to
this hypothesis,
this hypothesis, the the formation
formation of of the
the solal
solar system
system took took place
place aa
little
little over
over five billion years
five billion years later'.
later. TheThe stud.y
study of of naturat
natural radio radio
The Cteatiwr
Tlre Creation of
oftle Heaeem otd'
the Heaoens the Eafih
and tlw Earth f45
145

activity makes
activity makes itit possible
possible toto place
place the
the ageage ofof the Earth and
the Earth and the
the
time the
time the Sun
Sun was
was formed
formed at at 4.5 billion years
4.5 billion years ago,ago, to within aa:
to within
present~day accuracy
present-day accuracy of of 100 million years'
100 million according to
years, according to some
some
scientists'
scientists' calculations.
calculations. This
This accuracy
accuracy is
is to
to be
be admired,
admired, since
since 100
100
million
million years
years may
may represent
represent a
a long
long time
time to
to us
us but
but the
the ratio
ratio
'maximum
'maximum error/total time-to-be-measured' is
error/total time-to-be-measured' is 0.1/4.5, Le. 2.2%.
0.1/4.5, i.e. 2.2%.
Specialists
Specialists in
in astrophysics
astrophysies have
have therefore
therefore attained
attained ^a high
high
degree
degree ofof knowledge
knowledge concerning
concerning the
the general
general proeess
process involved
involved in
in
the formation
formation of of the
the solar system.
system. It may be
It may summarized as
be summarized
follows: condensation
condensation and contraction of rotating gaseous
of a rotating gaseous mass'
mass,
splitting
splitting up into fragments that
that leave
leave the Sun and planets
planets in
their
their places,
places, among them the Earth.
Earth.' l
The knowledge that
that science
science
has gained
has gained on the primary nebula and the way itit split up into
primary nebula
an incommensurable
incommensurable quantity of of stArs grouped into galaxies
st.ilrs grouped galaxies
leaves
leaves absolutely no doubt as
as to the legitimacy of
of a concept
concept of
the plurality
the plurality of of worlds. It
It does
does not however provide any kind
kind
of certainty existence in the Universe of
certainty concerning the existence of anything
anything
that
that might, either closely
closely or vaguely,
vaguely, resemble
resemble the Earth.

The
TIw Concept of the
th'e Plurality
Pluralitg of the Worlels.
thcWorlds.
In spite
spite of thethe above,
above, modern
modern specialists astrophysics con-
specialistsin astrophysics con-
sider it highly
highly likely that planets
planets similar
similar to Earth
Earth are present
present
in the Universe.
Universe. As far far as as the solar system
system is concerned, nobody
concerned,nobody
seriously entertains
seriously entertains the the possibility
possibility of finding
finding general
general conditions
conditions
similar
similar to thosethose onon Earth on on another planet in this system.
another planet system. We We
must therefore
must therefore seek
seek for
for them
them outside
outside the
the solar
solar system.
system. The
The like-
like-
lihood of
lihood of their
their existing
existing outside
outside it it is
is considered
consideredquite probable
quite probable
for the following reasons:
for the following reasons:
It is
It is thought
thought that
that in in our galaxy half
our galaxy half of the 100
of the 100 billion stars
billion stars
must, like the Sun,
must, like the Sun, have have a
a planetary
planetary system.
system. The
The fifty
fifty billion
billion
stars
stars do do indeed,
indeed,like
like the
the Sun,
Sun, rotate
rotate very
very slowly; characteristic
slowly; aa characteristic
which suggests that
which suggeststhat they they are
are surrounded
surrounded by
by planets
planets that are
that their
are their
satellites. These stars
satellites. These stars are are so
so far
far away
away that
that the
the possible
possible planets
planets
are
are unobservable,
unobservable, but but their
their existence
existence is is thought
thought to to be highly
be highly
probable
probable on account
on account of
of certain
certain trajectory
trajectory characteristies;
characteristics; aa
slight undulation
slight undulation of
of the
the star's
star's trajectory
trajeetory indicates
indicates the
the presence
presence
1.l. As
As regards
regards the
the Moon,
Moon, its its gradual
gradual separation
separation from
from the
the Earth following
Earth following
the deceleration
the deceleration of
of its
its rotation
rotation is
is an
an acknowledged
acknowledged probability.
probability.
 146
146 THE
THE BIBLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUN'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

of aacompanion
of companionplanetary
planetarysatellite.
satellite.Thus
Thusthe the Barnard
Barnard Star
Star prob-
prob-
ablyhas
ably hasat at least
leastone planetarycompanion
oneplanetary companionwith a massgreater
with a mass greater
than that
than that ofof Jupiter
Jupiter and
and may
may even
evenhave
havetwo two satellites.
satellites.As p.
As P.
Gudrin writes:
Guerin writes: "All "AII the
theevidence
evidence pointsto
points to the
thefact
fact that
that planetary
planetary
systemsare
systems are scattered
scatteredin profusion all
in profusion all over
over the
the universe.
universe.TheThe
solar systemand
solar system andthethe Earth
Earth are
arenot
not unique."
unique."And And asasaa corollary:
corollary:
like the
"Life, like
"Life, planetsthat
the planets that harbour
harbour it,it, is
is scattered
scatteredthroughout
throughout
the universe,in
the universe, in those placeswhere
thoseplaces wherethe the physico-chemical
physico-chemical condi-
condi-
tions necessary
tions necessaryfor its flowering
for its flowering and developmentare
and development are toto be
be
found."
found."

Interstelhr Material.
Interstellar Matwial.
The basic
The processin
basieprocess in the
the formation
formation of the the Universe
Universe therefore
therefore
lay in
lay in the
the condensation
condensationof material in
material in the the primary nebula
nebula fol-
lowedby
lowed by its
its division
division intointo fragments
fragments that originally constituted
eonstituted
galaetic masses.
galactic masses. The The latter in their turn split up up into stars
stars that
provided the
provided the sub-product
sub-productof the process,Le.
the process, i.e. the
the planets.
planets. These
These
successiveseparations
successive separationsleft among among the groups of principle
the groups principle ele- ele-
ments what one
ments one might perhaps
perhapscall 'remains'.Their more
call 'remains'. more scien-
scien-
tific name 'interstellar galactic
nameis 'interstellar galacticmaterial'.
material'. It has been
been described
described
It has
in various ways;
in various ways; there there areare bright nebulae
nebulae that reflect
reflect the light
receivedfrom other
received other stars
stars and are perhaps
and are composed of .dusts'
perhaps composed 'dusts'
or 'smokes',to use
or 'smokes', use the terminology
terminology of expertsexperts in astrophysics,
astrophysics,
and
and then
then there
there areare the
the dark nebulae
nebulae that are less less dense,
dense, cott*isting
consisting
of interstellar
of interstellar material
material that is even even more
more modest,
modest, known for for its
its
tendency
tendency to interfere with with photometric
photometric measurements
measurements in in astron-
astron-
omy.
omy. There
There can can bebe no doubt
doubt about
about the existence
existence of of ,bridges'
'bridges' of of
material between galaxies
material between the galaxies themserves. themselves. Although
Although these
these gases
gases
may
may be be very
very rarefied,
rarefied, thethe fact
fact that
that they
they oecupy
occupy such
such aa colossal
colossal
space, in
space, in view of the great
of the great distance
distance separating
separating the the galaxies,
galaxies, could
could
make
make themthem correspond
correspond to mass possibly
to aa mass possibly greater
greater than
than the
the total
total
mass
mass of the galaxies
of the galaxies in in spite
spite of
of the
the low
low density
density ofof the
the former.
former.
A.
A. Boichot
Boichot considers
considers the the presence
presence of of these
these intergalactic
intergalactic masses
masses
to
to be
be ofof prime
prime importance
importance which could ',consider"uty
which could alter ideas
"considerably alter ideas
on
on the
the evolution
evolution of of the
the ljniverse."
Universe."
We must
We must now now gogo back
back to to the
the basic
basic ideas
ideas on
on the
the creation
Creation of of the
the
Universe
Universe that that were taken from
were taken from the Qur'an and
the Qur'an and look
look atat them
them in in
the light
the light ofof modern
modern scientific
scientific data.
data.
 the Heaoem
Clrn/irlnn of the
Tlv C,.tio
Tlas tlrr Earth
ard-tlas
Heaoelaaafld Earlh r17
147

CONF RONTATION WITH

CONFNONTATION WITH THE THE DATA DATA IN IN THE
QUn'AilN CONC
QUR'A CONCEA ERNIN ryNG G THE
TEE CREA
Cn^EAflON' TION.
We shall examin examine e the five main points on which the Qur'an
gives inform
information ation about the Creati Creation. on.
t) The six period
1) periodss of Creati
of the Creation on of
of the Heave
Heavens ns and the E'arlh Esrth
covere
covered, d, accord
according ing to the Qur'an
Qur'an, , the format
formation ion of
of the celesti
celestial al
bodies and the Earth,
bodies Earth, and the develo pment
development of the latter
latter until
until
'sustenance;)
(with its 'susten
(with ance') it became inhabi
it became table by man.
inhabitable man. In the
case of
case Earth, the events
of the Earth, events describ
described ed in the Qur'an happen ed
happened
periods.
four period
over four one could
s. One could perhaps
perhap s see
see in them the four
four
geological
geolog periodss describ
ical period described ed by moder
modern n science
science, , with
with man's ap-
pearance,
pearan ce, asas we alread
already taking
y know, taking plaee
place in the quater nary
quaternary era.
hypoth esis since
This is purely aa trypoihesis nobody has
sincc nobody has an answe answerr to this
question.
questio n.
It must be
It noted howev
be noted however, that the format
er, that formation ion of the heaven heavenly ly
as explain ed in verses
verses 9 to 12,
12, sura 41
41 (see
(see
bodiesand the Earth, as
bodies explained
136) requir
page 136)
page required ed two phasesphases. If we take
. If take the Sun sun and its sub- sub-
proauctt the
produc Earth as
tire Earth as an examp
example le (the only one
one accessi
accessibleble to us),
us) '
informss us us that their format formation ion occurr
occurred ed by a process
proces s of
scienceinform
science
conden sation of the prima
condensAtion primary nebula and then their
ry nebula their separa tion.
separation'
rvhat the Qur'an expres expresses ses very clearly
elearly when it
it
This is exactly what
refers to the proces processes produced
ses that produc ed a fusion
fusion and
and subseq
subsequentuent
'smoke'.
al 'smoke Hence there is
'. Hence
separa
separation startingg from a celesti
tion startin celestial
comple
complete te corresp betwee n the
ondenc e between
correspottd.tt.. facts of the Qur'an and
the facts of sciencescience. .
Scienceshowed the interlo
Zl Scienc
2) e showe d cking of the two stages
interlocking stages in the for-
mation of a star (like the Sun) sun) and and its satellit
satellite e (like the Earth Earth)).'
This interco nnecti on is surely very eviden
interconnection evidentt in the text of the
Qur'an examin
examined. ed.
'smoke''
se of the 'smoke
3) The existen
existence ce at an early stage stage of the Univer Universe
referre d to in the Qur'an Qur'an,, meani
me&ning predominently
ng the predom gaseous
inently gaseou s
referred
al that compo
composes ses it, obviou
obviously sly corres ponds
corresponds to
state of the materi
state material
the concep
concept t of the primar nebula put forwar
primaryy nebula forrvard d by modermodern n science
science' .
plurality
4) The plurali ty of thethe heaven
heavens, s, expres
expressedsed in the Qur'an by the
the Qur'an the
numbe 7, whose
r 7, rvhose meani
meaning ng we
lve have
have discuss ed,
fliscnssed, is confirm
confirmed ed by
nUmber
moder
modern science due
n science due to the observ
observationsations expert
experts s in astrop hysics
astrophysies
made on
have made
have galactic
on galacti c system
systems and their very large numbe
s a~d number' r. On
hand the the plurality
plurali ty of earths
earths that are
are simila
similar r to ours
ours
other hand
the other
the
 148
l{8 TrrE BIBLE
TIlE BIBLE,, THE
TIIE QUR'A N AND SCIEN
QItn'AN SCTENCE
CE
(from certain points of view at least)
eertain points least) is an an idea
idea that arises arises in
the text of the
the the Qur'an
Qur'an but has has not yet been
been demon
demonstrated
strated to be be
true by scienc
science; e; all the
the same,
samg specia
speciaiists
lists consid
eonsider er this to be quite
be quite
feasible.
feasibl e.
6) The
5) The existen
existenee ce of an an interm
intermediate
ediate creatio
creation between
n betwee .the Heav-
n 'the Heav-
ens' and
ens' 'the Earth' expres
and 'the expressedsed in the the Qur'an
eur'Bn may may be be compa
compared red
the discov
to the discovery ery of those
those bridge
bridges s of materi
material present
al presen outside
t outsid e
organized
organi astronomic
zed astron omic system
systems. s.
Although
Althou gh notnot allall the questions
the questio ns raised
raised by the the descrip
deseriptions
tions in
the Qur'an
the Qur'an have have beenbeen comple
completelytely confirm
confirmed ed by scienti
scientifie data,
fic data,
there is in any
there any casecaseabsolu
absorutely
tely no no opposi
oppositiontion betwee
between n thethe data
data
the Qur'an
in the Qur'an on on the
the Creati
creation on and
and moder
modern n knowle
knowledge dge on on the
the
formation
format ion of the Univer universe. se. This fact is worth stressi stressirig ng for the the
Qur'an
Qur'anic Revelation,
ic Revela whereas
tion, where as it is very
very obviou
obvious inaeedthat
s indeed t~at thethe
present-day
presen t-day text of the the Old
ord Testam
restament provides
ent provid data on
es data on the
the same
same
eventsthat are
events are unacce
unacceptable
ptable from aa scienti
scientific point of view.
fic point view. It It
is hardly
is hardly surpri
surprising,
sing, since
sincethethe descrip
description
tion of thethe Creati
Creation on in thethe
secerdotal
Sacerd version
otal versio n of thethe Bible
Bible'1 was
was writte
written priests at the
n by priests the
time of the
time the deport
deportation
ation to to Babylo
Babylon who had
n who had the
the legalis
legalist intentions
t intenti ons
already
alread described
y describ and therefo
ed and therefore re compil
compiled ed aa descrip
deseription tion that fitted
fitted
their theolog
theological views.The
ical views. The existen
existence ce of such
suchan an enorm
enorrnous differ-
ous differ-
encebetwee
ence between the Biblica
n the Biblicall descrip
descriptiontion and
and the
the data
data in the the Qur'an
eur'an
concerning
concer ning the the Creati
creation on isis worth underl underlining
ining once once again on on
aeeount
accoun t of the the totally gratui gratuitous
tous accusa
aecusations
tions leveled
leveled "g"i'
asainstt
agains
Muhammad
Muham sineethe
mad since the beginn
beginningsings of Islam
Islam to the the effect
effect that
tnat he ne
eopiedthe
copied the Biblica
Biblical deseriptions.
l descrip tions. As As far as as the
the Creati
creation on is is con-
con-
cerned,
cerned this accusa
, this aceusationtion is is totally unfoun
unfound ed.How
ded. How could eould,aa man mrrn
Iiaing fourteen
living fourtee n hundre
hund,red, d years
uearsagoago have
hauemade
mad,ecorreceoryecti.ons
tions to to the
the
existi.ng
existin deseriyttion
g descrip tion to to such
snchan an extent
ertent thatthat hehe elimin
el:i,mi,nated,
ated scienti
eeienti- -
innecurnte
fically inaccu
fieally material
rate materi and,,on
al and, on his
his own
own initiat
initiattue,ive, made
m,ad,e state-
state-
mentsthat
ments that science
seienee hasbeen
has beenable
ableto to verify
uertfy only
only ini,nthe
the'present
presen t day?
dey?
This hypoth
This hypoth.esz's
esis is comple
eomTtretely
tely untena
untenable.
ble. The
Tie descrip
d,eseiption tion of the the
Creation
Creati giaen in
on given i,n the
the Qur'an
ew"an is quite quite differe
d,iferentnt from the the oneone in
the
the Bible.
Bible.

1.
1' This
This text
text complet
eompletelyely oversha
overshadows
dows the few lines contain yshvirt t
ed in the Yahvia
eontained
version.
version' The latter
latter is too brief
brief and too vague
vagle for
for the scientis
scientistt to take
talc
account of
of it.
tla Cr"rdlfon of t p Hlrlorial atd tlra Enilh r{0
149

ANSWERS TO
AIVSWENS TO CENTAIN
CERTAIN OBTECflOilS OBJECTIONS
Indisputably, reaemblances
Indisputebly, resemblances do do exist
exist between narrations dealing
between narrations dealing
with other
with other subiects,
subjects, particularly
particularly religiousreligious history, in
history, the Bible
in the Bible
and in
and in thethe Qur'an.
Qur'an. ItIt isis moreover interesting to
moreover interesting to note from this
note from this
point of
point of view
view how how nobody
nobody holdsholds against
against JesusJesus the that he
fact that
the fact he
takes up
iat.r up thethe same
same sortsort of of facts
facts and and Biblical teachings. This
Biblical teaehings. This does
does
not, of
not, of course,
course, stop stop people
people in in the
the West
West from accusing Muhammad
from accusing Muhammad
of referring
of referring to to such
such facts
facts in in his
his teaehing
teaching with with thethe suggestion
suggestion
that he
that he is is an
an imposter
imposter beeausebecause he he presents
presents them them as as aa Revelation.
Revelation.
As for
As for thethe proof
proof thatthat Muhammad
Muhammad reproduced reproduced in in the Qur'an what
the Qur'an what
he had
he had been been told
told or or dictated
dictated by by thethe rabbis, has no more
rabbis, itit has no more sub-sub-
stance than
stance than the the statement that Christian monk
that a Christian monk gave gave himhim aa
sound religious
sound religious education.
education. one One would do well well to to re-read what what
R. BlachEre
R. Blachere in in his hook,
book, The Problem Probletn of Muhammad (Le
of Muhammad' (Le Prob-
Ierne de
llme Mahomet> r,
de Mahomet) t, has to say about this this 'fable"
'fable'.
A hint
A hint of of aa resemblance
resemblance is also also advaneed
advanced betweenbetween other state-
ments in
ments in the
the Qur'an
Qur'an and beliefs that that go back a very long w&Y' way,
probably much
probably muctr further
further in time time than the Bible.
More
More generally speaking, speaking, t.he f,he traces
traces of certain cosmogonic
eertain cosmogonic
myths
myths have have been the4loly Scriptures; for example the
sought in therHoly
been-sought example
belief
belief heldheld by the Polynesians
Polynesiansin the existence existeneeof primeval waters
that
that were
were covered
eovered in darknessdarkness until until they separated
separated when light
when light
appeared;
eppeared; thus Heaven Heaven and and Earth
Earth were were formed.
formed. This myth is
compared
*olnp*t tl to the descriptiondescription of the Creation Creation in Bible,
the Bible, where where
there
there is is undoubtedly
undoubtedly aa resemblance.
resemblanee.It It would however be
would however be super-
super-
ficial
ficial to to then
then accuse
accuse the the Bible
Bible of of having this from
copied this from the
having copied the
cosmogonie
cosmogonic myth. myth.
It
It is just as\superficial
irjust asisuperficial to to seeseethethe Qur'anic
Qur'anic concept
conceptof divi-
the divi-
of the
sion
sion of of thethe primeval
primlval materialmaterial constituting Universe
constituting the Universe at its
the at its
initial
initial stage-a
stage-a conceptconcept held held by by modern
modern science-as one that
scienee-as one that
comes
comesfrom from various
various cosmogonic
cosmogonic myths myths in in one form or
one form another
or another
that
that express
expresssomething
something resembling
resembling it. it.
It isis worth
It worth analysing
analysing these thesemythical
mythical beliefs
beliefs and descriptions
and descriptions
more closely. Often an initial
more closely. Often an initial idea appears idea appears among
among them
them which is
which is
reasonable
reasonablein in itself,
itself, and
and isis in in some
somecasescas€sborne by
borne out by what we
out what we
today
today knowknow (or (or think
think we weknow)
know) to to bebetrue,
true, except
exceptthat fantastic
that fantastic
descriptions are attached
aescriptions are attached to it in to it in the
the myth.
myth. This
This isis the
the caseof
case of

1.l. Pub.
Pub. Presses
PregserUniversitaries
Universitaries de
deFrance.
France, Paris. 1962'
Paris, 1952.
 lfll
ISO TIlE
mrE BIBLE
DDLF'. THE
rHE QUR'A
QIrn'AN AND SCIEN
N AND SCIENCE
CE
the fairly
fairly widesp
widespreed read concep
concept t of the
the Heave
Ireavensns andand the Earth
Eartr
originally
origina being united
lly being united then
then subseq
subsequenily
uently separa
separated.
ted. When.
vfhen, &8
as in
Japan,
Japan, thethe image
image of the egg egg plus an an expres
expression
sion of chaoselraos ;8ie
attaehed
attach ed to thethe above
abovewith the the idea
idea of aa seed
seedinside
inside thettre egg (as
esg (as
for all eggs),
eggs), the the imagin
imaginative
ative additio
addition n makes
makes the concepcone.tit lose
m.
all sembla
semblancence of serious
seriousness.
ness. In other
other countr
countries,
ies, the
the idea
idea of aa
plant is
plant is associa
associated ted with it;
it; the plant grows
the plant growsandand in so so doing
doingraises
raises
up the sky and
up and separa
separates
tes the Heave
Heavens ns from the Earth. Earth-. Here
again, the
again, the imagin
imaginative ative quality of the the added
addeddetail
detail lends
lendsthe myth
its very distinc
distinetivetive charac
eharscter.
ter. Nevert
Nevertheless
heless aI commo
common character-
n charac ter-
istic remain
remains, s, Le.
i.e. the
the notion
notion of aa single
single mass
massat the beginntresinning
ing of
the evolut
the evolutionary
ionary procesprocess leading
s leadin g to the
the format
formationion of thethe Univer
universe se
which then
which then divided
divided to form the the variou
various ,worlds'
s 'world s' that we we know
know
today.
today.
The reason
The reason thesethesecosmog
cosmogoniconic myths
myths are
are mentio
mentioned ned here
here is to
underline
underl ine the
the way
way theythey have
havebeenbeenembro
embroidered
idered by man's
man,simagin
imagine- a-
and to show
tion and show the the basic
basic differe
differenee
nce betwee
between n them
thern andand the
the
statements
statem ents in the the Qur'an
Qur'an onon the
the same
samesubjec
subject.
t. The
The latter are are free
free
from anyany of the the whims
whimsical
ical details
details accom
accompanying
panying such such beliefs
beliefs;;
on the
on the contra
contrary,ry, they
they are
are disting
distinguished
uished byuv the
tr,L sober qualiW of
*ob." quality
the words
the words in which which they
they areare made
made and and their agreem
*gr"**"nt ent with
scientific
scienti fic data.
data.
sueh statem
Such statementsents in the
the Qur'an concerning
eur'an concer ning the
the Creatio
creation, n, which
which
appeared
appear nearly fourtee
ed nearly fourteenn centur
centuries
ies ago,
ag'o,obviou
obviouslysly do do not lend
lend
themselves
themse lves toto aa human
human explan
explanation.
ation.
 rY
IV
ln the
l..ono Dl} ' In
Astrorrrrrrry
As thE Qu ran
Qut'arr
full of reflect ions on the Heave
reflections Heavens.ns. In In the precedpreced--
Qur'sn is full
Ttre Qur'an
The
chapterr on the Creatio
ing chapte creation, n, we saw how the plurality
plurali ty of the
Heave
neavens Earths was referre
ns and Earths referred d to, as well
well as what
what the Qur'an
Qut'sn
creationn 'betwe 'between en the Heave
Heavens ns and the
calls an interm ediary creatio
intermediary
modern science
Earth':': modem
Earth verifie
science has verified d the latter.
latter. The verses
verses refer-
refer-
iins to the Creati
ring Creation on alread
already y contain a broad idea of
of what
what is to
be found in the heaven heavens,s, Le.
i.e. of everyt
everything hing outside
outside the earth.
earth'
Apart from
Apart from the verses that specifi
verses that specificallycally describ
describe e the CreatiCreation, on,
there are roughl roughlyy anothe fQrty
anotherr fqrty verses
verseg in the Qur'an
Qur'an which
which
providee inform
provid ation on astron
infoniration astronomy omy compl ementing what
complementing rvhat has hss
alread
atready been gi~en.
y been gi'ien. Some
Some of of them are not much more than
reflect ions on the
reflections glory of the Creato
ihe glory Creator, r, the Organ
Organizer izer of all the
stellar and planet planetaryary system
systems. s. These
These we know to be arrang
arranged ed
accord
aecordinging to balancbalancinging positions
positio ns whose
whose stabili
stability ty Newto
Newton n ex-
plained in his tti* law of the mutua mutuall attract
attraetion ion of bodies
bodies. .
verses to be
first verses
The first be quoted
quoted here hardly
hardly furnis
furnish h much mater-
for scienti
ial for scientificfic analys is:
analysis: the aim is simply to draw
draw attenti
attention on
God's Omnip
to God's otence. They
Omnipotence must be
be mentio
mentioned ned howev
however er to give
a realist
realistic idea of the way the Qur'an
ic idea Qur'anic ic text describ
deseribed ed the organiorganiz- z-
ation of the Univer
ation Universe se fourtee n centur
fourteen centuries ies ago.
8go'
These referen
These referencesces consti tute a new fact of divine Revela
constitute Revelation' tion.
The organi zation of the world
organization world is treated in neithe
neither r the Gospel
Gospels s
nor the Old Testam Testament (except
ent (excep for t for a few notion
notions s whose
whose general
genera l
inaccu racy we have
inaccuracy have alread y
already seen seen in the Biblica
Biblical l descrip
description tion of
the Creati
Creation). on). The Qur'an howev however with this subjec
deals with
er deals subjectt in
what it it describ es is import
describes important, ant, but so
so is what it
it does not
does
depth. What
depth.
does not in fact
It does provide
provid e an accoun
account t of the theorie
theories s
,ont"irr.. It
contain
prevalen
preval Revela
entt at the time of the Revelation tion that
that deal
deal with
with the organi
organi- -

t5l
151
 r58
152 THE BIBLE,
BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIEN
QUN'AN SCIENCE
CE
zation
zation of the celesti al world, theorie
celestial theoriess that science
science was
was later
later to
show
show were
were inaccu rate. An examp
inaccurate. le of this will
example will be
be given later.
This negati ve consid
negative eration must howev
consideration howeverer be pointed
be pointe d out.!
out.r

A. GENE
GENERAL RAL REFL ECTIO NS CONC
NEFLECflONS ERNIN G THE
CONCENNTNG THE SKY.
SKT.
-sura 50,
-sura 50, verse
verse 6.
6. The subjec
subjeet t is man in genera
general.l.
"Do they not look look at the sky al10ve above them,
them, how We have built
we have built
it and
and adorne
adorned d it, and
and there
there are no riftsrifts in it."
it."
-sura 31,
-sura 31, verse
verse 10:
l0:
" (God)
"(God ) create
ereatedd the
the heaven
heavens s withou
rvithoutt any pillars that you can can
see
g g g . ..."
. .tt
-sura 18,
-sura 18, verse
verse 2:p:
"God is the One one Whowho raised
raisecl the heaven
heavens s withou
withoutt any pillars
pillars
that you you canean see,
see,then
then He firmly
firmly establi shed Himse
established Himself lf on the
throne
throne and and He subjec
subjectedted the sun sun and
and moon
moon ..."
. . .,,
These
Thesetwo verses verses refute the belief that that the vault of the heavens
heavens
was
was held
held up pillars,, the
up by pillars the only things prevenpreventing
ting the forme
formerr from
from
crushi
crushing ng the the earth.
earth.
-sura 55,
-sura 55, verse
verse 7:?:
"the sky (God) (God) raised
raised it it ..
. . .""
-sura 22,
-sura 22, verse
verse 65:
6E:
#I (God) holds
"(God) holds back
back the the sky from falHftg
fallirlg onon the earth unless
unless
by His leave leave . . .".,,
It
It is
is known
knorvn how horv the remote
remoteness
ness of celesti
celestial
al masses
massesat-gre
at*greatat
distanc
distance e and proportion
and in propor tion to thethe magni
magnitude
tude of their mass mass itself
itself
constit
constitutes utes the the founda
foundationtion of their equilib
equilibrium.
rium. The moremore remote
remote
the
the masses
massesare, ere, the
the weake
weaker r the force
force is that attract
attractss one
one to the
other.
other. The The nearer
nearer they
they are,are, the
the strong
strongerer the
the attract
attraction
ion is that
one
one has
has to to the
the other: thisthis isis true for the the Moon,
Moon, which
rvhich is near
near to
1.
lJ I have
h"* often heard
heard those
those who go to great lengths
lengths to find a human ex-
"f"n
planation-and
planati on-and no no other-t
other-too all problems
ail the problem raised by the Qur'an
s raised eur,an say
the
the followin
following:g: "if
"if the
the Book
Book contain
contains surprising
s surprisi statements
ng stateme nts on astron-
omy,
omy, it is because
becausethe Arabs werewere very knowled
knowledgeable
geable on this subject.
subject.""
In so
so doing they forget the the fact that, in general
general,, science
science in Isiamie
Islamic
countrie
countriess is very much post-eur'an,
much post-Qu r'an, and that the scientifi
scientific
c knowledge
knowled ge of
period would in any caSe
this great period case not have
have been
been sufficien
suffcientt for
for a h.r-.r,
human
being to write some
being some of the
the verses
verses to bebe found in the Qur'an.
eur'an. This wiil
will
be shown
be shown in the
the followin
followingg paragra
paragraphs.
phs.
/vlfionorrrgtn ttlr- Qlu/rllt t53
153

the Earth
the Earth (astronomically
(astronomically speaking)
speaking) and exercises an
and exercises an influence
influence
by laws
by laws of of attraction
attraction on
on the
the position
position occupied
occupied by
by the
the waters
waters of
of
the sea, hence
the sea, hence the
the phenomenon
phenomenon of
of the
the tides.
tides. If
If two
two celestial
celestial bodies
bodies
come too
come too close
close toto one
one another, collision isis inevitable.
another, eollision The fact
inevitable. fire fact
that they
that they areare subjected
subjected to
to an
an order
order is
is the
the sine
sine qua
qua non
non for
for thie
the
absence of disturbances.
absenceof disturbances.
The subjection
The subjection of of the
the Heavens
Heavens to to divine order is
divine order often referred
is often referred
to as
to as well:
well:
-sura 23,
-sura 23, verse
verse 86:
86: God
God is
is speaking
speaking to
to the
the Prophet'
Prophet.
"Say: Who is
"Say: Who is LordLord of
of the
the seven
seven heavens
heavens and Lord of the
Lord of the
tremendous throne
tremendous throne?" 1"
We have
We have already
already seen how by 'seven
seen how what is megnt
'seven heavens' what meant
is not ?,
is not 7, but
but an indefinite
indefinite number
number ofof lfesvens.
Heavens.
-sura 46,
-sura 45, verse
verse 13:
18:
"For subjected all that
"For you (God) subiected heavens and on
that is in the heavens
the
the earth, all from
from Him.
Him. Behold!
Behold ! In that are signs for
In that for
people
people who reflect."
reflect."
-sura
-sura 55,66, verse
verse 5:
6:
"The
"The sun
sun and
and moon
moon (are subjected)
subjected) to calculations"
caleulations"
-sura
-sura 6, 6, verse
verse 96
96::
"(God)
" (God) appointed
appointed the
the night for rest and sun and
and the sun moon
and the moon
for
for reckoning."
reckoning."
-sura
-sura 14, 14,verse
verse3338::
,,For you
"For you (God)
(God) subjected
subjected the
the sun
sun and
and the
the moon,
moon, both dil-
both dil-
igently
igently pursuing
pursuing their
their courses.
courses.And
And for you He
for you the
subiected the
He subjected
night
night and
and the
the day."
day."
Here
Here one
oneverse
versecompletes
completesanother:
another: the
the calculations referred to
calculations referred to
result in the regularity
result in the regularity of
of the
the course
course described
described by
by the
the heavenly
heavenly
bodies
bodiesinin question,
question,this
this isis expressed
expressedby by the
the word
word da'ib, present
the present
dd'ib, the
pa"rticiple of a verb whose original meaning
meaning was
was 'to work
'to work eagerly
eagerly
participle of a verb whose original
and assiduously at something'.
snd assiduously at something'. Here
Here it
it is
is given
given the
the meaning
meaning of
of
,toapply
'to oneself to
apply orr.**jf to something
something with
with care
care in
in aa perseverant,
perseverant, invari-
invari-
able
ablemanner,
manner,in in accordance
accordancewith with set
sethabits'.
habits'.
-sura
-sura 36,36,verse
verse39:39 : God
Godisis speaking:
sPeaking:
"And mansionstill till she re-
shere-
"And for the moonWe
for the moon We have
haveappointed
appointed mansions
turns like an old shriveled
turns like an old shriveled palm
palm branch."
branch'"
 rs{
154 TIIE BIBLE,
THE BIBI"E,THE
TIIE QUR'AN
QUR'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

This isis aa reference

This reference toto the
the curled
eurled form
form of
of the
the palm
palm branch
branch
which, as
which, asitit shrivels
shrivels up,
up,takes
takesononthe
the moon's
moon's crescent.This
crescent. This com-
eom-
mentary will
mentary will be
becompleted
completed later.
later.
-gura 16,
--sura 16,verse
verse12: 12:
"For
"For youyou (God)
(God) subjected
subjectedthe the night
night and
and the
the day,
day, the
the sunsun and
and
the moon;
the moon; the the stars
stars are
are in
in subjection to His Command.
subjection to His command.
verily in
Verily in this
this are
are signs
signs for peoplewho
for people who are
are wise."
wise."
The practical
The practical angle angle from
from which
which this
this perfect
perfect celestial
celestial order
order is
is
seen is
seen is underlined
underlined on on account
account of of its
its value
value as
as anan aid
aid to to man's
man's
travel on
travel on earth
earth and
and byby sea,
sea,and
and toto his
his calculation
caleulation ofof time.
time. This
This
eomment
comment becomesbeeomesclear
clear whenwhen one bears in
one bears in mind
mind the
the fact
fact that
that
the Qur'an
the Qur'an was was originally
originally aa preaching
preaching addressed
adriressedto to men
men whowho only
only
understood the
understood the simple
simple language
language of of their
their everyday
everyday lives.
lives. This
This
explains the
explains presenceof the
the presence the following
following reflections:
reflections:
-'sura 6,
---sura 6, verse g7:
verse 97:
" (God) is the One
"(God) one Who
who has
has set
set out for you
you the stars, that
that you
guide yourselves
may guide yourselves by them through the darkness
darkness of
of the
the
of the sea.
land and of sea. We
we have
have detailed
detailed the signs for people
for people
who know.t'
know."
-sura 16, verse
-sura 16, verse 16:
(God sets
""(God sets on the earth) randmarks
landmarks and by the stars
stars (men)
guide
guide themselves."
themselves."
-gura
-sura 10, verse verse 5:
"God is
"God is the
the one
One who
Who made
made the the sun
sun aa shining
shining glory
glory andand the
the
moon
moon aa lig:ht
light and
and for
for her
her ordained
ordained mansions,
mansions, so so that
that youyou
might
might lcnow
know the the number
number of of years
years and
and the
the reckoning
reckoning (of (of the
the
time).
time). GodGod ereated
created this
this inin truth.
truth. HeHe explains
explains the
the signs
signs inin
detail for people
detail for people who
who know."
know."
This
This calls
calls for
for some
some comment.
comment. whereas
Whereas the the Bible
Bible calls
calls the
the sun
Sun
'lights',
and
and Moon
Moon 'lights', and and merely
merely addsadds toto one
one the b.djective ,greater'
the adjeetive 'greater'
and
and to to the other 'lesser',
the other 'lesser', the
the eur'an
Qur'an aseribes
ascribes differences
differences other
other
than
than thatthat ofof dimension
dimension to to each
each respectively.
respectively. Agreed,
Agreed, this this isis
nothing
nothing moremore than than aa verbal
verbal distinetion,
distinction, butbut how
how was
was one one toto
communicate
communicate to to men
men atat this
this time
time without
without confusing
confusing them,
them, while
while
at
at the
the same
same time
time expressing
expressing the the notion
notion that
that the
the sun
Sun and
and Moon
Moon
were
were notnot absolutely identical .lights'?
absolutely identical 'lights'?
tlffittry h ttt Qrdcr rsr
155

B. IVATUNE
B. NATUM OF HEAVENLY EODIES.
OF EEAVEIYLT BODIES.

TIae $wr
Ilra tmd IIae Moon.
SUfI arndtlrcilootu
The Sun
Ilre Sun is shining glory
is ea thining glory ((iVill
(tUri') and and the light (nfrrl'
Moon ea tight
the Moon (nur).
This transletion
Tfris translation would would appearappeAr to to be more correct than
be more correct than those
those
given by
given by others,
others, where
where the the two terms are
two terms inverted. In
are inverted. fact thert
In fact there
little hifr.t
iris Uttt" di1ferenee
o* in in maning
meaning since g,i1la' belongs
since Wil belongs toto aa root-(
root (~w')
tl*'!
whieh, according
*hirt, aceording to to Kazimirski's authoritative Arabic/French
Kazimirski's iuthoritative Arabie/Freneh
dictionary, meaos
dictionary, means 'to 'to bc bright, to
be brigbt, to shine' (e'g. fire). fiie
like sa fire).
(e.g. like The
same autho"
same author attributes
attributes to the substantive in
to the in question the meaning
question the meaning
of 'Ilght'.
of 'Ught'.
The OferensE
tne difference betweenbetween Sun and Moon wiil will bG made Clearer
be made ~learer
further quotes
by further
by quotes from from the Qurran.
Qur'an.
-aura 96,
---sura 25, verse
verse 61:
..Bless€d
"Blessed is the One One lVhoWho placed constellations in heeven
placed the constellations heaven
and placed
and plaeed therein a
a lamp and
and a
a moon
moon giving light'"
light."
---sura 71,
-sura ?1, 16-16:
16-16:
"Did
"Did you you seesee how God God created
created seven· heavensone
seven heavens above an-
one above an-
other and and made
msde the moon light therein and
moon as light the
rnade the sun
and made sun
as Iampr'
lamp?'
-'Eura 78,
-sura ?8, verses
verg€s12-18: 12-1$:
'Te have
"We have built
built above
aboveyou you seven (heavens) and
sevenstrong (heavens) placed
and placed
ae blazing lamp."
blszing lamP."
The
The blazing
blazing lamp lamp is qulte obviously
ir quite ohviously the sun.
the sun.
Here
Here the moon is
the moon is defined
definedas ss aI body
body that grves light
thst gives (trrunhl
light (munir)
from
from the the same
sgmeroot root as esnur (the light
nfrr (the *pplied to
light applied b the Moon). The
the Moon). The
Sun
Sun howeverhowever is is compared
compared to to aa torch (drd,il or
torch (simi) blezing
or aa blazing
(wa1f,hili)
(uohhfti)
- lamp.
lemP.
A man
A nan of of Muhammad's
Mutrammad'stime time could easily distinguish
could easily betwGor
distinguish between
the
the Sun,
!lun, aa blazing
blazing heavenly
heavenly body
body well
well known
known to
to the
the inhabitants
inhabitants
of
of the
thedesert,
deeert,and anathe tneMoon,
Moon,the the body
bodyof of the coolof
the cool night' The
the night.
of the The
comparisons
comparisonsfound found in in the
the Qur'an
Qur'an on on this subiectare
this subject therdort
are therefore
quite
quit€normal.
normsl. WhatWhatisisinteresting
interesting to to note hereisisthe
notehere thesober qu1lity
soberquality
ofof the
tnecomparisons,
comparisons,and andthe theabsenee
absencein in the text of
the text of the
the Qur'an
Qurrenof of
any
any elements
elem€ot" ofof comparison
comperison that
thst might
might have
have prevailed
prevailed at
at the
the
time
fi-- and which in
rnd which in our
our day
dsywould
wouldappeareppearas phantasmagorial.
asphantasmagoriaI.
ItIt isi8known
knowuthat thst thetheSun sun isisaastar generatesintense
thst generates
star that intenseheat hest
and
enit light
light by
b'y its
its internal
intemal combustions,
combustions, and
and that
that the
the Moon,
Moon, which
which
 r5O
158 ITIE BIBLE,
THE BBI,E' THE
THEQUB'AN ANDSCIENCE
AND
QT'N'AN SCIENCE
doesnot
does giveoff
notgive off light itself, and
lisht itself, andisisan
aninert
inert bedy (onits
bedy (on its external
exteraal
layers at least)
layers at least) merely
merely reft.ects
reflectsthe
the light
light received
receivedfrom
from the
the Sun.
Sun.
There isis nothing
There nothing in in the
the text
text of
of the
the Qur'an
eur'an that
that contradicts
eontradiets
what we
what we know
know today
todayabout
aboutthesethesetwo
two celestial
celestialbodies.
bodies.

Tln Stan,
TheSttm.
As we
As we know,
know, thethe stars
stars are heavenlybodies
are heavenly bodieslike
like the
the Sun.
sun. They
firey
are the
are the scene
sceneof of various phyeicalphenomena
variousphysical phenomenaof of which
which the
the easiest
easiest
to observeis
to observe is their generationof
their generation of light.
ligtt. They
firey are
are heavenly
heavenlybodies
bodies
that producetheir
thst produce their own
own light.
light.
The word 'star' appears
word 'star' appearsthirteen
The thirteen times
times inin the eur'an (naim,
the Qur'an (naim,
plural rniiil,m);; it comes
plural nujum) comesfrom aa root root meaning
meaningto appear,to come
to appear, come
sight. The
into sight. word designates
The word designatesaa visible
visible heavenly
heavenlybodybody without
sayrngof what
saying what kind,
kind, Le.
i.e.either generetorof light
either generator lisht or mere
merereft.ector
reflector
received.To
of light received. To make
make it clear
clear that thethe object
object soso designated
designated
is ae star,
is qualifying phrase
star, aa qualifying phraseis is added
addedas ae in the
the following
following sura:
sura:
-sura 86, verses
-sura 86, verses 1-3: 1-8:
"By the
"By the sky and and the Night-Visitor,
NighLVisitor, who who will
will tell thee
thee what
the Night-visitor is,
the Night-Visitor is, the star of piereing
the Star piercing brightness."1
brishtnesg."r
The evening qualified in the Qur'an
evening star is qualified eur'an by the word tikib tfihib
meaning 'that
meaning which pierces
'that whieh pierces through something,
something' (here(here the night
shadows).
shadows) . The same same word is moreover
moreover usedused to designate
designate shootiog
shooting
stars (sura
(sura 37,
37, verse
verse 10) : the latter
latter are the result of combustion.
combustion.

Tlw Plarrrots.
The Planeta.
It
It is di.fficult
difficult to say whether thesethese are refemed
referred toto in
in the
the eurrsn
Qur'an
with
with the
the same
same exact
exact meaning
meaning thatthat is given to the heavenly
to the heavenly noaiet
bodies
in the present
in the present day.
day.
The planets
The planets do do not
not have
have their
their own
own light.
light. They
They revolve
revolve around
around
the Sun, Earth
the Sun, Earth being
being one
one of
of them.
them. while
While one
one nray
may presume
presume thst
that
others
others exist'elsewhere,
exist- elsewhere, the only ones
the only ones known
known are are thos€
those in
in the
the
solar
solar system.
system.
Five planets
Five planets other
other than
than Earth
Earth werewere known
known to the ancients:
to the ancients:
Mercury,
Mercury, venus,
Venus, Mars,
Mars, Jupiter
Jupiter andand saturn.
Saturn. Three
Three havehave been
been
discovered
discovered in in recent
recent times:
times: uranus,
Uranus, Neptune
Neptune andand pluto.
Pluto.
1.
1. E9re,
Here, the
the rky
sky and
and ra star
star are
are uscd
used to bear witnert
to beer witness to the importancc
to the importance of
of
whatitisto
whrt tocome
comeininthe text.
thetort.
l*oarllntktlnQrr/an 157
lgl

The Qufan
The Qur'an would would seem to to designate
designate these by by the
the word kaukab
word lm;ulm;b
(plursl kawcikib) without
(plural Inlu)Ahib) without stating
stating their
their number.
number. Joseph's dream dream
(sura
(sura 12) refers refers to to eleven of of them,
them, butbut the
the description
description is, by by
definition, an irnaginary
definition, imaginary one.
A epod
A good definition
definition of of the
the meaning
meaning of of the word kaukab in
word kaulrub in the
the
Qur'an seems
Qurtan seems to to have been given in in a very
very famous verse. Tlte The
eminently spiritusl
eminently spiritual naturenature of of its
its deeper meaning
meaning stands forth, forth,
and is is mor€over
moreover the the subiect
subject of of much
much debate among among experts experts in in
exegesis. It
exegeais. It is nevertheless of of great
great interest
interest to offeroffer an aecountaccount
of the comparison itit eontains
of contains on the subiect subject of of the word word that that
would seem
would seem to designate e a 'planet'.
'planet'.
Here is the text text in in question: (sura 24, 24, verse 35)
"God
"God is the light
lig:ht ofof the heavens
heavens and the earth.
earth. The similitude
fire similitude
of His
cf His lishtlight is as if
as if there were a niche and within
within it
it a lurninary'
luminary.
The luminary
luminary is in
in a gless.
glass. The glass
glass is as if
if it
it were a planet
planet
glittering
glittering like aI pearl." pearl."
Here
Ifere the subject projeqtion of light
subject is the proje<;tion light onto a body that that re-
flects it it (glass) and gives grves it glitter of
it the glitter of a pearl, like planet
like a planet
that
that is lit
lit by the sun. This
Ttis is the only explanatory
e:rplanatory detail referring
referring
to this word to be found in the Qur'an.
this word
The
fite word
word is quoted in other verses. verses. Infn some
some of them it it is diftL.
diffi"
cult
cult to distinguish
distinguish which heavenly bodies are meant (sura (sura 6,
verse 76; sura 82,
verse 82, verses
verses 1-2).
l-2).
In
fn one
one verse
verse however, when seen seenin the light
light of modern science, science,
it
it would seem seem very much mueh that that these
these canean only be be the heavenly
bodies that
bodies that we know to be be planets. In sura 37, S?, verse
verse 6, 6, we see see the
following:
following:
"We
"We have indeed indeed adorned the lowest heaven heaven withwith an ornament,
the planets."
Is it 'lowest heaven'
it possible
possible that that the expression
e:cpressionin the Qur'an 'lowest heaven'
means
means the 'solar 'solar system'?
system'? It It is
is known that among among the celestial celestial
elements nearest
elements nearest to us,
us, there are no
no other permanent elernents
elements
apart from the the planets: the Sun Sun is the only star in the system system
that bears
bears its name. It is
name. It is diffieultdifficult to see
see what other
other heavenly
bodies
bodies couldcould be be meant if planets. The
if not the planets. The translation
translation given given
would
would therefore seem
seem to be correct
be correct and
and the Qur'an
Qur'an to refer to
to
the existence
existence of of the planets
planets as defined
as defined in
in modern
modern times.
times.
158 TIlE
THE BIBLE, TIIE Qtnr
BrEr.E, TIlE AN AND
QIrn'AN AND SCIENCE
SCIENGD

The Lowed BetmefL

TlnLow*Ealoelr-
The Qur'an
The mmtions the
Qur'an mentions the lowest
lowest heaven
heaven several
seversl times
times along
along
with the
with the heavenly
heavenlybodies
bodiesof of which
which itit is
is composed.
eomposed.The fire first
first amonl'
among
thesewould
these would seem
seemto to be
be the planeh, as
the planets, eg wewe have
havb just seen. seen.WheD.
slha
however the
however the Qur'an
Qur'en associates
associst€smaterial
material notions intciligiHe to
notions intelligible to
us, enlightened as
us, enlightened as we
we are
are today
todsy by by modern
modern science,
science,with state- *ate-
ments of
ments purely spiritual
of aa purely spiritual nature,
nature, their meaningmeaning becomes beeomcl
obscure.
obscure.
Ttrus the
Thus the verse quotedcould
verse quoted could easily
easily bebe understood,
undergtood,except except that
thst
the following
the following verse (?) of the
verse (7) the same
samesura Eura 37B? speaks
spealrsof aa 'guard'guerd
against every
against every rebellious
rebelliousevil 'guard' again
evil spirit', 'guard' agnin being
being referred
referued
sura 21,
to in sura 21, verse
verse 32 82 and
and surasura 41,
41, verse
verse 12, eo that
12, 80 thst we we are
confronted by
confronted by statements
statementsof quite quite aa different kind.
what meaning
What meaning can
can one
one attach 'projectiles for
moreover to the 'projectiles
attach moreover for
the stoning
the stoning of demons'
demong'that according
aceorrlins to tfr verse
verse 5, gura 67
6, sura 6? are
arc
situated in the
situated the lowest
lowest heaven?
heaven? Do Do the 'luminaries' referred to in
the 'luminaries'
the same
the same verse
verse have
have something
something to do do with the tlre shooting
shooting starsrtars
mentioned above?t
mentioned above?tr
All these
All these observations
observations seemseem to lie outside
outside the subject of of thir
this
study. firey have
study. They been mentioned
have been mentioned here here forfor the sake of complete-
sske complete-
ness.At
ness. present stage
At the present stage however,
however, it it would seemseemthstthat rcientific
scientific
dats are
data unable to cast
are unable cast any lightlight on
on a subject that gioes
subject thst beyond
goes beyond
humsn understanding.
human understanding.

C, CELESTIAL
C. CELESTIAf, ORGANIZATION.
ONGANIZATIOIV.
fire infomation
The information the Qur'an provides
provides on this subject
subject mainly
deals with
deals with the solar system.
system. Reference$ however made
References are however made to
phenomena
phenomena that go beyond beyond the solar system
system itself:
itself: they
the7 have
have
been discovered in recent
been discovered recent times.
times.
There are two very important verses
firere verses on the orbits of of the Sun
SUD
and
and Moon:
Moon:
-rsurg
-sura 21, 21~ verse
verse $3:
33:
(God is) the One
""(God One Who created
created the night, the day, the gun
day, thc SUD
and the moon.
moon. Each
Each oneone is travelling
travelling in
in an ortit with itr
orbit with ita
own motion.o'
motion."
1. It is known thet
It ir that when
when sa met€orite
meteorite arrivel
arrives et
at thc upper lryerr
the [pp€r layers of the
of th
etmorphere, may produee
atmosphere, itit may produee the luminous phanoaenon
the lumlnour phenomenon ol of r• .rbmfing
'moottna
rtor'.
star'.
 roodnn
At'gronotw*nt 1tr0
159

--€urr
--sura 8O verse 40:
86, verse 40:
"The sun
"The sun mutt
must not
not catch
catch upup the moon, nor
the moon, the night
does the
nor does night
outstrip the
outstrip the day.
day. Eaeh
Each oneone is travelling in
is travelling in an
an orbit with i|g
orbit with its
own motion."
own motion."
Here an
Here an essential
essential fact
fact is clearly stated: the
is clearly the existence of the
existence of the
Sun's and Moon's
Sun's Moon's orbits, plus a reference
reference is made travel'
made to the travel-
ling of
ling of these
these bodies
bodies in
in space
space with their own motlon.
with their motion.
A negntive
A fact also
negative fact emerges from
also emerges reading of,
from a fesding these vsrses
of these verses:3
Itit is shown
shown thet moves in
that the Sun moves orbit, but
in an orbit, indication is
but no indication
given as to whst
glven what this
this orbit
orbit misht
might be Earth. At
be in relation to the Earth. At
the time
thc time of
of the Qut'enic Revelation, itit was tlrought
Qur'anie Revelstion, that the Sun
thought that
moved while the Earth
moved Earth stood still. This w88
stood still. system of
was the Eyst€m of
I'eoeentrism thtt
geocentrism that hsd
had held Eway since the time of
sway since Ptolemy, Sec'
of Ptolemn See-
ond century 8.C.,
ond B.C., and was continue to do
was to continue do so until CopemicU
so until Copernicus
in thc
In Sixtcenth century A.D. Although people
the Sixteenth supported thil
people supported this
Muhammad, itit does
concept at the time of Muhammad,
concept appear anywhere
does not appear anywhere
in thethc Qur'an,
Qur'an, either herehere or elsewhere.
elsewhere.

Tile Er*stcnccof the

Tfu Emterace Moon', mad
t laffiorln't file Sun',
andtlp $nrr'l OrDftt Or""'.
Arabic word falak
The Arabie has here
filIf,,h has been translated by the word
here been
'orbit'; many
'orbit'; many French
Frcnch translators
translators of the the Qur'an attach to it
Qur'an attach it the
meaning 'sphere'.This
ncening of aa 'sphere'. firis is indeed initial sense.
indeedits initial Hamidullah
E€nge.Hamidullah
translates
tranrlates it it by the 'orbit'.
ttre word 'orbit'.
The
Thc word caused consern to older
caused concern older translators of the Qur'an Qurtsn
who
rho were unsble to imagine
werc unable imagine the the circular courseof the Moon
circu}rr course Moon and snd
thc Sun
the Sun and
end therefore
thercfore retained images of their course
retained images course through
lP&Ce
rprcc that
thrt were
wcre either
cither more
more or less correct, or hopelessly
lesscorrect, wnongl'
hopelesslywrong.
8i
Si Hamza
Hrmn Boubekeur
Boubekeur in in his
his translation of the the Qur'an citea the
Qut'an cites
diversity
divcnity of of interpretations
intcrpretations given glven to it: "A
to it: II sort of
A sort of axle, like an
axle, like an
hu rod,
iroll ro4 that
tnrt ar mill
mill turns
turns around;
around; aa celestial sphere,orbit,
celestialsphere, sigtr
orbit' sign
of
of the
the zodiac,
zodilc, speed,
speed,wave
wav€ .. . . !', he adds
but he
.", but eddsthe obser'
following obser-
the following
vation
vrtion made
madeby by Tabari,
Tabari, the the famous
famousTenth Tenth century commentator:
century commentator:
"It
"ft is
ic our duty to
our duty to keep
keepsilent
silentwhen
whenwe we do not know."
donot (XVII, 15).
know." (XVII, 16).
This
This shows just how
shot's just how incapable
incapablemen were of
men were understanding this
of understanding thir
concept
conceptof of the
the Sun's
Sun'sandand Moon's
Moon'sorbit.orbit. ItIt is obviousthat
is obvious that if the
lf the
word
word had
hadexpressed
expressedan anastronomical
astronomicalconceptconceptcommoncommonin Muham-
in Muham-
mad's
nrd's day,
dsy, it
it would
would not
not have
have been
beenso difficult to
so difficult thege
inter?ret these
to interpret
ycruG!.A
verses. A new
new concept
concepttherefore
therefore existed
existedin the Qur'an
in the Qur'an that wae
that was
not to
not to be
bc explained
explrincd until
until centuries later.
centurieslater.
180 BrBLF.,THE
rHE BIBLE,
THE TrrE QUR'AN
QItR'AIrtAND
AND SCIENCE
SSTENCE

l. The
1. TrlpUlaonltoltblt.
'Moon'. Orbit.
Todan the
Today, the concept
conceptis is widely
widely spread
spreadthat
that the
the Moon
Moonis is aa satellite
satellit€
of the Earth around
of the Earth around which
which it it revolves
revolvesin periods of
in periods of twenty-nine
twenty-nine
days. A
days. A correction
correction must
must however
however be be made
made to to the
the absolutely
absotutely cir- cir-
culer form
cular fonn ofof its
its orbit, gincemodem
orbib since modernastronomy
astronomyascribes
ascribeEas certain
certain
eccentricityto
eccentricity to this,
this, so
so that
that the
the distance
distsncebetween
betweenthe the Earth
Earth andand
the.Moon (240,000miles)
the.Moon (240,000 miles) is is only
only the
the average
averagedistance.
distance.
We have
We have seen
seenabove
abovehowhow the
the Qur'an
Qur'an underlined
underlined the the usefulness
usefulnesg
of observing
obsereing the the Moon's
Moon's movements
movementsin calculating
calculating time (sura
time (sura
10,verse
10, verse5, quotedat the
5, quoted the beginning
beginningof this this chapter.)
chapter.)
fitis system
This systcrn hashas often been
been criticized for being being arehaic,
aretraic, im-
practieal and
practical and unscientific
unscientificin comparison
eomparisonto to our system
systembased basedonon
the Earth's rotation around
the around the the Sun,
Sun, expressed
expr€ssedt()daytoday in the
JJulian calendar.
uUan calendar.
Thig criticism calls
This calls for the
the following two remarks:
e) Nearly fourteen
a) fourteen centuries
centuries ago,
ago, the Qur'an
Qucsn was was directed
direct€d at et the
inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula Peninsula who were used
who were used to the lunar
cslculation of time. It
calculation It was
was advisable
advissble to address them
address them in the only
language they could
language could understand
understand and and not to upset
upset the habits they
had of locating spatial and end temporal reference-marks
referenee-markswhich were were
neverthelessquite efficient.
nevertheless efficient It
It is known
lrnown how
how well-versed
well-versedmen men liv-
ing in the desert
desert are in the observation
obsorvation of the sky; they navigated navigated
according to the stars and
according and told the aecordins the phases
the time aecording to the phases
of the Moon. firose were the simplest and
Moon. Those and most reliable meang means
availrble
available to them.
them.
b) Apart
Apart from the speeislists
specialists in this field, most people
field, most people are una- una-
warg
ware of of the perfect correletion
correlation between
between the Julian
Julian and the lunar lunar
calendar:
calendar: %95 235 lunar months
months correspond
correspond exactly
exactly to 1919 Julien
Julian years
years
of 868/a
365JA, days.
days. Then length of our year of SGE
Then leneth 865 days
days is not pedect
perfect
because
because itit has
has to be be rectified
rectified every four years
every four years (with
(with a leapleap year).
with
With the lunar lunar calendar,
calendar, the same same phenomen&
phenomena occur occur every lg 19
yesrs
years (Julian).
(Julian). This is the Metonic
Metonic cycle,
cycle, named
named after
after the Greek
Greek
astronomer
astronomer Meton,Meton, who discovered
discovered this exactexact correlation between
between
soler
solar and and lunar time in the Fifth Fifth century B.C. B.C.

2. TlESrpr.
T1aeSun.
ItIt is more
more difficult to
to conceive
conceive of
of the
the Sun's
Sun's orbit
orbit because
because we
we
are so used to
so used to seeing
seeing our
our solar system
system organized
organized around
around it.
it. To
lulaolmrlrryer fit Qrdal t0l
181

understand the
understand the verse
verse from
from the Qur'an, the
the Qur'an, the position
position of the Sun
of the SUD
in our galaxy must be considered,and we
in our galaxy must be considered, and we must
must tJrerefore
therefore eall
calI
on modem scientific ideas.
on modern seientific ideas.
Our gAlaxy
Our galaxy includes very large
includes Ia very number of
large number of stars spaced so
stars spaced so
as to
as to form
fonn aa disc
disc that
that is denser at
is denser the centre
at the than at
centre than the rim. fire
at the rim. The
occupies aa position
Sun occupies position in which is
in itit which removed from
far removed
is far from thethe
centre ofof the
the disc. The gala:ry
disc. The galaxy revolves
revolves onon its
its own which is
axis whieh
own axis is
its centre with
its with the result that around the same
revolves around
that the Sun revolves same
astronomy has
Modern astronomy
centre in a circular orbit. Modern
centre worked out the
has worked
details of
details of this. In
In 191?, Shapley estimated
1917, Shaptey distance between
estimated the distance between
Sun and
the Sun centre of our galaxy
and the centre galaxy at 10 10 kiloparsecs Le., in
kiloparsecs i.e.,
miles, followed by 1?
miles, circa the figure 2 followed complete one
zeros. To complete
17 zeros. one
axis, the galaxy and Sun
its own axis,
revolution on its take roughly 880
Sun tske 250
million yeers.
years. The Sun travels at roughly 150
The Sun miles per second
150 miles second
completion of this.
in the completion
movement of the Sun
above is the orbital movement
The above Sun that waswas already
already
referred to by the Qur'an centuries ago.
fourteen centuries
Qur'an fourteen demon-
The demon-
ago. The
stration of the
the existence
existcnceand details of this is one
and details the achieve-
one of the achieve-
ments
ments of modern
modern astronomy.
astronomy.

Reference
Refercrceto the Mooement
tatlw Mooenulntof of the Moon and the Sun
tlwMoonatdtlw Suln
in Space With
Spe Wlth Tlwh Their Own Motion.
Motion
This concept
concept does does not
not appear
appear in those translations of the
those translations the
Qur'an
Qurtan that have have been
beenmade
madeby letters. Since
men of letters.
by men Sincethe the latter
know
know nothing
nothing about about astronomy,
astronomy,they they have translat€d the
havetranslated Arabic
the Arabic
word that
word that expresses
expressesthis this movement
movementby by oneone of of the meanings
the meanings the the
word
word has: 'to
has: 'to swim'.swim'. They have done
They have done thisthis in in both the French
both the French
translations
translations and and the,
the, otherwise remarkable,English
otherwiseremarkable, translation
English translation
by
by Yusuf
Yusuf Ali.
Ali.' 1

The
TheArabic
Arabic word word referring
referring toto aa movement
movementwith self-propellcd
with as self-propelled.
motion
motion is is the
the verbverb 8abaluz, (yasbaft,il.na
tabaftn (ya8ba1}una in the
in text of
the text two
the two
of the
verses).
verses).All All the
the senses
sensesof the verb
of the imply aI movement
verb imply that
movementthat is is
associated
associated with motionthat
with aa motion from the
comesfrom
that comes body in question.
the body in question.
'to swim'; 'to
is 'to
If
If the
the movement
movementtakes placein
takes place in water,
water, it it isis 'to swim'; itit is
move
moveby by the
the action
actionof of one's
one'sownown legs' placeon
takesplace
legs'ifif itit takes land.
on land.
For
For aamovement
movementthat occursin
that occurs spaee,itit isis difficult
in space, difficultto to see how
s€ehow elseel8e
this
this meaning
meaningimplied implied in
in the word could
the word couldbe renderedother
be rendered than
other than

1.l. Pub.
Pub.Sh. MuhammadAshraf.
Sh.Muhammad A,shraf,Lahore (Pakistau)
Lahorc (Pakistan)
 TGI
18J tHE SIDI.4 THE
fHE BIBLE, TEEQUIr AN AND
QI'N'AN ANDSCIENCE
SCTENCE

byby employing
employing its its original
original sense.
sense.Thus
firus there
there seems
ssemsto to have
have been
be€n
nono mistranslation,
mietmnolation, for the following
for the following reasons:reasons:
-The Moon
-The Mooncompletes
completesits its rotating
rotsting motion
motion on on its
its own
own axis
axis atat the
the
sametime
same time as agitit revolves
revolvesaroundaround the the Earth, i.e. 29~
Earth, i.e. zg+hdays
days (ap-
(ap
prox.), so
prox.), gothat
that it it always
always has has the
the same
samesideside facing
facing us. uE.
-fi1s
-The Sun sun takes
tslcesroughly
roughly 25 zE days
days to to revolve
revolve on on its
its own
own axis.
axiE.
There are
There are certain
certain differences
difterencesin in its
its rotation
rotation at,at its
its equator
equator and and
poles,(we
poles, (we shall
shall not not gogo into
into them
them here)
here) butbut as
as aa whole,
whole, thethe Sun
sun
is animated
is animat€dby by aa rotating
rotating motion.
motion.
rt appears
It appearstherefore
therefore that thst aa verbal
verbal nuance
nuancein the the Qur'an
eur'an refers
nefers
to the
to the SunSun andsnd Moon's
Moon's own own motion.
motion. These
Thesemotions
motions of the the two
celestial bodies
celestial bodies are are confirmed
confirmed by the the data
data of modern
modern science,
science,
and it
and it is
is inconceivable
inconceivablethat aa man man living in the the Seventh
Seventhcentury
century
A.D.-however knowledgeable
A.D.-however knowledgeablehe he might have have been
been in his day day
(and this
(and this waswas certainly
certainly not not true in Muhammad's
1lruhammad'scase)--could
cgse)--could
hsve imagined
have imagined them. them,
This view is sometimes sometimes contested examples from great
contested by examples
thinkers of antiquity who who indisputably predicted certain data
indisputably predicted data
that modern
modern scienceseieneehas has verified.
verified. They could hardly have
They could have relied
on scientific
on scientific deduction
deduetionhowever;however; their method method of procedure
procedure was was
more one of philosophical
more one philosophical reasoning. reasoning. Thus case of the pyths-
Thus the case Pytha-
goreans is often
goreans often advanced.
advanced.In the sixth Sixth century 8.c., B.C., they de- de-
fended
fended the theory of the rotation of of the Earth
Earth on its own aris axis
snd
and the movement
movement of the planets planets around
around the Sun. Sun. This theory
was
was to be confirmed
be confirmed by modern modem science.
science. By comparing
comparing itit with with
the casecase of the Pythagoreans,
Pythagoreans, itit is easy easy to put put for-lrrard
forward the
hlryothesis
hypothesis of of Muhammad
Muhammad as as being
being a brilliant
brilliant thinker, who who waswas
supposed
supposed have to have imagined
imagined all on his ov,'n own what modernmodern science
science
was to discover
discover centuries
centuries later. In In soso doing however,
however, peoplepeople
quite
quite simply forget to to mention
mention the the other
other aspeet
aspect of of what
what these
these
geniuses
geniuses of of philosophical
philosophical reasoningreasoning produeed,
produced, i.e. Le. the
the colossal
colossal
blunders
blunders that that litter
litter their
their work.
work. ItIt mustmust be remembered for
be remembered for
example, that
example, that the the Pythagoreans
Pythagoreans also also defended
defended the
the theory
theory whereby
whereby
the
the SunSun waswas fixed
fixed in in spaee;
space; they
they made
made itit the
the centre
centre of of the
the world
world
and only conceived
and only conceived of of aa celestial
celestial order
order thatthat was
was centered
centered on it.
on it.
rt
It isis quite
quite eommon
common in in the
the works
works of the great
of the great philosophers
philosophers of of
antiquity
antiquity to to find
find aa mixture
mixture of of valid
valid andand invalid
invalid ideas
ideas about
about thethe
Universe.
Universe. The The brilliance
brilliance of of these
these human
human worksworks comes
comes fromfrom thethe
advanced
advanced ideas ideas theythey contain,
contain, but but they
they should
should notnot make
make us us over-
over-
efionong h.tlp @at t6:l
163

look the
look the mistaken
mistaken concepts which
which have
have also
also been
been left
left to us. Fronr
to us. From
a strictly
strictly scientifie
scientific point
point of
of view,
view, this
this is
is what distinguished thenr
what distinguished them.
from the Qur'an. In the latter,
from the Qut'an. In the latter, many many subjects
subjects are
are referred
referred to
to
that
that have a bearing
bearing on modern
modern knowledge without
without one of
of then
them
containing a statement
containing statement that
that contradicts what has been esbblishcd
contradicts what establisMd
by present-day science.
by present-day science.

The Sequence of
Tlu Seqwrce of Dav
Day and Night.
arlldiligl*.
At a time
At time when itit was held that Earth was the
that the Earth centre of
the centre of
world and that
the world that the Sun moved in in relation
relation to it, how could
to it,
anyone
any one have failed to refer refer to the Sun's movement when talking talkin«
of the sequence
of sequence of of night
night and day day?? This is not however referred referred
to in the Qur'an Qur'an and the subject is dealt with with as as follows:
-sura
-sura 7, verse verse 54:
" (God) covers
U covers the day with with the night night which is in haste haste to te
follow
f o l l o w it
i t ...."
.."
-sura 36,
-sura 36, verse
verse 37:
"And
"And a sign forfor them (human beings) beingp) is the night. strip
nisht. We stri,
it
it of the day and they are in darkness."
-sura 31,
-sura 31, verse
verse 29:
"Hast
"Hast thou not seen seen how God God merges
merges the nightnight into the thc day
dey
and merges
merges the day into the night." night."
-gura 39,
-sura 39, verse
verse 5: 6:
H".• •. •. He coils
coils the night upon upon the day and and He coils
eoils the day dey
upon
upon the night." night."
The first first verse cited requires no comment. The second sceond simply
provides
provides an an image.
image.
It
It is mainly the third third andand fourth
fourth verses quoted above
verses quoted thrt
above that
provide interesting material on on the process of
the process of interpenetratiMl
interpcnetratior
and
and especially
especially of of winding
winding the night niett upon the day day andrnd the dly
thc day
upon
upon thethe night. (sura
(sura 39,
39, verse
vense 5)
6)
'To coil'
'To coil' or 'to wind'
or 'to wind' seems,
seems,as as inin the
the French
French translation
translation by by
R. Blachere, to be the
R. BlachEre, to be the best way of best way of translating
translating the
the Arabic
Arabic vetf
ven
kawwara. 'coil' aa turbaa
turter
lcawzuara.The The original
original meaning
meaning of of the
the verb
verb is is to
to 'coil'
around the head; the notion
around the head; the notion of coiling of coiling is
is preserved
preserved in
in all thr
all the
other
other senses
sensesof of the
the word.
word.
What
What actually
actually happens
happenshowever
horveverin in space?
space?Ameriean astroneuts
Amerir:an astronauts
have
hrve seen
seenand and photographed
photographed what what happens
happens fromfrom their speccship$'
thrlir spaceahips,
 164
164 THE
THEBIBLE,
BIBLE,THE
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QUR'ANAND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

especiallyat
especially great distance
at aa great distancefrom from Earth,
Earth, e.g.
e.g. from
from the the Moon.
Moon.
Theysaw
They sawhowhow the the Sun permanentlylights
Sun permanently lights upup (except
(except in
in the
the case
case
of an eclipse)
of an eclipse) the the half
half ofof the
the Earth's
Earth's surface
surface thatthat is is facing
facing it,it,
while the
while the other
other halfhalf of of the globeis
the globe is in
in darkness.
darkness.The The Earth
Earth turnsturns
on its own
on its own axis
axis andand thethe lighting
lighting remains
remains the the same,
same,so so that
that anan
area in
area in the
the form
form of of aa half·sphere
half-sphere makes makes one one revolution around
revolution around
the Earth
the Earth in in twenty-four
twenty-four hours hours while
while the the other
other half-sphere,
half-sphere,that that
has remainedin
hasremained in darkness,
darkness,makes makesthe the same revolution in
same revolution in the
the same
same
time. perpetual rotation
This perpetual
time. This rotation of of night
nisht and and dayday is is quite
quite clearly
clearly
describedin
described in the
the Qur'an.
Qur'an. It
It is
is easy
easy for the human understanding
for the human understanding
to grasp this
to grasp this notion
notion nowadays
nowadays because
becausewe we have
have thethe idea
idea of the the
Sun's (relative) immobility
Sun's (relative) immobility and and the Earth's rotation. This
the Earth's rotation. This proc-
proc-
ess of
ess perpetual coiling,
of perpetual coiling, includ~ng
including the the interpenetration
interpenetration of one one
sector by
sector by another
another is is expressed
expressedin the the eur'an just as
Qur'an as ifif the
the con-
con-
cept of
cept of the
the Earth's roundness
roundnesshad had already
already been been conceived
eonceivedat the
time-which was
time-which was obviously
obviously not the case.
the case.
Further to to the
the above
above reflections
reflections on on the
the sequence
sequenceof day and and
night, one
one must
must alsoalso mention.
mention, with aa quotationquotation of some some versesverses
from thethe Qur'an,
Qur'an, the the idea
idea that therether.e is moremor.e than one Orient
one orient
and one Occident.
and one Occident. This is of purely descriptive
descriptive interest because because
these phenomena rely
these phenomena rell' on
on the mostmost commonplace observations.
commonplaceobservations.
The idea
idea is mentioned
mentioned here here with
with the aim of of reproducing
reproducing as as faith-
faith-
fully as
fully possibleaU
as possible all that the Qur'an has has to saysay on this subject.
subject.
The following are are examples:
examples:
-In
-In sura 70 70 verse
verse 40, expression 'Lord
40, the expression 'Lord of Orients and
of orients
Occidents'.
accidents'.
-In
-In sura 55, 55, verse
verse 17, expression 'Lord
17, the expr.ession 'Lord of of the two orients Orients
and the two Occidents'.
Occidents'.
-In
-In sura 43, 43, verse
verse 88, reference to the 'distance
38, a reference 'distance between
between the the
two
two orietrts',
Orients', an image intended to express the
to expre$s the immense
immense size size of
of
the distance
distance separating the the trvo
two lroints.
points.
Anyone who who carefully
carefully watches
watches the sunrise aud
the sunrise and sunset
sunset knows knows
that
that the
the Sun rises rises at different point
at different point of of the
the orient
Orient and and sets sets at
at
different points
different points of of thethe occident,
Occident, according
according to to season.
season. Bearings
Bearings
taken
taken on on each
each of of the
the horizons
horizons define
define thethe extreme
extreme limits
limits that
that mark
mark
the
the two
two orie:nts
Orients and and occidents,
accidents, and and between
between thesethese therethere areare
points
points marke,l
marked off off throughout
throughout the the yeal..
year. TheThe phenomenon
phenomenon de- de-
scribed
scribed herehere is is rather
rather commonplace,
commonplace, but but rvhat
what mainly
mainly deserves
deserves
attention
attention in in this
this chapter
chapter ar.eare the
the other.
other topics
topics dealt
dealt with,
with, wherewhere
Amonomy
4attorwrrlg in the Qt/
in tlp Qut'Gn
aa 165
165

the description
the description of astronomical phenomena
of astronomical phenomena referred to in
referred to in the
the
Qur'an is in keeping with modern data.
Qur'an is in keeping with modern data.

D. ErOLATION OF THE I|EAVENS.

D. EVOLUTION HEAVENS.
Having called modern
Having modern concepts
concepts on the formation of
the formation of the
the Uni-
Uni-
verse to mind, mind, reference was made to to the evolution that that took
plaee, with primary
starting with
place, starting primary nebula through through to the formation
to the formation
of
of galaxies,
galaxies, stars and (for
(for the solar system)
systern) the appearance
appearance
of planets
of planets beginning rvith with the Sun at at a certain stage stage of of its
its
evolution.
evolution. Modern data lead
lead us to believe
believe that
that in the solar system,
system,
and more gpnerally
generally in in the Universe itself, this evolution evolution is still
still
continuing.
continuing.
How can anybody rvho
How who is arvare
aware of these ideas
of these ideas fail fail to make a
comparison
comparison with with certain statements
statements found in the Qur'an in which
the manifestations
manifestations of divine Omnipotence are referred
of divine referred to.
The Qur'an
Qur'an reminds
reminds us us several
several times
times that: "(God) subjected subjected
the sunsun and the moon: each one runs
each one l'uns its course
course to an appointed
appointed
term."
term.tt
This sentence
sentenceis to be be found
found in surasura 13, verse 2; sura
13, verse sura 31, verse
31, verse
29 ; sura 35, verse 13 and
29; sura 35, verse 13 and sura 39, verse sura 39, verse 5.
5.
In addition
addition to this, the idea idea of aa settled
settled placeplace is associated
associated
with
with the concept of a destination
concept a destination lrlace place in sura
sura 36,
36, verse
verse 38: "The
Sun
Sun runs its course
course to a settled
a settled place.
place. This is the
the decree
decree the
of the
All
All Mighty, the
the Full of Knowledge."
Knowledge."
'settled place'
'Settled place' is is the
the translation
translation of the rvord 1nustaqarr
the word mustaqarr and and
there can can bebe nono doubt
doubt that the idea idea of an an exact
exact placeplace is attached
attached
to
to it.
it.
How
How do do these
these statements
statements fare rvhen compared
fare when compared with with data
data
estabIlshed
esteblished by by modern
modern science?
science?
The
The Qur'an
Qur'an gives
gives an an endencl to
to the
the Sun
Sun for for itsits evolution
evolution and and aa
destination
destinationplace. place.It It also pt'ovidesthe
also provides the Moon rvith a settled
Moon with a settled place. place.
To
To understand
understand the possible meanings
the possible meanings of of these statements, we
these statements, we
must
must remember
remember what what modern
modern knowledge
knowledge has has to to say about
say about the the
evolution
evolution of of the
the stars
stars in general and
in general and the the SunSun in particular, and
in particular, and
(by
(by extension)
extension) the the celestial
celestialbodies
bodiesthat that automatically
automatically followed followed
its
its movement
movementthrough through space,space,among
among them them the Moon.
the Moon.
The
The Sun Sun isis aa stal'
star that
that is is roughly
roughly 4lj24t/sbillion yeax'sold,
bifiion years accord-
old, accord-
ing
ing to to experts
experts in in astrophysics.
astrophysics.It possibleto
It isis possible clistinguishaa
to distinguish
 106
166 THE
THE BIBLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUXTANAND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

stage in
stage in its
its evolution,
evolution, as as one
one can
can for
for all
all the
the stars.
stars. AtAt present,
prercnt
the Sun
the Sun is is at
at an
an early
early stage,
stage,characterized
characterized by by the
the transformation
transformation
ofof hydrogen
hydrogen atoms atoms into
into helium
helium atoms.
atoms. Theoretically,
Theoretically, thisthis present
present
stage should
stage should lastlast another
another 55121h billion
billion years
years according
aecording to to calcula-
calcula-
tions that allow
tions that allow aa total
total of
of 1010 billion
billion years
years forfor the
the duration
duration of of
the primary stage
the primary stage in in aa star
star of of this kind. It
this kind. It has
has already
atready been been
shown, in
shown, in the
the case
caseof of these
these other
other stars,
stars, that
that this
this stage
stage gives
gives way
to aa second
to secondperiod period characterized
characterized by by the
the completion
eompletion of of the
the trans-
formation of
formation of hydrogen
hydrogen into into helium,
helium, with
with the
the resulting expansion
expansion
of its external
of its external layers
layers andand the
the cooling
cooling of of the
the Sun.
Sun. In the final
stage, its
stage, its light
light is greatly diminished and
is greatly and density considerably
eonsiderably
inereased; this
increased; this isis to
to be
be observed
observed in the the type
type of star known as as
'white dwarf'.
aa 'white dwarf'.
The above
The above datesdates areare only of interest in as as far
far as
as they give
aa rough estimate
estimate of the time factor faetor involved,
involved, what is worth worth
remembering and and is really the the main point of the above, above, is the
evolution. Modern data allow
notion of an evolution. ellorv usus to predict
prediet that, in
ae few billion years, years, the conditions prevailing
prevailing in the solar system systcm
will not be
will be the samesame as as they are today. Like other stars rvhose whose
transformations have have been
been recorded
recorded until they reached reached theirtheir
final stage,
final possibleto predict
stage,it is possible prediet an end end to the Sun.Sun.
second verse
The second quoted above
verse quoted above (sura 36, verse Bg)
86, verse 38) referred
referred
to the Sun running its course
sun running course towards a place place ofof its own.
Modern astronomy
Modern astronomy has has been
been able
able to locate
locate itit exacily
exactly and has has
even given it
even given it a name,
name, the Solar Apex: Apex: the solar.
solar system
system is indeed
indeed
evolving in space
evolving towards a point situated
space torvards situated in the Constellation
Constellation
of Hercules (alpha
of (alpha lurae)
lyrae) whose
whose exact location is firmly firmly esteb-
estab-
lished; it it is moving at a speed speed already ascertained
ascertained at at sonrcthing
something
in the region of of 12 miles per.per second.
second.
All these
these astronomical
astronomical data deserve deserve to be mentioned
mentioned in in relation
relation
to the two verses verses from
from the Qur'an, since since itit is possible
possible toto state
state
that they appeal'to
appeal' to agreeagree perfecily
perfectly rvith
with modern
modern scientific
scientific data.
data.

Tfu
Tite E*pnsion
EXptlMOR of the (Jnioerce.
of ttw Universe.
The expansion
expansion of of the
the Universe
Universe is is ttre
the most
most imposing
imposing discover.y
discovery
of
of modern
modern science.
science. Today
Today itit is
is aa lirmly
firmly establislred
established concept
concept and
and
the only
the only debate
debate centles
centres around
around the the wny
way this
this is
is taking
taking place.
place.
It
It rvas
was first
first suggested
suggested by the general
by the general ilreor.y
theory of of relativity
relativity and
and
is
is backed
backed upup hyby physics
physics in
in the
the examinatiorr
examination of the galactic
of ilre galactic spec-
spec-
~, lntla
lltlrmrrlrg ita the Qalan
Qur'Q" lfif
187

trum; the
trum; the regular
regular movement
movement towards towards the the red section of
red section of their
their
spectrum may
spectrum may bebe explained
explained by by the
the distancing one galaxy
distancing of one galaxy from
of from
another. Thus
another. Thus thethe size
size ofof the Universe is
the Universe is probably
probably constantly
constantly
increasing and
increasing and this
this increase
increase rvillwill become bigger the
become bigger further away
the further away
the galaxies
the galaxies are are from
from us. us. TheThe speeds
speeds at at rvhich these celestial
which these celestial
bodies are moving
bodies are moving may, may, in in thethe course
course of this perpetual
of this perpetual expan-expan-
sion, go
sion, from fractions
go from fractions of of the the speed
speed of light io
of light speeds faster
to speeds faster
than this.
than this.
The following
The following verse
verse ofof thethe Qur'an (sura (sura 51, verse 47)
51, verse 47) where
where
God is speaking,
God is speaking, ffiay may perhaps
perhaps be
be compared
eompared with
with modern
modern ideas:
ideas:
"The heaven,
"The heaven, We have have built
built itit rvith power. Verily. We are ex-
with power.
panding it."
panding it."
'Heaven'
'Heaven' is the translation
translation of of the word sunt6" sama,' and this is
exactly
exactly the extra-terrestrial
extra-terrestrial world
world that
that is meant'
meant.
'We
'We aYe
a'l'e expanding
expanding it' it' is the translation of the plural plural present
present
participlee musi'una ausa'a meaning 'to make 'to make wider,
participl musi,'fr,na of the verb ausa'1,
more spacious,to extend,
more spacious, extend, to expand'.
expand'.
Some translators who
Some who werelvere unable
unable to grasp meaning of
grasp the meaning
the
the latter provide
provide translations
translations that appear appear me to me to be mistaken,
be mistaken,
e.g,"we
e.g. "we give
give generously" (R.
generously" (R. Blachere). Others sense
Blachdre). Others sense the mean- the mean-
ing, but are
ing, are afraid to to commit
commit themselves: Hamidullah
themselves: Hamidullah in his
his
translation
translation of the Qur'an
the Qur'an tallis talks of the
the rvidening
widening of the
the heavens
heavens
and
and space,
space,but he he includes
includesaa question
question mark. Finally, there
mark. Finally, are
there are
those
those who
who armarm themselves
themselveswith rvith authorized scientific opinion
authorized scientific opinion in in
their
their commentaries
commentariesand and give
give the the meaning
meaning stated here.
stated here. This isThis is
true
true in
in the
the case
caseof the Munta]sab,
of the Mzmtafuab, aa book
book ofof commentaries
commentariesedited edited
by the
by the Supreme
SupremeCouncil
Council for for Islamic
Islamic Affairs,
Affairs, Cairo.
Cairo. It to
refers to
It refers
the
the expansion
expansionof of the
the Universe
Universein in totally unambiguotlsterms.
totally unambiguous terms.

E.
E. THE CONQUEST OF
THE CONQUEST SPACE.
Or SPACE.
From
F rom this
this point
point ofof view,
vierr',thre·e
thre'everses
versesof of the
the Qur'an shoUld
Qur'an should
command our full attention. One
command our full attention. One expresses' expresses, without
without any
any trace
trace
of
of ambiguity,
ambiguity, whatrvhat man
man should
shouldand will achieve
and will in this
achievein this field.field.
In
In the
the other
other two,
tl.o, God
God refers
refels for
for the
the sake of the unbelievers
sakeof the unbelievers
in
in M:akka
Makka to to the
the surprise
surprisethey
they would
would have they were
haveifif they ableto
were able to
raise
raisethemselves
themselvesup up to
to the
the Heavens;
Heavens;He alludesto
He alludes hypothesis
to aa hypothesis
which will not
whichwill not beberealized
realizedforfor the
the latter.
latter.
 108
168 THE
THE BIBLE,
BIBLE,THE
THE QUR' AN AND
QUR'AN ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

1) The
1) The first
first of
of these
theseverses
versesisis sura
sura 55,
bE,verse
verse33:
BB:"0"o assembly
assemblyof
of
Jinns and
Jinns and Men,
Men, if you can
if you penetrateregions
can penetrate regionsof of the
the heavens
heavensand
and
the earth,
the earth, then penetratethem!
then penetrate them ! You
You will
n'ill not
not penetrate
penetr.atethem
them save
save
Power."
with aa Power."
with
The translation
The given here
translation given here needs
needssome
someexplanatory
explanatory comment:
comment:
a) The
a) The word 'if'expresses
word 'if' expresses in in English
English aa condition
conclitionthat
that isis depend-
depend-
ant upon
ant possibility and
upon aa possibility and either
either an
an achievable
achievableor or an
an unachiev-
unachiev-
able hypothesis.
able hypothesis.Arabic
Arabie isis aa language
language\vhich
rvhich is
is able
able to
to introduce
intr.otluee
aa nuance
nuanceinto
into the
the condition
eonditionwhich
which is
is much
much more
mol'eexplicit.
explicit. There
Thele isis
oneword
one word to
to express
expressthe possibilitv (idJi)
the possibility Udd),, another
another for the
the achiev-
achiev-
ablehypothesis
able hypothesis(in)(in ) and
and aa third
thitd for
for the
the unachievable
unachievablehypothesis
hypothesis
expressedby
expressed by the
the word (Iutt). The
word (la'll). The verse
verse in question
question has
has it asas an
an
achievablehypothesis
achievable hypothesisexpressed
expressedby by the
the word (in.). The
rvorcl (in). QUl"an
The eur''an
therefore suggests
therefore stlggeststhe possibility of aa concrete
the material possibility concr.eterealiza-
r.ealiza-
tion. This
tion. This subtle
subtlelinguistic
linguistic distinction
distinctionformally
folmally rules
rulesout
out the
the purely
pur.ely
mystic interpretation
mystic interpretation that some peoplehave
somepeople have (quite
(quite wrongly)
rvrongly) put
on this verse.
on verse.
b) God
b) is addressing
God is addressingthe
the spirits (jinrt) and
spirits (1'inl1) and human beings (ins),
human beings
and not
and not essentially
essentiallyallegorical
allegoriealfigures.
figures.
'Topenetl'ate'is the translation
c) 'To penetrate' translation of the verb nafag,a followed
nafad,afollowed
by the prepositionmin. According
the preposition According to Kazimirski's dictionar.y,
dictionary, the
phrase means 'to
phrase means 'to pass
pass right
right through and
and conre
come out on the other
side body' (e.s.
side of a body' (e.g. an alrow
arrow that comes
comes out on the other.
other sirte).
side).
It therefore suggests
It deep penetration
suggests a deep penetration and emergence
emergence at the
other end
end into the r.egions
regions in question.
question.
Power (sultiur)
d) The Pon'er (sultan) these
these men
men rvill
will have
have to
to achieve
achieve this
this enter-
enter-
pt'ise
prise would
would seem
seem to come
come from the All-Mighty.'
All-Mighty.!
There
There cau
can be
be no doubt
doubt that this
this verse
verse indicates
indicates the
the possibility
possibility
men rvill
men will one
one day achieve
achieve r.vhat
what rve
we today call (perharrs
today call (perhaps r.ather
rather
improperly) 'the
improperly) 'the conquest
conquest of
of space'.
space'. one
One must
must note
no:e that
that the
the text
text
of
of the Qur'an predicts
the Qur'an predicts not only penetration
not only penetration thlough
through the
the regions
regions
of the
of the lleavens,
Heavens, but
but also
also the
the Ear.th,
Earth, i.e.
i.e. the
the exploration
exploration of of its
its
depths.
depths.

1. This verse
1. This verse isis followed
followed byby aan
n i invitation
n v i t a t i o n tto
o rrecognize
e c o g n i z e GGod's l e s s i n g s . I It
o d ' s bblessings. t
forms
forms the
the subject
subject ofof the
the wwhole
h o l e oof f t the
h e ssura
u r a t that
h a t bbears
e a r s t the
h e t title ,The
i t l e 'The
Beneficent'.
Beneficent'.
Asttonomy the Qulan
Astronomyinintlw Quian 169
169

2) The
Z') The other
other twotwo verses
verses are
are taken
taken from sura 15,
from Sura 15, (verses
(verses 14 14 and
and
15). God is speaking
lF). God is speaking of
of the
the unbelievers
unbelievers in
in lVlakka,
IHakka, as
as thtr
the context
context
of this
of this passage
passage in in the
the sura
sura shows:
shows:
"Even if We openedunto them aa gate
"Even if We opened unto them gate to Heaven and
to Heaven they were
and they were
to continue ascending
to continue ascendingtherein, they therein, they would
would say:
say: our
our sight
sight is
is con-
con-
fused as in drunkenness.
fused as in drunkenness.Nay, we are Nay, we are people
people bervitched."
bewitched."
The above
The above expresses astonishment at
expresses astonishment remarkable spectacle,
at aa remarkable spectacle,
different from anything man
different from anything man could imagine. could imagine.
The conditional
The conditional sentence
sentence is introduced here
is introduced here by the word
by the word lau lau
which expresses
which expresses aa hypothesis
hypothesis that could never
that eould never be be realized as far
realized far
as itit concerned
as concerned the the people
people mentioned
mentioned in these verses.
in these verses.
When talking of
When talking of the conquest
conquest of of space therefore, we have two
space therefore, two
passages in the text of the Qur'an: one
passages one ofof them refers to what
will one
rvill become a reality thanks to the powers
one day beeome powers of of intelligence
intelligence
and ingenuity
and ingenuity God God willwill give to man, man, and the other describes describes an
event that
event unbelievers in Makka will
that the unbelievers never witness,
will never hence its
witness, hence
character of a condition
character condition never never to be realized. The event
be realized. will how-
event will
ever
ever be be seen
seen by others,others, as as intimated in the first verse quoted
verse quoted
above.
above.It It dpscribes
dpscribesthe human human reactions unexpectedspec-
reactions to the unexpected spec-
tacle that travellers
tacle travellers in space spacewillrvill see: confusedsight,
see: their confused sight, as as in
rlrunkenness,the
drunkenness, the feeling
feeling of being
being bewitched
bewitched... .' .
This
This is is exactly
exactly how astronauts
astronauts have have experienced
experiencedthis remark-
able
ableadventure
adventuresince sincethe the first human
human spaceflight
spaceflightaroundaround thethe world
in 1961.
L961.It It is
is known
known in actual actual fact fact how once one
how once one isis above
above the the
Earth's
Earth's atmosphere,
atmosphere,the the Heavens
Heavens no no longer have the
longer have azure ap-
the azure ap-
pearance
pearancewe we see
seefromfrom Earth, which results from
which results phenomenaof
from phenomena of
absorption
absorption of of the
the Sun's
Sun's light
tight into
into thethe layers
layers of of the atmosphere.
the atmosphere.
The
The human
human observer
observerin in space
spaceabove
abovethe the Earth's atmospheresees
Earth's atmosphere sees
black sky
aa black sky and
and the the Earth
Earth seems
seemsto to bebe surrounded
surroundedby halo of
by aa halo of
bluish
bluish colour
colour duedue to to the
the same phenomenaof
samephenomena absorptionof
of absorption light
of light
by
by the
the Earth's
Earth's atmosphere.
atmosphere.The The MoonMoon has has no atmosphere,how-
no atmosphere, how-
*u.r, and
ever, and therefore
therefore appears
appearsin in its
its true
true colors against the
colors against black
the black
background
backgroundof of the
thesky.sky.ItIt is
is aa completely
completelynew ne$'spectacle therefore
spectacle therefore
that
that presents
presentsitself
itself to to men
men in in space,
space'and and the photographsof
the photographs this
of this
spectacle
spectacle are
are well
well known
known to to present-day
present-dayman. man'
Here
Here again,
again, it
it is
is difficult
difficult not
not to
to be
be impressed,
impressed, when comparing
whencomparing
the
t h etext
t e x t of
o f tthe
heQ Qur'an
u r ' a n ttoo tthe
h e ddata
a t a oof
f mmodern
o d e r n sscience,
c i e n c e by
, b ystate-
state-
ments
ments that
that .simply
.simply cannot
cannot be
be ascribed
ascribed to
to the
the thought
thought of
of man
aa man
who
who lived
lived more
more than
than fourteen
fourteen centuries
centuries ago.
ago.
 The Earth
Tht; farth
As in
As in the
the case
caseofof the
the subjects
subjects already
already examined,
examined, thethe verses
verses of
of
the Qur'an
the dealing with
Qur'an dealing with thethe Earth
Earth are
are dispersed
dispersed throughout the
throughout the
Book. It
Book. It is
is difficult
difficult to
to classify
classify them,
them, and
and the
the scheme
schemeadopted
adopted here
here
is personal one.
is aa personal one.
To explain
To explain them
them more
more clearly,
clearly, one begin by singling out
one might begin out
aa certain
certain number
number of of verses
verses that deal
deal with
with more than one
one subject
subject
st aa time.
at These verses
time. These verses areare largely general
general in their
their application
and constitute an
and an invitation
invitation extended
extended to men
men to reflect on divine
divine
Beneficenceby pondering on
Beneficence on the examples
examples provided.
other groups of verses
Other verses may be be singled
singled out which deal with
deal with
rnore specifie subjects, as
more specific subjects, as foIIows: follows:
-the water cycle and the seas.
-the seas.
-the Earth's
-the Earth's relief.
-the Earth's
-the Earth's atmosphere.
atmosphere.

A. VERSES CONTAINING
CONTAINING GENENAL GENERAL STATEMENTS
STATEMENTS
Although these verses provide arguments intended to
these verses to lead
lead man
man
to
to meditate on the Benefieenee
Beneficence of of God towards
towards HisHis creatures,
creatures,
here
here and there theythey contain statements that that are
are interesting
interesting from
from
the point
point of
of view
view of of modern
modern science.
science. They
They are
are perhaps
perhaps especially
especially
revealing
revealing by
by virtue
virtue ofof the
the fact
fact that
that they
they do
do not
not express
express the
the varied
varied
beliefs
beliefs concerning natural phenomena
concerning natural phenomena thatthat were
were current
current atat the
the
time
time ofof the Qur'anic Revelation.
the Qur'anic Revelation. These
These beliefs
beliefs were later to
were later to be
be
shorvn
shown by by scientific
scientific knowledge
knowledge to to be
be mistaken,
mistaken.
on
On the
the one
one hand,
hand, these
these verses
verses express
express simple
simple ideas
ideas readily
readily un-
un-
derstood
derstood byby to those people
to those to rvhom,
people to for geographical
whom, for geographical reasons,
reasons,
the Qur'an was
the Qur'an was first
first directed:
directed: the
the inhabitants
inhabitants ofof Makka
Makka andand Ma-
Ma-

r70
170
TIteEtIf'Ih
Tho Eap?I) 171
l7l

dina, the Bedouins of of the Arabian

Arabian Peninsula. On the other other hand,
they contain reflections of nature from
of a general nature from which
which a more
cultivated public
cultivated public of time and place may
of any time may learn something in- in-
structive, once it
it
structive, once starts to starts to think
think about them:
them: this
this is a mark
mark of
of
the Qur'an's universality.
the Qur'an's universality.
As there
As there is apparently
apparently no classification
classification of of such verses in in the
Qur'an, they
Qur'an, they ere
are presented here in in the numerical
numerical order
order of of the
suras:
Suras:
-sura
-sura 2, verse vetse 22:
"(God)
" (God) One who made
is the One made the earthearth a couch for you and the
couch for
heavens
heavens an edifice,
edifice, and sent down water
water from
from the sky. brought
He brought
forth therewith
forttr therewith fruits fruits for
for your
your sustenance.
sustenance. Do not join
join equals
equals
with
with GodGod when you know."
know."
-gura 2, verse
-sura verse 164:
"Behold!
"Behold ! InIn the creation of heavens and the earth,
of the heavens
In the disparity
In disparity of nightnight and day,
In
In the ship which
which runs upon the sea sea for profit
for the profit
of mankind,
mankind,
In
In the water
water which
which God God sent down from from the sky thereby
reviving
reviving the earthearth after
after its
its death,
In
In the beasts
beasts of all kinds He scatters scatters therein,
In the change
change of the winds and the subjected subiected clouds
clouds
between
between the sky and earth,
Here are Signs for people people who are wise."
-.sura
--sura 13, 18, verse
verse 3:
""(God)
(God) is the One One who spreadspread out the earth and set set therein
mountains standing
standing firm rivers. For
firm and rivers. For every fruit placed
fruit He placed
two of aa pair.
pair. He covers
covers the day with with the night. VerilyVerily in this
there are Signs for for people
people who reflect!'
reflect."
--sura
-sura 15, verses
16, verses 19
19 to 21.
21. God
God is speaking:
speaking:
"The
"The earth, We spread
spread it out and set
set thereon mountains stand- stand-
ing firm. We caused
We eaused all kind of things to grow therein in due
due bal-
bal-
ance.
ance.Therein We We have provided
have provided you and
you and those you
those you dodo not supply
with
s'ith means
mesns of subsistence
subsistenceand and there is not aa thingthing but its stores
stores
are with
with Us.
Us. We
We do do not send
send it down
down save
save in appointed
appointed measure!'
measure."
-sura 20,
-sura 20, verses
verses 53 53 and
and 54:54:
"" (G<>d
( Godis) the One OneWho has has made
made for you the
for you the earth
earth like aa cradle
cradle
and
and inserted
inserted roads
roads into it for for you.
you. He sent
sent water down down fromfrom the
the
172
172 THE BIBLE,
THE BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUNAN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

sky
sky and
and thereby
thereby We
We brought
brought forth pairs of
forth pairs plants, each
of plants, eaeh sepamte
sepante
from the other.
from other. Eat!
Eat ! Pasture your cattle!
cattle ! Verily
Verily in this are
are Signs
Signs
for people endued
for people endued with intelligence."
with intelligoence."
-sura 27,
-sura 27, verse
verse 61:
6L:
"He Who made made the earth anan abode
abode and set set rivers in its inter-
stices and mountains standing firm. He placed
stices placed aa barrier
barrier between
between
the two seas.
seas. Is there any divinity
divinity besides
besides God?
God? Nay, but most
peopledo
people do not know."
reference is made
Here aa reference general stability
made to the general stability of the Earth's
Earth's
crust. It
It is known that at the early stages
stagesof the Earth's
Earth's existence
existenee
before its crust cooled
before cooled down,
dorvn, the latter
latter was
lvas unstable.
unstable. The stabil-
itf of the Earth's
ity Earth's crust is not however
however strictly
strictly uniform,
uniform, since
sinee
tnel't zones where earthquakes
therp are zones earthquakes intermittently occur. As to
intermittently occur.
barrier between
the barrier between the two seas,
seas, it
it is an image which signifies
signifies
that the waters great rivers and the waters of the sea
rvaters of the great sea do
do
not mix
mix at the level
level of
of certain large estuaries.
estuaries.
-sura 67,
-sura 67, verse
verse 15:
(God is) the One
" (God
.11 One Who made
made the earth docile
docile to you.
you. So
So walk
upon shoulders ! Eat of His sustenance!
upon its shoulders! sustenance! Unto Him
Him will be the
will be
Resurrection."
Resurrection."
+sura 79,
-'-sura ?9, verses
verses 30-33:
30-33:
"After that
"After that (God) spread
spread the earth out. Therefrom
Therefrom He drew drtw
out i'ts water and its pasture. And
its water And the mountains He has firmly firmly
fixed. for you and for
Goods for
fixed. Goods for your cattle."
cattle."
In many such
In verses, emphasis
such verses, emphasis is laid upon upon the importance
importanee
of water and the practical
of water practical consequences
consequences of of its presence
presence in the
earth's soil,
soil, i.e.
Le. the fertility
fertility of
of the soil.
soil. There cancan bebe no doubt
that in desert
that desert countries, n'ater
water is the most important
important element
element gov-
erning man's survival.
erning survival. The reference
reference in the Qur'an
Qur'an horvever
however goesgoes
beyond this geographical detail. According
beyond this According to to scientific knorvledge
knowledge
the character the Earth
Earth has of of a planet that
that is rich
rich in water
water is
unique to the solar system,
system, and this
this is exactly what
what is highlighted
highlighted
in
in the Qur'an. Without
Without water,
water, the Earth
Earth would be a dead dead planet
like the Moon. The Qur'an gives first
like first place
place to water
water among the
natural phenomena
natural phenomena of of the Earth
Earth that
that itit refers
refers to. The water
water cycle
cycle
is described
described with
with remarkable accuracy in in the Qur'an.
Qttr'an.
The Earth
Tllc Earth u3
173

B. THE WATEN
B, CYCLE AND THE SEAS.
W ATEH CYCLE SEAS.
When the versesverses ofof the Qur'an
Qur'an concerning the role of of water
water in in
existence are read in
man's existence in suceession
succession today, they all all appear to
express ideas
us to express ideas that
that are quite obvious.
obvious. The reasonreason for for this is
simple: in in our day and ag:e, lesser or gfeater
age, we all, to a lesser greater extent,
extent,
know about the rvater
know water cycle
cycle inin natut'e.
nature.
If however,
If however, we consider
consider the various conceptsconcepts the ancientsancients had
this subject, itit becomes
on this becomes clear that that the data in in the Qur'an
Qur'an do not
embody the mythical eoncepts
embody concepts current
current at the time of the Revela- Revela-
tion which had been been developed according to philosophical
developed more according philosophical
speculation than observed phenomena.
than observed phenomena. Although
Although itit was empiri- empiri-
possible to acquire
cally possible acquire on a modest scale, the useful practical
modest scale,
knowledge necessary
knowledge necessary for for the improvement of the irrigation, irrigation, the
concepts
concepts held on the rvater water cyclecycle in general would hardly hardly be be ac-
ac-
ceptable
ceptable today.
Thus it it would have been
rvould have been easy
easy to imagine that that underground
water could have
could have come come from the infiltration
infiltration of precipitations in
the soil.
soil. In ancient times however,
ancient times hon'ever, this idea,
idea, held
held by Vitruvius
Vitruvius
Polio Marcus in Rome, Rome, 1st
lst century B.C.,
R.C., was cited
cited as
as an excep·
excep-
tion. For many centuries therefore
centuries thelefore (and
(and the Qur'anic Revelation
Revelation
is situated
situated during this period) man man held
held totally inaccurate
inaccurate views viervs
on the water cycle.
water cycle.
specialistson this subject.
Two specialists subject, G. G. Gastany
Gastany and and B. Blavoux,
Blavoux, in
their entry in the Universalis
Universalis Encyclopedia (Enc.yelopediaU11,i-
Encyclopedia (Encyclopedia Uni-
aersalisl under
vm'salis) under the heading (Hydrog6ologie),
Hgdrogeology (Hydrogeologie),
heading Hyd1'ogeology
give an edifying history of this problenl.
give problem.
HIn
"In the Seventh
Seventh centut'y 8.C., Thales of :Miletus
century B.C., Thales l\{iletus held
held the theory
whereby
whereby the the waters
watet's of the
the oceans,
oceans,under
under the
the effect
effect of winds,
winds, were
wel'e
thrust towards the interior
torvards the interior of the continents;
continents; so so the water
rvater fell
upon
upon the earth and and penetrated into the soil.
penetrated soil. Plato shared shared these
these
views
views andand thought that the the return
retut'n of the
the waters
waters to the the oceans
oceanswas was
via aa great abyss,
abyss,the 'Tartarus'. This theory
the'Tartarus'. theoly had had many support-suppot't-
ers
els until the the Eighteenth
Eighteenth century,
century, oneone of whomwhom was Descartes.
was Descartes.
Aristotle imagined
imagined that the the water
rvatel vapoUJ' from the
vapoul'flom the soil condensed
soil condensed
in
in cool
cool mountain
mountain caverns
cavel'llsandand formed
formed underground
underground lakes lakes that fed fetl
springs.
springs.He He wasrvasfollowed
follorvedby by Seneca (lst Century
Seneca(1st Century A.D.) A.D.) and many
and many
others,
others, until 1877. among them
L877,among them O. O. Volgel'
Volger .. .. .. TheThe firstfirst clear
clear
folmulation of
formulation of the
the water
u'ater cycle
cycle must
must be be attributed
attributed to Bernard
t74
174 THE BIBLE,
THE BIBT.E,THE
THE QUlfAN
QURAN AND
AND SCmNCE
SCIENCE

Palissy in
Palissy in 1580:
1580: hehe claimed
claimed that
that underground
underground water water came
eame from
from
rainwater infiltrating
rainwater infiltrating intointo the
the soil.
soil. This
This theory
theory waswas confirmed
confirmed by by
E. Mariotte
E. Mariotte and P. Perrault
and P. Perrault in in the
the Seventeenth
Seventeenthcentury.
century.
In the
In the following passagesfrom
following passages from thethe Qur'an,
Qur'an, there
there is is no
no trace
trace
of the
of the mistaken
mistaken ideas
ideasthat
that were
werecurrent
current atat the
the time
time ofof Muhammad:
Muhammad :
-sura 50,
-sura 50,verses
verses9I to 11:
to 11:
"Wet
"'We' sent
sent down
down from
from thethe sky
sky blessed
blessedwater whereby
whereby We We caused
caused
gardens, grains for
to grow gardens, for harvest,
harvestn tall palm-trees
palm-trees with with their
spathes, piled one
spathes, one above
above the other-sustenance
other*sustenance for for (Our)
(our) ser-ser-
vants. Therewith We
vants. gave (new) life
We gave Iife to aa dead
dead land. So
land. So will be be
the emergence
the emergence(from(from thethe tombs)."
-sura 23,
-sura 23, verses
verses18 18 and
and 19:
19:
"We sent down water from the sky in measure
"we sent measure and lodgedlodged it it in
the ground. And We certainly are able able to withdraw
withdraw it. Therewith
Therewith
for you We gave
for gave rise to gardens
gardens of palm-trees
palm-trees and vineyards
where for you are abundant fruits fruits and of them you eat."
-sura 15,
-sura L5,verse
verse22 22::
sent
"We sent forthforth the winds that fecundate.
fecundate. We we cause
cause the water
to descend from the sky. We provide you with
descend from with the water-you
water-you
(could) not be be the guardians of its reserves."
reserves."
possible interpretations
There are two possible interpretations of this last verse. verse. The
fecundating winds may be be taken to be the fertilizers
fertilizers of plants
because
because they carrycarry pollen.
pollen. This rr18y,
may, however,
however, be be a figurative
figurative ex-
pression
pression referring
referring by analogy to the role the wind wind plays in in the
process
process whereby a non-raincarrying
non-raincarrying cloud is turned into into one
one that
that
produces
produces a shower of of rain.
rain. This role is often referred
referred to, as in in the
following
following verses:
verses:
-sura
-sura 35, verse 9:
"God is the One One Who sends forth the winds whieh
sends forth which raised up
the clouds.
clouds. We drive
drive them to a dead dead land. Therewith
Therewith we We revive
the ground after
after its
its death. So willwill be the Resurrection."
Resurrection."
rt
It should be noted how the style is descriptive in in the first
first part
part
of verse, then passes
of the verse, passes without
without transition
transition to a declaration from from
God. Such sudden
God. sudden changes
changes in in the form
form ofof the narration
narration are very very
frequent in
frequent in the Qur'an.

1. Whenever
1. Whenever the pronoun 'We'
the pmnoun 'We' appearg
appears in
in the
the verses
verses of
of the
the t€xt
text quoted
quoted
here,
here, itit refers to God.
refers to God.
TIaeEarda
Trw Eailh 175
175

-sura
-sura 80, SO, verse
verse 48:
48 :
"God is the One One TVho
Who sends forth the winds which raised up
sends forth
the clouds,
clouds. He spreadsspreads them in in the sky as He wills wills and breaks
breaks
them into fragments. Then thou seest
into fragments. seest raindrops issuing from from
within
within them. them. He makes
makes them reach
reach such
such of
of His senrants
servants as
as He
wills. And they are rejoicing."
----surg
-sura 7, verse verse 5?:57:
U (God)
" (God) is the One Who
One Who sends forth the winds like heralds
sends forth heralds ofof
Mercy. When
His Mercy. When they have clouds, We
heavy-lad·en clouds,
have carried the heavyJaden
drive them to a dead land. Then
dead land. Then We cause descend and
cause water to descend
thereby bring
thereby bring forth
forth fruits every kind. Thus We will
fruits of every will bring forth
forth
the dead. Maybe you
dead. Maybe will remem'ber,"
you will remember."
-sura
-sura 25, 25, verses
verses 4848 and
and 49: 49 :
(God) is the One
""(God) One WhoWho sends forth the winds like heralds
sendsforth heralds of
Mercy. We
His Mercy. Gausepure water to descend
We cause descendin order to revive revive
aa dead
dead land with with itit and supply with
and to supply with drink the the multitude of
cattle and and human
human beings
beings We We have created."
have created."
-sura 45,
-sura verse
45, verse 6: 5:
"...
". . . In the provision that God
the provision sendsdown
God sends down from the the ~ky and
sky and
thereby
thereby He revives
revives the
the ground
ground after its death
death and
and in the change
change
(of direction)
direction) of winds,winds,therethereare are Signs peoplewho
Signsfor people who are wise."
are wise."
The
The provision
provision made
made in this last verse
verse is in the
the form of the
the water
sent
sent down down from the sky,
sky, as
as the
the context
context shows.
shows. The
The accent
accent on
is on
the change
the change the windsof the winds that modify the
the rain cycle.
cycle.
-sure 13,
---sure 13, verse
verse17:17:
" (God)
cc (God) sendssendswater down down from the the sky
sky so the rivers flow
so that the flow
according
accordingto to their measure.
measure.The The torrent bears a\tsy an
bearsaway increaSing
an increasing
foam."
foam.tt
---sura 67,
-sura 6?, verse
verse30,80, God
Godcommands
cornmandsthe Prophet:
the Prophet:
"Say:
"Say: Do Do you
you see
see if
if your
your water
water were
were to be lost
be ground,
the ground,
lost in the
who then can
who then can supply supply you
you urith
with gushing
Sushing water?"
water!"
-sura 39,
-sura 89, verse
verse21 21::
"Hast
"flast thouthou not not seen
seenthatthat GodGod sent water down
sent water from the
down from sky
the sky
and
andled leditit through
through sources
sourcesinto into the ground?Then
the ground? ThenHe He caused
causedsownsown
fields of
fields of different
difierent colors
colorsto gTow."
to grow."
-sura
-sura 36, 86,verse
verse34:84:
"Therein
"Therein We gardensof
plaeedgardens
We placed palm-treesand
of palm-trees vineyerds and
and vineyards and
We
IlVecaused
causedwater springs to
water springs gttsh forth."
to gush forth."
 I78
176 THE
THEBIBLE,
BIBLE,THE
THE QUR'AN
QUR'ANAND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

The importance
The irnportanceof of springs
springs andand thethe wayrvay theythey areare fed
fed byby rain~
rain-
rvater conducted
water conducted into into them
them isis stressed
stressedin in the
the last
last three
three verses.
verses.
IItt isis worth pausing to
worth pausing to examine
examine thisthis factfact andand callcall toto mind
mind the the
predominanee
predominance in in the
the Middle
Middle Ages
Age-sof viervssuch
of views such as as those
thoseheldheld byby
Aristotle, according
Aristotle, according to to whom
whom springs
springs were wele fed fed byby underground
underground
lakes. In
lakes. In his
his entry
entry on Hydtology (Hydrologie)
on Hyd1°ology (Hydrologie) in in the
the Univer.
Univer-
salisEncyclopedia
salis (EncycloTted,ia
Encyclopedia (Encyclopedia (Jniuersatis) M.R.
Universalis) M.R. Remenieras,
Rdmeni€ras,
aa teacher
teaeher at at the
the French
French National
National School
School of of Agronomy
Agronomy (Ecole ( Ecole
nationaledu
nationale du Genie
Gdnierural,
rural, des
desEaux
Eaux et et Forets),
For6ts), describes
describesthe the main
main
stages of
stages of hydrology
hydrology and and refers
refers to to thethe magnificent
magnificent irrigation
irrigation
rvorksof
works of the
the ancients, particularly in
aneients,particularly in the
the Middle
Middle East. East. He He notes
notes
however that
however that an an empirical
empirical outlook
ouilook ruledruled overover everything, since since
the ideas
the ideas of of the
the time proceededflOom
time proceeded from mistaken concepts. concepts.He He con·
con-
tinues as
tinues as follows:
follows:
was not until the Renaissance
"It was
"It Renaissance (between (between circa 1400 1400 andand
1600) that purely philosophical
1600) philosophical concepts
coileepts gave gave way to research research
based on
based on the objective observation of hydrologic phenomena. phenomena.
Leonardo da
Leonardo (1452-1519) rebelled
da Vinci (1452-1519) rebelledagainst
aglinst Aristotle's
Aristoile's state·
state-
ments. Bernard Palissy,
ments. Palissy, in his WOl1de1'jul
wonderful discoursed,iscourseon the nature nature
of waters and and, fou.ntains
fountains both natuTal nahn.nl and artificial (Discours
nnd, urtifieial
admirable de de laIa nature des des eaux et fontaines tant tant naturelles
qu'artificielles (Paris,
qu'artificielles (Paris, 1570»
15?0) ) gives
gives a correct interpretation
interpretation of of
rvater cycle and especially of
the water of the way way springs
springs are are fed by by
rainwater."
rainwater."
This
This last statement is surely exacfly exactly what what is mentioned in in verse
2L,
21, sura 39 describing the way way rainwater
rainwater is conducted conducted into into
sources in the ground.
sources ground.
The
The subject of of verse
verse 48,43, sura 24 is rain rain and and hail:
hail:
"Hast thou not
"Hast not seen
seen that
that God
God makes
makes the the elouds
clouds move
move genily,
gently,
then joinsjoins them
them together,
together, thenthen makes
makes them them aa heap. heap. And And thouthou
seest
seest raindrops
raindrops issuing
issuing from from within
within it, it. He
He sends
sends downdown fromfrom the the
sky
sky mountains
mountains of of hail,
hail, HeHe strikes
strikes therewith
therewith whom whom He He wills
wills and
and
He
He turns
turns itit away
away from from whom
whom He He wills.
wills. The The flashing
flashing of of its
its light-
light·
ning
ning almost
almost snatches
snatches away away the the sight."
sight."
The following passage
The follou'ing passage requires
requires some
some comment:
comment:
-sura 56, verses
-sura 56, verses 68-70: 68·70:
"Have you
"Have you observed
observed the water you
the water you drink
drink? ? DoDo you
you bring
bring itit
down
down from from the the rainclouds
rainclouds? ? or
Or do
do weWe? ? IfIf itit were
were ourOur will,
will, lye
We
could
could makemake itit salty.
salty. Then
Then why are you
why are you notnot thankful
thankful?" ?"
The Earth
The 177

This reference
This reference to
to the
the fact
fact that
that God could have
God could made fresh
have made fresh
water salty is a rvay
rvater way of
of expressing Omnipotence. Another
expressing divine Omnipotence. Another
means of
means of reminding
reminding us ofof the same Omnipotence is the challenge
same Omnipotence challenge
to man to make rainrain fall
fall from clouds. In
from the clouds. modern times horv-
In modern how-
ever,
ever, technology
technology has surely made
made it
it possible
possible to create
create rain
rain arti-
arti-
one therefore oppose
ficially. Can one statement in the Qur'an to
oppose the statement
man's ability
man's produce precipitations
ability to produce precipitations??
The answer is no, because itit seems
no, because seems clear that one must take
that one
account of man's
account man's limitations in this field.
field. M.A. Facy,
Facy, expert at
an expert
the French Meteorological following in
Office, wrote the following
Meteorological Office, in the
(Eneyclopedia
Encyclopedia (Encyclopedia Unit'('rsalis)
Universalis Encyclopedia Uniuusalis) under the
heading Precipitations
heading (Prdcipitations)
Precipitations (Precipitations):: "It will never be
"It will never be pos- pos-
sible to make
sible make rain fall from a cloud cloud that does have the
does not have
suitable
suitable characteristics
characteristics of a raincloud
raincloud or one has not yet
that has
one that
reached the appropriate
leached appropriate stage
stageof evolution (maturity)
evolution (maturity)". can
". Man can
never therefore
never therefore hasten
hasten the precipitation process
process by technical
technical
means when the
meanswhen the natural
natural conditions
conrlitionsfor it it are presettt.If
are not present. If this
were
were not the
the case,
case,droughts
droughts would
would never
never occur plactice-rvhich
occur in practice-which
they obviously
obviously do.
do. To have
have control over
over rain andand fine rveather
fine weather
still remains
remains aa dream
dt'eam therefore.
therefore.
l\lan
l\{an cannot
cannot wilfully
tvilfulty break
break the established
establishedcycle maintains
cycle that maintains
the
the circulation
circulation of water
rvater in nature.
natUre.This
This cycle may be
cycle may be outlined as
outlined as
follows,
follorvs,according
according to modern
modern ideas
ideas on
on hydrology:
hydrology:
The
The calories
caloriesobtained
obtained from the the Sun's
Sun's rays
rays cause
causethe sea and
the sea and
those
those parts of the the Earth's surface
surface that are are covered
covet'edor soakedsoaked
in water
rvater to evaporate.
evaporate.The The water vapour
vapour that is given off
is given rises
off rises
into the
into the atmosphere
atmosphereand, and, by
by condensation,
condensation,formsforms intointo clouds. The
clottds.The
rvinds then
winds then intervene
intervene and and move
move thethe clouds
clottds thus fot'med over
thus formed over
varying distances.
distances.The The clouds
clouds can
can then
then either
either disperse rvithout
dispelse without
producing rain, or
producing or combine
combinetheir mass mass with
rvith others
others to to create even
create even
greater
greater condensation,
condensation,or or they
they can
can fragment
fragment and and produce
ltroduce rainrain
at
at some
some stages
stages in in their
their evolution.
evolution. vVhen
Wherl rain t'eachesthe
rain reaches the sea
sea
(70% of
(70% of the
the Earth's
Earth's surface
surface is is covered
coveredby by seas),
seas), the cycle is
the cycle is
soon
soonrepeated. When rain
repeated.\Vhen rain falls
falls on
on the
the land,
land,itit may
may be absorbedby
be absorbed by
vegetation
vegetationand and thus
thus aid
aid the
the latter's grorl'th; the
latter's growth; vegetationin
the vegetation its
in its
turn
tut'n gives
gives off
off water
rvater andand thus
thus returns
returns some rvatet'to
some water to the atmo-
the atmo-
sphere.
sphere.TheThe rest,
rest,to lesseror
to aa lesser greater extent,
or greater infiltrates into
extent,infiltrates the
into the
soil,
soil, whence
rvhenceit it is
is either
either conducted
conductedthrough
through channels
channelsinto the sea,
into the sea,
 l78
178 THE
THE BIBLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUR'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

or comes
or comesback
back to
to the
the Earth's
Earth's surface
surface network
network through
through springs
springs
or resurgences.
or resurgences.
When onecompares
when one compares thethe modern
modern data
data of
of hydrology
hydrology toto what
what isis
containedin
contained in the
the numerous
numerous verses
versesof of the
the Qur'an
eur'an quoted
quoted in
in this
this
paragraph, one
paragraph, one has
has to
to admit
admit that
that there
there is
is aa remarkable
remarkable degree
degree
of agreement
of agreement between
betrveenthem.
them.

The Seas.
The Sear,,
whereas the
Whereas the above
above verses
verses from
from thethe Qur'an
eur'an havehave provided
provided ma- ma-
terial for
terial for comparison
comparison between betweenmodern modern knowledge
knowledge aboutabout the the water
water
cycle in
cycle in nature,
nature, this this is is not
not the
the case
casefor for the
the seas.
seas.There
There is is not
not aa
single statement
single statement in in the
the Qur'an
Qur'an dealing
dealing with
with thethe seas
seaswhich could could
be used
be used forfor comparison
comparison with with scientific data per
scientific data per.se.
se.This doesdoes notnot
diminish the
diminish necessityof pointing out however
the necessity however that none none of of the
the
statementsin
statements in the
the Qur'an
Qur'an on on the
the seas
seasrefers
refers to thethe beliefs,
beliefs, myths
or superstitions
or superstitions prevalentprevalent at the the time of its Revelation.
Revelation.
celtain number
A certain number of verses verses dealdeal with the seas seasand
and navigation.
navigation.
subjects for reflection,
As subjects reflection, they provide indications indications of divine
omnipotenee that arise
Omnipotence arise fromfrom the facts of common observation.
common observation.
The following
The follorving versesversesare examplesexamplesof this:
-sura 14,
-sura 14, verse
verse32:
H
"(God)
(God) has has made made the ship ship subject
subject to you,you, soso that itit runs uponupon
the sea sea at IIisHis Command."
Command."
-Sul.a
-sura 16, 16, verse
verse 14:
(God) is the one
""(God) One who Who subjected
subjected the sea, sea, so that
that you eat fresh
meat from from it it and you extract from it ornaments which
from it which you you wear.
wear.
Thou seest seest the ships plowing plowing the waves, waves, so that that you
you seek
seek of of His
His
Bounty.
Bounty. Maybe, Maybe, you will will bebe thankful."
thankfuL"
--sura
s r l r a 331,1 , vverse
e r s e331:
l:
"Hast
"Hast thou thou seen seen that
that thethe ship
ship runs
runs upon
upon thethe sea
sea byby the
the Grace
Grace
of
of God,God, in in order
order to show you
to show you FIis
His signs.
signs. verily
Verily inin this
this are
are Signs
Signs
for
for all all u'ho
who are are persevering
persevering and and grateful."
gratefu1."
_srrl.a
-sura bb, 55, verse
verse 24: 24:
"His
"His are the
.re the ships
ships erected
erected upon upon the
the seasea like
like tokens."
tokens."
-sura
-sura 36, 36, verse
verse 4l-44:
41-44:
"A
"A'we sign
sign for for them
them is is that
that weWe bore
bore their
their offspring
offspring in in the
the loaded
loaded
Ark.
Ark. We have have created
created for for them similar (vessels)
them similar (vessels) onon which
which they they
ride.
ride. IfIf we We rvill,wiIJ, we
We drowndrown themthem andand there
there isis no
no help
help andand they
they
TheEarOa
TI'' Eno'ih l7s
179

will not
will not be saved unless
be saved unless by by Mercy
Mercy from from Us Us and as aa gratification
and as gratification
for aa time."
for time."
The reference
fire reference here here is is quite
quite clearly to'the vessel
clearly to'the bearing man
vessel bearing man
upon the
upon the sea,sea, just
just as,as, long
long ago, Noah and
ago, Noah and the occupants of
other occupants
the other of
the vessel
the vessel were
were carried
carried in
in the
the Ark
Ark that
that enabled
enabled them
them to
to reach
reach dry
dry
land.
land.
Another obsenred
Another observed fact concerning the
fact concerning the seasea stands out, because
stands out, because
of its unusual
of its unusual nature,
nsture, from
from the
the verses
verses of
of the
the Qur'an
Qur'an devoted
devoted to
to
it: three
it: three verses verses refer
refer to
to certain characteristics
characteristics shared
shared by
by great
great
rivers when
rivers when they they flow out into into thethe ocean.
ocean.
The phenomenon
phenomenon is wetl well known and often seen whereby the
seen whereby
immediate
immediste mixing mixing of
of salty seawater
seawster and fresh riverwater
riverwater does
does
not occur.
occur. The Qurtan Qur'an refers to this in the case case of what is thought
to be
to be the estuary of the Tigris Euphrates where
Tigris and Euphrates where they unite
form what one
to fotur might call a 'sea'
one might over 100
'sea' over long, the Shatt
miles long,
100 miles
Al
Al Arab. At
At the inner parts of the gulf, the efrect
effect tides is
of the tides
to
to produce
produee the welcome
welcome phenomenon
phenomenon of the reflux of fresh
fresh water
to
to the interior
interior of the dry land,
land, thus ensuring
ensuring adequate
adequate irrigation.
irrigation.
To understand
understand the text correctly, correctly, one one has know that the
has to know the En-
glish word 'sea' 'sea' conveys
conveys the
the general
general meaning
meaning of the
the Arabic word
word
ba~r
baft,r which designates
designates aa large
large mass
m&ss of water and
and is equally
equally used
used
for both the sea
tor Uottrthe sea and the and the great
great rivers: the
the Nile,
Nile, Tigris antl
and Eu-
Eu-
phrates
phrates for example.
example.
The
The following are are the
the three
three verses phenom-
describethis phenom-
versesthat describe
enon:
enon:
-sura
-sura 25, 26,verse
verse53 63::
U
" (God)
(God) is is thethe One
OneWho Whohas haslet let free
free thethe two
two seas, oneis
seas'one is agree-
agree-
able
able and
and sweet,
sweet,the ttre other
other salty selty and He placed
bitter. He placed a barrier
and bitter. a barrier
between
betweenthem, them,aI partition
partition that that itit isis forbidden
forbidden to pass."
to pass."
---sura35,
--sura 36,verse
verse12 12::
"The
"The two
two seas
seas are
are notnot alike.
alike. The The water
water of of one
one isis agreeable,
agreeable,
sweet, pleasantto
sweet,pleasant to drink.
drink. The Theotherothersalty
salty andandbitter. Youeat
bitter. You fresh
eatfresh
meat
meat from
from it
it and
and you
you extract
extract from
from it
it ornaments
ornaments which
which you
you wear'"
wear."
--,sura55,
--sura 56,verses
verses19, 19,2020and and22:22:
"He has loosed
"He has loosed the
the two
two seas.
seas. They
Theymeet meettogether. Betweenthem
together.Between them
there is a barrier
there is a barrier which
which they
they do
do not
not transg:ress'
transgress. out
Out of
of them
them
come
eome pearls
pearls and
and coral."
coral."
In sddition to
In addition to thethe description
descriptionof of the main fact,
the main theseverses
fact, these verses
refer to what
refer to what msy be may be obtained
obtained from
from fresh
fresh water
water and
and seawater:
seawater:
 I8O
180 Tl!E
TIIE BIBLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QURAN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

personaladornment,
fish,personal
fish, adornment,Le. i.e.coral
coraland
and pearls.
pearls.With
with regard
regard toto the
the
phenomenon
phenomenon whereby thewhereby the river
river water
water does
doesnot
not mix
mix with
with seawater
seawater
at the
at the estuary,
estuary, one onemust
must understand
understand thatthat this
this isis not
not peculiar
peculiar toto
the Tigris
the Tigris and andEuphrates;
Euphrates; they theyare
are not
not mentioned
mentionedby by name
lrameinin the
the
text, but
text, but itit isis thought
thought toto refer
refer to
to them.
them. Rivers
Rivers with
with aa veryvery large
large
outflorv, suchas
outflow, such as the
the Mississippi
Mississippi andand the yangtze, have
the Yangtze, have the
the same
same
peculiarity: the
peculiarity: the mixing
mixing ofof their
their fresh
fr.eshwater
water with
with thethe salty
salty water
water
of the
of the sea
seadoes
doesnot not often
often occur
oceur until
until very
very far
far out
out atat sea.
sea.

c.
C. THE
THE EARTH'S
EANTH'S RELIEF.
RELIEF.
The constitution
The constitution of of thethe Earth
Earth is is highly
highly complex. Today, it
complex. Today, it is
is
possible to
possible to imagine
imagine it it very
very roughly
roughly as as being formed of
being formed of a deep a deep
layer, at
layer, at very
very high
high temperature,
temperature, and and especially
especially of aa central area area
where rocks
where rocks areare still
still in
in fusion,
fusion, andand of aa surface
surface layer,
layer, the
the Earth's
Earth's
erust which
crust which is is solid
solid and
and cold.cold. The
The crust is very thin; thin; its thickness
thickness
is estimated
is estimated in units of miles miles or units of ten miles miles at at the most.
most.
The Earth's radius is however
The however slightly
slishfly over 3,750B,?80 miles,
miles, so so that
that
its crust doesdoes not
not'epresent
represent (on average) average) one hundredth of
one hnndredth of the
the
sphere's radius.
of the sphere's radius. It It is upon
upon this skin, as as itit were,
were, that
that allall
geological phenomena
geological phenomena have taken place. place. At At the origin
origin of of these
these
phenomena
phenomena are folds folds thatthat were to form form the mountain ranges; ranges;
their formation
their formation is called called 'orogenesis'
'orogenesis' in in geology:
geology: the process
process is is
of
of considerable
considerable importance because because with with the development
development of of aa
relief
relief that
that was to constitute a mountain, the Earth's Earth's crust
crust waswas
driven
driven in in proportionately
proportionately far far down: this this process
process ensures
ensures aa foun-
foun-
dation
dation in in the layer that that underlies
underlies it.it.
The history
The history of of the
the distribution
distribution of of flre
the sea
sea and
and land
land onon the
the sur-
sur-
face
face of the globe
of the globe hashas onlyonly recently
recently beenbeen establisherl
established and and is is still
still
vely
very incomplete,
incomplete, even even for for the
the most
most recent
recent andand best
best knorvn
known periods,
periods.
It
It is
is likely
likely that
that the oceans appeared
the oceans appeared and and fo'med
formed the the hydrisphere
hydrosphere
circa
circa half billion years
half aa billion years ago. ago. The
The continents
continents were were proba-bly
probably aa
single
single mass
mass at at the
the endend of the primary
of the primary era, era, then
then subsequenily
subsequently
broke
broke apart.
apart. some
Some continents
continents or or parts
parts of of continents
continents hav*have rnor*-
more-
over emerged
over emerged through
through the the formation
formation of of mountains
mountains in in maritime
maritime
zones (e.g.
zones (e.g. the
the North
North Atlantic
Atlantic continent
continent and and paft
part ofof Europe).
Europe).
According
According to to modern
modern ideas, ideas, the
the dominating
dominating factorfactor inin the
the for-
for-
mation
mation of of the
the Iand
land that
that emerged
emerged was was thethe development
development of of moun-
moun-
tain
tain ranges.
ranges. The The evolution
evolution of of the
the land,
land, from
from thethe primary
primary to to the
the
 TheEarth
The Earth r8r
181

quaternaryera,
quaternsry era, isis classed
classed according
accordingto'orogenic phases' that are
to 'orogenic phases'that are
themselves grouped
grouped into
into 'cycles'
'cycles' of
of the
the same
same name
name since
since the
the for-
for-
themselves
mation of
mation of all
all mountains
mountains reliefs
reliefs had repercussions on
had repercussions on thethe balance
balance
between the
between the sea sea and
and the
the continents.
continents. It
It made
made some
some parts
parts of the
of the
land disappear
land disappear and and others
others emerge,
emerge' and
and for
for hundreds
hundreds ofof millions
millions
of years
of years itit tt"r
has altered
altered the the surface distribution of
surface distribution the continents
of the continents
and oceans: the
rni o.."ns: the former former at
at present
present only
only occupying
occupying three
three tenths
tenths
of the surface of this
of the surface of this Planet. planet.
In this
In this way
way itit is is possible
possible to to give very rough
give aa very outline of
rough outline of the
the
transformations
transformations that have that have taken
taken place
place over
over the
the last
last hundreds
hundreds of
of
millions of years.
millions of years.
When referring
When referring to to the Ea|th's relief, the
Earth's relief, the Qur"an only desct'ibes'
QUl"an only describes,
as it were,
as it were, the formation
formation of of the mountains.
mountains. Seen
Seen flom
from the present
present
point of view,
point of view, there is indeed little
indeed little one
one can say about the verses
verses
that only express God's
itt"t only expyess Gocl's Beneficence Beneficence to man rvith
''lith legard
regard to the
the
Earth's formation,
Earth's fot'mation, as as in the following
follorving verses:
verses:
-sura
-sura 71,
?1, verses
verses19 and
and 20:
,,For you God
"For God made
made the earth a carpet so yott travel
so that you along
tt'avel along
its roads and
its loads and the paths
paths of valleys."
valleys."
-sura
-sura 51, 51,verse
verse48:48:
"The
"The earth,
earth, \Ve
We have
have spread
sltread it out. excellently We
Holv excellently
out. How did
We did
that."
that,"
The
The carpet
carpet which
which has has been
been spread
splead out is the
out is the Earth's crust, aa
Earth's crust,
solidified
solidifiedshell
shell on
on which
which we we can
can live,
live, since globe's sub-strata
the globe's sub-strata
sincethe
are
are very
very hot,
hot, fluid
fluid and
and hostile
hostile to
to any
any form
form ofof life.
life.
The
The statements
statementsin in the
the Qur'an
Qut"an referring
refen'ing to the mountains
to the and
mottntains and
the
the references
references to to their
their stability
stability subsequent
sttbsequentto to the phenomenon
the phenomenon
of
of the
the folds
folds are
are very
very important.
imPortant.
-sura
-sura 88, 88, verses
verses 19 & 20.
19 & 20. The
The context
context invites unbelievet'sto
invites unbelievers to
consider certain natural phenomena,
consider certain natural phenomena' among
among them:
them:
,,. . .the
u... themountains,
mountains,how horvthey
they have
havebeen
beenpitched (like aa tent).
pitched (like tent) '
The
TheEarth
Earth how howitit was
wasmade
madeeven."
even"'
The way in which the
in which the
The follcwing
follc rving verses
versesgive
give details
detailsabout the way
about the
mountains
mountainswere wereanchored
anchore<l ininthe groutttl:
theground:
-sura 78,verses
-sura 78, verses66&&77:
:
,,Have\Ve
uHave lVe not madethe
not made theearth
ea|th an
auexpanse antlthe
expanseand mottntains
themountains
stakes."
stakes."
 r82
182 THE
THE BIBLE
BIBLE,, THE
THE QUR'AN AND
AND SCIEN
SCIENCE
CE
QUITAN
The
The stakes
stakes referre
referredd to to are
are the
the ones
ones used
used to ancho
anchorr aa tent in the
ground (autid
ground (autffi,,, plural
plural of watad
of watad,).).
Moder
Modern n geolog
geologists
ists describ
deseribe e the
the folds
folds in the Earth
Earth as as giving
giving
founda tions to
foundations to the
the mount ains, and their
mountains, their dimens ions go roughl
dimensions roughlyy
one
one mile
mile to to roughl
roughlyy 10 to miles. The stabili ty of the Earth'
stability Earth'ss crust
results
results from
from the phenomenon
the phenom enon of these
these folds.
So
So it
it is
is not
not surpri sing to find reflect
surprising ions on the mount
refleetions ains in
mountains
certain passages
certain passag es of the Qur'an
eur'an,, such
sueh as as the follow ing:
following:
-sura 79,
-sura ?9, verse
verse 32SZ::
"And
"And the the mount
mountainsains (God) has has fixed
fixed them firmly.
firmly.""
-sura 31,
-sura 81, verse
verse10: l0:
" (God)
"(God ) has
has cast
cast into the ground (moun (mountains)
tains) standi ng firm,
standing
so
so that it does
doesnot shake
shake with
with you."
The same phrase is repeat
same phrase repeateded in sura 16, 16, verse
verse 15;
lE; and the same
same
idea
idea is expres
expressed
sed with
with hardly
hardly any change
change in sura 21, 21, verse
verse 31:
Bl:
._"We have placed
"we have placed in the ground (moun (mountains)
tains) standi
standingng firm soso
that itit does
doesnot shakeshake with
with them."
These verses
These verses expres
express s the idea
idea that
that the way the mountains
mount ains are
laid out ensure
ensures s stabili
stability
ty and is in comple
complete te agreem
agreement ent with
with geo-
geo-
logical data.
logical data.

D. THETHE EARTEANTH'S
H'S ATMOSPHENE.
ATMO SPHE RE.
additionn to certain statem
In additio statements
ents specifically
specifically relating
relatin g to the
sky, examin
examineded in the preceding
preced ing chapter,
chapte r, tt
the* eur,an
Qur'an contains
contai ns sev_
sev-
passages
eral passag es dealin
dealing g with
with the phenomena
phenomena that that occur in
in the at-
mosphere.
mosph ere. As for
fo1 the comparison
comparison between
between them and the data of of
modern
modern science
science, it is to be
, it be noted
noted here,
here, as
as elsewhere,
elsewhere, that
that there is
absolutely
absolu tely no contrad
contradiction
i.ction between
between today's modern
modern scientiflc
scientific
knowledge
knowledge and the phenomena
phenomena descrihed.
described.

Altitud,e.
Altitud e.
A
A familiar
famili ar feeling of
of discomfort
discom fort experienced
experienced atat high altitude,
altitud e,
which increases
increa ses the higher one
one climns,
climbs, is **pr**r*d
expressed in
in vers
versee 125,
rz5,
sura
sura 6:
"Those whom God God wills
wins to guide, He opens
opens their
their breast
breast to
to
Islam. Those
Those whom He willswills l,ose
lose their
their w^"y,
way, He makes theirtheir
The Eatth
EtU11a 83
f183
Tlw

breast narrow
breast narrow and
and constricted,
constricted, as as ifif they climbing in
were climbing
they were in the
the
sky."
sky.'
Some commentators
Some commentators havehave claimed
claimed that that the notion of
the notion of discomfort
discomfort
at high altitude was unknown
at high altitude was unknown to
to the
the Arabs
Arabs of
of Muhammad's
Muhammad's time.
time.
It appears that this
It appears that this was was not
not true
true at
at all:
all: the
the existence
existence on
on the
the
Arabian Peninsula
^lrauian Peninsula of of peaks
peaks rising
rising over
over two
two miles
miles hish
high makes
makes itit
extremely implausible
extremely implausible that that they
they should
should not
not have
have known
known of
of the
the
difficulty of breathing
difficulty-of breathing at at hlg:h
high altitude.'
altitude.! others have seen
Others have in this
seen in this
verse a prediction of
verse a prediction of the the conquest of
of space,
space, an
an opinion
opinion that
that ap-
ap-
pears to
to require
require categorical denial, at at least for this
least for this Bassage.
passage.

Electricity
Etec/riaitg in in the
the Atmosphere.
AtmotPherc,
Electricity in
Electrieity in the consequences of
the atmosphere and the consequences of this, i'e'Le.
lightning and
lightning and hail, are referred
referred to in following verses:
in the following
-sura 13,
-sura verses 12-13
13, verses 12-13::
"( God)
" (God) is the One
One Who showsshows you the lightning,
lightning, with fear and
with fear
covetousness.
covetousness. He raised up the heavy clouds.
clouds. The thunder
thunder glori-
glori-
fies
fies His Praise and so so do
do the angels
angels for awe.
for awe. He sends the
sends
thunder-bolt
thunder-bolt and strikes with
with them who He wills
wills while they are
disputing about
disputing about God. God. He is All Mighty
Mighty in His Power."
-sura
-sura 24, 24, verse
verse 43 48 (already
(already quoted
quoted in this chapter):
"Hast
"Hast thou not seen seen that GodGod makes
makes the clouds move gently,
clouds move
then
then joins them together, then makes makes them aa heap. heap. And thou
seest
seestraindrops
raindrops issuing
issuing from
from within
within it. HeHe sends
sendsdown
down from from the the
sky
sky mountains
mountains of of hail,
hail, He
He strikes
strikes therewith
therewith whom rvhom He wills and
He wills and
He turns
He turns itit away
away from from whom
whom He He wills.
wills. The flashing of
The flashing of its light-
its light-
ning
ning almost
almost snatches
snatches away
away the
the sight."
sight."
In
In these
thesetwotwo verses
versesthere
there isis the
the expression
expressionof of an
an obvious coue-
obviouscorre-
lation
lation between
betweenthe the formation
formation of of heavy
heavy rainclouds
rainclouds or clouds con-
or clouds con-
taining hail
taining hail and
and the
the occurrence
occurrence of
of lightning:
lightning: the
the former,
former, the
the
subject
subject of of covetousness
covetousness on
on account
aecount of
of the
the benefit
benefit it
it represents
represents
and
and the
the latter,
latter, the the subject
subject of of fear,
fear, because
becausewhen when it falls, itit is
it falls, is
at the will
at the will of
of the
the All-Mighty.
All-Mighty. The
The connection
connection between
between the
the two
two
phenomena
phenomenais is verified
verified by by present-day
present-day knowledge
knowledge of electricity
of electricity
in the atmosphere.
in the atmosphere.
1.l. 1.l. The
The city
citYof
of Sanaa,
Sanaa,the the capital
capital of
of the
the Yemen, inhabited in
was inhabited
Yemen,was Mu-
in Mu-
hammad's time.
hammad's time. ItIt lies
lies at
at an
an altitude
altitude of
of nearly
nearly 7,900
7,900 feet
feet above
above sea
sea
level.
level.
 rE4
184 THE BIBLE
BIBLE,, THE QUR'A
QUn'AN SCTENCE
N AND SCIEN CE

Shadow
Shadowa.s.
The phenom
phenomenon enon of shadow
shadows s and the fact fact that
that they move is
very simply explain
explaineded today.
today. It It forms the subjec subjectt of the follow-
ing observ ations:
observations:
-sura
--sura 16,16, verse
verse81:
8l:
"Out
"Out of the things He created created, , God
God has
has given you shade shade ..."
. . .,,
-sura
-sura 16, L6, verse
verse 4848::
"Have (the Unbeli evers) not observ
unbelievers) observed ed that
that for
for all the things
God
God created
created, , how their
their shadow
shadow shiftsshifts right
right and left, prostaprostating
ting
themse lves to God
themselves God while they are full full of humili
humility."ty."
-sura 25,
--sura 26, verses
verses 45 4b and 46:
ICHast
"Hast thou not seen seen how thy Lord has has spread
spread the shade.
shade. If
If He
willed, He could
could have
have made
made it it station
stationary.ary. Moreo
Moreover ver We
we made
made the
sun
sun its guide
guide andand We
we withdr
withdraw aw it it toward
towards s Us
us easily.
easily.',"
Apart
Apart from
from the phrase
phrases s dealing with with the humili
humitityty before
betore God
God
of aU
all the things He created
created, , includ
including ing their
their shadow
shadow, , and the fact
that
that God
God cancan take backback all manife
manifestations
station s of His Power power,, as
as He
wills, the text of the Qur'aneur'an refers to the relatio relationship
nship betwee
between n
the Sun
sun and
and the shadow
shadows. s. One
one must bear bear in mind at itris this point
the fact that, in Muham mad's day,
Muhammad's day, it it was believe
believed d that the way aa
shadow
shadow moved
moved was g:overned
was govern ed by the movem movement ent of the sun sun from
east
east to west.
west. This princip
principrele was
was applied
applied in the the case
caseof the sundia
sundiall
to measu
rneasurere the time betwee
between n sunris
sunrise e and
and sunset
sunset. . In this instanc
instance,e,
the Qur'an speaks
speaks of the phenomphenomenon enon withou
withoutt referri
referringng to the
explan ation curren
explanation currentt at the time of the Revela tion. It
Revelation. It would
*outd have
have
been
beenreadily accept
accepteded for many centurcenturies ies by those
those who came came after
Muham
Muhammad. mad. In the end end howev
however, er, itit would
would have
have been
been shown
shown to be be
inaccu rate. The Qur'an only talks moreo
inaecurate. moreoverver of the the functio
functionn the
sun
sun has
has as
as an
an indica
indicato*
tor of shadow
shadow. . Eviden
Evidenilytly there
there is no no contra
contra- -
diction betwee
between n the way the Qur'aneur'an describ
describlses shadow
shadow and and what
we
rve know of this phenomphenomenonenon in modermodern n times.
times.
 YT
VI
Th~ Aninral
The 4nlIDai and
and
V ~g~labl~ Kingdorrr$
Yegetable KinldoDl~
Numerous verses
Numerous verses describing
describing the origins of
the origins life have been
of life been
assembled
assembled in
in this
this chapter,
ehapter, along
along with
with certain
certain aspects
aspects of
of- the
the vege:
veg~
table kingdom
table kingdom and general or or specific topics relating to
topics relating the ani-
to the ani-
mal kingdom.
mal kingdo*. The grouping
grouping of
of verses
verses scattered
scattered throughout
throughout the
the
Book affords
Book affords a
a general view
view of
of the data the Qur'an
Qur'an containS
contains on
on
these subjects.
these subjects.
In
In the
the case
case of of the subject
subiect of of this
this and the following chapter'
following chapter,
the examination
the examination of
of the Qur'anic
Qur'anic text
text has
has sometimes
sometimes been
been partieu-
particu-
larly delicate
larly delicate on
on account
account of certain difficulties inherent in the
vocabulary.
uo."bul"ry. These
These have
have only been
been overcome
overcome through
through the fact
fact that
that
scientific
scientific data
data which have
have a
a bearing on
on the subject have
have been
been
taken
taken into
into consideration.
consideration. It It is particularly
particularly so so in the case living
caseof living
beings,
heings, i.e.
i.e. animal,
animal, vegetable
vegetable and
and human,
human, where
where aa eonfrontation
confrontation
with
with the
the teachings
teachings of of science
scienceis is shown
shown to to be indispensablein
be indispensable the
in the
search
search for
for the
the meaning
meaning of
of certain
certain statements
statements on
on these
these topics
topics
contained
contained in in the
the Qur'an.
Qur'an.
It
It will
will become
becomeclear clear that
that numerous
numeroustranslations
translations of of these pass-
these pass-
ages
agesinin the
the Qur'an,
Qur'an, mademade by by men
men of of letters, must be
letters, must deemedin-
be deemed in-
accurate
accurateby by thethe scientist.
scientist.TheThe same
sameholds
holds true for commentaries
true for commentaries
made
madeby by those
thosewho who dodo not
not possess
possessthe the scientific knowledgeneces-
scientific knowledge neces-
sary
sary for
for anan understanding
understanding of of the
the text.
text.

A.
A, THE ORIGINS OF
THE ORIGINS LIFE.
OF LIFE.
This
T h i squestion
q u e s t i o nhas
h a salways
a l w a y spreoccupied
p r e o c c u p i eman,
d m aboth
n ' b o tfor
h f o himself
rhimself
and
and for
for the
the living
living things
things around
around him. him. It It will
will be examinedhere
beexamined here

r85
185
 186
186 TIIE BmLE,
THE TIIE QUR'
BTBLE,THE AN AND
QUn'AN ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

from aageneral
from g:eneralpointpoint ofof view.
view. The The case
easeof of man,
man, whose
whoseappearance
eppearsnce
onon Earth
Earth and and reproduction
reproduction processes
processesare are thethe subject
subject of of lengthy
lengthy
exposds,will
exposes, will bebedealt
dealt with
with in in the
the next
next chapter.
chapter.
when the
When the Qur'an
Qur'an describes
describesthe the origins
origins of of life
rife onon aa very
very broad
broad
basis,it
basis, it is
is extremely
extremely concise.
concise.It It does
doesso soinin aa verse
verse that
that also
also men-
men-
tions the
tions the process
.process of of the
the formation
formation of of thethe Universe,
Universe, already
already
quotedand
quoted and commented
commentedon on::
-sura
--sura 21, 21,verse
verse30 30::
"Do not
"Do not thethe Unbelievers
Unbelievers see see that
that thethe heavens
heavens and and thethe earth
earth
were joined together,
were joined together, thenthen We we clove
clove themthem asunder
asunder and and We we gotgot
every living
every living thingthing outout of
of the
the water.
water. Will will they
they then
then notnot believe?"
believe?"
The notion
The notion of 'getting something
of 'getting something out out of of something'
something' does does not
not
give rise
give rise to to any
any doubts.
doubts. The phrase phrase can can equally
equally meanmean that every every
living tiring
living thing was was made
made of of water (as (as its essential
essential component)
eomponent) or or
that every living living thing
thing originated in water. The two possible possible
meanings are strictly
meanings strictly in accordance
accordanee with with scientific data. data. Life
Life
is in fact of of aquatic origin
origin and water is the major major component
component of of
living cells.
all living cells. Without
Without water, life life is not possible.
possible. WhenWhen the the
possibility of life on another planet is discussed,
possibility tliscussed,the first questionquestion
is always: does does it it contain a sufficient quantity quantity of water to to sup-
sup-
port
port life?life?
lvfodern
Modern data lead lead us to think
think thatthat the oldest
oldest living
living being must must
have
have belonged
belonged to the vegetable vegetable kingdom:
kingdom: algae have been been found
found
that
that date from from the pre-cambrian
pre-Cambrian period, i.e. Le. the timetime ofof the
the oldest
oldest
known
known lands. organisms
Organisms belonging to the animal animal kingdom
kingdom prob-
ably
ably appeared
appeared slightlyslightly later:
later: they too came came fromfrom the sea. sea.
What
What has been been translated
translated here by by ,water'
'water' is the word mO.'
word nrd'
which
which means means both water water in in the sky sky andand water
water in in the
the sea,
sea, plus
plus
any
any kind kind of of liquid.
liquid. In In the
the first
first meaning,
meaning, water water is is the
the element
element
necessary
necessary to all to all vegetable
vegetable life:
life:
-gura
--sura 20, 20, verse
verse FB. 53.
(God is
""(God is the
the oneOne who)
Who) sent sent water
water down down from from the the sky
sky and
and
thereby
thereby we We brousht
brought forthforth pairs
pairs of of plants
plants each
each separate
separate rrom from ttre
the
other."
other."
This
This is is the
the first
first reference
reference to to the
the notion
notion of of aa pair
pair inin the
the veg.e-
vege-
table
table kingdom.
kingdom. We We shali
shall return
return to this later.
to this later.
rnIn the
the second
second meaning,
meaning, aa liquidliquid without
without any any further
further indication
indication
of
of whatwhat kind, kind, thethe word
word isis usedused in in its
its indeterminate
indeterminate form form to to
designate
designate what what isis atat the
the basis
basis of of the
the formation
formation of of all animal life:
aU animal life:
Tlae Animal orad VegetDble Kingdorm 187

-sura 24,
-sura 24, verse
verse 45:
45 :
"God created every
"God created every animal animal ft'om
from water."
water."
We shall see further
We shall see further on
on how
how this
this rvord may also
word may also be applied to
be applied to
seminal fluid!.
seminal fluid'.
Whether itit deals
Whether deals therefore
therefore with
with the origins of
the oligins of life in general,
life in general,
or the element
or the element that that gives
gives birth
birth to
to plants
plants in
in the
the soil,
soil, or
or the
the seed
seed
of animals, all the statements
of animals, all the statements contained
contained in
in the
the QUl"an
Qur"an on
on the
the
origin of
origin of lifelife are strictly
strietly in
in accordance
accordanee t'ith
with modern
modern scientific
data. None of of the myths
myths on the the origins
origins of life that
of life abounderl at
that abounded at
the time
time the Qur'an appeared are mentioned in
Qur'an appeared in the text.
text.

B. THE
B, THE VEGETABLE KINGDOAf.
VEGETABLE KINGDO]If.
It is not possible
It possible to quote in in their entirety all the numerous
their entirety numerous
passages in
passages in the Qur'an
Qur'an in in which Beneficence is referred
which divine Beneficence referred
to concerning the salutary
salutary effect of the rain rain which makes makes vege-
vege-
tation grow. Here are iust just three
thlee verses
verseson this subject:
-sura
-sura 16, 16, verses
verses 1010 andand 11:
11 :
"(God)
"(Crod) is the One
One Who sends sends water down fyom the
dott'n from sky. For
the sky.
you this is aa drink
drink and
and out of it
it (grow) shrubs
shrubs in whieh
which you let
you
(cattle) graze
graze freely. =rrherewith
Therewith for for youyou He makes
makes sown fields,
sown fields,
olives,
olives, palm-trees,
palm-trees, vineyards
Yineyards and
and all kinds of fluit
fruit gl'ow."
grow."
-sura 6,
-sura 6, verse
veree 99:99:
"(God)
" (God) is the
the One
One 'Vho
lVho sent
sent water down fyonr the
dorvttfrom the sky. There-
sk5. There-
with We We brought forth plants
plants of all kinds
kinds and
anrl ft'om
from them
them the
the
verdure and
verdure and We \Ve brought
brought forth
forth from
ft'om it
it the
the clustered
clu'steled glains,
g-rains, and
and
from
frnm the
the palm-tree
palm-tree its its spathes
spatheswith with bunches
bttnchesof of dates (hanging)
flates (hanging)
low, the
low, the gardens
gardens of
of grapes,
grapes, olives
olives and
and pomegranates
pomegranates similal
similar and
and
different. Look at their fruit,
different. Look at their ft'uit, when
when they
they bear
beat' it,
it, and
anrl their
their t'ipen-
ripen-
ing.
ing. Verily,
Verily, inin that
that there
there areale signs
signs for peolllewho
for' people l-relieve."
rvho believe."
-sura
-sura 50,
50, verses
vgrses9-11:
9-11:
"We
"We sentdown
sent down from
from the
the sky
sky blessed rvatel 'whereby
blessedwater whet'eby\Ve eattsed
trVecaused
to grow gardens, grains for harvest,
to grOw gardens, grains for harvest, tall
tall palm-trees
lralm-tt'ees rvith
with their
their
spathes,
spathes,piled
piled one
one above
ahve the
the other-sustenance for (Our)
other-sustenance for (Our) ser- ser-
vants.
vants. Therewith
Therewith \Velve give (nerv)
give (new) lifelife to deaclland. so rvill
to aa dean land. So will be be
the
the emergence
emergence(from
(from the
the tombs)."
tombs)."

1.1. It
lt isis secreted
secretedby
by the
the reproductive glands and
reproductive g-lands aud contains spermatozoons'
contains spermatozoons.
 IE8
188 THE
THE BIBLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUR AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

The Qur'an
The Qur'an adds
adds to
to these
thesegeneral
general data
data others
others that
ttrat refer
refer to
to
morespecialized
more specializedsubjects:
subjects :

Balancein
Balance in the
theVegetable
VegetableKingdom
Kingdom
---sura15,
--sura 15,verse
verse19:lg:
"The
"The earth . . . We
earth ... we caused
causedall
all kinds
kinds of
of things
things to
to grow
grow therein
therein
in due
in duebalance."
balance."

The Different
The Different Qualities
Qualitics of
of Various
Vafiow Foods
Foods
-sura 13,
-sura 13, verse
verse 4:
4:
"On the
"On the earth
earth are
are adjacent
adjaeent parts;
parts; vineyards,
vineyards, sown
sown fields,
fields,
palm-trees,similar
palm-trees, similar and not similar,
and not similar, watered
watered with the same
same water.
water.
we make
We make somesome of of them
them more
more excellent
excellent than others
others to eat
eat and
and
verily in
verily in this
this are
are signs
signs for wise people."
wise people."
It is
It is interesting
interesting to notenote the existence
existence of these
these verses
verses because
because
they show
they show the sober quality
sober quality of the terms used, used, and the absence
absence
of lny
bny description that that might
might highlight
highlig:ht the beliefs of
of the
the times,
times,
tbther
'tAther than fundamental truths. What
what particularly
particularly attracts our
attracts our
attention however,
however, are the statements Qur'an eoncerning
statements in the eur'an concerning
reproduction in the vegetablevegetable kingdom.

Reproduction in
Reproduction in the Vegetable
Vegetabl.e Kingdom
Kingd,om
One must
one must bear in in mind
mind that
that there
there are two two methods
methods of of repro-
repro·
duction
duction in in the vegetabtre
vegetable kingdom:
kingdom: one sexual,sexual, the
the ot*rer
other asexual.
asexual.
It
It is is only
only the first
first which
which in in fact
fact deserves
deserves the term ,rEproduc-
the term 'r~produc­
tion', because
tion', because this this defines
defines aa biological
biological process
process whose
whose purpose
purpose is is
the
the appearance
appearance of of aa new
new individual
individual identical
identical to
to the
the one
one ttrat
that gave
gave
itit birth.
birth.
Asexual
Asexual reproduction
reproduction is is quite
quite simply
simply multiplication.
multiplication. ItIt is is the
the
result
result of of the
the fragmentation
fragmentation of of an
an organism
organism which
which hashas separated
separated
from
from the main plant
the main plant and
and developed
developed in in such
such aa way
way asas to
to resemble
resemble
the plant
the plant from from which
which itit came.
came. ItIt isis considered
considered by by Guilliermond
Guilliermond
and
and Mangenot
Mangenot to to bebe aa 'special
'special case
case of of growth'.
growth'. AA veryvery simple
simple
example
example of of this
this isis the
the eutting:
cutting: aa cutting
cutting taken
taken from
from aa plant
plant isis
plaeed
placed in in suitably
suitably watered
watered soilsoil and
and regenerated
regenerated by by the
the grlwth
growth of of
new
new roots. Some plants
roots. Some plants have
have organs
organs speeially
specially designed
designed forfor this,
this,
while others give
while others give offoff spores
spores that
that behave
behave like
like seeds,
seeds, asas itit were,
were,
T1ae Animal
ThG tmd VegettJble Kingdoma
ArttnalatdYeeet&bKingdoms f89
189

(it should
(it should be be remembered
remembered that that seeds
seeds are
are thethe results
results of of aa process
process
of sexual
of sexual reproduction)
reproduction)..
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction in the vegetable
in the vegetable kingdom
kingdom carried out
.. isis generic
carried out
by the
by the coupling
coupling of of the
the male
male and female parts
and female parts of the generic for-
of the for-
mations united
mations united on & a same plant plant or located on separate plants.
or located plants.
This is
This is the
the only
only form that- is
form tha# is mentioned
mentioned in in the
the Qur'an.
-sura 20, verse 63:
-sura 53:
.,
" (God is the the one One who)
Who) sent water water down from from the sky and
thereby We brought
thereby brought forth forth pairs
pairs of of plants each separate from
each separate from the
other."
other."
'One
'One of of a pair'
pair' is the translation
translation of zauj (plural
of zaui azwaj) whose
(plural azut6,i) whose
original meaning is:
original is: 'that
'that which, in in the company of of another,
forms a pair'; pair'; the word is used used just
just asas readily for for a married
couple as for
couple for a pairpair ofof shoes.
shoes.
-sura 22,
-sura 22, verse
verse 5: 5:
"Thou
"Thou seest
seest the lifeless. When We send
grounds lifeless. send down water
thereon it shakes and grows and puts forth
it shakes forth every magnificent
pair (of
pair plants)."
(of plants)."
-sura 31,
-sura 31, verse
verse 10:
*We caused
"We caused to grow (on the earth) every noble noble pair (of
plants)
plants)." ."
--sura 13,
--sura 13, verse
verse 3: 8:
"Of
"Of all fruits
fruits (God)
(God) placed
placed (on the the earth) two of aa pair." pair"'
We know that fruit
that fruit is the end-product
end-product of the reproduction
process
processof superior plants which have have the
the most
most highly developed
highly developed
and complex
and complex organization. The stage
stage preceding
preceding fruit
fruit is
is the
the flower,
flower,
which has male and
has male and female female organs
organs (stamens
(stamens and
and ovules).
ovules). The
The
latter, once
latter, once pollen
pollen has
has been
been carried
carried to
to them,
them, bear
bear fruit
fruit which
which
in
in turn
turn matures
matures and and frees
frees it it seeds.
seeds.AllAll fruit implies
therefore implies
fruit therefore
the existence
the existence of male of male and
and female
female organs.
organs. This
This is
is the
the meaning
meaning
of
of the
the verse
versein in the
the Qur'an.
Qur'an'
It must
It must be be noted
noted that
that for for certain
certain species,
species,fruit
fruit cancan come from
come from
non-fertilized
non-fertilized flowers
flowers (parthenocarpic
(parthenocarpic fruit),
fruit), €.8.
e.g. bananas'
bananas, cer-
cer-
tain types
tain types of of pineapple,
pineapple, fig,
fig, orange,
orange, and
and vine.
vine. They
11hey can
can neverthe-
neverthe-
less
less also
also come
come from from plants
plants that that have definite sexual
have definite character-
sexual character-
istics.
istics.
The
The culmination
culmination of of the
the reproductive
reproductive processprocess comescomes withwith thethe
germination of
germination of the seed the seed once
once its
its outside
outside casing
casing isis opened
opened (some-
(some-
ti-". it
times it isis compacted
compactedinto into aa fruit-stone).
fruit-stone). This This opening allows
opening allows
 r90
190 THE
THEBffiLE,
BTBLE,THE
THEQUR'AN
QUn'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

roots to
roots to emerge
emergewhichwhich draw
draw from
from thethe soil
soil all
all that
that isis necessary
neeessary
for the
for plant's slowed-down
the plant's slowed-downlife life as
as a seed while itit grows
a seed while grows and
and
producesaa new
produces plant.
new plant.
AA verse
versein in the
the Qur'an
Qur'an refers
refers toto this
this process
processof of germination:
germination:
-sura 6, verse
-sura 6, verse 95: g5l
"Verily,
"Verily, GodGodsplits
splits the grain and
the grain and the
the fruit-stone."
fruit-stone."
The
The Qur'an
Qur'an often
often restates
restatesthe
the existence
existenceof of these
thesecomponents
componentsof of
pair in
aa pair in the
the vegetable
vegetable kingdom
kingdom and and brings
brings the the notion
notion of
of aa
coupleinto
couple into aa more general context,
more general context, without
without set set limits:
limits:
-sura
-sura 36, 36, verse
verse36:36:
"Glory be
"Glory be to
to Him
Him Whowho created
created the
the components
components of of conples
eouples of
of
every kind:
every kind: of of what
what the ground caused
the ground caused to to grow,
grow, of of themselves
themselves
(human beings)
(human beings) and and of
of what you do
rvhat you do not
not know."
know."
one could
One could fonn
form many
many hypotheses
hypotheses concerning
concerning the meaning of of
'things men
the 'things
the men diddid not know' in Muhammad's day. day. Today we we
ean distinguish
can distinguish structures or coupled coupled functions for for them, going
infinitesimally small to the infinitely
from the infinit~simally infinitely large, in the the liv-
liv-
ing as as well as as the non-living
non-living world. The point point is to remember'
remember,
these clearly expressed
these expressed ideas
ideas and note,note, once
once again, that that they
they
perfect agreement
are in perfect agreement with
with modern science.
science.

C. THE
THE ANIMAL
AI,{IMAL KINCDOM
KTNCDOM
There
There are several
several questions
questions in in the eur'an
Qur'an concerning the the ani-
ani-
mal
mal kingdom
kingdom which
which are the subjeetsubject of of comments that that call for
for aa
eonfrontation
confrontation withwith modern scientificscientific knowledge. Here Here again,
again,
however,
however, one would gain gain an incomplete
incomplete viewview of of all
all that
that the
the
Qur'an contains on this this subject
subject ifif one
one were
were to
to leave
leave out
out aa passage
passage
such
such asas the
the extract
extract which
which follows.
follows. In In this
this passage,
passage, thethe creation
creation
of
of certain
certain elements
elements in in the
the animal
animal kingdom
kingdom is is described
described withwith the
the
purpose
purpose of of making
making man man reflect
reflect upon
upon the
the divine
divine Beneficence
Beneficence ex- ex-
tended
tended toto him. is quoted
him. ItIt is quoted basically
basically to to provide
provide an an example
example of of
the w?y_in
way in which
which the
the Qur'an
Qur'an describes
describes the
the harmonious
harmonious adapta-
adapta-
lle
tion
tion of
of creation
Creation to to man's
man's needs;
needs; itit relates
relates in
in particular
particular the the case
case
of those people
of those people who
who live
live in
in aa rurar
rural setting,
setting, since
since there
there isis nothing
nothing
that
that could
could be
be examined
examined from from aa different
different point
point ofof view.
view.
-sura 16, verses 5
-sura 16, verses 5 to 8: to 8:
" (God)
U (God) created
created cattle for you
cattle for you andand (you
(you find)
find) inin them
them rvarmth,
warmth,
useful services and food, sense
useful services and food, sense of of beauty when you
beauty when you bring
bring them
them
The AnimDl
Tllc and VegetGble Khryrilorlra
AnimalardVegffib Kingtloma l9l
191

home and
home and when
when you
you take
take them to pasture.
them to pasture. They bear your
They bear your heary
heavy
loads toto lands
lands you
you could not
not reach exeept
except with great personal
with great personal
effort. Verily,
efrort. Verily, your
your Lord
Lord isis Compassionate
Compassionate arrd Merciful; (He
and Merciful; (He
created) horses, mules and donkeys for
created) for you to ride
ride and for
for orna-
orna-
ment. And
ment. And He what you
He created what you do not
not know."
know."
Alongside these general
Alongside general remarks,
remarks, the
the Qur'an
Qur'atr sets out
out certain
certain
data on highly
data highly diversified
diversified subiects:
subjects:
-reproduction in
-reproduction in the
the animal
animal kingdom.
kingdom.
-referenees
-references to the existence of of animal
animal communities'
communities.
-statements
-statements concerning
concerning bees,
bees, spiders and birds.
birds.
-remarks
-remarks on the the source ofof constituents
constituents of
of animal
animal milk.
milk.

1. Reproduction
7. in the Animal
frepro&rction in Aninul Kingdom.
Ringilom.
This
This is very
very summarily with in
summarily dealt with verses 45 and 46'
in verses 46, sura
58:
6$:
"* (God) fashioned the two two of pair, the male and the female,
of a pair,
from
from a small quantity
quantity of
of liquid
liquid when itit is poured out."
out."
The 'pairr is the same
fire 'pair' same expression that that we have already en-
countered in the verses verses which
which deal with
with reproduction
reproduction in -the
the
vegetable
vegptable kingdom. Here, the sexes sexes are which
sre given. The detail which
remarkable is the precision with
is absolutely remarkable with which
which it
it is stated
that
that aa small quantity
quantity of liquid
liquid is required
required for
for reproduction.
reproduction. The
word itself
itself signifying 'sperm' is used.
signifying 'sperm' used. The relevance
relevance of this
this re-
mark
mark will be commented
will be commented upon in the next chapter.

2.
2. References
freferrrlnel to the
tlw Exiatence
Erbtenr,e of Animal Communities.
Anfunnl0ommunitbt.
-sura 6,
-sura 6, Verse 38
"There
"There is no animal on on earth,
earth, no no bird
bird which flies that
flies on wings, that
(does
(does not belong to) communities
communities like you. you. We have not neglected
neglected
anything in the Book (of
anything (of Decrees).
Decrees). Then to their Lord they will will
be gathered."
be gathered."
There
There are
ang several
several points
points in in this
this verse
verse which
which require comment.
require comment.
Firstly,
Firstly, it
it would
would seem
seem that
that there
there is
is a
a description
description of
of what
what happens
happens
to animals
to animals after
after their
their death:
death: Islam
Islam does
does not
not apparently,
apparently, have
have any
any
doctrine on
doctrine on this
this point.
point. Then
Then there
there is
is predestination
predestination in
in general'
general l

l. We
1. Tye saw
saw in
in the
the Introduction
Introduction to
to the
the third part of
third part of this book what
this book what one was
one was
expected
expected toto believe
believe about
about predestination
predestination in in its application to
its application man
to man
himself.
himself.
 r02
192 THEBmLE,
THE BrBLF,'
mIE QUR'AN
THE ANDSCIENCE
QURANAND SCTENCE
whichwould
which wouldseem
seemto tobe
bementioned
mentionedhere.
here.It It could
couldbe beconceived
conceivedas es
absolute predestination or relativg
absolute predestination or relative, i.e. i.e.limited
timited to to structures
structuresand and
aa functional
functional organization
organizationthat that condition
condition modesmodesof of behaviour:
behaviour:
the animal acts
the animal acts upon uponvarious
variousexterior
exterior impulses
impulsesin in terms
termsof of aa par-
par-
ticular conditioning.
ticular conditioning.
BlachBrestates
Blach~re stat€s that
that an
an older
older commentator,
commentator, such such asas Razi,
Razi,
thought
thought that that this
this verse
verse only
only referred
refened to to instinctive
instinctive actions
actions
wherebyanimals
whereby animalsworship
worship God.
God.Sheik
Sheik Si Si Boubakeur
BoubakeurHamza, Hamza,in in
the commentaryto
the commentary to his
his translation
translation ofof the
the Koran,
Koran, speaks
speaksof ,,the
of "the
instinct which,
instinct which,according
aecordingto to Divine
Divine Wisdom,
Wisdom,pushespushesall all beings
beingsto to
group together,
group together,so sothat
that they
they demand
demandthatthat the
the work
work of of each
eachmem-
mem-
ber serve
ber servethe
the whole group."
wholegroup."
Animal behaviour
behaviour has has been
beenclosely
closelyinvestigated
investigated in recent recent de-de-
cades,with the
cades, the result
result that genuine
genuine animal
animal communities
communities have havc
beenshown
been shownto exist.
exist. Of
of course,
course,for aa long
long time
time nownow thethe results
resultsof
group or community's
a8 group community's work have have been
beenexamined
examinedand and this hashas
led to
led to the
the acceptance
aeceptanceof aa community
cornmunity organization.
organization. It It has
has only
only
beenrecently
been recently however,
however,thatthst the mechanisms
mechanismswhich which preside
preside over
over
organizationhave
this kind of organization havebeen
beendiscovered
discoveredfor certain sfecies. species.
The most studied
The most studiedandand best
bestknown
known case undoubtedlythat of bees,
caseis undoubtedly b*r,
to
to whose
whose behaviour
behaviour the namename von
von Frisch is linked.
linked. vonVon Frisch,
Lorenz
Lorenz and
and Tinbergen
Tinbergen received
received the 1978 Nobel prize
1g?g Nobel Prize for
for their
work in this field.
field.

3. Statcmenh
Statements C otrcenringBee.,
Conceming Bee4 Spidero. and Bi,.dB.
Spiilrrreend Bbds.
When specialists
When specialists on the nervousnervous system
system wish to provide strik- strik-
ing
ing examples
examples of of the prodigious
prodigious organization
organization directing animsl animal
behaviour, possibly
behaviour, possibly the
the animals
animals referred
referred to to most
most frequenily
frequently are
bees,
bees, spiders
spiders and birds (especially
and birds (especially migratory
migratory birds).
birds). wtt"t*u*"
Whatever
the case, there
the case, there is
is no
no doubt
doubt that
that these three groups
these three groups constitute
constitute sa
model
model of of highly
highly evolved
evolved organization.
organization.
The
The fact
fact that
that the
the text
text of
of the
the Qur'an
Qur'an refers
refers to
to this
this exemplary
exemplary
trio in
trio in the
the animal
animal kingdom
kingdom is is in
in absolute
absolute keeping
keeping with
with the
the excep-
excep-
tionally interesting
tionally interestingcharacter
character thatthat eaeh
each of
of these
these animals
animals has
has from
from
scientific point
aa scientific pointofofview.
view.

Bees
Bees
In
In the Qur'an, bees
the Qur'an, bees are
are the
the subject
subject of
of the
the longest
longest commentary:
commentary :
The Animal
Tho and Vegetable Kingilomt
ArtmalatdVegetfrle Kingdoma 193
193

-Surs
-Sura 16, 16, verses
verses 68 68 and
and 69:'
69: 1
"Thy Lord
"Thy Lord inspired
inspired the the bees: Choose your
bees: Choose dwelling in
your dwelling the hills'
in the hills,
in the
in the trees
trees and
and in what (man)
in what (man) built.
built. Eat
Eat of all fruit
of all and follow
fruit and follow
the ways
the ways of of your
your Lord
Lord inin humility.
humility. From
From within their bodies
within their bodies
comes a liquor
comes of difrerent
liquor of different colours
colours where
where is remedy for
is a remedy for men."
men."
ItIt is
is difficult to know
difficult to know what
what exactly
exactly is meant by
is meant by the order to
the order to
follow the
follow the ways
ways of of the
the Lord
Lord in humility, unless itit is to
in humility, to be seen
seen
in general terms. All
in All that
that may
may be said, withwith regard
regard toto the knowl-
knowl-
edge that that has been gainedgained ofof their behaviour, is that
their behaviour, here-as in
that here-as in
each of of the
the three
three animal cases mentioned as examples in
animal cases in the
the
Qur'an-there is a remarkable
Qur'an-there nervo~s organization
remarkable nervous organization supporting
supporting
their behaviour.
their behaviour, It
ft is known
known that
that the
the pattern
pattern of
of a bee's
bee's dance is
a& means
means of of communication
communication to to other
other bees; inin this
this wBY, bees are
way, bees
able to convey to their their own species direction and distance of
species the direction of
flowers from from which nectar is to be gathered. The famous experi-
which nectar experi-
ment performed
ment performed hy Frisch has shown the meaning
by von Frisch meaning of of this
this
insect's movement which intented to transmit
which is intented information be-
transmit information
tween worker bees.
worker b@s.

Spidel'.
Spdibrs
Spiders
Spiders are mentioned in the Qur'an to stress flimsiness of
stress the flimsiness
their
their dwelling
dwelling which is the most fragile fragile of all. They have aa
refuge
refuge that that is asas precarious,
preearious, according to the Qur'an, as as the
dwelling
dwelling of thosethose who have have chosen
chosen masters other than God. God.
--sura 29,
-sura 29, verse
verse 41
41::
"Those
"Those who chooseehoosemasters other than then God
God are like the spider
when
when it it takes
takes for
for itself
itself aa dwelling.
dwelling. Verily,
Verily, thethe flimsiest dwelling
flimsiest dwelling
is
is the
the dwelling
dwelling of of the
the spider.
spider. IfIf they
they but knew."
knew."
A
A spider's
spider's web
web isis indeed
indeed constituted
constituted ofof silken
silken threads secreted
threads secreted
by
by the
the animal's
animafs glands
glands and and their
their calibre
calibre is
is infinitely
infinitely fine. frs-
Its fra-
fine. Its
gility
Sility cannot
cannot be
be imitated
imitated by
by man.
man. Naturalists
Naturalists are
are intrigued
intrigued by
by
the
the extraordinary
exhaordinary pattern pattern of of work
work recorded
recorded by the animal's
by the ner-
animal's ner-
vous
vous cells,
cells,which allows it
which allows it to
to produce perfect web.
geometrically perfect
produce aa geometrically web.

1. One
1. One might
might note
note inin passing,
paesing, that
that this
this last
last verse
verse is the only
is the in the
one in
only one the
Qur'an Honey can
m&n- Honey
for man. cen
Qur'an that
that refers
refers toto the
the possibility
pogsibility of remedy for
of aa remedy
indeed be useful
inaeea be useful forfor certain
certain diseases.
diseases.Nowhere
Nowhere elseelse in the Qur'an
in the Qur'an isis a*
reference
reference made
made to to any
any remedial
remedial arts,
arts, contrary
contrary to what may
to what hsve been
may have b€en
said
reid about
rbout this
thir subject.
rubject.
 I9 4
194 THE
TTIEBIBLE,
BIBLE, THE
TIIE QUR'AN
QUN'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

Bbds
Birds
Birds
Birds are
are frequently
frequently mentioned
mentioned in in the
the Qur'an.
Qurran. They
They appear
appear in in
episodes
episodesin in the
the life
life of
of Abraham,
Abraham, Joseph,Joseph, David, solomon and
David, Solomon and
Jesus. Thesereferences
Jesus.These referencesdo do not
not however
however have have any
any bearing
bearing on on the
the
subject in hand.
subject in hand.
The verse
The verse concerning
concerning the the existence
existence of of animal
animal communities
communities on on
the ground and
the ground and bil'd bird communities
communities in in the
the sky
sky has
has beenbeen noted
noted
above:
above:
-sura 66 verse
-sura verse38: 38:
"There is
"There is no
no animal
animal on on the
the earth,
earth, no
no bird
bird which
which flies
flies onon wings,
that (does not
that (does not belong
belong to)to) communities
communities like like you.
you. We
We have have not
not
neglectedanything
neglected anything in in the
the Book
Book (of (of Decrees).
Decrees). lfhenrrhen to their
their Lord
they will
they will be gathered."
be gathered." .
Two other
Two other verses
verseshighlight the birds' strict strict submission
submissionto God's God's
Power:
Power:
-sura 16,
-sura 16,verse
verse79:
uno
"Do they not look at the birds subjected subjected in the atmosphere
atmosphere of of
the sky? None
the sky? None can can hold
hold them up (in His Power) power) except God."
except God."
-sura 67,
-sura 67, verse
verse 19:
"Have they not looked
"Have looked at the birdsbirds above
above them spreading their. their
wings out and and folding
folding them? None can hold them up iin (in ti,
his
Porver) except the Beneficent."
Power)
The translation of of one
one single word in each each ofof these
these verses
verses is a
very
very delicate matter.matter. The translation
translation given here expresses expresses the the
idea that
that God
God holds
holds the birds
birds up in His power.
in His Power. The Arabic Arabic verb
verb
in question
in question is a,ntsaka,
amsaka, whose
whose original
original meaning
meaning is is ,to
'to put
put one's
one's
hand on,on, seize,
seize, hold, hold someone
someone back'.back'.
An
An illuminating
illuminating eomparison
comparison can can be made between
be made between thesethese verses,
verses,
which
which stress
stress the the extremely
extremely close close dependence
dependence of of the
the birds'
birds' be-
be-
havior
havior on divine order,
on divine order, toto morlern
modern data data showing
showing thethe degree
degree of of
perfection
perfection attained
attained by by certain
certain species
species of of bird
bird with
with regard
regard to to the
the
pl'ogramming
programming of of their
their movements.
movements. ItIt is is only
only the
the existence
existence of of aa
migratory progl'amme
migratory programme in the genetic
in the genetic code
code of of birds
birds that
that can
can ac-
ac-
count
count for
for the
the extremely
extremely long long and complicated journeys
and complicated journeys which which
very young
very young birds,
birds, rvithout
without anyany prior
prior experience
experience and and without
without anyany
guide, are able to accomplish.
guide, are able to accomplish. This This isis in
in addition
addition toto their
their ability
ability
to return
to return toto their
their departure
departure point
point onon aa prescribed date. professor
prescribed date. Professor
Hamburger in his book,
Hamburger in his book, Power and Power and Fragilitu (La puissance
Fragility (La Puissance et et lala
Thc Arfinol d V eedrth lfjwilomr 195
195

FragiIite)1, gives as an example the well-knou'n

Fragilitd)', well-known case case of
of the
'mutton-bird'
'mutton-bird' that
that lives in
in the Paeific,
Pacific, with
with its its journey
journey ofof over
15,500 miles in
15,500 in the shape
shape oI
of the figure 8'.
82 • It
It must be acknowl-
edged that the highly
edged that highly complicated instructions
instructions for for a journey
journey of
of
this
this kind
kind simply
simply have to be contained in
in the bird's
bird's nervous
cells. They
cells. definitely programmed, but
They are most definitely but rvho
who is the
programmer?
programmer?

4. The SOUTce of the Constituents

Sowce af of Animal
Constituents of Milk.
AnimalMilk.
This is defined
This defined in in the Qur'an in in striet
strict accordance
accordance withwith the data
of modern
of modern knorvledge
knowledge (sura 16, verse 66). The translation and in-
16, verse
terpretation of
terpretation this verse given
of this given here is my my own because
because even
translations habitually
modern translations habitually give it it a meaning whiehwhich is, in my
hardly acceptable.
opinion, hardly acceptable.Here are two examples: examples:
-R. Blachbre's
-R. Blachere's translation
translation :3 :3
"Verily,
"Verily, in your
your cattle there is a lesson
lesson for you ! We give you a
for you!
pure milk
milk to drink,
drink, excellent
excellent for for its drinkers;
drinkers; (it (it comes) from
comes) from
what, in their
their bellies,
bellies, is between
between digested
digested food and blood."
-Profcssor Hamidullah's
-Professor Hamidullah's translation:·
translation:'
"Verily,
"Verily, there is food
food for
for thought
thought in your cattle. From From what is
in their
their bellies,
bellies, among their their excrement and blood, blood, We make you
drink
drink pure milk, easyeasy forfor drinkers
drinkers to imbibe."
If
If these physiologist, he would reply that
these texts were shown to a physiologist, that
they were extremely obscure, obscure, the reasonreason being that that there hardly
hardly
appears
appears to bebe much agreement
agreement between
between them and modern notions, notions,
even
even on aa very elementary level. level. These
These translations are the work
highly eminent Arabists. It
of highly It is aa well known fact however,
however, that
aa translator, even
even an expert, is liable to make
make mistakes
mistakes in the
translation
translation of scientific
scientific statements,
statements, unless
unless he
he happens
happens to be aa
be
specialist
specialist in the discipline
discipline in question.
question.
The
The most
most valid translation seems seemsto me me to bebe the
the following:
follorving:
"Verily,
"Verily, in cattle
cattle there
there is aa lesson
lesson for you.
you. We
We give you
give you to
drink of what is inside inside their bodies,
bodies,coming
coming from aa conjunction
conjunction

1. Pub.
1. Pub. Flammarion,
Flammarion, 1972,
1972,Paris.
Paris.
2. It
2. It makes
makes this
this journey over period of
over aa period of six months, and
six months, and comes
comes back to
back to
its
its departure
departure point
point with
with aa maximum
maximum delay
delay of
of one week.
one week.
3.
3. Pub.
Pub. G.
G. P.
P. Maisonneuve
Maisonneuveet et Larose,
Larose, 1966,
1966,Paris,
Paris,
4.
4. Pub. Club Fran~ais
Pub. Club Frangais du
du Livre,
Livre, 1971,
19?1,Paris.
Paris.
 196
196 THE
THEBIBLE,
BIBT.E,THE
THEQUR'AN
QUN'ANAND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

between
betweenthe the contents
contentsof of the
the intestine
intestine and and the
the blood,
blood,aa milk
milk pure
pure
and pleasantfor
and pleasant for those
thosewho who drink
drink it."
it." (sura
(sura 16,16,verse
verse66)66)
This interpretation
This interpretation isis very very close
closeto to the
the one
one given
given inin the
the Mun-
Muw
takgb, 1973,
tak!!b, 1973, edited edited by by thethe Supreme
Supreme CouncilCouncil forfor Islamic
Islamic Affairs,
Affairs,
which relies
Cairo, which
Cairo, relies for for its
its support
support on on modern
modern physiology.
physiology.
From the
From point of
the point of view
view of of its
its vocabulary,
vocaburary, the the proposed
proposed trans-
trans-
lation may
lation may be justified as
be justified as follows:
follows:
II have
have translated
translated 'inside 'inside their bodies' and not, as R. Blachere
their bodies' and not, as R. BlachEre
and Professor
and Professor Hamidullah
Hamidullah have have done, ,inside their
done,'inside their bellies'.
bellies'. This
This
is because
is becausethe the word
word ba~n baln also
also means ,middle', ,interior of some-
means 'middle', 'interior of some-
thing', as
thing', as well
well as 'belly'. The
as 'belly'. The word
word doesdoesnot not here
here have
have aa meaning
that is
that is anatomically
anatomically precise. 'Inside their
precise.'Inside their bodies'
bodies'seems
seemsto concur
eoneur
perfeetly with
perfectly with the the context.
context.
The notion
The notion of 'primary origin' of the constituents of milk is
of aa 'primary the constituents milk is
expressedby
expressed by the
the word min mi,n (in English 'from') ,from') andand the idea
idea of a
conjunction by the word baini.
conjunction bainL The latter latter not only signifies
'among" but 'between' in the other translations quoted. It is
'among' also 'between'
also translations quotra- lt i,
however also
however also usedused to express
express the idea that that two things
things or two two
people are brought
people brought together.
From a scientific
From scientifie point point of of view, physiological notions must must be be
called upon to grasp the meaning of
called of this
this verse.
verse.
The substances
The substances that that ensure
ensure the general nutrition nutrition of of the
the body
body
come from
come from chemical transformations transformations which' which' occur along along the the
length
length of of the digestive
digestive tract. These These substances
substances come come from
from the the
contents
contents of of the intestine.
intestine. on On arrivar
arrival in in the intestine at at the
the ap-
ap-
propriate
propriate stage stage of of chemical
chemIcal transformation,
transformation, they they pass
pass through
through
its
its wall and towards the systemic systemic circulation. This This passage
passage is is
effected
effected in in twotwo ways:
ways: eithereither direcfly,
directly, by by what
what areare called the ,lym-
called the 'lym-
phatic
phatic vessels',
vessels', or or indirectly,
indirectly, by the portal
by the portal circulation.
circulation. This
This con-
con-
ducts themthem first first to
to thethe liver,
liver, where
where theythey undergo
undergo alterations,
alterations, andand
from
from herehere they they then
then emerge
emerge to to join
join the
the systemic
systemic circulation.
circulation. In In
this
this way everything passes
way everything passes through
through the the bloodstream.
bloodstream.
The
The constituents
constituents of of milk
milk are are secreted
secreted by by the
the mammary
mammary glands.glands.
These are nourished,
These are nourished, as as itit were,
were, by the product
by the product of of food
food digestion
digestion
brought
brought to to them
thE~m viavia the the bloodstream.
bloodstream. Brood Blood therefore
therefore plays
plays thethe
role of collector
role of collector and conductor
and conductor of of what
what has has been
been extracted
extracted fromfrom
food,
food, andand itit brings
brings nutrition
nutrition to to the mammary glands,
the mammary glands, thethe pro-
pro-
ducers milk,
ducers of milk, as
of as itit does
does to to any
any other
otherorgan.
organ.
rlw AniftlGl
TIrc tmd VegelGble Xhlgdotn
At$tnolatdVe$etrtlr K;ngdoma lgz
197

Here the
Here initial proeess
the initial process which
which sets everything else
sets everything in motion
else in motion
is the bringing together
is the bringing togpther of
of the
the contents
contents of
of the
the intestine
intestine and
and blood
blood
at the level of
et the level of the the intestinal
intestinal wall
wall itself.
itseH. This
This very
very precise
precise concept
concept
is the
is the result
result of
of the
the discoveries
discoveries msde
made inin the
the chemistry and physiol-
chemistry and physiol-
ogy of the digestive
ogy of the disestive system. system. It
It was
was totally
totally unknown
unknown at
at the
the time
time
of
of the Prophet Muhammad
Muhammad snd and hss
has been
been understood
understood only in
in re-
cent timcs.
times. The discovery
discovery of of the circulation of blood, was
of the blood, was
made by Harvey roughly ten centuries
made after the Qur'anic Revela-
centuries after Revela-
tion.
II consider that the existence
consider that existence in in the Qur'an of the verse verse refer-
ring to these
ring these concepts
concepts can have no human
can have explanation on account
human explanation account
of the period in in which they were formulated.
 vrr
VII
Hrrrnarr Rep..odu£lion
Human R*productirrrr
From the
From the moment
moment ancient
ancient human
human writings
writings enter
enter into
into detail
detail
(honiever slight)
(however slight) onon the
the subject
subject ofof reproduction,
reproduction, they
they inevi-
inevi-
tably make
tably mskestatements
statementsthat
that are
are inaccurate.
inaceurate.In In the
the Middle
Middte Ages-
Ages-
and even
and eveninin more
more recent
recent time-reproduction
time--reproduction was was surrounded
surroundedby by
all sorts
all sorts of myths
myths and
and superstitions.
superstitions. How
How could
could it have
have been
been
otherwise, considering
otherwise, considering thethe fact that to understand
understand its complex
complex
mechanisms,man
mechanisms, man first had possessaa knowledge
had to possess knowledgeof anatomy,
anatomy,
the discovery
the discoveryof the the microscope
microseopehadhad to bebe made,
made,and
and the
the so-called
so-cslled
basic sciences
basic scienceshad
hsd to bebe founded
founded which
which were
were to nurture physi-
physi-
ology, embryology,
ology, embryology,obstetrics,
obstetrics, ete.
etc.
The situation is quite different in the Qur'an. eur'an. The
The Book
Book
mentions precise mechanisms
mentions precise mechanisms in many places and
many places and describes
describes
clearly-definedstages
clearly-defined stagesin reproduetion,
reproduction, without providing a single
single
statement
statement marred by insccuracy.
inaccuracy. Everything
Everything in the eur'an
Qur'an is
explained
explained in simplesimple terms which are easily easily understandeble
understandable to
man
man and and in strict
strict aecordance
accordance with
with what was was to be discovered
be discovered
much
much later on, on.
Human reproduction
reproduction is referred to in in several
several dozen
dozen verses
verses of
of
the Qur'an,
Qur'an, in in various contexts.
contexts. rt
It is explained
explained through stete-
state-
ments
ments which which deal
deal with
with one
one or more
more specific
specific points.
points. They must
be
be assembled
assembled to to give a gbneral
general idea of
of the
the verses
verses as a whole,
whole, and
here,
here, as as for
for the
the other
other subjeets
subjects already
already examined,
examined, the
the commentary
commentary
is
is in
in this
this way
way made
made easier.
easier.

REMIIVDER
REMINDER OF OF CENTAIN
CERTAIN BASIC CONCEJPTS.
CONCEPTS.
ItIt is
is imperative
imperative to to recall
recall certain
certain basic
basic concepts
concepts which
which were
were un-
un-
known at
known at the
the time
time of
of the
the Qur'anic
Qur'anic Revelation
Revelation and
and the
the centuries
centuries
that
that followed.
followed.

r98
198
 Reproduction
HumanReryoiluction
Human 199
199

Human reproduction
Human reproduction is is effected
effected by
by aa selies
series of of processes
processes which
which
we share in in common
common with with mammals.
mammals. The startingstarting point
point is the
fertilization of
fertilization of an
an ovule which
which has detached
detached itself from the ovary.
itself from
It takes place
It place inin the
the Fallopian
Fallopian tubes half-way through the men-
half-way through
strual ci-cle.
strual cycle. The fertilizing
fertilizing agent is the male sperm, sperm, oror more
exactly, the spermatozoon,
exactly, fertilizing cell being all that
spermatozoon, a single fertilizing that
needed. To ensure
is needed. ensure fertilization
fertilization therefore,
therefore, an infinitely
infinitely small
quantity of
quantity of spermatic
spermatic liquid
liquid containing
containing a large large number of of
spermatozoons (tens of
spermatozoons of millions
millions at at a time) required. This
time) is required.
liquid is produced
Iiquid produced by the testiclestesticles and temporarily
temporarily storedstored in a
system of
system of reservoirs and canalscanals that
that finally lead lead into the urinary
urinary
tract; other glands
tract; glands are situated along the latter latter rvhich
which contribute
their own additional secretions
their secretions to the sperm sperm itself.
implantation of the egg fertilized
The implantation fertil~zed by this process process takes
takes
place at a precise
place precise spot in the female reproductive system:
female reproductive system: itit
descends
descendsinto the uterus via a Fallopian tube and lodges lodges in the
body
body of the uterus where where it it soon literally implants itself by in-
soon literally
sertion into the thickness
thickness of the mucosa mucosa and and of the muscie, once
muscie, once
the placenta
placenta hashas been
been formed and with with the aid of the latter. If If
the implantation of the fertilized egg egg takes place, for example,
takes place, example,
in the Fallopian tubes tubes instead
instead of in the uterus, pregnancy will
uterus, pregnancy will
be
be interrupted.
Once
Once the embryo begins begins to be be observable
obses'able to the naked eye, it
naked eye, it
looks
looks like a small
a small mass
mass of flesh
flesh at the
the centre
centt'e of rvhich
which the appear-
appear-
ance of aa human
ance human being
being is at first indistinguishable.
indistinguishable. It grows grows
there
there in progressive
progressive stages
stages which are
are very well
well known today;
they lead
lead to the bone bone structure,
structure, the muscles,
muscles, the the nervous sy$-
nervous sys-
tem, the circulation, and the
tem, the circulation, and the viscerae,viscerae, etc.
etc.
These
These notions
notions will serveserve as as the
the terms leference against
terms of reference
which thethe statements
statements in in thethe Qur'an
Qur'an on reproduction are
on reproduction ale to be
to be
compared.
compared.

HUMAN
HAMAN REPRODUCTION
nEPRODUCTTOIIrN THE
IN THE QUR'AN.
QUn'AN.
It
It is
is not
not easy
easytoto gain
gain anan idea
idea of
of what
what thethe Qur'an containson
Qur"an contains ou
this subject.
this subject. The
The first
first difficulty
difficulty arises
arises from
from the
the fact
fact already
already men-
men-
tioned,
tioned, Le.i.e. that
that the
the statements
statements dealing
dealing with this subject
with this are
subject are
scattered throughout
scattered throughout the
the Book.
Book. This
This is
is not
not however
however a
a major
major dif-
dif-
 EN THE
THE BIBLE,
XIII,E, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUN'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

ficulty. What
ficulty. What isis more
morelikelylikely toto mislead
misleadthe the inquiring
inquiring reader
readeris, is,
onceagain,
once again,the problemof
theproblem of vocabulary.
vocabulary.
rn fact
In fact there
thereare
arestill
still many
manytranslations
translationsand andcommentaries
commentariesin in
circulation today
circulation today that
that can give aa completely
can give completclyfalse
false idea
idea of of the
the
Qur'anic Revelationon
Qur'anic Revelation on this subjectto
this subject to the
the scientist
scientist who
who reads
reads
them.The
them. Themajority
majority of of translations
translationsdescribe,
describe,forfor example,man's
example, man's
formation from
formation 'bloodclot'
from aa 'blood clot' or
or an ,adhesion'.A
an 'adhesion'. A statement
statementof of
this kind
this kind isis totally
totally unacceptable
unaeceptable to
to scientists
scientistsspecializing
specializingin in this
this
field.In
field. In the paragraphdealing
the paragraph dealingwith
with the
the implantation
implantationof of the
the egg
egg
in the
in the maternal
maternal uterus,
uterus, we wGshall
shall see
seethethe reasons
reasons why
why distin-
distin-
guishedArabists
guished Arabists whowho lack lack aa scientific
scientificbackground
backgroundhave have mademade
suchblunders.
such blunders.
This observation
This observationimplies
implieshow great the
howgreat the importance
importanceof of an
an asso-
asso-
ciation between
ciation betweenlinguistic
linguistic and and scientific
scientific knowledge
knowledgeis is when it
when it
comesto
comes graspingthe
to grasping the meaning
meaningof Qur'anic
eur'anic statements
statementson on repro-
repro-
duction.
duction.
The Qur'an
The sets out
Qur'an sets out by by stressing
stressingthethe successive
successivetransforma-
transforma-
tions the
tions the embryo
embryo undergoes
undergoesbefore before reaching
reaching its destination
destination in in
the maternal
the maternaluterus.
uterus.
-sura 82,
-sura 82,verses
verses6Gto 8: 8:
"O Man
"0 Man!! Who Who deceives
deceivesyou you about
about your Lord the Noble, Who
the Noble, Who
created you
created you and
and fashioned
fashioned you due proportion
you in due proportion and
and gave
gave you
you
any
any form He willed."
-sura
-sura ?1, 71, verse
verse 14:
"(God) fashioned you in
"( God) fashioned in (different)
(different) stages."
stages."
Along
Along with with this very general observation,
this very text of
observ·ation, the text of the
the
Qur'an draws
Qur'an draws attention
attention to points concerning reproduc-
to several points reproduc-
tion
tion which
which might
might be be listed
listed as as follows:
follows:
1)
1) fertilization
fertilization is is performed
performed by by only
only aa very
very small
small volume
volume of of
liquid.
liquid.
22)I the
the constituents
constituents of of the
the fertilizing
fertilizing liquid.
liquid.
33)) the
the implantation
implantation of of the
the fertilized
fertilized egg.
egg.
44)) the
the evolution
evolution ofof the
the embryo.
embryo.

7.
1. Fefiilirntion
FertilizationbisPefiotmedbg
Performed by Onlg
OnlyaVery
a VefY Small
Volume
Volume of ofLiquid.
Liquid.
The Qur'an repeats
The Qur'an repeats this
this concept
concept eleven
eleven times
times using
using the
the follow-
follow-
ing
ingexpression:
expression:
H"man Reproduction
Reproduction g0l
201
Human

-sura 16,
-sura 16, verse
verse 4:4:
""(God)
(God) fashioned
fashionedman man from
from aa small quantity (of
small quantity (of sperm)
sperm)."
The Arabic
The Arabic word word nutfa
rw[fa has
has been
been translated
translated by
by the "'words
the words
'small
tsmall quantity
quantity (of (of sperm)'
sperm)' because
because we we do have the
not have
do not the terms
terms
that are strictly appropriate.
that are strietly appropriate. This
This word
word comes
comes from
from aa verb
verb signi-
signi-
fying
fying 'to
'to dribble, to trickle';
dribble, to trickle'; it
it is
is used
used to
to describe
describe what
what remains
remains
at the
at the bottom
bottom of of aa bucket
bucket thatthat has
has been out. ItIt therefore
emptied out.
been emptied therefore
indicates aa very very small
small quantity
quantity of of liguid. Here itit is
liquid. Here sperm be-
is sperm be-
cause
cause the word is associated
associated in
in another verse
verse with
with the
the word
word
sperm.
sperm.
-Sura
-sura 75, 75, verSe
verse 37:
"Was (man) not a small quantity
"Was quantity of sperm sperm which has been been
poured out?"
poured -
Here the Arabic Arabic word mani signifies sperm.
mani signifies sperm.
Another verse indicates that the small quantity in question
verse indicates question is
put in a 'firmly'firmly established
established lodging' (qarii1') (qayd,t'J which obviously
obviously
means the genital organs.
means organs.
-sura 23,
-sura 23, verse
verse 13.13. God
God is speaking:
sPeaking:
,,Then We
"Then we placed
placed (man) as
as aa small
small quantity (of sperm) sperm) in aa
safe
safe lodging firmly established."
established."
It must be
It he added
added that the adjective
adjective which in this text refers to
the
the 'firmly
'firmly established
established lodging'
lodging' makTn
matiin is, is, I think, hardly trans-
latable. It expresses
latable. It expresses the
the idea
idea of a
a firmly established
establishedand respected
and respected
place.
place. However
However this may
may be,
be, it refers
refers to the
the spot
spot where
where man
man
grows
grows in the maternal
the maternal organism.
organism. It is
is important to
to stress
stress the
the
concept
concept a of a very small
small quantity of liquid needed
needed in the
the fertiliza-
tion
tion process,
process,which which is is strictly
strictly in
in agreement
agreementwith what we
with what know
we know
on
on this
this subject
subject today.
today.

2.
2, The
The Constituents
Constituents of
of the
the Fertilizing Liquid.
FertilizingLiquiil.
The
The Qur'an
Qur'an describes
describesthe the liquid
liquid enabling fertilization to
enabling fertilization take
to take
place in terms which it is interesting
place in terms which it is interesting to to examine:
examine:
a) 'sperm',as
a) 'sperm', ashas
hasbeen
beenstated
statedprecisely (sura 75,
precisely(sura verse37)
75,verse 3?)
b)
b) 'a
'a liquid poured out':
liquid poured out' : "Man
"Man was fashioned
was fashioned from
from liquid
aa liquid
poured out"
pouredout" (sura
(sura 86, verse
86, verse 6)6)
,adespised
c) 'a
c) despised liquid'
liquid' (sura
(sura32,
32,verse
verse88and
andsura
sura77, verse20)
77,verse 20)
The
The adjective 'despised'(mahin)
adjective 'despised' would' itit seems,
(mahfn) would, seems'be inter-
be inter-
preted
preted not
not so
somuch
much on on account
accountof of the nature of
the nature of the itself,
liquid itself,
the liquid
 qt$ THE BmLE,
THE BIBI.q THE
THE QUR'AN
QUN'ANAND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

as more
as more the the fact
fact that
that if it isis emitted
emitted through
through the the outlet
ouflet of of the
the
urinary
urinary tract, tract, usingusing the
the channels
channels that that areare employed
employed for for passing
pas.sing
urine.
urine.
'Mixtures' or 'mingled
d) 'Mixtures'
d) or 'mingled liquids' (am#ail: "Verily,
liquids' (amJaj): "verily, we w€ fash-
fash-
ioned man
ioned man from from aa small quantity of
small quantity of mingled
mingled liquids"
liquids" (sura
(sura
76, verse2)
76,verse 2)
Many commentators,
Many commentators, like professor Hamidullah,
Iike professor Hamidullah, consider
consider these
these
liquids to
liquids to bebe thethe male
male andand female
female agents.
agents. TheThe same
same view view was was
shared by
shared by older
older commentators,
commentators, who who could
eould notnot have
have had had any
any idea
idea
of the
of physiolory of
the physiology of fertilization,
fertilization, especially
especially its its biological
biological condi-
condi-
tions
tions in thein the case
case of of the
the woman.
woman. They.tho.ught
They thousht that that thethe word
word
simply meant
simply meant the the unification
unification of of the
the two
two elements.
elements.
Modern authors however, like the commentator
Modern commentator of the Munta- Munta-
lfab
lcb edited
edited by the Supreme
Supreme Council
Council for
for Islamic
Islamie Affairs,
Affairs, Cairo,
cairo,
conected this view and note here
have corrected here that the 'small .small quantity
quantity
speru' is made up of various component parts. The commen-
of sperm' commen-
tator in the MUff,tafpab
tator Mu4talnb does does not go into detail, but in my opinion
it is
it ie aa very judicious observation.
very judicious
What
What are the components parts parts of sperm?
sperm ?
Spermatic liquid liquid is formed by various secretions seeretions which come come
from the following
from following glands:glands:
a)
a) the testicles: the secretion of of the male genital
genital gland contains
contains
spermatozoons,
spermatozoons, which which are elongated cells with with aa longlong flagel-
flagel-
lurn;
lum; they they are are bathed in in a sero-fluid liquid. liquid.
b)
b) the the seminal vesicles: these organs are reservoirs of of sperma-
sperma-
tozoons
tozoons and are placed placed near near the prostate
prostate gland;
gland; they they also ,*- se-
crete
crete theirtheir own liquid liquid butbut itit does
does notnot contain any "l*o
any fertilizing
fertilizing
agents.
agents.
c) the prostate
c) the prostate gland: gland: this
this seeretes
secretes aa liquid
liquid which
which givesgives thethe
sperm
sperm its its creamy
creamy texture
texture and and characteristic
characteristic odour.odour.
d)
d) the the glands
glands annexed
annexed to to the
the urinary
urinary tract:
tract: cooper's
Cooper's or or M6ry's
Mery's
glands
glands secrete
secrete aa stringy
-stringy liquidliquid andand Littr6's
Littre's glands
glands givegive offoff
mucous.
mucous.
These
These are are thethe origins
origins of the ,mingled
of the 'mingled liquids'
liquids' which
which the the eur'an
Qur'an
would
would appear appear to to refer to.
refer to.
There
There is, is, however,
however, more more to to be said on
be said on this
this subjcct.
subject. whenWhen the the
Qur'an talks
Qur'an talks of of aa fertilizing
fertilizing liquid liquid composec
composec of of different
different com- com-
HufIUJR Reprodwtion
Ilulnan Reproduction 20S
203

ponents, itit also

ponents, also informs
informs us us that man's progeny
that man's will be
progeny will be main-
main-
tained by
tained by something
something whichwhich m&y
may be from this liquid.
extracted from
be extracted this liquid.
This is
firis the meaning
is the meaning of of verse
verse 8,
8, sura
sura 82:
32:
(God)
II (God)
" made
msde his
his progeny
progeny from
from the
the quintessence of aa despised
quintessence of despised
liquid."
liquid."
The Arabic
The Arabic word,
word, translated here by
translated here by the word 'quintessetlce',
the rvord 'quintessence',
auliila. ItIt signifies 'something
is ffi\rt\fl^
is which is extracted, the
'something which issue of
the issue of
something else,
something else, the best psrtpart of
of a thing'. In whatever way
thing'. In way itit is
translated, itit refers
translated, refers toto a part
part of
of a whole.
Fertilization of
Fertilization reproduction are produced by a
of the egg and reproduction
that is very
cell that very elongated: its its dimensions are measured in in ten-
thousandths of of a millimetre.
millimetre. In conditions I , only one
In normal conditions', one
single cell among several several tens of millions produced
of millions produced by a man will will
actually penetrate the ovule; a large number of them are left
actually left
behind and never complete complete the journey leads from
journey which leads from the
vagina to the ovule, ovule, passing through the uterus and Fallopian
passing through
tubes. It It is therefore infinitesimally small part
therefore an infinitesimally extract
part of the extract
from
from a liquid whose
liquid whose composition
composition is highly
highly complex
complex which actu-
ally fulfills
fulfills its function.
In
In consequence,
consequence,it it is difficult not to be agreement
be struck by the agreement
between the text of the Qur'an
between Glur'an and the scientific knowledge
knowledge we we
possess
possesstoday of these these phenomena.
phenomena.

3. The
Tru Implantation
lmplantatlon of the
tllr- Egg in the Female
Eg,g,in Femol,e Genital Organs.
Genital0tgatw'
Once
Once the egg
egg has
hes been tube it
been fertilized in the Fallopian tube de-
it de-
scends 'implantation
scendsto lodge
lodge inside the uterus; this is called
called the 'implantation
of the eg~.
of the eEd. The
The Qur'an
Qut'an names
names the
the lodging
lodging of
of the
the fertilized egg
fertilized egg
womb:
wornb:
-sura
-sura 22,
22,verse
versc 56::
"We cause
"We sBuEE whom
whom We We'2 will
will to
to rest
rest in
in the
the womb
womb for
for an appointed
an appointed
term."
term."

1. It
It is
is estimated
estimatcd that
that in
in one
one cubic
cubic centimetre
centimetre of sperm there
of sperm there are million
?5 million
are 25
spermatozoons
rpermatozoons with,with, under
under normal
normal conditions, au ejaculation
conditionr, s.n of several
ejaeulation of s€veral
cubic
eubiccentimetres.
centimetres.
2. God
Godis
is speaking
speaking
 2O4
204 TIIE BIBLE,
THE BIBI,E,THE
THEQUR'AN
QUn'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

Theimplantation
The implantation of of the
the egg
eggin in the
the uterus (womb) is
uterus (womb) is the
the re-
re-
sultof
sult thedevelopment
of the developmentof of villosities,
villosities,veritable
veritableelongations
elongrtionsof of the
the
egg, which,
egg, which, like
Iike roots
roots in the soil,
in the soil, draw
draw nourishment
nourishment from
from the the
thicknessof
thickness theuterus
of the uterusnecessary
necessaryto to the
the egg's growilr. These
egg'sgrowth. Thesefor-for-
mationsmake
mations makethe the egg
eggliterally
literally cling
cling to to the
the uterus.
uterus.This
This is
is •r dis-
dig-
coveryof
cove1'Y of modern
moderntimes.times.
The act
The act ofof clinging
clinging is is described
describedfive five different
difrerent times
times in in the
the
Qur'an. Firstly in
Qur'an.Firstly in verses
verses1I andand22of of sura
sura96 gG: :
"Read,
"Bead, inin the
the name
narneof of thy
thy Lord
Iord Who Who fashioned,
fashioned,
Whofashioned
Who fashionedman msnfromfrom something
somethingwhich which clings."
clings."
'somethingwhich which clings'
clings'isis the
the translation ,ah,q.It
'Something transration the of word 'alaq.
the word rt
is the
is original meaning
the original meaningof the the word. A meaning
word. meaning derived derived from it,
'bloodclot',
'blood clot', often
often figures
figures in translation; it is is aa mistake
mistake against
against
which one
which' oneshould guard : man
shouldguard: man hashasnever
never passed
passed through
through the stage
the-stsge
of being 'blood clot'.
being aa 'blood clot'. The sameis true f~r
The same another translation
for another trsnEletion
of this 'adhesion'which
tenn, 'adhesion'
this term, which is is equally
equally inappropriate.
inappropriate. Theorig-
The orig_
inal sense 'something which
sense of 'something which clings'
clings' corresponds exacfly to
correspondsexactly
today'sfirmly established
today's establishedreality.
eonceptis recalled
This concept recalled in four other verses which describe
verses which describe
successivetransformations
successive transformations from the small small guantity
quantity of Epenn
spenn
through to the
through end:
the end:
-sure 22,
-sura 22, verse
verse 5: 5:
fashioned you
"We have fashioned
have you from ... somethins something whichwhich clings."
clings."
-sura
-sura 28,
23, verse 14
14::
"We have fashioned the
"we small quantity
the small quantity (of
(of sperm)
sperm) into
into EomF
some-
thing
thing which clings.r'
clings. t'
--sura
-sura 40, verse 67:
67 :
"(God) fashioned you from
"(God) small quantity
from a small quantity (of
(of sperm),
sperm), finom
from
something which
which clings."
clings."
-sur.a
-sura ?5,75, VerSe
verse 37-38:
37-38 :
"was (man) not
"Was (man) not aa small small quantity
quantity of of sperm
sperm whichwhich hashas been
been
poured out ? After that
poured out? After that he he was
was something
something which which clings
clings;; then
then God
God
fashioned
fashioned himhim in due proportion."
in due proportion."
The
The organ
organ which
which harbours
harbours thethe pregnancy
pregnancy isis qudifiedqualified inin the
the
Qur'an by
Qur'an by aa word
word which,
which, as we have
as we have seen,
seen, is is still
still used
used inin Arabic
Arabic
to
to signify
signify the
the uterus.
uterus. InIn some
some suras, called aa .lodging
suras, itit isis called 'lodging firmly
firmly
Hllzwnneprcfucful 2OE
205

established'· (sure
estrblished'. (sura 23,
28, verse 18, quotcd
verse 13, quoted above and sura
above and 77, verse
sura ??, verse
21)1.
21)'.

EooIudon of tlre
4. Eoffionof
1, ,he Embryoksiire the Uteru.·
Embryo inside fllcUtzlnlr,.
The Qur'anic
Tlre Qur'anic description
description of stages in
certain stages
of certain the development
in the development
of the
of the mbryo
embryo corresponds exactly to
corresponds exsctly what we
to whgt we today know about
today know about
it, and the Qur'an
it, Qur'an does
does not eontain that is
statement thet
contain a single statement is open
open
criticism from
to criticism trom modern
modern science.
science.
After 'the
After thing which clings' (an expression
'the thing which is well-
expression s'hich
founded, ts
founded, as we have
have seen) Qur'an informs
seen) the Qur'sn that the embryo
informs us thst
pass€s
passes through the stagestage ofof 'chewed
'chewed flesh', osseous tissue
flesh', then osssous
appears end
appeam flesh (defined
and is clad in flesh (defined by a difrerent from the
different word finm
prueding signifies 'intact
preceding which signifies 'intact flesh').
flesh').
-+ure
--aura L9,
28, verse
verse 1414::
"We
"Tl'G fashioned
fashioned the thing clings -into a
thing which clings'into a chewed lump of
chewed ltmrp
flesh
flesh and
end WelVe fashioned
fashioned the the chewed flesh into bones
chewed flesh and We
bones and
clothed
clothed the bones
bones with
with intact flesh.'
intaet flesh."
'Clrewedflesh'
'Chewed 'intact
mu$Ao" 'intact
word muq,ga,;
flesh' is the
the translation
translation of the word
flesh'
fleh' is lGfm. needsto be
bfun. This distinction needs stressed.The
be stressed. embryo
The embryo
is initially
initielly-aa small
emall mass.
masg.At aa certain development'it
stage in its development,
certein stage it
looks to the
looks the naked
naked eye
eye like chewed
chewedflesh. bonestructure
The bone
flesh. The de-
structurt de-
velops
velopcinside
inside this mass
massin what is is called
called the mesenchyma.The
the mesenchyma. The

1.
1. In
fn another
enother verse
Yerse (sura (sure 6, 6, verse
Yerse 98) 98) aa place of rojourn is
of sojoum is mentioned.
mention€d' It It
i.
lr expressed
crpremed in in aa term
term veryvery similar
similar to to the preceding one
thi preceding one and would also
and would alco
seem
sGcn- to to signify
signify the the matemal
maternal uterus. Perronally, Ir believe
uterus. Personally, thfu to
beffieve this to bebe
the
thc meaning
ncrning of of thethe verse,
verse, butbut aa detailed
detailed interpretation
interpretation would involve
would involve
mueh
mucb lengthier
len6[iet explanation
explanation which which is is beyond
beyond the the scope
seope of of th'is boolL
thTr book.
Another
Another verse verse which
which requires
requires extremely
extremely delicate intcrpretetion is
delicgto interpretation tfte
lr the
following:
following:
~ra
---tEtt 89,80,verse
veree 6: 6:
..(H)
"(God) fashions
feshions you you inside
inside the the bodies
bodies of your mothers,
of your lormetlon
mothers, formation
after formation,
rftar forrnetion, inin three
three (veils
(veils of)
of) darkness."
darkne*." (4tl,lumdtl
(plunuit)
Modern
lfodcrn intrepreters
intrepreters of of the Qur'an see
the Qur'an ree inin this verle the
this verse enrto-
three anato-
the three
mieal
mtcrt layers
lryctr that
thlt proteet
protcet the
the infant
infrnt during
during gertation:
gestation: thc
the rbdoninel
abdominal
wrll, the
wall, thr uterul
uterur itself,
itrelf, andend thethc surroundings
nrrroundinp of
of the
thc foetua (plrccatr'
foctur (plaeenta,
embryonie
embr?onlc membranes,
mcmbnner, amniotie rmniotic fluid).
fuid).
II am obltsld to
rrn oblipd to quote
quotc this
thir verse
verrc for lor the
thc sake
rr|re ofof eompleteness;
conplctenere; the the
terpretation
terpretrtion given given here herc does
docr notnot Hem rccn to nc to
to me dilputeble from
bc disputable
to be from an an
anatomical
anitomicsl point point of of view
vierr but
but isir this
thir what
vhet the the text
tert of the Qur'an
of the really
Qur'an really
means?
means?
 206
206 TIIE BIBLE,
THE BIBr.n,THE
THEQUR'AN
QUn'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

bonesthat
bones that are
arefOI'med
formed are ale covered
coveredin in muscle;
muscle;the the word
word 14hmInhm ap-ap-
pliesto
plies tothem.
them.
ItIt isis known
known howhow certain parts appear
certain parts appear toto be
becompletely
eompletelyout out ofof
proportion during
proportion during embryonic
embryonic development with
development with rvhat is later to
what is later to
beeomethe
become the individual,
individual, whilewhile others
others remain
remain in in proportion.
proportion.
Tlris isis surely
This surely the
the meaning
meaningof of the
the word mttftaltaqwhich
word muliallaq which signi-
signi-
'shaped in ploportion'
fies'shaped
fies in proportion' as as used
used in verse E, sura zz to
in verse 5, sura 22 to describe
describe
phenomenon.
this phenomenon.
this
"w'e fashioned
"We fashioned... . . . into
into something
somethingwhichwhich clings
clings...., . into
into aa lump
lump
of flesh
of fleshin proportion and
in proportion and out
out of
of proportion."
proportion."
The Qur'an
The alsodescribes
Qur"an also describesthe the appearance
appearanceof of the
the senses
sensesand and the
the
viscerae:
viscerae:
-sura 32,
-sura 32,verse g:
verse9:
"(God) appointed
"(God) appointecl for you the
for you the sense
senseofof hearing,
hearing, sight
sight andand the
the
viscet'ae."
viscerae."
It refers
It lefer.s to the
the formation
folmation of the the sexual
sexual organs:
organs:
-sula
-sura 53, 53, verses
verses45-46
4E-46: :
(God) fashioned
" (God) fashioned the two trvo of aa pair, the male
male and
and the female,
female,
ft'om a small quantity (of sperm)
from sperm) whenwhen it
it is poured
poured out."
out."
The formation of the sexual
The sexuar organs
organs is described
described in two two sura
sura
of the Qur.'an:
of the Qur'an:
-sura
-sura 35,35, verse 11 :
verse 11:
"God created
created you fromfrom dust, then from from a sperm-drop, then then HeHe
made you
made you pairs
pairs (the male and female)."
female)."
-sura
-sura 75, verse
verse 89:
39 :
"And, (God)
"And, (God) made
made of him a pair,
of him pair, the
the male and female."
As
As has
has already
already beenbeen noted,
noted, alt
all statements
statements in in the
the eur'an
Qur'an mustmust
be
be compared
compared with
with today's
today's firmly
firmly established
established concepts:
concepts: thethe ag:ree_
agree-
ment
ment between
between themthem is is very
very clear.
clear. ItIt is
is however
however very
very important
important
to
to compare
compare them
them with the general
with the general beliefs
beliefs on on this
this subjeet
subject that
that
were
were held
held atat the
the time
time of of the
the eur'anic
Qur'anic Revelation
Revelation in in order
order toto
realize just
realize just how
how far far people
people were
were in in those
those days
days from
from having
having
views
views on these problems
on these problems similar
similar to to those
those expressed here in
expressed here in the
the
Qur'an. There
Qur'an. There can
can be be no
no doubt
doubt that
that they
they would
would have
have been
been unable
unable
toto interpret
interpret the
the Revelation
Revelation in in the
the way
way we we can
can today
today because
because we we
are
are helped
helped byby the
the data
data modern
modern knowledge
knowledge affords us. ItIt was,
affords us. was, inin
fact,
fact, only
only during
during thethe Nineteenth
Nineteenth century
century thatthat people
people had
had aa slight-
slight-
lylyclearer
clearer view
viewof this question.
ofthis question.
Human
HumanReproduction
Reproduction 207
207

Throughout the Middle

Throughout Middle Ages, the most diversified doetrines
doctrines
originated inin unfounded speculations: they persisted
unfounded myths and speculations: persisted
for several centuries after
for this period. The most fundamental
after this fundamental
stage inin the history
history of of embryology was Harvey's
Harvey's statement
(1651) that
(1651) that "all
"all life
life initially
initially comes
comes from
from an eg:g". At this time
egg". At time
however, when nascent
however, nascent science
science had nevertheless benefited greatly
nevertheless benefited greatly
(for the subject
(for subject inin hand) from from the invention of of the microscope'
microscope,
people were still
people still talking
talking about the respective of the egg
respective roles of
Butron, the great naturalist, was one
spermatozoon. Buffon,
and the spermatozoon. one of
of
those in favor of
those of the egg
egg theory,
theory, but Bonnet supported
supported the theory
seeds being 'packed
of the seeds 'packed together': the ovaries of Eve, the
ovaries of
mother ofof the human race, race, were supposed
supposed to have contained the
have contained
seeds
seedsof all human beings,beings, packed
packed together
together one
one inside
inside the other.
other.
This hypothesis
hypothesis came
came into
into favor
favor in the Eighteenth
Eighteenth century.
thousand years
More than a thousand before our time, at a period
years before period when
when
whimsical doctrines
whimsical still prevailed,
doctrines still men had a knowledge
prevailed, men knowledge of the
Qur'an. The statements
statements it it contains express
express in simple terms truths
truths
of primordial
primordial importance
importance which man has has taken
taken centuries
centuries to
discover.
discover.

THE
THE QUR'AN
QUR'AN AND
AND SEX EDUCATION.
EDUCATION.
Our epoch
epochbelieves
believesthat it it has
has made
made manifold discoveries
discoveriesin all
possible fields.
possible fields. It
It is thought
thousht that great innovations
innovations have
have beenbeen
made
made in the field
field of sex
sex education,
education,and and the knowledge
knowledge of the facts
facts
of life which hashas been
been opened
openedup to young peoplepeople is regarded
regarded as as
an achievement
aehievementof the modern modern world. Previous
Previous centuries were
centuries were
noted
noted for their deliberate
deliberateobscurity
obscurity onon this point and people
and many people
say that religion-without
say that religion-without stating which religion-is
religion-is the cause
cause
of it.
The
The information
information setset out above
above is
is proof however
however that fourteen
centuries· questions (as
ago theoretical questions
centuries.ago (as it were) on
on human repro-
duction
duction were
were brought to man'sman's attention.
attention. This was
was done
done as as
as far as
was
was possible,
possible, taking
taking into account
account the fact that the anatomical
anatomical
and
and physiological data data needed
needed forfor further
further explanations
explanations were
lacking.
lacking. One
One should
should also
also remember
remember that, to be be understood,
understood, itit was
was
necessary
necessary to use use simple
simple language
langu.agesuited
suited to the
the level
level of compre-
of compre-
hension of
hension of those
those who
who listened
listened to the
the Preaching.
Preaching.
 gO8
208 THE
THE BIBLE,
BIBLE,THE
THE QUR'AN
QURANAND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

Practical
Practical considerations
considerationshave have not
not been
beensilently
silently ignored.
ignored. There
There
are
are many
many details
details in
in the
the Qur'an
Qur'an on
on the
the practical
practical side
side of
of life in
life in
general, and
general, and the
the way
way man
man should
should behave
behave inin the
the many
many situations
situations
of his
of his existence.
existence.His
His sex
sex life
life is
is no
no exception.
exeeption.
Two verses
Two verses in
in the
the Qur'an
Qur'an deal
deal with
with sexual
sexual relations
relations them-
them-
selves. They
selves. They are
are described
described in in terms
terms which
which unite
unite the
the need
need forfor
precision with
precision with that
that of
of decency.
decency.When When translations
translations andand explana-
explana-
tory commentaries
tory commentariesare are consulted
consulted however,
however, one
one is
is struck
struck by the the
divergencesbetween
divergences between them.
them. II have pondered for
have pondered for a long
a long time on on
the translation
the translation ofof such
such verses,
verses,andand amam indebted
indebted toto Doctor
Doctor A. K.
Giraud, Former Professor
Giraud, Former Professorat at the
the Faculty
Faculty of Medicine,
Medicine,Beirut, for
the following:
the following:
-sura 86,
-sura 86,verse
verse66 and
and 7?::
" (Man) was
"(Man) was fashioned
fashionedfrom aa liquidliquid poured
poured out. It issued
out. It issued (as
(as
aa result) of the
the conjunction
conjunction of the sexual sexual area
area of the man and
the sexual
the sexual area
area of the woman."
sexual area
The sexual area of the man is indicatedindicated in the text of the
Qur'an by the world ~ulb
Qur'an (singular). The sexual
ser/b (singular). sexual areas
areas of the
woman are designated
woman designated in the Qur'an by the word tard,,ib taril'ib
(plural)..
(plural)
This is the translation which appears appears to bebe most satisfactory.
satisfactory.
It is different from
It frorn the one that is often given hy
one that by English
English and
translators, i.e.
French translators, Le. "(Man)
"(Man) has has been
been created
created by a liquid
poured out which issues
poured issues from between
between the vertebral column and
the bones
bones of the breast." This would seem seem more to be an inter-
inter-
pretation
pretation than a translation. It It is hardly
hardly comprehensible.
comprehensible.
The behavior of a man in in his intimate
intimate relationships
relationships with
with his
wife
wife is stated
stated explicitly.
There is the order concerning
concerning the menstruation period period con-
tained inin verses
verses 222
222 and ZZB,223, sura Z; God gives the
2; God the following
following
command
command to the Prophet:
-sura
-sura 2, verses
verses 222 and 223:
223 :
"They (the
"They (the Believers)
Believers) question
question thee
thee concerning
concerning menstruation.
menstruation.
Say: This is an evil. KeepKeep away
away from
from women
women during
during menstrua-
menstrua-
tion
tion and
and do not
not approach
approach them
them until
until they
they are
are clean.
clean. when
When they they
have purified
have themselves, go
purified themselves, go to
to them,
them, asas God
God ordered to you.
ordered itit to you.
"verily, God loves
"Verily, God the repentants
loves the repentants and
and loves
loves those who purified
those who purified
themselves.
themselves.
Human Reproduction
HwruanReproiluction 209
209

"Your wives are a tilth.

"Your tilth. Go to your
your tilth will. Do (some
tilth as you will. (some
good act) for
good for your
your souls
souls beforehand."
The beginning of of this passage
passage is very clear in in meaning: itit
formally forbids
formally forbids a man to have sexual sexual contact withwith a woman who
has her period. second part
period. The second describes the process
part describes process of of tilling
tilling
which the sowersower performs before sowing the seed seed which is to
produce a new plant. Through this image there-
germinate and produce
stress is indirectly
fore, stress indirectly laicllaid on the importance
importance of of bearing in in
purpose of
mind the final purpose of sexual
sexual contact,
contact, i.e. reproduction. The
Le. reproduction.
translation of the final phrase phrase is by R. Blach0re:
Blachere: it contains an
it contains
order which seems
orcler seems to refer to the preliminalies
preliminaries before sexual sexual
contact.
contact.
The orders
orders given here here are of a very general general kind. The prob-
lem of contraception
contraception has has been
been raised
raised with
with regard to thesethese verses:
verses:
here, nor anywhere
neither here, anywhere else, else,is reference
reference made
made to this subject.
subject.
Nor is provoked
Nor provoked abortion
ahortion referred to. The numerous numerous passages
passages
quoted above
quoted above on the successive
successivetransformations of the embryo embryo
make
make itit quite clear,
clear, however,
however, that man is consideredconsidered to be be con-
con-
stituted asas of the stage
stage described
describedby the existence 'something
existenceof 'something
which clings'.
clings'. This being
being so, so, the absolute
absolute respect
respect of the indi-
vidual human
human being,
being, which is referred to so so often in thethe Qur'an,
Qur'an,
brings with it aa total condemnation
condemnationof provoked provoked abortion.
abortion. This
attitude
attitude is today
today shared
shared by all monotheistic
monotheisticreligions.
religions.
Sexual relations are permitted at night during the Fast in the
Sexual relations the
month
month of Ramadan.
Ramadan.The The verse
verseconcerning
concerningRamadan
Ramadanis is as
as follows:
follows:
-Sura 2,
-sura 2, verse
verse187:
187:
"Permitted
"Permitted to you,you, on on the night
nisht of the
the fast,
fast, is
is to break
break chastity
with your wives.
wives. They
They are
are a
a garment for you
you and
and you
you are
are aa gar-
ment for them. So
them. So hold
hold intercourse
intercourse with them
them and
and seek
seek what God
God
has ordained
has ordained for you."
In contrast
contrast to this,
this, no no exception
exception to the the rule is is made
made for pil-
grims in Makka
Makka during the
the celebration days
celebration days of the
the Pilgrimage.
Pilgrimage.
-sura 2,
-sura 2, verse
verse197:
197:
"For whom
whom undertakes
undertakes (the (the duty of) the the Pilgrimage
Pilgrimage in its
time,
time, no
no wooing
wooing and
and no no license."
license."
This
This prohibition
prohibition is is formal,
formal, as as is
is the
the fact
fact that
that other activities
other activities
are
are forbidden,
forbidden, e.g.
e.g. hunting,
hunting, fighting,
fighting, etc.
etc.
Menstruation
Menstruation is is again
again mentioned
mentioned in in the
the Qur'an
Qur'an in in connection
connection
with divorce.
divorce.TheThe Book
Book contains
contains thethe following verse:
following verse:
210
210 THE
THE BIBLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QURAN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

-sura 65,
-sura 65,verse
verse44::
your wives
"For your
"For wives whowho despair
despair of of menstruation,
menstruation, if if you
you doubt
doubt
about them,
about them, their period of
their period of waiting
waiting willwill be
be three
three months.
months. For
For
those who
those who never
never have
have their
their monthly periods and
monthly periods and those
those who
who are
are
pregnant their
pregnant period will
their period will be
be until
until they
they lay
lay down
down their
their burden."
burden."
The waiting
The period referred
waiting period referred to to here
here isis the
the time
time between
between the
the
announcement of
announcement of the
the divorce
divoree and and thethe time it it comes
comes intointo effect.
effect.
Those women
Those women of of whom
whom it it is
is said 'they despair
said 'they despair of of menstruation'
menstruation'
have reached
have reached the the menopause. precautionary period
menopause.A precautionary period of three
three
months is
months is envisaged
envisaged for them. them. Once period is
once this period is completed,
eompleted,
divorced women
divorced women who who have
have reached
reachedthe the menopause
menopausemay remarry.
those who
For those who have
have not yet menstruated,
menstruated, the pregnancy
pregnancy period
period
has to be
has be awaited.
awaited. For pregnant
pregnant women,
women, divorce
divorce only comes
comesinto
effect once
effect once thethe child
child is born.
born.
All these
All these laws
laws are in perfect agreement agreement with with physiological
physiological
data. One
data. one can,
can, furthermore, find find in the Qur'an the same same judicious
legal provision in the texts dealing
legal dealing with
with widowhood.
widowhood.
Thus, the theoretical
Thus, theoretical statements
statements dealing
dealing with reproduction,
reproduetion,
and the practical instructions on
and on the sexsex life of couples,
couples, do do not
contradict andand cannot
cannot be placed in opposition
be placed opposition to the data we have have
modern knowledge,
from modern knowledg:e,nor with with anything that can ean bebe logically
from it.
derived from
derived
 I

Qu..'an.1: and
Qur'anic and
Bihlical
l3.blil:aI
~a....ation~
Narratiorrs
GEnE..al Outlines
General OullinEs
A also
A large
large number of subjectssubjects dealt
dealt with
with in the Bible are also
found in the Qur'an. Firstly, there are
are narrations
narrations referring
referring to
to
found itt tft* Qur'an. Firstly,
the Prophets; Noah, Abraham, Joseph,
Joseph, Elias, Jonah,
Jonah, Job
Job and
and
the Prophets; Noah,
Moses; just
name just
Moses; the
[tt. Kings
Kings of of Israel;
Israel; Saul,
Saul, David,
David, Solomon-to
Solomon-to name
some common. There then
There then
someof of the
the main
*"it narrations
narrations they they share
share in in common.
follow more specific accounts
follow more specific accounts of
of great
great events
events in
in the
the course
course of
of
which the supernatural has intervened,
which the supernatural has intervened, e.g.
e.g. the
the Creation
Creation of
of the
the
Earth
Earth and
and Heavens,
Heavens,the the Creation
Creation of of Man,
Man, thethe Flood, Exodus'
the Exodus.
Flood, the
Finally, there is all that
Finally, there is all that has tohas to do
do with
with Jesus
Jesus and
and His
His mother
mother
Mary as far as it concerns
Mary as far as it concerns the the New
New Testament.
Testament'
What
What reflections
reflections do do the
the subjects
subiects dealt with in
dealt with in the
the two Scrip-
two Scrip-
tures provoke when
tures provoke when viewed viewed in
in the
the light
lisht of
of our
our modern
modern knowl-
knowl-
edgeof
edge of them
them from
from extra-Scriptural
extra-scriptural sources?
sources?

Parallel:
P arallnl :Qur'an/Gospel
Qur'an I G ospeland
and Modern
M oder nKnowledge.
l(noul'e dge'
With
With regard
regard to
to the
the parallel
parallel of
of Qur'an/Gospels,
Qur'an/Gospels, one onemust first
must first
note that none of the subjects
note that none of the subjects referred
referred to
to in
in the
the Gospels,
Gospels, which
which
gll
211
 2I2
212 THEBIBLE,
THE BIBLE,THE
THEQUR'AN
QUR'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

werecriticized
were criticizedfrom from aa scientific
seientificpoint point of of view
view (see par.tTwo
(seePart Two of of
this book),
this book),isisquotedquotedin in the
the Qur'an.
eur'an.
Jesusisis referred
Jesus refer.ed to to many
many times times in in thethe Qur'an,
eur'an, e.g.
e.g. Mary's
Mary's
annunciationof
annunciation of thethenativity
nativity to tohishisfather,
father,the theannunciation
annunciationof of the
the
miraculousnativity
miraculous nativity to Mary, Jesus~s
to Mary, Jesus'sstature
stature as prophet of
asaa Prophet of the
the
highestorder,
highest older, His His role
lole as as aa Messiah,
Messiah,the the Revelation
RevelationHe He directs
directs
to Man
to Man which
which confirms
confirms and and modifies
modifiesthe the Torah,
Torah, HisHis preachings,
preachings,
IIis disciples
His disciplesand and apostles,
apostles,the the miracles,
miracles, His His Ascension
Ascen*io, to to God,
God,
His role
His roleinin the
theLast
Last Judgment,
Judgment,etc. etc.
suras 33 and
Suras and 19 19 ofof thethe Qur'an
eur'an (the (the second
secondof of which
which bears
bears
Maly's name)
Mary's name) devote de'ote long passagesto
long passages to Jesus's
Jesus's family. They
family. They de- de-
scribe His
scribe His mother
mother Mary's Mary's nativity,
nativity, her her youth
youth and and the
the annuncia-
annuncia-
tion of
tion of her
her miraculous
miraculous motherhood.
motherhood.Jesus Jesus is is always
always called ,son
called 'Son
of Mary'.
of Mary'. His His ancestry
ancestry is is exclusively
exclusively given given with regardregard to His
to His
mother'sside,
mother's side,which
which is quite logical
is quite logical since
sinceJesus
Jesus had no
had no biological
biological
father. Here
father. Flere thethe Qur'an
Qur'an differs
differs from Matthew's and and Luke's
Luke's Gos-
Gos-
pels: as
pels: as we
we have
have already
already seen,seen,they they give the the paternal genealogies
genealogies
of Jesus
of Jesus which are, are, moreover,
moreover, different from each each other.
other.
In the Qur'an, Jesus
In placed according
Jesus is placed according to His maternal gene-
gene-
alogy in the
alogy the line of Noah, Noah, Abraham, and Mary's father father ( Imran
Imran
i n the
in t h e Qur'an)
Q u r ' a n )::
-sura
-sura 3, verses33
3, verses BBand
and 34 84::
choseAdam, Noah,
"God chose Noah, the family family of of Abraham
Abraham and the fam_ fam-
ily
ily of
of imrdn
imran aboveabove all His creatures,
creatures, as as descendants
descendants one one from
from an- an-
other."
other."
so
So Jesus
Jesus is descended
descended from from Noah and Abraham Abraham on on His
His mother
mother
Mary's
Mary's side,
side, and from from her her father
father imrdn.
Imnin. The The errors
errors made
made in in the
the
naming 'ancestors
naming of of the 'ancestors of of Jesus'
Jesus' found
found in in the
the Gospels
Gospels areare notnot
present
present in in the Qur'an, nor
the Qur'an, nor areare thethe impossibilities
impossibilities in in ihe
the genealo-
genealo-
gies
gies contained
contained in in the
the old
Old Testament
Testament of of Abraham's
Abraham's ancestry,
ancestry, both
both
of
of whieh
which were were examined
examined in in thethe first
first andand second
second parts
parts orof tni*
this
book.
book.
once
Once again,
again, this this fact
fact must
must be be noted
noted ifif oneone is
is to
to be
be objective,
objective,
and yet
and yet again
again its its great
great importance
impol·tance appears appears very very clearly
clearly inin the
the
face
face of of the
the unfounded
unfounded statements
statements which which are are made
made claiming
claiming that
that
-niute.
Muhammad,
Muhammad, the the author
author of of the
the eur'an,
Qur'an, largely
largely copied
copied thethe Bible.
one
One wonders
wonders in in that
that case
case whowho or what reason
or what reason compelled
compelled him him to to
avoid
avoid copying
copying the the passages
passages the the Bible
Bible contains
contains on on Jesus's
Jesus's ances-
ances-
try,
try, and
and toto insert
insert at this point
at this point in in the
the eur'an
Qur'an the the corrections
corrections thatthat
Qu;anic BiblicalNNarrationB
and Biblical
anic ard gl 3
213
Quf anatiottn

put his
put his text
text above
above any
any criticism from modern
criticism from knowledge. The
modern knowledge. The
Gospels and Old
bospels and Old Testament
Testament texts
texts are
are quite
quite the
the opposite;
opposite; from
from this
this
point of view
point of view they
they are
are totally
totally unacceptable.
unaceeptable.

Parallel: Qur'an
Parullel: Qur'an/Old Testament and
I OliI Tectament Modem Knoulcilge,
andMoilpm Knowledge.
In the
In the case
case ofof the
the old
Old Testament,
Testament, certain aspects of
certain aspects this paral-
of this paral-
lel have
Iel have already
already been
been dealt
dealt with.
with. The Creation of the world, for
The Creation of the world, for
example, was
example, was thethe subjeet
subject of of aa critical made in
study made
critical study the Old
in the Old
Testament section
Testament section of of this
this book.
book. TheThe same subject was
same subject was examined
examined
with regard
with regard toto the
the Qur'anic
Qur'anic Revelation. Comparisons were
Revelation. comparisons were made
made
and there
and there is
is no
no need
need toto cover this this ground again'again.
seems that
It seems
It historical knowledge is too vagtre
that historical vague and archaeo-
archaeo-
logical data too scarce
logical scarce for established in
for parallels to be established in the light
light
of modern
of modern knowledge
knowledge on problems concerning the Kings
problems concerning Kings of of
Israel, who
fsrael, who form
form the subject of narrations in
of narrations Qur'an and
in both the Qur'an
the Bible.
the Bible.
Whether or not one
Whether one ean tackle the problem of the Prophets in
can taekle in
the
the light
light of modern
modern data depends depends on the extent to which the
events
events described
described havehave left
left tra.ces
traces which mayormay or may not have have
come
comedown to us. us.
There
There are however
however two subjects
subjects dealt
dealt with
with in both the the Qur'an
and
and the
the Bible which should
should command
command our attention and which
and
need
need to
to be
be examined
examined in the
the light of modern
modern knowledge.
knowledge. They are
They are
as
as follows:
follows:
-the
-the Flood,
Flood,
-the
-the Exodus.
Exodus.
-The
-The first
first because
becauseit it has
has notnot left traces in
left traces in the
the history of
history of
civilization which support the
civilization which support the Biblical Biblical narration,
narration, whereas
whereas mod-
mod-
ern
ern data
data do
do not
not permit
permit us us to
to criticize
criticize the
the narration contained in
narration contained in
the
theQur'an.
Qur'an.
-The
-The second
secondbecause
becausethe the Biblical
Biblical and
and Qur'anic
Qur'anie narrations evi-
narrations evi-
dently complement
dently complement each
eaeh other
other in
in their
their broad
broad outlines,
outlines, and
and modern
modern
data
data seem
seemto to provide
provide both
both of of them
them with
with remarkable historical
remarkable historical
support.
support.
 ll
II
Th
TheE Flo
flood
od
The Biblica
Biblbal l Narrat ion of
Natration of the Flood
Flood and the Critici
cfiticiutm
sm
Levele It - A Remin
Leoeledd at It-A deT.
Remind,et
The exami nation of the Old Testam
examination Testament ent descrip
description
tion of the Flood
in the first part part of this book led to the follow follo*irging observ
observations:
ations :
There is not just just one
one descrip tion of the Flood,
description Flood, but
uut two,
two, writte
writtenn
at differe
different nt times;
tirnes;
-the Yahvi
-the Yahvist st versio
version n which dates
dates from
from the Ninth
Ninth centur
centuryy B.C.
B.c.
-the Sacerd
-the sacerdotalotal versio
version n dating from the Sixth sixth centur
century y B.C.,
8.c., soso
called
called becaus
because e it
it was the workwork of priests of the time.
These
These two narrat narrations
ions are not juxtapjuxtaposed,
osed, but interw
interwoven
oven so so
that part of one
that part one is fitted inbetw
inbetweeneen parts of the other, Le. i.e. para-
graphs fromfrom one one source
source alterna
arternatete with passage
with passag e from
from the other.
The comm
commentary
entary to the transla
translation
tion of Genesi
Genesis s by Father
Father de de Vaux,
professor
aa profes sor at the Biblica
Biblieall School
school of Jerusa lem, shows
Jerusalem, .ho** very clearly
how the paragr
paragraphsaphs are distrib
distributed
uted betwee
between n the
the two source
sources. s. The
narrat
narrationion begins
begins and and endsends with yahvist
with aa Yahvi passage.
st passag e. There are
ten Yahvi
Yahvist paragraphs
st paragr aphs altoge ther and
altogether and betwee
between n each
each one
one aa Sacer-
Sacer-
dotal passage
dotal passag e has
has been
been inserte
inserted d (there are aa total of nine nine Sacer-
Saeer-
dotal paragraphs).
dotal paragr aphs). This mosaic mosaic of texts is only cohere coherent nt when
when
read
read from aa point of view which takes takes the succes
succession
sion of episod
episodeses
into accoun
account, t, since
since there are blatanblatantt contra
contradictions
diction s betwee
between n the
two source
sources. s. Father de de Vaux
vaux describ
describeses them as ..two accoun
as "two accounts ts of
the
the Flood,
Flood, in which the catacly cataclysm
sm is caused
caused by differe
different
nt agents
agents
and
and lasts
lasts differe
different nt length
lengths s of time,
time, and where
where Noah receive
rmeives s into
the Ark
Ark aa differe
differentnt numbe
numberr of anima
animals."
ls."
When
when seen seen in the light light of moder
modern n knowle
knowledge,
dge, the Biblica
Biblicall de-de-
scripti
scriptionon of the Flood Flood as as aa whole
whore is unacce
unacceptable
ptable for the followfollow--
ing reason
reasons: s:

2t4
214
The Flood 215

ascribes to itit the character of

a) The Old Testament ascribes of a universal
cataclysm.
b) Whereas the paragraphs
paragraphs fromfrom the Yahvist
Yahvist texttext do notnot date
the Flood, the Sacerdotal
Sacerdotal texttext situates itit at a point
point in time
time
where a cataclysm of this this kind
kind could not have occurred.
occurred.
following are arguments supporting
The following supporting thisthis opinion:
opinion:
The Sacerdotal states quite precisely that
narration states
Sacerdotal narration that the Flood
took place
place when Noah was 600 According to the genea-
600 years old. According genea-
logies in chapter
logies ehapter 5 of Genesis
Genesis (also taken from from the Sacerdotal
Sacerdotal
text and quoted in the first part
and quoted part of this book), we rve know that Noah
is said
said to have been born 1,056
have been years after
1,056 years after Adam. Consequently,
Consequently,
the Flood would have taken place place 1,655
1,655 years after
after the creation
genealogical table
of Adam. The genealogical table of Abraham moreover,moreover, taken
from the same
same text and given in Genesis
and given Genesis(11,(11, 10-32),
10-32), allows
allows usus
to estimate that
that Abraham
Abraham was born 292 292 years after
after the Flood. As
(according to the Bible) Abraham was
we know that (according was alive
alive in
roughly 1850
1850 B.C.,
8.C., the
the Flood
Flood would
would therefore be be situated in the
Twenty-first
Twenty-first or Twenty-second
Twenty-second century B.C. B.C. This calculation
ealculation is
in strict
strict keeping
keeping with
rvith the
the information
information in old old editions
editions of the
Bible which figures
figures prominently at the head head of the Biblical text.
This was
was at aa time when
when the lack of human knowledge knowledge on on the
subject
subject was
was such
such that the chronological
chronologieal data data contained
contained in the
Bible were
were accepted question by its readers-for
accepted without question readers-for want
of any arguments
arguments to the contrary.1
contrary.l
possible to conceive
How is it possible coneeivetoday
today of aa universal
universal cataclysm
cataclysm
in the
the Twenty-first or Twenty-second
Twenty-second century B.C. B.C. which de- de-
stroyed
stroyed life on al| the
on all the earth's
earth's surface (except for the people
surface (except peopleandand
animals
animals in the
the Ark)
Ark) ?? By this time,
time, civilizations
civilizations had
had flourished
flourishedin
several globe, and
several parts of the globe, and their vestiges
vestiges have
have now come come
down
down to posterity.
posterity. In Egypt at this time,
time, for example,
example, the Inter-
mediate
mediate Period
Period followed
follou'ed the
the end
end of the the Old Kingdom and
OId Kingdom pre-
and pre-
ceded the
ceded the beginning
beginning of the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom.
Kingdom. In view
view of our
our

l. Now that certain

1. certain notions
notions concerning
concerning the
the chronology ancient times
chronology of ancient times
have
have been
been established,
established,and
and the
the imaginary dates given by the
dates given the authors
authors of
the
the Sacerdotal
Sacerdotal text of the
the Old Testament
Testament are
are no
no credible, those
longer credible, those
dates
dates have
have quickly
quickly been
been suppressed
suppressedin Bibles. the case
Bibles. In the caseof those gene-
those gene-
alogies
alogies that have
have been
been presel'ved,
preserved, modern
modern commentators books in-
commentators of books
tended
tended for mass
mass publication
publication fail to draw the readers' attention
the readers' the
attention to the
errors they
they contain.
contain.
216
216 THE
THE BIBLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QURAN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

knowledge of
knowledge of the
the history
history of
of this period, it
this period, it would
would bebe absurd
absurd to to
maintain that
maintain that the
the Flood
Flood had
had destroyed
destroyed all civilization at
all civilization at this
this
time.
time.
Thus it
Thus it may
may be be affirmed
affirmed from
from aa historical
historical point
point of
of view
view that
that
the narration
the narration of of the
the Flood
Flood asas it
it is presented
is presented in in the
the Bible
Bible is
is in
in
evident contradiction
evident contradiction withwith modern
modern knowledge.
knowledge. The The formal
formal proof
proof
of man's
of man's manipulation
manipulation of of the
the Scriptures
Scriptures isis the
the existence
existence of
of the
the
two texts.
two texts.

The NafTation
The Nanation of
of the
the Flood Contained in
FloodContaineil in the
tlle Qu,'an.
Qur'an,
The Qur'an givesgives aa general
general version
version which is different from that
contained in the Bible and
contained and does
does not give rise to any criticisms
from aa historical point of view.
view.
It does
It does not provide aa continuous
continuous narration
narration of the Flood.
Flood. Nu-
merous suras
merous suras talk of the punishment inflicted upon upon Noah's
Noah's
people.The most
people. most complete
complete account
account of this is in surasura 11,
11, verses
verses
25 to 49.
25 49. Sura 71,71, which bears
bears Noah's
Noah's name,
name, describes
describesabove
above all
Noah's preachings,as
Noah's preachings, as do
do verses
verses105
105 to 115,
115, sura 26.
86. Before going
actual course
into the actual course taken by events,
events, we must consider
eonsider the
Flood as
Flood as described
described in the Qur'an by relating it it to the general
general
context of the punishment
context punishment God God inflicted on communities guilty
communities suilty
of gravely
of gravely infringing
infringing His Commandments.
Commandments.
Whereas
Whereas the Bible describes
describes a universal
universal Flood intended
intended to pun-
ish ungodly humanity
humanity as as a whole,
whole, the eur'an,
Qur'an, in contrast,
contrast, men-
several punishments
tions several punishments inflicted on certain specifically
specifically de-
de-
fined
fined communities.
communities.
This may be seen in verses
be seen verses 35 to 3g,
39, sura ZE:
25:
"We gave
"we gave Moses
Moses the scripture
Scripture and appointed
appointed his brother
Aaron
Aaron with
with himhim as vizier. we We said: Go to the people
people who have
denied Our signs.
denied our signs. weWe destroyed
destroyed them completely.
completely. whenWhen the
people
people ofof Noah
Noah denied
denied the
the Messengers,
Messengers, we We drowned them them and
We made
we made ofof them
them a sign for mankind. (We destroyed
for mankind. destroyed thethe tribes)
tribes)
of h'd
of Ad and
and Tamfrd,
!amud, the the companions
companions of of Rass
Rass and
and many
many generations
generations
between
between them.
them. We We warned
warned each
each of
of them
them by examples and
by examples and We
We
annihilated
annihilated them
them completely."
completely."
Sura 7, verses
Sura 7, verses 59 59 to
to 93
93 contains
contains aa reminder
reminder ofof the
the punishments
punishments
brought upon
brought Noah's people,
upon Noah's people, the ~d, the
the hd, the famrid,
Tamiid, LotLot (Sodom)
(Sodom)
and Madi6n
and Madian respectively.
respectively.
TheFlood
TrvFld 2L7
217

Thus the
Thus the Qur'an
Qur'an presents the the cataclysm
cataclysm of of the Flood as a pun-
the Flood pun-
ishment specifically intended for for Noah's people: this is the first
people: this first
basic difrerence
difference between the the two
two narrations.
narrations.
The second
The second fundamental
fundamental difrerence
difference is is that Qur'an, in
that the Qur'an, in con-
trast
trast to the Bible, does not
does not date the Flood in
in time
time and gives no
indication
indication as to the duration of the cataclysm
to the duration of the cataclysm itself.
itself.
The causes
causes of of the flooding are roughly
roughly the same same in both n&rra-
in both narra-
Sacerdotal description in
tions. The Sacerdotal (Genesis
in the Bible (Genesis 7, 11)
two causes
cites two causes which
which occurred simultaneously: "On that day
"On that
all the fountains of of the great decp
deep burst
burst forth,
forth, and the windows
of the heavens
of heavens were opened."
opened." The Qur'an records records the following
following
in verses
verses 11 11 and 12,
12, sura 54:
"We
"We opened
opened the Gates
Gates of Heaven
Heaven with with pouring
pouring water. And And We
caused
caused the ground to gush forth
forth springs, so so the waters met ac- ac-
cording
eording to the decree which has be€n
decree which been ordained."
The Qur'an
Qur'an is veryvery precise
precise about the contents
contents of the Ark.'The
Ark.. The
order GodGod gave
gave to Noah was faithfully
faithfully executed
executed and it it was to do do
the following:
following:
-sura 11,
-sura 11, verse
verse 40:
40:
"(In
"(fn the Ark)Ark) load pair of every
Ioad a pair every kind, thy family, save save this
one
one against whom the word has has already gone gone forth, and those those
believe. But
who believe. But only a few had believedbelieved with
with him."
him."
The person
person excluded
excluded from
from the family
family is an outcast
outcast sonson of Noah.
Noah.
We learn (sura 11, verses
11, verses 4545 and 46)
46) how Noah's supplications
Noah's supplications
on this person's
person's behalf to God God were unableunable to make Him Him alter
decision.Apart
His decision. Noah's family (minus the outcast
Apart from Noah's outcast son),
son),
the Qur'an
Qur'an refers to the few other passengers passengerson on board the Ark Ark
who
who had
had believed
believed in God.
God.
The
The Bible
Bible does
doesnot mention
mention the the latter among
among the the occupants
oceupantsof
the Ark. provides us
Ark. In fact, it provides us with
with three different versionsversions of
the
the Ark's contents:
contents:
-according to the
-according the Yahvist version,
version, aa distinction
distinction is made made be-be-
tween 'pure'
'pure' animals and birds,
animals and birds, and and 'impure'
'impure' animals
animals (sevenl
(seven t
tween
pairs, 'pure' species,
pairs, Le.
i.e. seven
sevenmales
males and
and seven
sevenfemales,
females, of each each 'pure' species,
'impure'
was
was taken
taken into the the Ark
Ark andand only one one pair of each each 'impure'
species)
species). .
'seven'here 'many', as doesin lan-
Semitic lan-
the Semitic
l. Surely
1. Surely 'seven' here indicates
indicates'many', as it
it often
often does in the
guages
guagesofof the
the time.
time.
 gl8
218 THE
THE BmLE,
BIBI.E, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUHAN AND
AND SCffiNCE
SCIENCE

-according to
-according to aa modified
modified Yahvist
Yahvist verseverse (Genesis
(Genesis7, T,8)
8) there
there was was
only
only one pair of
onepair of each
eachspecies,
species,whether 'pure' or
whether 'pure' 'impure'.
or 'impure'.
-aceording to
-according to the
the Sacerdotal
Saeerdotalversion,
version, there
there was was Noah,
Noah, hishis family
family
(with no
(with no exceptions)
exceptions) and and aa pair
pair taken
taken fromfrom eacheachspecies.
species.
The
The narration
narration in in the
the Qur'an
Qur'an of of the
the flooding
flooding itselfitself isis contained
contained
in
in sura
sura 11, 11, verses
verses25 25 to 49 and
to 49 and in in sura
sura 23, 23, verses
verses 23 to
zB to 30.80. The
The
Biblical narrative
Biblical narrative does doesnotnot present
present any any important
important differences.
differences.
In the
In the Bible,
Bible, the place where
the place where the the Ark
Ark comescomesto to rest
rest isis inin the
the
Ararat Mountains
Ararat Mountains (Genesis (Genesis 8, 4) and
8, 4) for the
and for the eur'an Qur'an it is the
Judt (sura 11,
Jfrdt (sura 11,verse
verse44.) 44.) This
This mountain
mountain is is said
said to to be
be the
the highest
highest
of the
of the Ararat
Ararat range
range in in Armenia,
Armenia, but nothing proves proves that the
names were
names were not
not changed
changed by man to tally tally with
with the two narratives.
namatives.
This is
This is confirmed
confirmed by R. R. Blachere:
BlaehBre: according
according to him there is aa
peak in
peak in Arabia
Arabia namednamed JUdl.Judi. The'
The' agreement
agreement of names names may well
be artificial.
be artificial.
rn conclusion,
In conelusion, it possible to state categorically what major
it is possible major
differences exist here
differences here between
between the Biblical
Biblieal and Qur'anic eur'anic narra-
narra-
tions. SomeSome of them escape escape critical
eritical examination because because objec-
tive data are lacking. When, When, however, it
however, it is possible
possible to checkcheck the the
statements in the Scriptures
statements scriptures in the light risht of of the established
established data, data,
incompatibility between
the incompatibility between the BiblicalBiblical narration-i.e.
narration-Leo the the in-in-
formation given on its place
formation place in in time
time and geoEraphical
geographical extent- extent-
and the discoveries
discoveries that that have contributed
contributed to modern knowledge
is all too clear. In In contrast to this, the narrationnarration contained in in the
Qur'an is free from from anything
anything whichwhich might
might give rise to objective
criticism.
criticism. one One might
might ask ifif itit is possible
possible that,
that, between the time time
of the Biblieal narration
Biblical narration and contained in
the one contained in the eur'an,
Qur'an,
man could have acquired knowled knowledge ge that
that shed light light on on this
this event.
event.
The answer is no, because because fromfrom thethe time
time of of the
the old
Old Testament
Testament to to
the Qur'an, the only document document man man possessed
possessed on on this
this ancient
ancient
story
story was the the Bible
Bible itself.
itself. IfIf human
human factors
factors are are unable
unable to to account
account
for the changes
for the changes in in the
the narrations
narrations which which affeeted
affected their
their meaning
meaning
with regard
with regard to to modern
modern knowledge,
knowledge, another
another explanation
explanation has has to to bebe
accepted, i.e.
accepted, i.e. aa Revelation
Revelation which which camecame afterafter thethe oneone contained
contained
in the Bible.
in the Bi hIe.
 ilIII
ThE Exodus
The Exodus
With the Exodus from
With from Egypt
Egypt of Moses and his followers, (the
of Moses (the
first
first stage of
of their
their move to
to Canaan), we come
come to an event of
of
great importance. It
great It is an established
established historical which ap-
historical event which
pears in in a known
known context, in in spite of occasional allegations one
of occasional one
finds which tend to attribute largely legendary character.
attribute to itit a largely
In the OId
In Testament, the Exodus forms the second
Old Testament, second book of of
the Pentateuch
Pentateuch or Torah, along with with a narration
narration ofof the journey
journey
wilderness and the alliance
through the wilderness alliance (covenant)
(covenant) concluded
concluded
with
with GodGod on Mount Sinai.Sinai. It It is natural for the Qur'an to devote devote a
great deal of space
deal space to it
it too: an account
account of the dealings
dealings Moses
Moses and
his brother Aaron had had withwith the Pharaoh
Pharaoh and and of the exit from
Egypt
Egypt is found in more more than ten suras suras containing long descrip- descrip-
tions, e.g. suras,
tions, e.g. suras, 7,
?, 10,
10, 20
20 and
and 26,
26, along
along with more
more abridged
abridged
versions
versions and and even
even simple
simple reminders.
reminders. The name Pharaoh, the
name of Pharaoh,
main character
character on on the
the Egyptian
Esyptian SIde,side, is repeated
repeated (to the best of
the best
my knowledge)
knowledge) seventy-four
seventy-four times times in the the Qur'an in 27 27 suras.
suras.
A study of both both the
the Qur'anic
Qur'anic and and Biblical narrations is espe-
is espe-
cially interesting
interesting herehere because,
because, in contrast to what has been
has been
noted
noted in the the case
case of thethe Flood
Flood (for example),
example), in the main, the
the main, the
two
two narrations
narrations have
have many
many points
points inin common.
common.There There are certainly
are certainly
divergences, but
divergences, but the
the Biblical
Bihlical naration
naration has has considerable histori-
considerable histori-
cal
cal value,
value, asas wewe shall
shall see.
see. This
This isis because
becauseit it helps
helps to to identify
identify
the
the Pharaoh,
Pharaoh, or or rather
rather the the two
two pharaohs
pharaohs in question. This
in question. hypo-
This hypo-
thesis,
thesis, which
which starts
starts with
with the
the Bible,
Bible, is
is complemented
complemented by
by the
the in-
in-
formation
formation contained
contained in
in the
the Qur'an.
Qur'an. Modern
Modern data
data are
are added
added to
to
these
thesetwotu'o Scriptural
Scriptural sources
sourcesand and itit is
is thus
thus possible. through aa
possible,through
confrontation
confrontation between
between the the Bible,
Bible, the
the Qur'an
Qur'an andand today's knowl-
today's knowl-
edge,
edge, to
to situate
situate this
this episode
episode from
from the
the Holy
Holy Scriptures
Scriptures in
in his-
aa his-
torical
torical context.
context.
gt9
219
220 THE
THE BIBLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUR'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

THE EXODUS
THE EXODUSACCORDING
ACCORDItrGTO
TO THE
THE BIBLE
BIBLE
The Biblical
The Biblical narration
narration begins begins with
with aa reminder
reminder of of the
the Jews'
Jews'
entry into Egypt
entry into Egypt withwith Jacob,
Jacob,who joined Joseph
who joined Josephthere.
there. Later
Later on,
on,
accordingto
according to Exodus
Exodus1,l, 8: 8:
"Now there arose
"Now there arose aa new new king king over
over Egypt,
Egypt, who who did
did not
not know
know
Joseph."
Joseph."
The period of
The period of oppression
oppression followed;
followed; the pharaoh ordered
the Pharaoh ordered the the
Jews to
Jews to build
build thethe cities
cities of of Pithom
Pithom and and Ramesses
Ramesses(to (to use
use the
the
names given to
namesgiven to them
them in in the
the Bible) (Exodus I,I, 11).
Bible) (Exodus L1). To
To avoid
avoid aa
population explosion
population explosionamong among the the Hebrews, pharaoh ordered
Hebrews, Pharaoh ordered eacheach
new-born son
new-born to be
son to be thrown
thrown into into the
the river.
river. Moses
Moseswas was nevertheless
nevertheless
preserved by
preserved by his
his mother
mother for for the
the first
first three
three months
months of of his
his life
life
before she
before she finally
finally decided
decided to put him in in aa rush basket
basket on on the
edge. The
river's edge. The Pharaoh's
Pharaoh's daughterdaughter discovered
discovered him,him, rescued
rescued
him and gave him to aa nurse,
and gave nurse, nonenone other
other than his own own mother.
mother.
was because
This was becauseMoses's
Moses'ssister sister had
had watched
watched to see see who would
would
baby, had
find the baby, pretended not to recognize
had pretended recognize him and then
recommendedto the Princess
recommended Frineess aa nursenurse who was was really the child's
child's
mother. He was was treated as as one pharaoh's sons
one of the Pharaoh's sons and given
the name
the name'Moses'.
'Moses'.
As a young
young man,
man, Moses
Moses left left for
for a country ealled
called Midian where
he
he married and lived forfor a long time. We read read an important
important de- de-
tail in Exodus
Exodus 2,23:.
2, 23:
HIn the course
"rn course of of those
those many days days the king
king of of Egypt
Egypt died."
God ordered Moses
God Moses to go and find the pharaoh Pharaoh and lead his
brothers out of Egypt (the description of
of Esypt of this
this order is is given
in
in the episode
episode of of the Burning
Burning Bush).Bush). Aaron, Moses's Moses's brother,
helped
helped him
him inin this
this task.
task. This
This is is why
why Moses,
Moses, once
once he
he had
had returned
returned
to
to Egypt,
Egypt, went
went withwith his his brother
brother to to visit the pharaoh
visit the Pharaoh who who was
was
the
the suceessor
successor of of thethe king
king underunder whose
whose reign
reign he he had
had long
long ago
ago
been
been born.
born.
The
The Pharaoh
Pharaoh refused
refused to to allow
allow the
the Jews
Jews in in Moses's
Moses's group
group to to
leave
leave Egypt.
Egypt. GodGod revealed
revealed Himself
Himself to to Moses
Moses onceonce again
again andand or-
or-
dered
dered him
him toto repeat
repeat his his request
request to to pharaoh.
Pharaoh. According
According to to the
the
Bible,
Bible, Moses
Moses was eighty years
was eighty years old old at
at this
this time.
time. Through
Through magic,
magic,
Moses
Moses showed
showed the the Pharaoh
Pharaoh that that he
he had
had supernatural
supernatural powers.
powers.
This
This was
was not
not enough
enough however.
however. God God sent
sent thethe famous
famous plagues
plagues
down
down upon
upon Egypt.
Egypt. The The rivers
rivers were
were changed
changed into into blood,
blood, there
there
The Ero&n
Tlw Exodus 22t
221

were invasions
were invasions of frogs, gnats
of frogs, gnats and swarms of
and swarms of flies, the cattle
flies, the cattle
died,
died, boils
boils appeared
appeared on
on men
men and
and animals,
animals, there
there was
was hail
hail and
and
plagues of
plagues of locusts,
locusts, darkness
darkness and and the death of
the death the first-born.
of the first-born.
Nevertheless, the
Nevertheless, the Pharaoh
Pharaoh still still did not allow
did not allow the Hebrews to
the Hebrews to
leave.
leave.
They therefore
They therefore brokebroke outout of of the
the city
city of
of Rameses, 600,000 of
Rameses, 600,000 of
them!
them' "besides
"besides women
women and children"
children" (Exodus 12, 3?).
37). At
At this
this
point Pharaoh "made ready his chariot and took his army army ryith with
him, and took six charioteers and all the other
six hundred picked charioteers ~ther
chariots of of Egypt
Egypt with officers over all of
with officers of them .. . . Pharaoh,
Pharaoh,
king
king of
of Egypt,
Egypt, pursued
pursued the people
people of
of Israel as
as they went forth
forth
defiantly."
defianfly.,' (Exodus 14,
14, 6 and 8).
8) . The Egyptians caught up with
with
Moses's
Moses's party
party beside
beside the sea.
sea. Moses
Moses raised his staff, the sea
sea
before him
parted before him and his followers
followers walked across itit without
walked across without
wetting their
wetting their feet. "The Egyptians pursued and rvent
"The Egyptians went in in after
after
them into the midst of the sea, sea, all Pharaoh's horses, his chariots,
Pharaoh's horses, chariots,
horsemen." (Exodus
and his horsemen." (Exodus 14, 23) "The waters returned and
14, 28) and
covered
covered the chariots
chariots and
and the horsemen
horsemen and
and all the host of Pha-
Pha-
raoh that had followed
followed them into the sea; sea; not so much as
so much one of
as one
them remained.
remained. But people of Israel walked on dry ground
But the people
through the sea, sea, the waters
waters being
being aa wall to them them on on their rightright
hand
hand andand on (Exodus 14,
on their left." (Exodus 28'29').
L4, 28-29).
The
The text of Exodus quite clear: Pharaoh
Exodus is quite Pharaoh was was at the head
the head
of the
the pursuers.
pursuers. He perished
perished because
becausethe Exodus notes
the text of Exodus notes
that "not so so much
much as as one
one of them remained." The
them remained." The Bible repeats
Bible repeats
this detail
detail moreover
moreover in the the Psalms:
Psalms: Psalm Psalm 106,106, verse
verse 11 11 andand
Psalm
Psalm 136186 verses
verses13 13 and
and 1515 which
which are are an
an act thanks to
act of thanks to God
God
"Who
"Who divided
divided the the sea
sea of Rushes
Rushes' 2
in sunder
sunder ...
. . . and
and made Israel
made Israel
pass
passthrough
through the the midst
midst of of it
it ...
. . . but
but overthrew Pharaoh and
overthrew Pharaoh and his his
host
host in
in the
the sea
seaof of Rushes."
Rushes." ThereThere can can bebe no
no doubt therefore, that
doubt therefore, that
according
aecording to to the
the Bible,
Bible, the
the Pharaoh
Pharaoh of of the
the Exodus perished in
Exodus perished in
the
the sea.
sea.TheThe Bible
Bible does
doesnotnot record
record whatwhat became
becameof of his
his body.
body.

THE EXODUS
THE EXODUS ACGORDING
ACqORDING TO TO THETHE QUR'AN
QUIfAN
In
In its
its broad
broad outlines,
outlines, the
the narration
narration of
of the
the Exodus in
contained in
Exodus contained
the
the Qur'an
Qur'an is
is similar
similar to
to that
that of
of the
the Bil1fe.
Bibfe. It
It has
has to
to be
be reconsti-
reconsti-
1 . We
1. \Meshall
shall later
later see
seethat
that the
the figure
figure has
has been grossly exaggerated.
been grossly exaggerated.
2.2. In
In Hebrew 'yam souf'.
Hebrew'yam souf'.
 222
222 TI{EBIBLE,
THE BIBLE,THE
THEQUR'AN
QUR'ANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

tuted, however, because

tuted, however, becauseitit isis mademade up up ofof passages
passagesdispersed
dispersed
throughout the
throughout theBook.
Book.
The Qur'an
The Qur'an doesdoesnot provide aa name
not provide namewhichwhich enables
enablesus usto to iden-
iden-
tify who
tify who thethe reigning
reigning Pharaoh
Pharaoh was was at at the
the time
time of of Exodus,
Exodus, any any
more than
more than the
the Bible does.An
Bible does. AII that
that isis known
known isis that that one
one of of his
his
counsellorswas
counsellors was called
calledHaman.
Hd,md,n.He He isis referred
referred to to six
six times
times in in the
the
Qur'an
Qur'an (sura (sura 28,28, verses
verses6,6, 88 and
and 38,38, sura
sura 29,
zg, verse
verse39 Bgandand sura
sura
40,verses
40, verses24 24and
and36).36).
The Pharaoh
The Pharaoh is is the
the Jews'
Jews' oppressor:
oppressor:
-sura 14, verse
-sura 14, verse 6 : 6:
"when Moses
"When Mosessaid said to to his people:Remember
his people: Rememberthe the favor
favor of of God
God
to you when
to you when He He delivered
delivered you you from pharaoh's folk
from Pharaoh's folk who
who imposed
imposed
upon you
upon you aa dreadful
dreadful torment,
torment, slaughtered
slaughteredyour your sonssons and
and spared
spared
your women."
your women.t'
The oppression
The oppression is is recalled
recalled in the the same
same terms
terms in verse verse 141,141,
sura 7.
sura 7. The The Qur'an does does not however
however mention the the names
names of the
cities built by the
cities the Jews
Jews in subjection,
subjection, as as does
doesthe Bible.Bible.
The episode
The episodewherewhere Moses
Mosesis left by the riverside is recorded recorded in in
sura 20 20 verses
verses 39-40
39-40 and sura 28, zg, verses
verses 7 ? to 13.
18. In the version
version
contained in the Qur'an,
contained Qur'an, Moses
Moses is taken in by Pharaoh's pharaoh's family.
family.
We find verses 8g and g,
find this in verses 9, sura 2g:28:
"The family
family of Pharaoh
Pharaoh took him up. up. (It was intended)
(It was intended) that that
(Moses)
(Moses) should should be be to them an adversary
adversary and a cause cause of of sorrow.
sorrow.
Pharaoh,
Pharaoh, H6mdn Haman and their their hosts sinners. pharaoh's
hosts were sinners. Pharaoh's wife wife
said: (He
said: (He will be) a joy
will be) joy to the eye eye for
for me and you. you. Don't
Don't killkill
him.
him. He may be of of use
use toto us or
or \ile
we may
may take him him as a son. son. They
They
did
did not sense (what
not sense (what was was to to come)."
Muslim
Muslim tradition
tradition has has itit that was pharaoh's
that itit was Pharaoh's wife wife Asiya
Asiya who who
took
took carecare ofof Moses.
Moses. In In the
the eur'an,
Qur'an, itit was
was not the pharaoh's
not the Pharaoh's wife wife
who
who found
found him,
him, butbut members
members of of his
his household.
household.
Moses's youth,
Moses's youth, his his stay
stay inin Midian
Midian and and marriage
marriage are are described
described
in
in sura
sura 28,
28, verses
verses 1313 toto ZB.
28.
In particular,
In particular, the the episode
episode of of the
the Burning
Burning Bush Bush is is foirnd
found in in
the first part
the flrst part of
of sura
sura 20,20, and
and inin sura
sura zg,28, verses
verses B0 30 to
to Bb.
35.
'The
Qur'an does
"'The Qur'an does notnot describe
describe thethe ten
ten plagues
plagues sent sent down
down upon upon
Esypt
Egypt as as aa divine chastisement (unlike
divine chastisement (unlike the the long
long description
description in in
the
the Bible),
Bible), butbut simply
simply mentions
mentions fivefive plagues
plagues very very briefly
briefly (sura
(sura
7,
7, verse
verse 133)
133) :: flooding,
flooding, Iocusts,
locusts, Iice,
lice, frogs,
frogs, and
and blood.
blood.
Tlp Exodur 2|23
223

The
The flight from Egypt Esypt is described
deseribedin the the Qur'an,
Qur'an, but without
any
any of the geographicaldata
the geographical given in the
data given the Bible, incred-
Bible, nor the incred-
ible numbers of people
ible numbers peoplementioned
mentionedin the the latter. ItIt is difficult to
imagine
imagine how 600,000men
how 600,000 plus their families
men plus families could have stayed
could have stayed
desert for aa long
the desert
in the long time,
time, as as the Bible would
the Bible have us
rrrrculdhave us believe.
believe.
This is how how the death of Pharaoh
the death pursuing the
Pharaoh pursuing Hebrews is
the Hebrews
descriH:
described:
--sura 20,
--sura verse78
20, verse 78::
"Pharaoh
"Pharaoh pursuedpursued them them with hosts and
with his hosts and thethe seasea covered
covered
them."
them.tt
The Jews escaped.
escaped.Pharaoh perished, perished, but his body was found:
aI very
very important
important detail not mentioned in the Biblical Biblical narration.
narration.
-sura 10,
-sura 10, verses 90 to 92.
verses 90 92. God
God is speaking:
"We took the Children
"We Children of of Israel
Israel across
across the sea.
sea. Pharaoh with with
his hosts pursued them in rebellion rebellion and hostility
hostility till,
till, when the
fact of his drowning
drowning overtook him, he said: I believe believe there is no
God except the God
God God in whom the Children Children of Israel
Israel believe.
believe. I am
of
of those
those who submitsubmit themselves
themselves to Him. Him.
"God said: 'What? Now! Thou has
said:'What? has rebelled
rebelledandand caused
causeddeprav-
deprav-
ity:
ity: This
This day We save save thee
thee inin thy
thy body soso that
that thou mayest be be a
sign for for those who come corne after
after thee.' But But verily,
verily, many among
mankind
mankind are heedlessheedlessof Our signs." sigtrs."
This passage
This passage requires two two points to be be explained:
explained:
a) The spiritspirit of rebellion and hostility
hostility referred to is to be be under-
stood in
stood in terms
tems of Moses's
Moses's attempt persuade the Pharaoh.
attempt to persuade
b) The rescuereseue of the Pharaoh refers refers to his corpse
iorpse because
beeause it it is
stated quite clearly in verse
stated verse 98, 98, sura 11,
11, that
that Pharaoh and his
followers have have been condemned to damnation:
been condemned
-sura 11,
--sura 11, verse
verse 98
98
"Pharaoh
"Phsraoh will will go before his people people on the Day of Resurrection
Resurrection
and will
will lead them to the fire." fire."
For
For those
those facts which can be be checked
ehecked with
with historical, geo-
historical, geo-
graphical and archaeological
graphical archaeslogical data therefore,
therefore, it it should be noted
that
that the Qur'anic
Qur'*nic and Biblical
Biblical narrations
narrations differ
difrer on the following
following
points:
points:
-the absence
-the absence in the Qur'an of place place names,
names, both of the cities
built
built by the Hebrews in Moses's
Moses's group, and on the route taken
by the Exodus.
Exodns.
224
224 THE BIBLE,
THE BIBT.E,THE
THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
QURANAND SCIENCE

.-the absence
-the absenceof of any
any reference
reference toto the
the death
death of
of aa Pharaoh
Pharaoh during
during
Moses'sstay
Moses's in Midian.
stay in Midian.
-the absence
-the absencein in the
the Qur'an
Qur'an ofof details
details concerning
concerning Moses's
Moses's age
age
when
when hehe addressed
addressedhis his request
request to the Pharaoh.
to the Pharaoh.
-the absence
-the absencein in the
the Qur'an
Qur'an of
of the
the numbering
numbering of of Moses's
Moges'sfollow-
follow-
ers. These figures
ers. These figures are
a,reopenly
openly exaggerated
exaggerated in in the
the Bible
Bible to
to incred-
inered-
ible proportions (said (said to have
have been
been 600,000
600,000 men
men plus
plus their
their
families forming
families forming aa community of of more
more than two million
million in-
habitants.)
-the absence
-the abseneeof any mention in the Bible of the rescue rescue of the
Pharaoh's body after
Pharaoh's body after his death.
death.
purposes, the points to be
For our present purposes, be noted because
because they
shared by both narrations are as
are shared as follows:
-the confirmation contained
-the pharaoh's oppres-
contained in the Qur'an of Pharaoh's oppres-
sion of the Jews in Moses's
Moses's group.
-the absence
-the absencefrom both narrations
narrations of any mention of the King King
name.
of Egypt's name.
*the confirmation
-the eonfirmation contained
contained in the Qur'an pharaoh's
Qur'an of the Pharaoh's
death during the Exodus.
death during Exodus.

COIVFNONTATION BETWEEN
CONFRONTATION BETWEEN SCRIPTURAL
SCNIPTANAL DATA
DATA
AND MODERN
AIVD KNOWLEDGE
MODNNN KNOWLED{GE
The narrations
narrations contained
contained inin the Bible and the eur'an
Qur'an on the
time
time spent by the sons
sons of
of rsrael
Israel in
in Egypt,
Egypt, and the way
way they
they left,
left,
give rise to data whieh
which may constitute matter
matter for
for a confrontation
confrontation
udth
with modern knowledge. In In faet,
fact, the balance is very
very uneven be-
cause some data pose
cause some pose many problems while others hardlyhardly pro-
vide subject for
for discussion.
discussion.

l,1. Examination of Cefinin

Exnmhcr,tion of Cerlain Details
Details Contained,
Contained in
in tlw
the Nan'atWna
Nanatiom
The Hebreut
Tlw Hebrews in
in Egypt
Eggpt
apparently, quite
It is, apparently,
It quite possible to say (and without
possible to without running
running
much risk
mueh risk of
of being wrong)
wrong) thatthat the Hebrews remained in in Egypt
Egypt
for 400 or
for or 430 years,
years, according
according to to the
the Bible
Bible (Genesis
(Genesis lb,
15, 18
13 and
and
Exodus
Exodus L2,40).
12, 40). In
In spite
spite of
of this
this discrepancy
discrepancy between
between Genesis
Genesis and
and
Exodus,
Exodus, which
which is
is of
of minor
minor importance,
importance, the
the period
period may
may be
be said to
said to
 Exodrrp
Tlw ExodUl
The 225
225

have
heve begun
begun long after
after Abraham, when
when Joseph,
Joseph, son
son of Jacob,
Jacob,
moved with
moved with his brothers to Egypt. With With the exception
exception of the
gives the data
Bible, which gives just quoted,
data just quoted, and
and the Qur'an which
refers to the move
move to Egypt, but does as
does not give any indication as
to the dates involved,
the dates involved, we we do possess any other document
do not possess document
able to illuminate
which is able illuminate us on this point.
us on
Present*day commentators,
Present-day commentators, ranging from P. P. Montet to Daniel-
Rops,think that, in all probability, the
Rops, the arrival of Joseph
Josephand
and his
brothers coincided
coincided with
with the movement
movement of the Hyksos
Hyksos towards
Egypt
Egypt in the Seventeenth
Seventeenf,hcentury B.C.B.C. and that aa Hyksos
Hyksos sov-
sov-
ereign probably received
ereign probably received them
them hospitably
hospitably at Avaris in the Nile
Delta.
Delta.
There can be guess is in obvious
be no doubt that this guess obvious contradic-
containedin the
tion to what is contained the Bible
Bible (Kings I, 6,6, 1) which puts
which puts
Exodus from Egypt
the Exodus Eeypt at 480 years before
480 years before the construction
construction of
Solomon'sTemple
Solomon's Temple (circa 971
971 B.C.).
B.C.) . This estimation
estimation would
would there-
there-
fore put the
fore roughly 1450
Exodus at roughly
the Exodus 1450B.C.
B.C. and
and would
would consequently
consequently
situate the
situate the entry into Egypt at circa
circa 1880-1850 pre-
B.C. This is pre-
1880-1850B.C.
cisely the
cisely the time,
time, however,
however, that Abraham is supposed to
supposed havehave lived,
lived,
and other data
and data contained
containeCin the Bible tell us us that there
there were
were 250
250
years separating
years separating him from Joseph. passagefrom Kings I
Joseph. This passage
the Bible is therefore unacceptable
in the unacceptablefrom aa chronological
chronological point
view.'1 We
of view. shall see
We shall seehow the theory
theory put forward here here has
has only
this objection, taken from
from Kings I,f, to be
be levelled
levelled against it. The
obvious inaccuracy
very obvious inaccuracy of these
these chronological
chronological data
data effectively
effectively
deprives this objection
deprives objeetion of any value.
value.
Aside from the Holy Scriptures,
Scriptures, the traces
traees left
left by the Hebrews
Hebrews
Egypt are
of their stay in Egypt are very faint. There
There are however
however several
several
documentswhich refer to the existence
hieroglyphic documents existencein Egypt
Egypt of
a category
eategory of workers called 'Api,ru, Hapiru
called the 'Apiru, Hapiru or Habiru,
Habiru, who
have been
have been identified (rightly or wrongly) with the Hebrews.
identified (rightly Hebrews. In
category were
this eategory were construction
construction workers,
workers, agricultural
agricultural labourers,
labourers,
harvesters, etc. But
harvesters, etc. But where did they come
come from? ItIt is very diffieult
difficult
answer to this. Father de
to find an answer de Vaux has written the follo'*-
has written follow-
ing about
about them:

shall return
1. We shall return to this
this subject later, Father de
later, when we call upon Father
reference in Kings I.
Vaux's help in examining this referenee
228
226 THE
THE BmLE,
BTBLE,THE
THE QUR'AN
QURAN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

"They
"They are are not
not members
members of of the
the local
local population,
population, theythey do do not
not
identify
identify themselves
themselveswith with aa class
class inin society,
society, they
they dodo not
not all
all share
share
the
the same
sameoccupation
occupationor or status."
status."
Under Tuthmosis III,
Under Tuthmosis III, they
they areare referred
referred to to in
in aa papyrus as &s
'workers in
'workers in the
the stables'. It is
stables'.It is known how Amenophis II, in the Fif-
known how Amenophis Fif-
teenth century
teenth century B.C.,8.c., brought
brought in in 3,600
3,600of of these
these people
peopleas as prisoners
from
from Canaan,
Canaan, because,
because,as as Father de de Vaux notes,
notes, they consti-
consti-
tuted aa considerable
tuted percentage of the
considerable percentage the Syrio-Palestinian popu- popu-
lation. Under
lation. Under SethosSethos I, f, inin circa
circa 1300
1300 B.C.,
8.C., the 'Api.rz created
the 'Apiru created
considerabledisturbances
considerable disturbances in the the Beth-Shean
Beth-Shean regionregion of Canaan,
Canaan,
and under
and under Rarnesses
RamessesII II some
some of them them werewere employed
employed in the
quarries or for transporting piles
quarries piles used
used in the works of the
Pharaoh (e.g.
Pharaoh (e.g. the
the Great
Great PylonPylon of Ramesses
RamessesMiamon). We we know
from the
from the Bible that the the Hebrews,
Hebrews, under under Ramesses
RamessesII, II, were
were to
build thethe northern capital,
capital, the City city of Rarnesses.
Ramesses.In Egyptian
writings the
writings 'Api,ru are mentioned once again in the Twelfth
the 'Apiru a.re mentioned once Twelfth
century B.C. B.C. and
and for the last time under Ramesses RamessesIII. III.
'Apiru just mentioned
The 'Apiru are
are not just mentioned in Egypt Egypt however,
however, so so did
therefore apply solely
the term therefore solely to the Hebrews?
Hebrews? It It is perhaps
perhaps
wise to recall
wise recall that the word could could initially have been
initially have been used used to
'forced labourers',
signify 'forced labourers', without
without regard to their their origins, and
that itit subsequently
subsequently became became an adjectiveadjective indicating a person's person's
profession. We
profession. we might perhapsperhaps draw an analosy analogy with
with the word
'suisse' (Swiss)
'suisse' which hashas several meanings in
several different meanings in French.
French.
It can
It can mean
mean an inhabitant of of Switzerland,
Switzerland, a mercenary
mercenary soldier
of the old French monarchy monarchy who was of of Swiss
Swiss extraction, a
Vatican guard, or an employee employee of of a Christian church .. .. ..
However,
However, this may be, be, under Ramesses
Ramesses II, II, the Hebrews (ac-
cording to the Bible) or the 'Apiru 'Apiru (according the hieroglyphic
to
texts) took part part in the great works ordered ordered by the Pharaoh,
Pharaoh, which
indeed 'forced
were indeed 'forced labour'.
labour'. There can be no doubt that that Ramesses
Ramesses
II
II was
was the Jews' oppressor: the cities of
Jews' oppressor: of Rarnesses
Ramesses and Pithom,
mentioned
mentioned in in Exodus,
Exodus, are situated at eastern part
at the eastern part of of the
the Nile
Nile
Delta.
Delta. Today's
Today's Tanis and Qantir, which are roughly roughly lE 15 miles
miles
apart, are in in the same
same region as these these two
two cities.
cities. The
The northern
northern
capital constructed
constructed by Ramesses
Ramesses IIII was was situated there.
there. Ramesses
Ramesses
II
II is the Pharaoh of of the oppression.
oppression.
Moses was to be
Moses be born
born in this environment.
in this environment. The The circumstances
circumstances
pertaining
pertaining to to his rescue
rescue from from thethe waters
waters of the river
of the river have
have al-
al-
The
The Exodua
Emduc 227

ready been
been outlined above.
above. He has an Egyptian
Egyptian name: P. Montet
has clearly shown in his book Egypt
book EgApt and the
the Bible (L'Egypte et
Eible (L'Egypte
la Bible) that
Bible)' that
1 the names
names Mesw or Mesy are on the list
list of per-
sonal names
names in the dictionary
dietionary of the hieroglyphic
hieroglyphic language by
Ranke. MUsa
Ranke. MEBAis the transliteration
transliteration used
used in the Qur'an.

The Plagues
Plagns of
of Egypt
Eggpt
Under this title
title the Bible refers to ten punishments inflicted by
God,
God, and provides many details concerning each each of these
these
'plagues'. Many have supernatural dimensions
'plagues'. dimensions or characteristics.
The Qur'an only lists five plagues, which, for
five plagues, for the most part, are
merely an exaggeration of natural phenomena: flooding,
natural phenomena: flooding, locusts,
locusts,
lice, frogs
frogs and blood.
The rapid multiplication locusts and frogs is described
multiplication of locusts described in
the Bible. ItIt speaks
speaks of river
river water changed
changed to blood
blood which floods
floods
all the land (sic) ; the Qur'an refers to blood,
blood, but without giving
without giving
any complementary details. possible to invent all kinds of
It is possible
details. It
hypotheses
hypotheses on the subject of this reference
reference to blood.
blood.
plagues described
The other plagues described in the Bible (gnats, swarms of
flies,
flies, boils,
boils, hail, darkness,
darkness, death of the first-born and of cattle)
have various origins, as
have as was the casecase of the Flood, and are
constituted by the juxtaposition passagesfrom
juxtaposition of passages from many differ-
ent sources.
sourees.

The Route
Route Taken by the
TakenbV tlr.eExodus
Exodaa
No indication
indication of
of this is given in the Qur'an, whereas
whereas the Bible
refers to it
it in great detail. Father
Father de
de Vaux and P. Montet have
reopened studies into it. The starting-point
both reopened starting-point was probably
the Tanis-Qantir
Tanis-Qantir region, but but no traces have been
been found of the
rest of the route taken
taken which
which could confirm
confirm the Biblical
Biblical narra-
narra-
tion;
tion; nor is it possible to say at exactly what point the waters
it possible
passageof Moses
parted to allow the passage Moses and his followers.

The
Tlw Miraculous
lfibrculorn Parting
Partilng of the
tlw Water,
Wate;t
Some
Some commentators have imaginedimagined a tide-race,
tide-rsce, due
due perhaps to
astronomic
sstronomic causes
causes or seismic conditions connected distant
connected to the distant

1. Pub. Delachaux and NiestIe,

1. Niestl6, Neufchatel,
Neufchatel, 1959.
1959.
228
228 THE
THE BmLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUR'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

eruption
eruption of
of aa volcano.
volcano.The
The Hebrews
Hebrews could
could have
have taken
taken advantage
advantage
of
of the
the receding
receding sea,
sea,and
and the
the Egyptians,
Egyptians, following
following in pursuit,
in hot pursuit,
could
could have
have been
been wiped
wiped out
out by the
the returning tide.
tide. All this is pure
is pure
hypothesis however.
hypothesis however.

2.
2. The
Thc Point
Point Occupied by the Exodus
Occupiedhg Erodus in the History
History
of the Pharaohs
Plwraohs
It
It is possibleto arrive at much
is possible much more positive evidence
more positive evidencein thethe
case
case of the point the the Exodus
Exodus occupies
oceupiesin time.time.
For aa very long
long time Merneptah,
Merneptah, the sU( "'essor to Ramesses
su('essor RamessesII,
was held to be
was held be the
the Pharaoh
Pharaoh of the Exodus.
Exodus. Maspero, the famous
Maspero, famous
Egyptologist of the the beginning of this century did, did, after all,
all, write
write
in his Visitor's Guide
Guide to to the
the Cairo Museu,m (Guide
Cairo Museum (Guide dudu visiteur dudu
Mus6e du Caire), 1900,
Musee L900, that Merneptah
Merneptah "was probably,probably, accord-
accord-
ing to the
the Alexandrian tradition, the Pharaoh Pharaoh of the ExodusExodus who
who
is said
said to have perished in the Red
have perished Red Sea."
Sea." I have
have been
been unable
unable to
find the documents
documents on which Maspero Maspero basedbased this assertion,
assertion, but
eminence of this commentator requires us
the eminence us to attach the great-
est importance
est importanee to what he he claims.
claims.
Apart fro:n
Apart fro:n P. Montet, there are very few Egyptologists Egyptologists or
specialists in Biblical exegesis
specialists exegesis who have have researched
researched into the
arguments for
arguments for or against this hypothesis.
hypothesis. In the last few decades decades
however, there has been been a spate
spate of different
different hypotheses
hypotheses which
whieh
seem to have
seem have asas their
their sole purpose the justification
sole purpose justification of an agree-
agree-
ment with one single
with one single detail in the Scriptural narrations, although
the inventors of these these hypotheses
hypotheses do not bother with with the other
aspectsof the Scriptures.
aspects Scriptures. Thus it it is possible
possible forfor a hypothesis
hypothesis to
suddenly appear which which seems
seems to agree with with oneone aspect
aspect of
of a nar-
nar-
ration, although its inventor
inventor has not taken the trouble trouble to com-
pare itit with
with all the other data contained
contained in the Scriptures (and
consequently not just
consequently just with
with the Bible),
Bible), plus all the data provided
by history,
history, arehaeology,
archaeology, etc.
One of
One hypotheses yet to come
of the strangest hypotheses come to light
light is by J.
de Miceli (1960) who claims claims to have pinpointed the date of of the
Exodus to within
within oneone day, Le. the gth
day, i.e. 9th ofof April,
April, 14gb
1495 B.C. He
relies for his information
for his information entirely
entirely on calculations made from from
calendars and claims that that Tuthmosis IIII was reigning
reigning inin Egypt
Egypt atat
that time, and was therefore
that therefore the Pharaoh of of the Exodus. The
The E:rodflll
Tlp Ero&n 2l2g
229

confirmation of
confirmation supposed to reside in
of the hypothesis is supposed in the fact
fact
that lesions of
that of the skin observed on the mummy
skin are to be observed mummy of of
Tuthmosis II.
Tuthmosis II. This
This eommentator informs us (without
commentator informs (without explaining
explaining
why) that
why) that they
they are due to leprosy, and that that one of of the plagues
plagues
of Eeffpt
of Egypt described
described in in the Bible
Bible eonsisted
consisted in skin boils. This
in skin This
staggering construction
staggering construction takes no account of of the other facts con-
tained in especially the Bible's mention of
in the Biblical narration, especially of
City of
the City of Ramesses
Ramesses whichwhich rules out any hypothesis dating dating the
Exodus before a 'Ramesses'
'Ramesses' had reigned.
lesions of
As to the skin lesions of Tuthmosis II, II, these
these do do not swing
argument in
the argument in favour
favour ofof the theory
theory which designates this
which designates this King
King
Egypt as the Pharaoh of
of Egypt of the Exodus. This because his son,
This is beeause son,
Tuthmosis III,III, and his grandson Amenophis II II also
also show signs
of
of skin tumorsr,
tumors I, so that some
so that some commentators have suggested the
have suggested
hypothesis of a disease
of disease which ran in the family.
family. The Tuthmosis
II theory
II theory is not therefore tenable.
tenable.
The same
same is true
true forfor Daniel-Rops's
Daniel-Rops's theory in his book. book. The
The
Bible (Le Peuple
Peopleof the Bible
People Peuple de de la Bible)
Bible) 2:2: He ascribes
ascribes the role
of
of the Pharaoh of the Exodus to Amenophis II. It does
II. It does not seem
seem
to be
be any better-founded
better-founded than the preceding preceding hypothesis.
hypothesis. Using
the pretext that Amenophis
Amenophis II's II's father (Tuthmosis III) III) was very
nationalistic, Daniel-Rops
nationalistic, Daniel-Rops proclaims
proclaims Amenophis
Amenophis II II the persecutor
persecutor
of the Hebrews, while his step-mother,
step-mother, the famous Queen Queen Hat-
shepsut,
shepsut, is cast
east in the role of the person person who took Moses Moses in (al-
though we never discover
discover why)
why)..
Father
Father de de Vaux's theory, that that itit was
was Ramesses
Ramesses II, II, rests
rests on
slightly
sliehtly more solid
solid foundations.
foundations. He expandsexpands on on them in his book,book,
The
Th,e Ancient
Ansi.ent History
History of Israel (Histoire ancienne
Israel (Histoire ancienne d'Israel)3.
d'Isra€l)'.
Even
Even ifif his theory doesdoesnot agree
agree with the the Biblical
Biblieal narration on on
every point, at least it it has
has the advantage
advantage of putting
putting forward
forrvard oneone
very important piece piece of evidence:
evidence: the the construction
construction of the the cities
cities
of Ramesses
Ramessesand and Pithom built under under Ramesses
RamessesII II referred to in
the Biblical text. It possible therefore
It is not possible thelefore to maintain
maintain that
the Exodus
Exodus tooktook place before the accession
place be/m'e accessionof Ramesses
RamessesII. This
is situated
situated in thethe year 1301
1301 B.C.,
8.C., according
according to Drioton and and Van-

1.
1. The
The skin
skin lesions
lesions are
are clearly
clearly visible
visible on
on the
the mummies
mummies of
of these Pharaohs
these Pharaohs
preserved
preserved in
in the
the Egyptian
Egyptian Museum,
Museum, Cairo.
Cairo.
2.
2. Pub.
Pub. Desclee
Descldedede Brouwer,
Brouwer, 1970,
l9?0, Paris.
Paris.
3. Pub. J.
3. Pub. J. Gabalda
Gabaldaandand Co.,
Co.,1971,
1971,Paris.
Paris.
t:m mIE BULE.
TIlE DBLq THE
TIrE QUB'AN
QITRAT{ANDSCIENCE
AND SCIENCE

dier's chronology,
dier's ehrronology, and in
and in 1290
1290B.C. accordingto
B.c. according to Rowton's.
Rowton's.The Ttre
two other
two other hypotheses
hypothesesoutlined
outlined above are untenable because
above are untenable becsuseof of
the following
the following imperative
imperetive fact: fact: Ramesses
Ramess€sII II isis the pharaoh of
the Pharaoh of
the oppression
the oppresgionreferred
refercd to to inin the
the Bible.
Bible.
Father de
Father deVaux
Vaux considers
considersthe Exodusto
the Exodus to have
havetaken placedur-
taken place dur-
ing the
ing ffrEt half
the first half or or towards
towards the the middle
middle of of Ramesses
RamessesIrs II's reign.
reign.
Thus his
Thus his dating
drting of of this
this event
event is is imprecise:
imprecise: he he suggests
suggeststhis this
p€riod to
period to allow
allow Moses
l}Iosesandand hishis followers
followers time,time, as as it
it were,
were,to to settle
setfle
in Canaan,
in Cana^an, and Ramesses
and Ramesses rl's successor,
II's suceessor, Pharaoh
Phsraoh Memaptah
Mernaptehwho who
is said
is Bsidto have pacified the
hsve pacified the frontiers
frontiers afterafter hishis father's
father's death,
death, to
bring the the Children
Children of IsraelIsrael into line, line, asas depicted
depictedon on aa stele
stele of
the year of his
Fifth year
the Fifth his reign.
reign.
Two arguments
Two argumentsmay may be be levelled
levelledat st this theory:
a) The The Bible
Bible shows (Exodus
shows (Exodus 2, zgl that the
2, 23) the King of Egypt died died
during the period when
the period Moseswas
when Moses was in Midian.
Midian. This King of Egypt Egvpt
describedin the Book
is described Book of Exodus
Exodusas as the
the King who who made
madethe the He-
He-
brewg build the cities
brews cities of Ramesses
Ramesscsand and Pithom
Pithom by forced forced labour.
labour.
This King was was Ramesses
BamessesII. II. The
The Exodus
Exodus could could only
only have
have taken
taken
place under
place under the latter's
lstter's successor.
successor.Father de de Vaux claimsclaims how-how-
ever to doubt
ever doubt the Biblical sources sources of verse verse 23, zg, chapter
chapter 2 of
Exodue.
Exodus.
b) what
What is moremore astounding
astounding is that Father de de vaux,
Vaux, as as director
of the Biblical SchoolSchoolof Jerusalem,
Jerusalem, does does not refer in his theory
of
of the Exodug
Exodus to two essential essential passsges
passages in the Bible, Bible, both of
whidr
which bear bear witness
witness to the fact that the King King died died during the
pursuit
pursuit of of the fleeing
fleeing llebrews.
Hebrews. This detsit detail makes
makes itit impossible
impossible
for
for the Exodus
Exodus to have taken place
have taken place at any other time than at the
end
end of of ea reign.
rt
It must be repeated
repeated that that there csn can be little doubt that
be titile that the
Pheraoh
Pharaoh lost his life life as
as a result of of lt.
it. Chapters
Chapters lB 13 and 14 14 ofof
Exodus are quite specific
Exodus specific on this point: point: "so uSo he made made ready his
chariot and took his army with with him ...." . ." (Exodus
(Exodus 14,6).14,6). (pharaoh
(Pharaoh
king
king of of Egypt) upursued the
Egypt) "pursued the people
people of of Israel
Israel as as they
they went
went forth
forth
defiantly" (Exodus
defiantly" (Exodus 14,8)
14,8) .... uThe waters
. . "The waters returned
returned and and covered
covered
the
the chariots
chariots andand thethe horsemen
horsemen and and all
all the
the host
host of of Pharaoh
Pharaoh thst that
had
had followed
followed them
them into into thethe sea;sea; not
not so so much
much a,s as one
one of of them
them
remained." (Exodus
remained." (Exodus 14,28 14,28 snd 29). In
and 29). In addition
addition to to these
these verses,
verses,
Psslm
Psalm 188 136 confirms
confirms Pharaoh's
Pharaoh's death death and and refers
refers to Yahweh who
to Yahweh who
Tlntu ttl
131

"overthrew Pharaoh
"overthrew Pharaoh andand his host in
his host in the Sea of
the $ea Rushes" (Psslms
of Rusheg" (Psalms
136,15)
196,16). •
Thus, d,uring
Thue, during Moae{s lifetime, onn
Moses's l,ifetime, Phara,01f, died
one Plwro,oh when Moscs
died when Moses
in Midien
wds in
W4B Mid:ia,n dnd, during tlue
a.nother dntri,ng
a.nd anntlwr E~od'U8. There
the Erod'us. were not
There were not
one,
one, but
but two
two Pharaohs
Pharaohs at
at the
the time
time of
of Moses:
Moses: one
one during
during the
the
oppression
oppression and
and the
the other
other during
during the
the Exodus
Exodus from
from Egypt.
Egypt. The
The
theory of
ttreory Pharaoh (Ramesses
of ea single Pheraoh (Ramesses II) II) put forward by
put forward by Father
Father
de Vaux is unsstisfactory because itit does
unsatisfactory because account for
does not account for every-
every-
thing.
thing, The following
following observations
obsemations are further
further srguments
arguments against
his theory.

3. RatneseB",
3, Phaf'aoh of tthe
RatmesetllrPlrulraoh .e Oppreaion
Opptelrrfon
Memeptah, Phaf'tJOh of the
MeneptahrPlurrch tllmE*oihlr
Exodua
P. Montet has has very discerningly resumed the originel
discerningly resumed original Alexen-
Alexan-
drian t
tradition
drisnl tradition mentioned
mentioned by Maspero.
Mespero. It
It is found
found much
much later
in the Islamic traditiontradition as
ss well as
as in the clsssic
classic Christien
Christian tra-
dition.
dition.z 2
This theory
theory is set
set out in Montet's
Montet's book
book EgUpt
Egypt and,
and the
the
Bible
Bible (L'Egypte
(L'Egmte et Ie
le Bible)
Bible) !
a and
and is supported
supported by additional
additional
arguments,
arguments,based particulsr on
basedin particular on the containedin the
the narrative contained the
Qur'an, to
Qur'an, which thewhich the famous
famous archaeologist
archaeologist did not refer. Before
Before
examining
examining them them however,
however,we \ilI€shall
shall first return to the Bible.
the Bible.
The Book of Exodus contains a
a reference
reference to the
the word
word 'Rameg'
'Rames"
The Book Exodus contsins
ses'
ses'although
althoughthe the Pharaoh's
Pharaoh'gname nameis not mentioned.
is not mentioned.In the Bible
the Bible
'Bamesses'is
'Ramesses' the
is the namename of one
one of the
the cities
cities built
buB t by
by the
the foreed
forced
labour
labour of of the
the Hebrews.
lfebrews. Today
Todsy we we know
know that thesecities
that these form
cities form
part of the Tanis-Qantir region,
of the Tanis-Qantir region, in the in the eastern
eastern Nile
Nile Delta.
Delta. In
In the
the
area where Ramesses
area where RamessesII built his II built his northern
northern capital,
capital, there
there were
were
other
other constructions
constructionsprior prior to to his,
his, but
but it was Ramesses
it was RamessesII who
II who
made
madeit it into
into anan important
important site,site, as the archeological
as the excsvations
archeologicalexcavations
undertaken
undertakenin in thethe last
last few
few decades
decadeshave haveamply shown'To
amply shown. build
To build
it,
it, he
heused
usedthe
thelabour
lsbourof of the
theenslaved
enslaved Hebrews.
Hebrews.
1 . There
1. There can be no
can be no doubt
doubt that
that inin the
the Golden Age of
Golden Age the Ptolemies,
of the his-
Ptolemies, his-
torical
torical documents
documentson on Antiquity
Antiquity were preserved at
were preserved at Alexandria,
Alexandria, only to
only to
be
be destroyed
destroyed atat the
the time
time of
of the
the Roman conquest; aa loss
Roman conquest; loss which keenly
is keenly
which is
felt
felt today.
today.
2.2 . In
In the
the Holy
Holy Histories
Ilistories ofof the
the early
early 20th
20th century, as in
century' as in the Hiatory by
the History by
Abbe
Abbe H. H. Lesetre,
Lesetre,intended
intendedfor for religious
religious instruction, Exodus is
the Exodus
instruction, the men-
is men-
tioned
tioned asas having
havin8 taken
taken place
place during
during Merneptah's reign in
Merneptah's reign EgypL
in Egypt.
3.3. Pub.
Pub.Delachaux
Delachaux andand NiestIe,
Niertl€, Neuchatel,
Neuchat€l' 1959.
1969'
 2 2
232 THE
THEBmLE,
BIBLE,THE
THEQUR'AN
QUITANAND
ANDSCIENCE
SCIENCE

when one
When onereads
resds the
the word 'Ramesges'in
word 'Rarnesses' in the
the Bible
Bible today,
today, oneoneisis
particularly
not particularly struck
not struck by by it:
it: the
the word
word hashas become
becomevery very common
common
toto usus since
since Champollion
champollion discovered
discovered the the keykey to to hieroglyphics
hieroglyphics
150 years ago,
160 years ago, byby examining
examining the characters that
the characters that expressed
expressedthis this
very word.
very word. We We are
are therefore
therefore used usedto to reading
reading and and pronouncing
pronouncing itit
today and
today and knowknow what
what itit means.
means. One one hashas to to remember
remember howeverhowever
that the
that the meaning
meaning of of hieroglyphics
hieroglyphics had had been
been lost
lost inin circa
circa the the
Third century
Third century B.C. B.c. and
and that
that Rarnesses'
Ramesses'name name had had hardly
hardly beenbeen
pnesen'ed anywhere
preserved anywhere exceptexcept in in the
the Bible
Bible and
and aa few books written
few books written
in Greek
in Greek and
and Latin
Latin which
which had had deformed
deformed it it to
to aa lesser
lesseror or greater
greater
extent. It
extent. It is
is for
for this
this reason
rea$on that that Tacitus
Tacitus in in his
his Annals
Annals talks
tattcs ofof
'Rhamsis'.
'Rhamsis'. The The Bible
Bible had
had however
however preserved
preserved the the name
name intact:
intact: it it
is referred
is referred to to four
four times
times in in the pentateuch or
the Pentateuch or Torah
Torah (Genesis
(Genesis
47,11;Exodus
47,11; Exodus 1,11 1,11and
and 12,37;
lZ,gT; Numbers
Numbers 33,3 BB,Bandand 33,5).
88,6).
Ttre Hebrew word for
The 'Ramesses' is written in two ways in the
for 'Rarnesses' written ways in the
'R6.(e) mss'
Bible: 'Ra(e)mss' 'Rfie6mss'r. In the Greek version of the
Bible: or 'Raeamss'l. rn Greek of the
Bible' called
Bible, ealled the Septuagint,
septuagint, it 'R0mess€'.In the Latin version
it is 'Rarnesse'. Latin version
(vulgate) it
(Vulgate) it is written 'Ramesses'.In the Clementine version of
written 'Ramesses'. rn clementine of
the Bible
the Bible in French
Freneh (1st (lst edition,
edition, 1621) 162l) the word is the same,
'Rarnesse'q'. s&me,
'Ramesses'. The French edition was in circulation circulation at the time time of of
Champollion's work work in this field. field. InIn his Summary of of the Hiero-
Hibro-
gl'aphie
glyphic system
System of of the Aneient
Ancient Egyptians
Egyptians (pr0cis'du
(Precis du systdmesysteme
hidroslyphique
hieroglyphique des des anciens
anciens Egyptiens)
Egyptiens) (znd (2nd edition, 1828, lgzi, page
276), champollion
276), Champollion alludes
aHudes to the Biblical spelling of of the
the word.
word.
Thus
Thus the Bible Bible had miraculously
miraculously preserved R"*e.**s,s Rarnesses's name name
in
in its
its Hebrew, Greek and Latin Latin versions.z
versions. 2
The preceding
The preceding data alone are enough to to establish the following:
following:
a)
a) There
There cancan be no question
be no question of of the
the Exodus befflre aa ,Ramesses'
Exodus bef.lre 'Rarnesses'
had
had eome
come to to the
the throne
throne in in Egypt
Egypt (11 Kings of
(11 Kings of Egypt
Egypt had had this
this
name).
name).
b)
b) Moses
Moses waswas bornborn during
during the the reign
reign of the pharaoh
of the Pharaoh who who built
built
the
the cities
cities of
of Ramesses
Ramesses and and Pithom,
Pithorn, i.e. I.e. Ramesses
Rarnesses II. II.

1.
1. The letter 'e'
The letter 'e' ffgrres
figures as
as the
the ayin
ayin inin Hebrew.
Hebrew.
2.
2. rtIt ieis strange
strange to to note
note moreover,
moreover, thatthat inin old
old editions
editions of
of the
the Bible,
Bible, com-
com-
mentatorr
mentators did did not
not understand
understand thethe meaning
meaning of of the
the word
word at at all.
all. In
In the
the
French
French edition
edition of of the
the clementine
Clementine Bibre,
Bible, l62l,
1621, for
for example,
example, an an interpre-
interpre-
tetion
tation of of the
the word'Ramesses'is
word 'Ramesses' is given given which
which makes
makes total
total nonsens€:
nonsense:
'Thunder
'ThunderofofVermin'Vermin' (sic).
(sic).
The Eroihn
Ttu Exodua fltil

c) When
c) When Moses
Moses was was in
in Midian,
Midian, the
the reigning Pharaoh (i'e'
reigning Pharaoh (Le.
Ramesses II) died. The continuation
Bamesses II) died. The continuation of
of Moses's
Moses's story
story took
took plece
place
during the
during the reign
reign of
of Ramesses
Ramesses II's
II's successor,
successor, Merneptah.
Merneptah.

What is
What is more,
more, the the Bible
Bible adds other highly
adds other important dsta
highly important data
which help
which to situate
help to situate thethe Exodus
Exodus in in the history of
the history the Pharaohs.
of the Pharaohs.
ItIt is
is the
the statement
statement that that Moses
Moses was eighty years
was eighty years old when, under
old when, under
God's
God's orders,
orders, he
he tried
tried to
to persuade
persuade Pharaoh
Pharaoh to
to free
free his
his brothers:
brothers:
"Now Moses
"Now Moses was
was eighty
eighty years
years old,
old, and
and Aaron eighty-three years
Aaron eighty-three years
years old, when they they spoke
spoke to Pharaoh." (Exodus
to Pharaoh." (Exodus 7,71.7,7). Else-
Else-
where
where however, the Bible
Bible tells us (Exodus
(Exodus 2,23) that
that the Pharaoh
reigning at
reigning at the time
time ofof the birth
birth of Moses died when the latter
of Moses latter
was in
ruas in Midian,
Midian, although
although the Biblical narration continues without
Biblical narration without
mentioning any change in
mentioning in the sovereign's
sovereign's name. These two
name. These two pas-
pas-
sages in
sages in the Bible imply
imply thatthat the total
total number of of years spanning
the reigns
the reigns ofof the twotwo Pharaohs ruling ruling at time when Moses
at the time Moses
was living
was livins in Egypt
Egypt must have
have been
been eighty
eighty years at least.
least.

It is known
It knorvn that
that Ramesses
RamessesII II reigned for
for 67 (1801-1235
6? years (1301-1235
B.C.
B.C. according to Drioton
Drioton andand Vandier's chronology,
chronology, 1290-L224
1290-1224
B.C.
B.C. according Merneptah, his successor, the
according to Rowton). For Merneptah, successor,
Egyptologists
Egyptologists are unable,
unable, however,
however, to provide the exact dates of
exact dates
his
his reign. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, it it lasted
lasted for at least years becauge,
least ten years because,
as
as Father deVaux
deVaux points out,out, documents
documentsbear witness to the tenth
bear witness
year
year ofof his
his reign.
reign. Drioton
Drioton andand Vandier give two
Vandier give possibilities for
two possibilities for
Merneptah:
Merneptah: either
either a
a ten-year
ten-year reign,
reign, 1234-1224
1234-1224 B.C.,
l,.C., or
or a
a twenty-
twenty-
year
year reign
reign 1224-1204
L224-1204B.C. B.C. Egyptologists
Egyptologists havehave no precise indica-
no precise indica-
tions whatsoever on how Merneptah's
tions whatsoever on how Merneptah's reign
reign came
came to
to an
an end:
end: all
all
that
that can
can be
be said
said is
is that
that after
after his death, Egypt went through aa
his death, Egypt went through
period
period of
of serious
seriousinternal
internal upheavals
upheavalslasting
lssting nearly
nearly 25 years'
26 years.

Even
Even though
though thethe chronological
chronological data
data onon these
these reigns are not
reigns are not
very
very precise,
precise,there
there waswas no
no other
other period
period during
during the Kingdom
New Kingdom
the New
concordant
concordant with
with the
the Biblical
Biblical narration
narration when
when two
two successive
successive
reigns
reigns (apart
(apart from
from Rarnesses
Ramesses II-Merneptah) amountedto
ll-Merneptah) amounted to or
or sur-
sur-
passed eighty
passed eishty years.
years. The
The Biblical
Biblical data
data concerning
concerning Moses's
Moses's age
age
when he undertook the liberation
when he undertook the liberation of
of his
his brothers
brothers can
can only
only ccme
come
from
from aa time
time during
during the the successive reigns of
successivereigns of Ramesses
RamessesII srrd
II alld
 8II{ TIIE BIBLE,
THE BIBI.q THE
TIIE QUIr AN AND
QUN'AN ANDSCIENCE
$GIENGE
Merneptahr.
Merneptah l All the
• All theevidence
evideneepoints pointstowards
towardsthe thefact
fact that
that Moses
Moses
was born at the
was born at the beginning beginningof of Rarnesses
Ramesses II's
II's reign,
reign, was wasliving
living in in
Midian when
Midian when Ramesses
Ba,messes rr died
II died after
after aa sixty-seven
sixty-sevenyear year reign,
reign,
and subsequently
and subsequentlybecame becamethe the spokesman
spokesmanfor for the
the cause
causeof of the
the
Hebrews
Hebrews living living in in Egypt
Egypt to to Merneptah,
Merneptah,Ramesses RamessesIrs II's sonsonandand
suecesson
successor. This episode
This episodemay mayhave havehappened
happenedin in the
thesecond
secondhalf half ofof
Merneptah'sreign,
Merneptah's reign, assuming
assuminghe he reigned
reignedtwentytwenty years
yearsor or nearly
nearly
twenty years.Rowton
twentyyears. Rowtonbelieves
believesthe thesupposition
suppositionto to be
bequite
quitefeasible.
feasible.
Moses would
Moses would then thenhave
hsveled ledthe the Exodus
Exodui at at the
the end
endof of Merneptah's
Merneptah's
reign. It
reign. It could
couldhardly
hardly have
havebeen beenotherwise
otherwisebecausebecauseboth both the
tne Bible
niue
and the Qur'an tell
and the Qur'an tell us
us that pharaoh perished
that Pharaoh perishedduringduring the the pursuit
pursuit
of the
of the Hebrews
Hebrewsleavingleavingthe thecountry.
country.
firis
_ This planplan agrees
agreesperfectly
perfecfly with with thethe account
accountcontained
containedin in the
the
seriptures of
Scriptures of Moses's
Moses'sinfancy
infancy and and of of the
the way
way hehe was
was taken
taken intointo
the Pharaoh's
the Pharaoh'sfamily. It rt isis aa known
known fact faet that Ramesses
RamessesII II was
was
very old
old when
when he he died:
diedl it is is said
said that he was ninety to aa hundred
he was hundred
years old.
years old. According
According to this theory, theory, he he would
would havehave been
beentwenty-
twenty_
three to thirty-three years
three years old ordat the the beginning
beginning of his his reign whichwhich
lssted sixty-seven
lasted sixty-sevenyears. yegrs. He He could
could have
havJ been
beenmarried at that that ageage
and there
and there is nothing to contradict the discovery discovery of Moses Mosesby by 'a,a
member
member of Pharaoh'sPharaoh's household'
household' (eccording
(according to the eur'an), Qur'an), or or
the fact that Pharaoh's
Pharaoh's wife asked asked him ifif he wouli would keepkeep the
newly-born
newly-born child she she had found on the bank bank of the Nile. ttre-Biute
The Bible
claims
claims that
that the ehild
child was found by phersoh's
was found Pharaoh's daughter.
daughter. In In view
view of of
Ramesses
Ramesses II's II's age
age at the beginning
beginning of his reign itit would would have have
been perfectly
been perfectly possible
possible forfor him to have have had a daughter old enough enough
to
to discover
discover the abandoned
abandoned child. The eur'anic Qur'anic and Biblical narra-
tions
tions do do not
not contradict
contradict each each otherother inin eny
any wsyway ou point.
this 1nint.
OD this
The theory grven
The theory given here
here is is in
in absolute
absolute agieemdnt
agreement with with ttre
the eurso
Qur'an
and
and isis moreover
moreover at at odds
odds withwith onlyonly oneone single
single statement
statement in in the
the
Bible
Bible which occurs (as
which occurs (as we we havehave seen)
seen) in in Kings
Kings rI 6,16,1 (N.B.
(N.B. thisthis
book
book isis not
not included
included in in the
the Torah).
Torah). This This passage
passage is is the
the subject
subject of of
much debate
much debate and and Father
Father de de Vaux
Vaux rejeets
rejects thethe historicsl
historical datadata eon-
con-
tained
tained inin this
this part
part of
of the
the OldOld Testament,
Testament, which which dates
dates thethe Exodus
Exodus

The period
1. The
1- period spanning
spanningthe the two
two reigrrs
reigns Sethos
Sethos f-Ramesses
I-Ramesses II, II, which
which isis Baid
said
toto have
have lasted
lasted roughly eighty years,
roughly eighty years, isis out
out of
of the
the question:
question: Sethos
Sethos I's1'8
reig'n-which
reign-whichu'as wastootoo short
shortforfor this*-does
this--does notnot sqnare
squarewith
with the
the very
verylong
long
stalr
stayinin Midian
Midian which
which llloses
Moses made
made as as an
an adult
adult and
and which
which took
tookplace
placedur-
dur-
jng
jngthe
the reign
reign ofofthe
the first
first ofofthe two pharaohs
the two Pharaohshe was totoknow.
he was know.
The E*odw
T;* ExodU8 235
235

in relatiorr
in relation to
to the
the construetion
construction of of Solomon's
Solomon's temple. fact that
The fact
temple. The that
it is subject to doubt makes it impossible
it is subject to doubt makes it impossible to
to retain
retain it
it as
as a
a con-
con-
clusive argument against
clusive argument against the
the theory outlined here.
theory outlined here.

The Problem
Tlw Problem of of thc
the Stett
Stele Dating
Dating fromfrom the Fifth Year of
the FifthTem of
M(mleptah's Reign
MenwptuWcReiEfi
In the
In the text
text ofof thethe famous
famous stele dating from the
dating from fifth year
the fifth year of
of
Merneptah's reign critics
Merneptah's reign critics tirink they think they have
have found
found an objection
objection to
to
the theory
the theory set out out here, in in which pursuit
which the pursuit of the of the Jews consti-
tuted the
tuted last act
the last act of of his
his reign.
reign.
The stele
The stele is of of great
great interest because itit represents the only
interest because only
known document in
known in hieroglyphics
hieroglyphics which which contains the word word
'fsrael'.r
'Israel'.1 The
The inscription
inscription which which dates
dates from
from the first first part
part of of Mer-
Mer-
neptah's reign
neptah's reign was discovereddiscovered in in Thebes
Thebes in in the Pharaoh's Fu- Fu-
neral Temple,
neral Temple. It It refers
refers to a, a series victories he won over
series of victories
Egypt's neighbouring
Egypt's neighbouring states, states, inin partieular
particular a victoryvictory mentioned
at
af the end of the document document over a "devastated Israel which has
no more seedseed .. . . "" From
From thisthis fact
fact it it has been
been held that exisL
that the exist-
ence 'fsrael' Jews must already have
ence of the word 'Israel' implied that that the Jews
settled
settled in Canaan
Canaan by the fifth fifth year of Merneptah's
Mefneptah's reign, and that that
in consequence,
consequence,the Exodus Exodus of the Hebrews from from EgyptEgypt had al-
ready taken place.
place.
This objection does does not seem seem tenable because it
tenable because it implies that
there could
could have
have beenbeen no no Jews
Jews living
living in Canaan
Canaan all the the while there
were JewsJews in Egypt-a
Egypt-a proposition it it is impossible
impossible to accept. aecept.
Father
Father de de Vaux
Vaux however,
however, in in spite
spite of of the
the fact that he is aa sup-
faet that he is sup-
porter
porter ofof the
the theory
theory which which makes
makes Ramesses
RamessesII II the Pharaoh
the Pharaoh of of
the
the Exodus,
Exodus, notes
noteszthe2
the following
following aboutabout thethe settling of the
settling of the Jews inJews in
Canaan:
Canaan: "In "fn the
the South,
South, the the time
time whenwhen communities related
communities related to to
the
the Israelites
Israelites settled
settled in in the
the Kadesh
Kadesh region
region is is unclear
unclear and dates
and dates
from
from before
before thethe Exodus."
Exodus," He He therefore
therefore allows
allows for for the possibility
the possibility
that
that certain
eertain groups
groups may may havehave left
left Egypt
Egypt at at aa time
time different from
different from
that 'Apiru Habi,rzrwho have
who have
that of
of Moses
Mosesand and his his followers.
followers. The The 'Apiru or or Habiru
sometimes
sometimesbeen been identified
identified with with the the Israelites
Israelites were already in
were already in
Syria-Palestine
Syria-Palestine long long before RamessesII
before Ramesses II and
and the Exodus: we
the Exodus: we
have
have documentary
documentary evidence evidence which proves that
which proves that Amenophis
Amenophis II II
1.1 . The
The word
word isis followed
followed by generic determinative
by aa generic determinative which leaves no
which leaves doubt
no doubt
as to the fact that this term signifies
signifies aa 'human community
'human community or
or group"
group'.
as to the fact that this term
2.2. In .The Ancient
book 'The Ancient History
History of
of Israel' (Histoire ancienne d'Israel)
ancienne d'Israel)
In his
his book lvaef (Histoire
 236
936 THE BmLE,
BIBLE, THE QUR'A
QURANN AND SCIEN
SCIENCE
CE
brough
broughtt backbaek 3,600
s,600 prison
prisoners ers to workwork as as forced labourlabourersers in
Egypt
Eeypt.. Others
others were to be be found in Canaa
Canaan n under Sethos
Sethos I where
they caused
caused unrest in the Beth-S hean region
Beth-Shean region:: P. p. Monte
Montett remind
remindss
us
us of
of this in his book book Egypt
Egupt and the Bible (L'Esypte
Eible (L'Egy pte et laIa Bible)
Bible) ..
It
rt is quite plausib
plausible le to sUPPQs
suppgse e theref
thereforeore that
that Merne
Merneptahptah was wes
obliged to deal deal severe
severely ly with
with these
these rebelli
rebelliousous elemen
elements ts on his
border
borderss while
while inside them were those those who were later later to rallyrally
around MosesMoses to flee flee the countr
country. y. The existen
existence ce of the stele dating
dating
from
from the fifthfifth year of Merne Merneptah'sptah's reign
reign doesdoes not in any way
detrac
detractt from
from the presenpresentt theory
theory..
Moreo
Moreover,ver, the fact fact that
tlnt the word 'Israel' figures
asord,Israel figures ini,n the history
h,istory
of
of the Jewish
Jewi.sh people
people is totally
toto,Ily unconn ected with
uncannected, wi,th the notion
notion thatthat
M08es
Moeesand a,nd'his
his ffollowe
ollnwers rs settled
settled in in Canaa
ca,naan. n. The origin
origin of the word
is as
ss follow
follows: s:
Accord
According ing to Genesi
Genesis s (32,29
(gz,zgl-,), Israel
rsrael is the secondsecond name given
to Jacob,
Jacob, sonson of Isaac and grands grandson on of Abrah
Abraham. am. The commecommenta- nta-
tors
tors of the Ecume Ecwnenieal nical Transl ation of the Bible-O
rra,nsrntion Bibte-otd,
ld Testam
Testament ent
(Traduction
(Tradu ction oecum enique de
oecumdnique de la Bible-A ncien Testam
Bible-Ancien Testament) ent),, 1975,
Lg76,
think
think thatthat its meani
meaning ng is probab
probably ly that ,God shows
that 'God shows Himse
Himself lf in
His Streng
strength'.
th'. Since
since it it has
has been
been given to a single man, man, it it is not
surpri sing that
surprising that itit was given to a comm communityunity or group of people people
in memo
memory ry of a disting uished ancest
distinguished ancestor or.
The name 'Israel',
name 'Israel ', therefo
therefore re appear
appeared ed well before Moses Moses:: sev-sev_
eral hundre
hundred years before to be
d years be exact.
exact. It rt is not surpri sing con-
surprising con_
sequen
sequently tly to see
see itit cited in aa stelestele from
from the reign of of the ph-araoh
itre Pharao h
Merne
Merneptah'ptah. The fact that that it it is cited does
does not at all constit
constitute ute an
argum
arg'ument ent in favour
favour of a theory theory which
which datesdates the ExoduExoduss before
the fifth
fifth year of MerneMerneptah'sptah's reign.
What
what it it does
does do do is refer
refer to a group which it it calls .rsrael',
ealls 'Israel ', but
Merne ptah's stele
Merneptah's stele cannot be be alludin
alludingg to a politic
politically
ally establi shed
established
collect ivity becaus
collectivity because e the inscrip
inscriptiontion dates
dates from
i"o* the end end of the
Thirte
Thirteenthenth centur
centuryy B.C. B,c. and the Kingdo Kingdom m of Israel was 'not hot
formed until until the Tenth centur centuryy B.C. B.c. ItIt must therefo
therefore re refer
refer to
a human commu community nity of more modes proportions.r
modestt propor tions. 1
1.
1. "The 'rsrael'
"Tf;"m"name 'Israel' (in the stele)
stere) is accomp anied by the generic deter-
aceompanied
minativ 'people' instead
minstivee 'people' ,country',', as
of the determi
determinaiive
native 'country as is the case
case
for
for the other proper
proper names
names in the stele" writes
writes Father
Father B. Couroy er,
couroyer,
Profess
Professoror at the Biblical
Biblical School
School of Jerusale
Jerusalem,
m, in his comme
commentaryntary to the
translat ion of
translation of the Book of Exodus (Pub.
(pub. Edition
Editionss du Cerf, paris, 1968,
cerf, Paris, 196g,
page 12).
page
The Eroilus
Tlre Exodu8 237
237

Nowadays, we
Nowadays, we knorv
know that
that the
the entry
entry ofof 'Israel'
'Israel' into history was
into history was
preceded by
preceded by aa long formatory period
long formatory period of eight or
of eight nine centuries.
or nine centuries.
This period
This period was
was distinguished
distinguished by by the settling of
the settling many semi-
of many semi-
Nomadic g:roups,
Nomadic groups, especially
especially the Amorites and
the Amorites and the Arameans all
the Arameans all
over the
over the region.
region. InIn the same period,
the same began to
Patriarchs began
period, Patriarchs to appear
appear
in their
in their communities
communities among whom were Abraham,
whom were Isaac and
Abraham, Isaac
Jacob-Israel. The second
Jacob-Israel. second name
name ofof this Patriarch was
this last Patriarch used to
was used to
original group, the nucleus
designate the original
designate nucleus of future political
of a future
entity which was to appear long after
entity after Merneptah's reign, since since
the Kingdom of of Israel lasted
lasted from 931 or 930
from 931 721 B.C.
930 to 721

4. The Description
4, Contained in
Description Contained in the IIoIg Sct'iptwes of
I10lU SCf'iptures of thc
the
Pharaoh's Death
PharaoVs Death During
During the Exodus.
Exodus.
This event important point in the narrations con-
event marks a very important con-
tained
tained in the Bible and the Qur'an. It
It stands
stands forth
forth very elearly
clearly in
texts. It
the texts. It is referred to in the Bible,Bible, not only in the Pentateuch
Pentateuch
or Torah, but also also in the Psalms:
Psalms: the references have already
references have already
been
been given.
given.
It
It is very strange to find that that Christian eommentators have
Christian commentators have
completely
completelyignoredignored it. Thus,
Thus, Father de de Vaux maintains the theory
that thethe Exodus
Exodus from Egypt took place in the
took place the first half or the
middle
middle of Ramesses
RamessesII's reign.reign. His theory
theory takes no account
takes no account of the the
fact that the the Pharaoh perished during the
Pharaoh perished Exodus, aa fact which
the Exodus,
should
should makemake all hypotheses
hypothesesplace place the event
event at the end of aa reign.
the end
his Ancient
In his Aneient History of Israel Israel (Histoire ancienne d'Isra6l), the
ancienned'Israel), the
Head
Head of the the Biblical School
Schoolof Jerusalem
Jerusalemdoes doesnot
not seem
seemto be at all
be at all
troubled
troubled by the the contradiction
contradiction between
between the the theory
theory he he maintains
maintains
and
and thethe data
data contained
containedin in the
the two
two Books
Books of of the Bible: the
the Bible: Torah
the Torah
and
and Psalms.
Psalms.
In
In his
his book, EgUpt and
book, Egypt und.thethe Bible (L'Egypte et
llible (L'Egypte et 1a Bible)' P.
la Bible), P.
Montet
Montet places
places the
the Exodus
Exodus during
during Merneptah's
Merneptah's reign,
reign, but
but says
says
nothing
nothing about
about thethe death
death of of the
the Pharaoh
Pharaoh who rvasat
who was at the head of
the head of
the
the army
army following
following thethe fleeing
fleeingHebrews.
Hebrews.
This
This highly
hiehly surprising
surprising attitude
attitude contrasts
contrasts with the Jews'
with the out-
Jews' out-
look I Psalm
look: Psalm 136,136, verse
verse 15 gives
15 gives thanks
thanks to to God who
God who "overthrew
"overthrew
Pharaoh
Pharaoh and and his
his host
host in
in the
the Sea
Seaof Rushes" and
of Rushes" and i8 recited
often recited
is often
in
in their
their liturgy.
liturgy. They
They know
know of of the
the agreement
agreementbetween this
betweenthis verseverse
and
and thethe passage
passagein in Exodus (14,28-29): "The
Exodus (14,28-29): waters returned
"The waters returned
 238
238 THE BIBLE,
THE BIBLE,THE
THE QUR'AN
QUR'ANAND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

andand covered
coveredthe the chariots
chariots and and thethe horsemen
horsemen and and allall the
the host
host of of
Pharaohthat
Pharaoh that had had followed
followed them them into
into thethe sea;
sea;notnot sosomuch
much as asoneone
ofof them
them remained."
remained." There There is is no
no shadow
shadowof of aa doubt
doubt forfor them
them that that
thethe Pharaoh
Pharaoh and and his troups were
his troups were wiped
wiped out.out. These
Thesesamesametexts
texts areare
presentin
present in Christian
Christian Bibles.
Bibles.
Christian commentators
Christian commentators quite quite deliberately,
deliberately, and and in in contradic-
contradic-
tion to
tion all the
to all the evidence,
evidence,brush brush aside
asidethe the Pharaoh's
Pharaoh'sdeath.death.WhatWhat is is
more however,
more however, some someof them mention
of them mention the the reference
reference made made to to it
it in
in
the Qur'an
the Qur'an and and encourage
encourag:etheir their readers
readers to to make
make very very strange
strange
comparisons.In
comparisons. In the
the translation
translation of of the
the Bible
Bible directed
directedby by the
the Bibli-
Bibli-
cal School
cal Sehoolof of Jerusalem
Jerusalem' 1
we
we find
find the
the following
following commentary
commentaryon on the
the
Pharaoh'sdeath
Pharaoh's death by by Father
Father Couroyer:
Couroyer:
Koran refers
"The Koran
"The refers to to this (Pharaoh's death)
this (Pharaoh's death) (sura
(sura 10,10, verses
verses
90-92), and
90-92), popular tradition has
and popular has itit that the pharaoh who
the Pharaoh who was was
drowned with his
drowned his army (an event event which
whieh is is not
not mentioned
mentioned in the the
Holy TextText'?)2 beneath the ocean
) lives beneath ocean where he he rules over the the men
men
the sea,
of the sea,Le. i.e. the seals".
seals".
It is obvious
It obvious that the the uninformed reader reader of the Qur'aneur'an is boundbound
establishaa connection
to establish connectionbetween betweenaa statement
statement in it it which-for
which-for the the
commentator-contradicts the
commentator-contradicts the Biblical text and and this absurd absurd
legend which comes
legend comesfrom a so-called so-calledpopurar
popular tradition
tradition mentioned
mentioned
in the commentary
commentary after after the reference
reference to the eur'an. Qur'an.
The real meaning of the statement statement in the eur'an Qur'an on this has
nothing
nothing to do with with what this commentator
commentator suggests: verses g0
suggests: verses 90 to
92,
92, sura 10 inform inform us that that the chirdren
Children of of Israel crossed
crossed the sea sea
while the Pharaoh and his troops were pursuing them and that that
itit was
was only when the Pharaoh was about to be drowned drowned that that he
eried:
cried: "I "I believe
believe there is no God God exeept
except the God God in which the
Chilldren
Chilldren of of Israel
Israel believe.
believe. II am am ofof those
those who
who submit
submit themselves
themselves
to
to Him."
Him." God God replied:
replied : "what?
"What ? Now! Now! Thou Thou hast hast rebelled
rebelled and and
caused
caused depravity.
depravity. This This dayday We We save
save theethee in
in thy
thy body
body so so that
that thou
thou
mayest
mayest be be aa sisn
Sign forfor those
those who who will
will come
come after
after thee."
thee."
This
This is is all
all that
that thethe sura
sura contains
contains on the pharaoh's
on the Pharaoh's death.death. There
There
is no question
is no question of the phantasms
of the phantasms recordedrecorded by by the
the Biblical
Biblical commen_
commen-
tator
tator either
either here here or or anywhere
anywhere else else inin the
the eur'an.
Qur'an. The The text
text ofof the
the
Qur'an merely
Qur'an merely statesstates veryvery clearly
clearly that the pharaoh,s
that the Pharaoh's body body will will
be
be saved:
saved: that that is the important
is the important piece piece of of information.
information.
L'Exode (Exodus),
11.. L'Exode 1968, page
(Exodus), 1968. 73, pub.
page ?8, Pub. Les
Les Editions
Editions du Cerf, paris.
du cerf, Paris.
2.
2. There
There can be no
can be no doubt
doubt that
that this
this eorrnmentator
commentator isis referring
referring to
to the
the Bible.
Bible.
T1aeExodm
Tlp Exo6,t,o l[tg
239

When the
When the Qur'an
Qur'an was
was transmitted
transmitted to man by
to man by the Prophet, the
the Prophet, the
bodies of
bodies of all
all the
the Pharaohs
Pharaohs who who are
are today considered (rightly
today considered (rightly or or
wrongly) to
wrongly) to have
have something
something to to do with the
do with Exodus were
the Exodus were inin their
their
tombs of
tomhs of the
the Necropolis
Necropolis of of Thebes,
Thebes, on opposite side
the opposite
on the of the
side of the
Nile from
Nile from Luxor.
Luxor. At At the
the time
time however, absolutely nothing was
however, absolutely nothing was
known of
known of this
this fact,
fact, and
and itit was
was not
not until end of
the end
until the the Nineteenth
of the Nineteenth
century that
century that they
they were
were discovered
discovered there.
there. AsAs the
the Qur'an states, the
Qur'an states, the
body of
body of the
the Pharaoh
Pharaoh of of the
the Exodus
Exodus was was in rescued: which-
fact rescued:
in fact which-
ever of
eVer of the
the Pharaohs
Pharaohs itit was,
was, visitors may see
visitors may see him
him in the Royal
in the Royal
Mummies Room
Mummies Room of of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
Egyptian Museum, Cail·o. The truth is
truth is
therefore very
therefore very different from the ludicrous legend
different from that Father
legend that Father
Couroyer has attached to the Qur'an.
Couroyer Qur'an.

5. Pharaoh
5. Memel'tah'sa MummY
Plwraoh Merneptah' Mummy
The mummified body of Merneptah, son Ramesses II
son of R.amesses II and
Pharaoh of the Exodus-all
Exodus-all the evidence
evidence points to this-was
this-was dis-
covered
covered by Loret
Loret in 1898
1898 at Thebes
Thebes in
in the Kings'
Kings' Valley whence
whence
it
it was
was transported to Cairo. Elliot EIIiot Smith removed its wrappings
Smith removed
on
on the 8th of July, 1907:
190?: he
he gives
gives a
a detailed
detailed description of this
description
operation and the examination of the body in his book book The Rogal
TIt'eRoyal
Mummies
Mummies (1912).
(1912). At
At that time the
the mummy was
was in a
a satisfactory
state
state of preservation,
preservation, in spite of deterioration in several several parts.
Since then,
Since then, the the mummy has been
has been on
on show
show to visitors at the Cairo
Museum,
Museum, withwith his head
head andand neck
neck uncovered
uncovered and
and the
the rest body
of body
concealed under
concealedunder a cloth.a cloth. It
It is
is so
so well
well hidden
hidden indeed,
indeed, that until
very
very recently,
recently, thethe only
only general photographs of
general photographs mummy that
the mummy
of the that
the Museum
the Museum possessed
possessed were
were those
those taken
taken by
by E.
E. Smith
Smith in
in 1912.
1912.
In
In June
June 1975,
1975,thethe Egyptian
Egyptian high high authorities
authorities very kindly al-
very kindly al'
lowed me to examine
lowed me to examine the
the parts
parts of
of the
the Pharaoh's
Pharaoh's body
body that
that had
had
been
been covered
covered until
until then.
then. They
They also also allowed
allowed me me to to take photo-
take photo-
graphs. When the
graphs. When the mummy's mummy's present
present state
state \4'as
was compared
compared to the
to the
condition it was in over
condition it was in over sixty sixty years
years ago,
ago, it
it rvas
was abundantly
abundantly clear
clear
that
that itit had
had deteriorated
deteriorated and and fragments
fragments had disappeared.The
had disappeared. The
mummified tissues had
mummified tissues had suffered suffered greatly,
greatly, at
at the
the hand
hand of
of man
man in
in
some places and through
some placesand through the the passage
passage of
of time
time in
in others.
others.
This
This natural
natural deterioration
deteriorationis is easily
easilyexplained
explainedby by the changesin
the changes in
the conditions of conservation
the conditions of conservation from from th\:l
thc time
time in
in the
the late
late Nine-
Nine-
teenth
teenth century
century when
when itit was
was discovered.
discovered.Its Its discovery
discoverytook place
took place
 2,LO
240 THE BIBLE,
BIBLE, THE QUR'AN
QUR'AN AND SCIEN
SCIENGE
CE

in the tomb of the Necrop olis of Thebes

Necropolis Thebes where the mumm mummyy had
lain for
for over three thousa thousandnd years.
years. Today,
Today, the mumm mummy y is dis-
dis-
played in a simple glass glass case
case which does does not afford
afrord hermehermetic tic in-
sulation from
lglation from the outside outside,, nor doesdoes itit offer protection
ofrer protec tion from
from pol-
hition
lution by micro- organisms. The mumm
micro-organisms. mummyy is expose
exposed d to fluctua
fluetuations
tions
in tempe rature and
temperature snd season
seasonalal change
changes s in humid
humidity:ity: it it is very far far
from
from the condit ions which
conditions whieh enable
enabled d itit to remain protecprotected ted from
from
any source
source of deterio ration for
deteriorstion for approx imatel y three thousa
approximately thousand nd
yesrs. It
years. It has lost the protecprotection
tion afforde
afforded d by its wrapp
wrappings ings and
the advant
advantage age of remain
remaininging in the closed closed enviro nment of the
environ*.nt tt *
tomb where the tempe rature was more consta
temperature constant nt and the air air less
less
humid than it it is in Cairo
cairo at certain times of the year. Of of course
course, ,
while it it was
was in the NecropNecropolis
olis itself, the mumm mummy y had to with- with-
stand the visits of grave plunde plunderersrers (proba
(probablybly very early on) and
rodent
rodents: s: they caused
caused aa certain amoun atnountt of damag
damage, e, butbui the con- eon_
ditions were nevert heless (it
nevertheless (it seems)
seems) much more favour favourable able for
it
it to stand the test of time than they are today.
At
At my sugges tion, special
suggestion, speeiarinvesti
investigations
gations were made made during
during this
examin
examinstionation of the mumm mummy y in June 1975. rg?8. An excelle
excellent nt radio-
g_raphic
graphi c study waswas made
made by Doctor
Doctors s EI
El Meligy and Ramsi ""aio-
Ramsiys, ys, and
and
the exami
examination
nation of the interio
interiorr of the thoraxthoril, , throug
throughh aa-gap gap in
the thorac
thoracic ic wall, was carried
carried out by Doctor Musta Mustapha pha Mania
Miniala- la·
wiy
wiy in additio
addition n to an investi gation of the abdom
investigation abdomen. en. This was the
first examp
example le of endosc
endoscopyopy being applied to a mumm mummy. y. This tech-tech_
nique enable
enabled d usus to seesee and photog
pho[ographraph some
some very impor important tant
details inside the body. professor
body. Profes sor Ceccal
ceceardi perfo"rn*a
di perfor med a genera generarl
medico -legal study which will
medico-legal will be comple
completea ted byuv an*n examin ation
under the micros
microscopecope of some
somesmall fragm fratmentsents that "*"*fnation
that sponta neously
spontaneously
fell from
from the mummmummy's y's body:
body: this examin
examination
ation will
will be
be carried out
by Profes
Professor sor Migno
Mignott and Doctor Durigo Durigon. n. I regret to say say that
that de-
de-
finitive pronouncements
finitive pronou ncements cannot
cannot be be made
made by the time this book book
goesto print.
goes print.r1
What
what may alreadalready y be
be derive
derived d from
from this examin ation is the dis-
examination
covery of multip
multiple le lesions
lesions of the bonesbones with
with broad lacunalacunae, e, some
some
of which may have been been mortal. ...!-although it
mortal*although it is not yet possibl
possible e to
ascerta
ascertain in wheth
whether er some
some of them occurr occurred ed before
before or after after the
Pharao
Pharaoh's h's death.
death. He most probab probably ly died
died either
eifher from
from drown drowning,ing,
aecord
aecording ing to the Script ural narrati
Scriptural narrations,
ons, or from very violent
1.
1. Novemb
N"r"*b-rter, 1975
19?6 for
for the First
First French edition.
tft|ptu tal
141

shocks preceding
shoeks preceding the moment when
the moment when hehe was drowned-or both
was drowned'+r both at at
once.
ollgE.
The eonnection
The connection of of these
these lesions with the
lesions with deterioration whos€
the deterioration whose
sources
E{rurces have
heve been
been mentioned
mentioned above
above renders
renders the
the correct
correct preserva'
preserva-
tion of
tion of the
the murnmy
mummy of of the
the Pharaoh somewhat problematieal,
Pharaoh eomewhst problematical, un- un-
less
less precautionary
precautionary and
and restoretive
restorative measures
measures are
are not
not taken
taken very
very
soon. These
stxln, These messures
measures shouldshould ensure the only
that the
ensure that concrete evi-
only conerete evi-
dence
dence which we still
still possess
possess today concerning
concerning the death of
of the
Pharaoh
Pharaohof of the Exodus
Exodus and the rescue
rescue of
of his body,
body, wilted
willed by God'
God,
does not disappear
does with the passage
disapPear wittt passage of of time.
It
It is always desirable
alwrys desirsble for
for man to spply
apply himself to the preser-
himself preser-
vation
vstion of relics of his history, but here we have
have something
something which
goes beyond
gpesbeyondthat: itthat: it is the msterial
material presenee
presence of the mummified
mummified
body of the man
UoAV man who knew Moses, pless, pursued
resisted his pleas,
Moses, resisted pursued
him ssas hehe took flight, logtlost his life the process.
life in the earthly re-
process. His eerthly
mains were
msins were saved
saved by the Will Will of God destruction to become
God from destruction become
aa sign to man, as it is
man, as it writtenwritten in the Qur'an.
Qurran.r 1

Those
Those whowho seek
seekamong
smong modernmodern data dsts for proof of the veracity
of the Holy Scriptures
Scriptures will magnificent illustration of the
will find aa magnificent the
verses of the Qur'an
venres the Qurran dealing dealing with the Pharsoh's
the Pharaoh's body
body by visiting
the
the Royal
Boyal Mummies
Mummies Room Roomof the Museum,Cairo!
the Egyptian Museum, Cairo !
1.
f. The
ft* mummy
-g*y of Ramesses
Ranesses II,II, who was was another
another witness Moses's story,
witness to Moses's story,
haa been
her been the subject
cubj€ct of aa study
atudy comparable
comperable to the one
one carried
carried out on the
mummy
mummy of of Memeptah;
Merneptah; the tbe same
same restoration
restoration work
work is is required it.
for it.
required for
T,.CluICltor,'
Ttatnlotort' Note:
ffotcl
The
The results
rerultr of of these
these medical
medical studies
studies carried
carried outout in in Cairo,
Gairo, 1975, were
19?5, were
read
read by by the
the author
ruthor before
before several
several French
French learned
learned societies, including
societies, including
the ,Acadcmie Nationale
the 'Academie Nationsle de de Medecine' (National Academy
Mfdecine' (National Academy of Mede-
of Mede-
cine),
cine), during
during the the first
first part
part of of 1976.
19?6. The
The knowledge
knowledge of of these led
results led
these results
the Egyptian
the Eryptian Authorities
Authorities to
to take
take the
the decision
decision to
to transport
transport the
the mummy
mummy
of
of Ramesses
EamesEes11 U toto France.
France. Thus
Thus it it arrived
arrived for
for treatment
treatment in in Paris
Paris on on the
the
26th September
26th Septcmber 1976.
1976'
 The Quran,
ThE Qur'arD
]ladiths and
Hadilhs and
Floderrr
~odE ..n St::iEnt::E
Scierrce
The Qur'an does does not constitute
eonstitute the sole sole source
source of doctrine and and
Iegislation in rslam.
legislation Islam. During During Muhammad~s
Muhammad's life and and after
after his death,
death,
complementary information
complementary information of aa legislative nature was was indeed
indeed
sought in the study of the words and and deeds prophet.
deedsof the Prophet.
Although writing
Although writing was used used in the transmission of hadith n"aitn from
from
the
the very beginning, a lot of this came
came alsoalso from
from the oral tradition.
tradition.
Those who undertook to assemble
Those assemble them in collections made the
collections made
kind
kind ofof enquiries which are always very very taxing
taxing before recording
accounts
accounts of of past
past events.
events. They nevertheless
nevertheless had a great regard for for
accuracy in in their
their arduous task of of collecting information.
information. This This is
illustrated
illustrated by by the fact
fact that
that for
for all of the prophet's
all of Prophet's sayings, the
most venerable
venerable collections
collections always bear the names names of of those
those re-
sponsible
sponsible forfor the account, goinggoin~ right
right back to the person who first first
collected
collected the information
information from from members of of Muhammad's family family
or
or his
his companions.
companions.
A
A very
very large
large number
number of of collections
collections of the prophet's
of the Prophet's words
words and and
deeds
deeds thus
thus appeared
appeared underunder the
the title
title of
of Hadiths.
Hadiths. TheThe exact
exact mean-
mean-
ing
ing of
of the
the word
word is is 'utterances',
'utterances', butbut itit is
is also
also customary
customary to to use
use itit
to
to mean
mean thethe narration
narration of of his
his deeds.
deeds.
Some of
Some of the
the collections
collections were made public
were made public in in the
the decades
decades follow-
follow-
ing Muhammad's
ing Muhammad's death. death. Just
Just over
over twotwo hundred
hundred years
years were
were to to
pass
pass before
before some
some ofof the
the most
most important
important collections
collections appeared.
appeared. The The
most
most authentic
authentic record
record of of the
the facts
facts is
is in the collections
in the collections ofof Al
Al Buh-
Bu!f-
hari
hari and
and Muslim,
Muslim, which
which date
date from
from over.
over two two hundred
hundred years
years after
after

242
242
The
Th.e Quran,
Qufan, Hadith and Modern
Hadith atd, Modern Science
Scietrce 243
243

Muhammad and which provide a wider wider trustworthy account. In

trustworthy account. In
bilingual Arabic/English
recent years, a bilingual edition has been
Arabic/English edition been pro-
pro-
Muhammed Muhsin Shan,
vided by Doctor Muhammed !):han, of of the Islamic Uni- Uni-
versity of
versity of Madina.'
Madina. 1 Al Al Bukhari's
Bu!!hari's work regarded as
work is generally regarded
the most authentic after after the Qur'an and 'was translated into
was translated into
French (1903-1914)
Freneh (1903-1914) by HoudasHoudas and Marcais
Marcais underunder the title Les
Traditions Islamiques
Traditi.ons Islamiques (Islamie Traditions). The Hadiths are
(Islamic Traditions).
accessible to those
therefore accessible those who do notnot speak
speak Arabic. One must'
Arabic. One must,
however, be
however, wary of
be wary of certain translations made Europeans, in-
made by Europeans,
cluding the French translation, because because they contain inaceuracies
inaccuracies
and untruths which are often more of interpretation interpretation than of
actual translation. Sometimes,
actual Sometimes, they considerably change the real
considerably change
meaning of a hadith, to such
meaning such an extent indeed attribute
indeed that they attribute
a sense
senseto it it which it it does
does not contain.
eontain.
regards their
As regards their origins, some
some of the hadiths
hadiths and Gospelshave
and Gospels have
common which is that neither of them was
one point in common
one compiled
was compiled
by an author who was was an eyewitness
eyewitnessof the events he describes.
events he describes.
Nor were
were they compiled
compiled until some
sornetime after the events recorded.
events recorded.
The hadiths,
hadiths, like the Gospels,
Gospels,have
have not all beenbeen accepted
accepted as as au-
au-
thentic.
thentic. Only a small small number of them receive quasi-unani-
receive the quasi-unani-
mous approval
mous approval of specialists
specialistsin Muslim
Muslim Tradition so so that,
that, except
except
al-Muwatta, Sahih
al-Muwatta, Sahih Muslim
Muslim andand Sahih
Sahih al-Bukhari,
al-Bukhari, one one finds the
finds in the
same
same book,
book, hadiths presumed to be
hadiths presumed be authentic
authentic side side by side with
side with
ones
ones which
which areare either dubious,
dubious,or should
should bebe rejected
reiected outright.
outright.
In contrast
contrast to Canonic
Canonic Gospels
Gospels which though questioned by
though questioned
some modern
some modern scholars
scholars but which have have never
never been contested by
been contested by
Christian high authorities,
authorities, even
even those
those hadiths
hadiths that are most
are most
worthy to be be considered
consideredas as authentic
authentic have
have been
been the
the subject
subject of
criticism. Very early in the history of Islam, Islam, masters Islamic
masters in Islamic
thought
thought exercised
exercised aa thorough
thorough criticism of the the hadiths, although
hadiths, although
the
the basic
basic book (The Qur'an)
book (The Qur'an) remained
remainedthe the book
book of reference
referenceand and
was not to be
was questioned.
be questioned.
I thought it of interest
interest to delve
delveinto the
the literature of the hadiths
the hadiths
to
to find
find out howhow Muhammad
Muhammad is is said
said to have
have expressed himself,
expressedhimself,
outside the
outside the context
context of written
written Revelation,
Revelation, on subjects that were
on subjects were
to bebe explained
explained by by scientific progress in
scientific progress in following centuries. AI-
follorving centuries. Al-

1. Pub.
1. Pub. Sethi
Sethi Straw
Straw Board
Board Mills (Conversion) Ltd
Mills (Conversion) Ltd and Taleem-ul-Qur'an
and Taleem-ul-Qur'an
Trust,
Trust, Gujranwala,
Gujranwala, Cantt.
cantt. Pakistan. 1st edition
Pakistrin. 1st edition 1971, sahih AI
for Sahih
1977, for Al
Bukhari.
Bukhari.
 full
244 THE
THE BmLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUR'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

though Sahih
though Sahih Muslim
Muslim isis also also an an authentic
authentic collection,
collection, in in this
this
study I have strictly
study I have strictly limited limited myself
myself to to the
the texts
texts of of the
the hadiths
hadiths
which are
which generally considered
are generally consideredto bethe
to be the most
most authentic,
authentic, Le. i.e.those
those
of Al Bulhari.
of Al Bu15hari. II have have always
always tried
tried toto bear
bear in in mind
mind the the fact
fact that
that
thesetexts
these texts were
were compiled
eompiledby by men
men according
according to to data
data received
receivedfrom from
aa tradition
tradition which which was partially oral
was partially oral and
and that
that theythey record
record certain
certain
facts with a
facts with a greater or greater or lesser
lesser degree
degree of of accuracy,
accuricy, depending depending on on
the individual
the individual errors errors made
made by by those
those who who transmitted
transmitted the the narra-
narra-
tions. These
tions. These textstexts are
are different
different fromfrom otherother hadiths
hadiths which which were were
transmitted
transmitted by by aa very
very large
large number
number of of people
people and and are are unques-
unques-
tionably authentic.r
tionablyauthentic.!
II have
have compared
compared the the findings
findings mademade during
during an an examination
examination of of
the hadiths with
the with those
thosealready
already set set out
out in the
the section
section on on the
the Qur'an
eur'an
and modern science.
and science. The results of this comparison comparison speak speak for
themselves. The
themselves. The difference
difference is in fact quite staggering between between
the accuracy
the accuracy of the data contained contained in the Qur'an, eur'an, when
when compared
compared
with modern scientific knowledge,
with knowledge, and the highly highly questionable
questionable
character of certain statements
character statements in the hadiths on on subjects
subjects whose whose
tenor is essentially
tenor essentially scientific.
scientific. These
These are the only hadiths to have have
been dealt with
been with in this study.
study.
Hadiths
~adiths which have have as as their
their subject the interpretation
interpretation of of cer-
cer-
tain
tain verses
verses of of the Qur'an sometimes
sometimes lead lead to commentaries
commentaries which which
are hardly
hardly acceptable
acceptable today.
we
We have already seen seen the greatgreat significance of of one verse (sura (sura
36,
36, verse
verse 36) dealing with with the Sun which .,runs "runs its course course to to aa
settled
settled plaee".
place". Here is the interpretation
interpretation given of of itit in
in aa hadith:
hadith:
"At
"At sunset,
sunset, the sun .... . . prostrates
prostrates itself
itself underneath the Throne,
and
and takes permission permission to rise rise again,
again, and and itit is is permitted
permitted and and
then (a
then (a time
time will
will come
come when)
when) itit wilr
will bebe about
about to to prostrate
prostrate itself itself
. . itit will
.... ask permission
will ask permission to to go
go on
on its
its course
course .... . . itit will
will be be ordered
ordered
to
to return
return whenee whence itit has
has come
come andand so so itit will
will rise
rise in in the
the west
West .... .,, ."
(sahih
(Sahih Al Al Bukhari).
Bukhari). The The original
original text
text (The
(The Book Book of of the
the Begin-
Begin-
ning
ning of of the Cr~ation,vol.
the creation, Vol. IV IV page
page z8B,
283, part
part 84,54, chapter
chapter IV, IV, num-
num-
ber 42Ll
ber 421) is is obscure
obscure and and difficult
difficult toto translate.
translate. This This passage
passage never- never-
theless
theless contains
contains an an allegory
allegory which
which implies
implies the the notion
notion of of aa course
course
the
the Sun Sun runsruns in in relation
relation to to the
the Earth:
Earth: science
science has has shown
shown the the

1. Muslim
1, Muslim specialists
specialists designate
designate the
the first
first by the word
by the Zanniand
word Zanni and the
the second
second
by
by the
the word Qafi.
word Qat'i. •
The QndaqFaaitn mdModotn$ctcilcc ,4j

contrary E)
contrsry to be thethe ca,se.
ease. The
The authenticity
authenticity of of this
this hadith
ha'dith is doubt-
doubt-
ful (Qonnil.
tul (Zanni).
An·other passage
Another passage fitmfrom the same work (The
same work (The Book of of the Begin-
Begin-
ning of
ning vol.IV pege
of the Creation, vol.IV 283, part
page 283, part 64,54, chapter 6, 6, number
(30) estimates the initial
4il0) initial stages in in the development of of the em-
bryo verT
bryo very strangely
strangely in in time:
time: a forty-day
forty-day period for for the grouping
grouping
of the elements which
of which are to eonstitute
constitute the human being, another another
forty days during
forty during which
which the embryo is represented Bs as 'Bomething
'something
which clings', and as third
whieh clings', forty-day period
third forty-day period when the embryo is
designated by the term 'ehewed flesh'. Once
term 'chewed Once the angels have in-
tervened to define
define what this individual's
individual's future
future is to be,be, a4 soul
soul is
br.eathed into
breathed into him. This description of of embryonic evolution does does
not agree withwith modern data.
data,
Whereas
lVhereas the Qur'anQur'an gives absolutely no practicalpractical advice on the
remedial arts, except for for a single comment (sura 16, 16, verse
verse 69)
on the possibility
possibility of of using honey as a therapeutic (without
therapeutic aid (without
indicating
indicating the illness involved),
involved), the hadiths devote devote a great deal
deal
space to these
of space these subjects.
subjects. A whole section
section of Al Al Bu~hari's
BuEhari's collec-
collec-
(part 76) is concerned
tion (part concerned with
with medicine.
medicine. In the French trans-
lation by Houdas and Marcais it goes from
it goes from pagepage 6262 to 9191 of vol-
ume 4,4, and in Doctor Muhammad Muhsin Khan's Ehan's bilingual
bilingual Ara-Ara-
bic/English
bic/Enslish edition from page page 395 462, ~f
395 to 452, of volume VII.VII. There
can
csn bebe no doubt that pages contain some
these pages
that _these some hadiths which whieh
are conjectural (~anni), but they are interesting
(Qanni), interesting as as a whole
r+'holebe-
be-
cause
csuse they provide an outline of the opinions opinions on on various
various medical
medical
subjects that it
subjects it was possibleto hold at the time.
was possible time. One
One might add add
to them several tradiths inserted in other parts of Al Bu~hari's
several l)adiths Bubhari's
collection
collection which have have aa medical
medical tenor.
This is how we come eome to find statements
statements in them on on the harms
caused
causedby the Evil Evil Eye,
Eye, witchcraft
witchcraft andand the possibility of exor- exor-
cism; although
although aa certain restriction is imposed imposed on on the paidpaid use
use
of the
the Qur'an
Qur'an for this purpose.
purpose. There
There is a
a hadith which stresses
stresses
that certain kinds of date date may serve
serve as protection against
as protection against the ef-
the ef-
fects of magic,
fects magic, and and magic
magic may be be used
used against poisonoussnake-
against poisonous snake-
bites.
bites.
We should
should not be be surprised
surprised however
however to find find that at aa time whenwhen
there
there were
were limited possibilities
possibilities for the scientific
scientific use
use of drugs,
drugs,
people
people were
were advised
advised to rely on on simple practices; natural treat-
simple practices;
ments
ments such
such as as blood-letting,
blood-letting, cupping,
cupping, and antl cauterization,
cauterization, head-head-
 E'46
246 THE
THE BIBLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUR'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

shaving
shaving against
against licelice, the
J the use
use of of earners
camel's milkmilk and and certain
certain seedsseeds
suchas
such black cumin,
asblack cumin, and plants such
and plants suchas as indian
indian Qust.Qust. It
It was
was also
also
recommendedto
recommended to burn
burn aa matmat made
madeof palm-tree leaves
of palm-tree leavesand put the
and put the
ash from it
ash from it into
into aa wound
wound to to stop
stop bleeding.
bleeding. In In emergencies
emergencies, J all
all
available means
available means that that might genuinely be
might genuinely be of of use
use had
had to be em-
to be em-
ployed. It
ployed. It does
doesnot not seem-a priori,-to be
seem-a priori-to be aa very
very goodgood idea,
idea, how-
how-
ever, to
ever, to suggest
suggestthat peopledrink
that people drink camel's
eamel's urine.
urine.
It is
It is difficult
diffHcult today
today to to subscribe
subscribe to to certain
eertain explanations
explanations of of
subjects related
subjects related to various illnesses.
to various illnesses.Among Among them, them, the the following
following
might be
might bementioned:
mentioned:
-the origins
-the origins of of aa fever:
fever: there
there are are four
four statements
statements bearing wit- wit-
nessto
ness to the
the fact
fact that
that "fever
"fever is
is from
from the
the heat
heat of hell"
hell" (AI(Al Bukhari,
Bukhari,
The Book
The Book of Medicine
Medicine, J vol.
vol. VII, chapter
chapter 28, 28, page
page 416).
416) -
-the existence
-the existence of a rernedy
a remedy for every illness: liN
every illness: "No0 disease
diseaseGod God
created,J but He
created He created
created its treatment
treatment" (Ibid. chapter 1,
U
l, page
page
895). This concept
395). conceptis illustrated by the the ~adith
$adith of the the Fly:
Fly: "If "rf aa
fly falls into the vessel vesselof any of you you,J let him dip all of it (into
the vessel)
vessel) and and then throwthrow it it away,
away, for in one one of its wings there
is aa disease
diseaseand and in the the other there is healing healing (antidote
(antidote for it). it).
i.e. the treatment for that disease"
Le. disease" (Ibid. chapter chapter 15-16 pages
lb-16,J pages
452-463, also
452-453, also The Book of of the Beginning
Beginning of Creation part part 54, b4,
chapters 15
chapters 15 & 16.) 16.)
-abortion
-abortion provoked by the sight sight of of a snake
snake (which(which can also also
blind).
blind). This is mentioned
mentioned in The Book of the Beginning of cre- Cre-
ation,
ation Vol. IV(
J IV ( chapter
chapter 18 13 and
and 14,14, pages
pages BB0 330 & 334).
& BB4).
-haemorrhages
-haemorrhages between between periods.
periods. The Book of of Menses
Menses ((Men- Men-
strual Periods)
Periods) vol. Vol. vI,VI J part
part G, 6, pages
pages 490 490 & 4gE 495 contains
contains rwo two
hadiths on the cause cause ofof haemorrhages
haemorrhages between between periods
periods (chapters
(chapters
27
21 &,28).
& 28) . They refer refer toto two
two women:
women: in in the
the case
case of of the
the first, there
there
is a description
description (undetailed)
(undetailed) of of the
the symptoms,
symptoms, with with a statement
statement
that
that the
the haemorrhage
haemorrhage comes comes fromfrom aa bloodblood vessel;
vessel; in in the
the second,
second,
the
the woman
woman had had experienced
experienced haemorrhages
haemorrhages between between periods
periods for for
seven years,
seven years, andand thethe same
same vascular
vascular originorigin is is stated.
stated. OneOne might
might
suggest
suggest hypotheses
hypotheses as as toto the
the real
real causes
causes of of the
the above,
above, butbut itit is
is not
not
easy to
easy to see
see what
what arguments
arguments could could have
have been
been produced
produced at at the
the time
time
to
to support
support this this diagnosis.
diagnosis. This This eould
could nevertheless
nevertheless have have been
been quite
quite
accurate.
accurate.
-the
-the statement
statement that that diseases
diseases are are notnot contagious.
contagious. Al Bu~harPs
Al Bubhari's
collection
collection of of hadiths
hadiths refers
refers in several places
in several places (chapters
(chapters 19, 19, tb,
25, 80,30,
?J?acftdorl+FafitnollrdModrlrnt$G{ffiot UiI

31, 68
81, 53 and
and 64,54, Vol.
Vol. Vfl,
VII, Pedpart ?6,76, of the Book
of the Book of Medicine) to
of Medicine) to
certain special
certain cases, e,g.
special cas{es, leprosy (page
e.g. leprosy (page 408), plague (pages
408), plague (pages 418418
" (22),
& scabies (page
camel's scabies
422'1,camel's 447r, and
(page 447), and also provides general
also provides general
statements.
statements. The
The latter
latter are
sre however
however placed
placed side by
by side wittl
with
glaringly contradietory
glaringly contradictory remarks: remarks: itit is recommended, for
is recommended, for ex-
ex-
ample,
ample, not to go to areas
areas where there is plagUe,
plague, and to stay
away from
awey from lepere.
lepers.
Consequently,itit is possible
Consequently, possible to conclude
conclude that that certain [radiths
l}.adiths
exist which are scientifrcally unacceptable. There is a doubt sur-
scientifically unacceptable.
rounding theirtheir authenticity. The purpose purpose of referencereference to them
lies solely
solely inin the comparison
comparison that occasion with
that they oecasion with the verses
verses
of the Qurtan
Qur'an mentioned these do
above: these
mentioned above: do not contain single in-
contain a single
accurate statement.
accurate statement. This observationobservation clearly has has considerable
considerable
importance.
importance.
One must indeed
One indeed remember
remember thst death, the
Prophet's death,
that at the Prophet's
teachings
teachings that were received
were received from this fell into two g1oups:
groups:
-firstly, aa large number
-firstly, number of Believers
Believers knew knew the Qur'an by heart
because,
becsuse, like the Prophet,
Prophet, they had
hsd recited
recited it many times;
many, many
it many,
transcriptions
transcriptionsof the the text of the the Qur'an alreadyexisted
Qur'an already moreover,
existedmoreover,
which
which were
were made made at the the time of the Prophet Prophet and even
and even beforebefore
the Hegira
the Hegira'. 1
•

-secondly, the members

-secondly, merilbersof his following who who were closestto him
were closest
and
and the
the Believers
Believers who who had had witnessed
witnessedhis words and
his words deedshad
and deeds had
remembered
rememberedthem them andand relied
relied onon them addition to
support,in addition
them for support, to
the
the Qur'an,
Qur'an,when when defining
definingaa nascent
nascentdoctrine
doetrineand legislation.
and legislation.
In the year3 that were
the years wer€ to follow the Prophet's death,
the Prophet's texts
death, texts
were
were toto be
be compiled
compiledwhich which recorded
recordedthe the two groupsgroups of teachings
teachings
he had
he had left.
left. TheThe first gathering of hadiths
first gathering hadiths was performed
was performed
roughly forty
roughly years after
forty years after the
the Hegira,
Hegira, but first collection
but aa first collectionof of
Qur'anic
Qur'anic texts
texts had had been
been made
made beforehand
beforehandunder under Caliph
Caliph Abu Abu
Bakr,
Bakr, andand in in particular
particular CaliphCaliph Uthman,
Uthman, the secondof
the second whom
of whom
published definitivetext
publishedaa definitive text during
during his Caliphate,Le.
his Caliphate, i.e. between
betweenthe the
twelfth
twelfth and
and twenty-fourth
twenty-fourth years yearsfollowing Muhammad'sdeath.
following Mul,lammad's death.
What
What must
must be beheavily
heavily stressed
stressedis betweenthese
disparity between
the disparity
is the these
two
two groups
groupsof of texts,
texts, both from aa literary
both from literary pointpoint of view and
of view and asas
regards
regardstheir
their contents.
contents.It It would indeedbe
would indeed unthinkableto
be unthinkable to com-
com-
pare
p* the the style
styleof of the
the Qur'an
Qur'an withwith thatthat of of the hadiths.What
the hadiths. what isis
more,
*ot*, when
when the the contents
contentsof of the two texts
the two texts are colnparedin
are cmnpared in the
the
1.1. The
The Hegira
Hegirs was
TaEin
in 622,
622,ten yearr before
ten years beforeMubammad's death.
Mubammad'rdeath.
 t4E
248 THEBIBLE,
THE BIBLE,THE
THEQUa'AN ANDSCIENCE
QUn'ANAND SCIENCE

light of
light of modern
modernscientific
scientificdata,
data,one oneisis struck
struck by by the
thp oppositi.ons
oppositbns
betweenthem.
between them.II hopehopeII have
havesucceeded
succeeded in showingwhat
in showing whatfollows:
follows:
--on the
-on theoneonehand,
hand,statements
statementsin in the
theQur'an
Qur'anwhichwhichoften
oftenappear
appear
toto be
becommonplace,
commonplace, but which
but whichconceal
concealdata datathat
that science
sciencewas waslater
later
to bring to
tobring tolight.
light.
-{n the
-on theother
otherhand,
hand,certain
certainstatements
statementsin in the
thehadiths
hadithswhich
whichare are
shownto
shown to be
bein in absolute
absoluteagreement
agreementwith with the
the ideas
ideasofof their
their times
times
but which
but which contain
containopinions
opinionsthat that areare deemed
deemedscientifically
scientificallyunac-unac-
eeptabletoday.
ceptable today. These
Theseoccur
occur in in anan aggregate
aggregateof of statements
statementscon- con-
cerning Islamic
cerning Islamic doctrine
doctrine andand legislation,
legislation,whosewhoseauthenticity
authenticity is is
unquestioningly acknowledged.
unquestioningly acknowled ged.
Finally, it
Finally, it must
must be pointedout
bepointed out that
that Mu};1ammad's
Mutrammad'sown own attitude
attitude
was guitedifferent
wasquite differenttowards
towardsthe the Qur'an
eur'an from
from what
what itit was
wastowards
towards
his personalsayings.
his personal sayings.The The Qur'an
eur'an was proclaimedby
was proclaimed by him
him to to be
be aa
divine Revelation.
divine Revelation.Over period of twenty
Over aa period years, the
twenty years, prophet
the Prophet
classifiedits sections
classified sectionswith the greatest of care,
the greatest care, asas we
we have
have seen.
seen.
The Qur'an
The representedwhat
Qur'an represented what had had to be be written downdown during
during his his
own lifetime and
own and learned
learned by heart to become becomepart of the the liturgy
liturgy
prayers.The
of prayers. The hadiths
hadiths areare said, principle, to provide
said, in principle, provide an an ac-
ac-
countof his
count his deeds
deedsand personalreflections,
and personal reflections,but he he left it to others
others
find an
to find an example
examplein them them for their own behaviour and
own behaviour and to make make
them public
them public however
however they they liked: he he did not givegive any
any instructions.
instructions.
In
In view of the fact that only a limited nu*b*" number oi of paitts
l}.adiths maymay
be
be considered express the prophet's
considered to express Prophet's thoughts
thoughts with with certainty,
the
the others must contain contain the thoughts
thoughts of of the menmen of his time,time, in
particular
particular withwith regard
regard to the subjects
subjects referred
referred to here.here. whenWhen
these
these dubious
dubious or or inauthentic hadiths are compared compared to the text text ofof
the Qur'an, w€
the Qur'an, we can
can measure
measure the the extent
extent toto which
which they
they differ.
differ. This
This
comparison
comparison highlishts
highlights (as (as ifif there
there were
were still
still any
any need
need to) to) thethe
atriking
striking difference
difference between
between the the writings
writings of of this
this period,
period, whichwhich
are
are riddled
riddled with
with scientific
scientific inaccurate
inaccurate statements,
statements, and and ttthe Qur'an,
* eur'an,
the
the Book
Book ofof written
Written Revelation,
Revelation, that that is
is free
free from
from enors
errors or of tnit
this
kind.t
kind.1
1.
1. The
The truth
truth of
of the
the ladithc,
1)adiths, from
from ea religiour
religious point
point of of view,
view, iris beyond
beyond que&
ques-
tion.
tion. when
When theythey deal,
deal, however,
however, with
with earthly
earthly affairs
affairs there
there isis no
no direr-
differ-
ence
ence betneen
between thethe Prophet
Prophet andand other
other humans.
humans. one One tradith
\1adith givea
gives an
an ac-
ac-
count
count ofofan
an utterence
utterance ofof the Prophet: ,,T[henever
the prophet: "Whenever rI iommand command you you toto do
do
romething rl!lated toto Retigion
somethingnrlatcd Religion dodo obey,
obey, and
and ifif I I command
command you you romething
something
according
accordingtoto mymyown opinion (do
own opinion (do remember
remember this)
this) I I am am aa human
human beingf;.
being".
(Continued
(Continuedon onPage
Page249)
249)
 GEnE~al
Gerreral
Cont::lu~ion~
Conclusions
At the end
At end of
of this study, a fact
fact that
that stands forth very
stands forth very elearly
clearly
that the predominsnt
is that predominant opinion held West on the texts of
held in the West of
possess realistic.
Scriptures we possess today is hardly very realistic.
the Holy Scriptures We
have se€n
have conditions, times snd
seen the conditions, and ways in in which the elements
elements
constituting the Old Old Testament, Gospels snd
Testament, the Gospels and the Qut'an
Qur'an
were collected
were collected and written down: the circumstances
and written attendant
circumstances attendant
upon the birth
upon birth of the Scriptures
Scriptures for
for tltese Revelations dif-
these three Revelations dif-
ferred widely in each which had
case,aa fact whieh
eachcase, extremely important
had extremely
consequences
consequences authenticity of the texts and
concerning the authenticity
concerning and certain
aspectsof their contents.
aspects contents.
The
The Old
OId Testament
Testamentrepresents
representsas vast number of literary
vast number works
literary works
written
written over period of roughly nine
over aa period nine hundred years.
hundred years. It It forms aa
highly disparate
disparate mosaic
mosaicwhose pieces
whosepieces have, the course
have, in the courseof cen-cen-
turies,
turies, been
been changed
changedby man. pafts
Some parts were
man. Some were added
added to what
already
already existed,
existed, so
so that today
todey it sometimesvery difficult in-
it is sometimes
deed
deedto identify where
where they
they came
came from originally.
Through an
Through an account
accountof Jesus's words and
Jesus'swords and deeds,
deeds,the Gospels
the Gospels
were
were intended
intendedto makemakeknown
known to menmen the teschingshe
the teachings wished to
he wished
leave
leavethem
them onon completion mission. Unfortunately,
completionof his earthly mission. Unfortunately,
the
the authors
authors of thethe Gospels
Gospelswere eyewitnessesof the
were not eyewitnesses dats
the data
they
they recorded.
recorded.TheyThey were
were spokesmen
spokesmenwho expresseddata that
who expressed data
were
were quite
quite simply
simply the
the information that had had been preservedby
been preserved by
the
the various
various Judeo-Christian
Judeo-Christiancommunities
communitieson public
Jesus'spublic life,
on Jesus's life'
passed
passeddown
down by oral traditions or writings which
by oral no longer
which no exist
longer exist
iod"y, and
today, and which
which constituted
eonstitutedan between
stagebetween the
intermediate stage
an intermediate the
oral
oral tradition
tradition and
andthe
the definitive tent^s.
definitivetexts.
(Continued
(Continued from
from Page
Page248)
248)
Al 'Principles' (Al
(Cl UsUl) thic statement as
statement as
Al SaraksT
Saraksi in in his
his 'Principles' Ufrll transmitted
transmitted this
follows:
follows: "If
"If I
I bring
bring something
something to
to you
you on
on your
your religion,
religion, do
do act
act according
aeeording
to
to it,
it, and
and if
if II bring
bring you
you something
something related
related toto this world, then
this world, you have
then you heve
aa better
better knowledge
knowledge of of your
your own
own earthly afiairs".
earthly affairs".

249
s50
250 THE
THE BmLE,
BIBLE, THE
THE QUR'AN
QUR'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

This
This is is the
the light
light inin which
whieh the the Judeo-Christian
Judeo-Christian Scriptures
Scriptures
should be
should viewed today,
be viewed today, and-to
and-to be be objective-one should
objective-one should aban-
aban-
don the
don the classic
classicconcepts
coneeptsheldheld by by experts
experts in in exegesis.
exegesis.
The inevitable
The inevitable result
result of
of the
the multiplicity
multiplicity of of sources
sourcesis is the
the exist-
exist-
ence of contradictions and
ence of contradictions and oppositions:
oppositions: many many examples
examples have have
been given
been given of of these.
these.The The authors
authors of of the
the Gospels
Gospelshad (when talk-
had (when talk-
ing of
ing of Jesus)
Jesus) thethe same
same tendency
tendency to to magnify
magnify certain
certain facts
facts as
as the
the
poets of
poets of French
French Medieval
Medieval literature
literature in in their
their narrative
narrative poems.
poems.
The consequence
The consequenceof of this
this was
was that
that events
events were
were presented
presented from from
each individual narrator's
each individual narrator's point
point of of view
view and
and the
the authenticity
authenticity of of
the facts
the reported in
facts reported in many
many cases proved to
casesproved to be
be extremely
extremely dubious.
dubious.
In view of of this, the
the few statements
statements contained
contained in the Judeo-Chris-
Judeo-Chris-
tian Scriptures
Scriptures which may have have something
something to to do
do with
with modern
modern
knowledge should
knowledge should always
always be examined with the
be examined the circumspection
circumspection
that the questionablenature of their authenticity demands.
the questionable demands.
Contradictions, improbabilities and
Contradictions, and incompatibilities with
modern scientific
modern scientific data
data may be be easily
easily explained
explained in terms of what
has just been
has just been said above.
above. Christians
Christians are nevertheless
nevertheless very sur-
prised when they realize this, so
prised so great have
have been
been the continuous
continuous
far-reaching efforts made
and far-reaching made untiluntil now by many official com- com-
mentators to camouflagecamouflage the very obvious obvious results of of modern
studies, under cunning dialectical
studies, dialectical acrobatics
acrobatics orchestrated
orchestrated by
apologetic
apologetic lyricism. A case in point are the genealogies
A case genealogies of Jesus Jesus
g'iven
given in Matthew
Matthew and Luke, which were eontradictory contradictory and scien- scien-
tifically
tifically unacceptabie.
unacceptabie. Examples have been been provided whichwhich reveal
this attitude very clearly. John's John's Gospel
Gospel has
has been
been given special
special
attention
attention becausebecause there are very very important
important differences
differences between
between
itit and the other
other three Gospels,
Gospels, especially with with regard
regard to the fact fact
that
that his Gospel does not describe
Gospel does describe the institution
institution of of the Eucharist:
Eucharist:
this
this is not not generally known.
The Qur'anic Revelation
Revelation has a historyhistory which is fundamentally
different
different from from the other two. ItIt spanned
other two. spanned a period
period ofof some
some twenty
twenty
years
years and, as soon soon as itit was
was transmitted
transmitted to to Mul.rammad
Mul}.ammad by by Arch-
Arch-
angel Gabriel, BelieversBelievers learned itit by by heart.
heart. ItIt was
was also
also written
written
down during
down during Muhammad's
Muhammad's life. life. The
The last
last recensions
recensions of of the
the eur'an
Qur'an
were effected under
were efrected under Caliph
Caliph Uthman
Uthman starting
starting some
some twelve
twelve years
years
after the
after the Prophet's
Prophet's deathdeath and
and finishins
finishing twenty-four
twenty-four yearsyears after
after
it. They
it. They had had thethe advantage
advantage of of being
being checked
checked by by people
people who who
already
already knew knew the the text
text by
by heart,
heart, for for they
they had
had learned
learned itit atat the
the
 gltr
251
tulcorcl*'lon'

time of
time of the
the Bevelstion
Revelation itselfitself sndand had subsequently recited
had subsequently recited itit con-
COD-
stantly. Since
stantly. Since then,
then, we
we know
know that
that the
the text
text has
has been
been scrupulously
scrupulously
preserved. ItIt does
preserved" does notnot give
give rise rise to any problems
to any problems of of authenticity.
authenticity.
The QUl"an
Ttre Qurtan follows
follows on
on from
from the
the two
two Revelations
Bevelations that preceded
that preceded
it and
it and is is not
not only
only free
free from
from contradictions
contradictions in
in its
its narrations,
narrations, the
the
sign
sign of of the
the various
various human
human manipulations
manipulstions to
to be
be found
found in
in the
the Gos-
Gos-
pels, but
pe1s, but provides
provides aa quality
quality all all of
of its
its own
own for those who
for those who examine
examine
it objectively
it objectively and in
in the
the light
light of
of science
science i.e. its
its complete agree-
ment
ment with
with modern
modern scientific
scientifie data.
dsta. What
What is
is more,
more, ststements
statements are
are
to be found in in itit (as has been been shown) that connected with
that are connected with
science: and yet
science: yet itit is unthinkable
unthinkable that that & a man of of Mu[rammad's
Mu\1ammad's
time
time could have been
been the
the author
author of
of them. Modern ecientific
scientific
knowledge therefore
therefore allows us to understand eertain certain versesverses of of the
Qur'an
Qur'an which, until
until now, it
it has been
been impossible
impossible to
to interpret.
interpret.
The comparison of of several
several Biblical
Biblical and Qur'snic narrations of
Qur'anic narrations
the same
same subject
subject shows the existence of fundamental differences
of fundamental
between statements in the former, which are scientifically un-
between statements
acceptable,
acceptable, and declarations
declarations in the latter latter which are in perfect
agreement
agreement with
with modern data: this was the case
case of the Creation
and the Flood,
Flood, for for example.
example. An extremely important important complement
complement
to the Bible wes was found in the text of the Qur'an on the subject subiect
of the history
history of the Exodus, Exodus, where the two texts were \r'ere very
much
much in agreement
agreement with with archaeological
archaeological findings, findings, in the dating
of the time of Moses. Moses. Besides,
Besides, there
there are differences be-
major differences be-
tween
tween the Qur'an
Qur'an and
and the Bible on
on the other subjects: they serve
serve
to disprove
disprove all that has has beenbeen maintained-without
maintained-without scrap of
aa scrap
evidence--concerning
evidence+oncerning the
the allegation
allegation that
that Mul)ammad
Mu[rammad is
is supposed
supposed
to
to have
have copied
copied the the Bible
Bible to produce the
to produce the texttext of of the the Qur'an.
Qur'an.
When
When aa comparative
comparative study study is is made
made betweenbetween the statements
the statements
connected
connectedwith with science
scienceto to be be found
found in in the collection of hadiths,
the collection of hadiths'
which
which are are attributed
attributed to to Mul).ammad
Mubammad but but are often of dubious
are often of dubious
authenticity
authenticity (although
(although they reflect the
they reflect the beliefs
beliefs of the period)
of the period),'
and
and thethe data
data of of aa similar
similar kind kind in in the
the Qur'an,
Qur'an, the disparity be-
the disparity be'
comesso
comes soobvious
obviousthat that any
any notion
notion of of aI common
commonorigin origin is ruled
is ruled out. out.
In
In view
view of of the
the level
level ofof knowledge
knowledge in in Mul)ammad's
Mu[rammad's day, day, it is
it is
inconceivable
inconeeivable that that many
many of of the
the statements
statements in in thethe Qur'an
Qur'an whichwhich
are
are connected
connectedwith with science
sciencecould could havehave been beenthe the workwork of man.
of aa man.
ItIt is,
is, moreover,
moreover, perfectly
perfectly legitimate,
legitimate, not not only only to regard the
to regard the
Qur'an as
ss the
the expression
expression of
of as Revelation,
Revelation, but
but also
also to
to award
award it aa
it
Qur'an
?82 TIIE BIBLE,
THE BIBIJ, THE
THE QURtAN
QUR'AN AND
AND SCIENCE
SCIENCE

very special
very place,on
specialplace, on account
account of
of the guarantee of
the guarantee of authenticity
authenticity it
it
provides and the
provides and presence in
the presence in it
it of
of scientific
scientific statements
statements which,
which,
when studied
when studied today,
today, appear
appear as
Bs aa challenge
challenge toto explanation
explanation in
in
human terms.
human terntg.
Tramliteration of
Truwliterorion of tlw
the Ar&fu:
Arabic Into
Into l-p;tin
Lotin Clutacten
Claaracte" 253

TRANSLITERATION ARABIC INTO TATIN

TRANSLITERATION OF THE ARABIC LATIN
CHARACTERS USED
CHARACTERSUSED IN
IN THIS BOOK
BOOK
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tl- ~
a •lIa u .bt
..b t
•
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r.:,a t t
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L
v \ "
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d, 1.!. t i
LE
t.
ei u
ri t.
f

tLl h• JL i q q

tc! ~ ,il
cl k

rd
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J ;~d rf m

ttl
J r 0Ct n

JJ a
:1: •a h

..r
it :$rs C:st
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lcttcr of
of the s
word ... w
the word
Jt therwise .............. uu
Lotherwisc

Ji
.j 'I
l(
:~

':!L t y y
to.?
\t :~ is
rl
ati, rand
f andu
i indicate
iodi..tc the
thc elongation of the
clongationof concsponding
thc corresponding
" Arabic vowel
Arabic vowel