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Compass Survey: Broad Type 85 MM To 100mm. WCB System. Edge Bar Type 115mm To 200mm. in Q.B. System
Compass Survey: Broad Type 85 MM To 100mm. WCB System. Edge Bar Type 115mm To 200mm. in Q.B. System
Dip
it is vertical angle made by magnetic line of forces with the horizontal surface of earth.
ϴ➔ Dip
At pales, Dip = 90o
At Equator, Dip = 0o
Local Attraction
➢ It is an attraction on magnetic needle towards a local magnetic field other than
earth’s magnetic field.
➢ Local Attraction accurse due to presence of heavy magnetic object such as
magnet bar, electric wire etc.
➢ Due to local attraction, magnetic bearing of line changes. there will be no local
attraction if a line has difference of 180o in fore bearing & back bearing,
provided that there should be no instrumental error.
(ii) True meridian and true bearing : True meridian is a line joining true north pole, true
south pole and point of reference.
Angle measured for any line w.r.t true meridian is called true bearing.
(iii) Magnetic meridian and magnetic bearing :0 Line joining magnetic north pole,
magnetic south pole and point of reference is called magnetic meridian. Bearing taken
w.r.t magnetic meridian is called magnetic bearing.
(iv) Magnetic declination : At any place horizontal angle between true meridian and
magnetic meridian is called magnetic declination
For Eastern Declination
α = β + ϴE or T.B = M.B + ϴE
Here, α = true bearing or T.B
B = Magnetic bearing or M.B
ϴE = eastern declination
for western declination
α = β - ϴw or T.B = M.B - ϴw
Here, ϴw1 = Western declination.
Designation of bearing
(i). WCB (Whole Circle Bearing System) :
All Bearings Are taken writ north direction, going in clockwise.
Bearing of line OA = ϴA
Bearing of line OB = ϴB
Bearing of line OC = ϴc
Bearing of line OD = ϴD
• These bearing are observed by prismatic compass.
FB = Fore bearing
ϴ = F.B. Of line AB
∅ = F.B of line BA or B.B of line AB
+ve sign is used when F.B < 180o
-ve sigh is used when F.B. > 180o
• Local attraction
Direction of magnetic needle can be diverted due to presence of some magnetic
objects near the instrument set of a station, this will cause local attraction due
to which same error will be there in all measurements taken from that station
If the difference between fore bearing and back bearing is 180o1 then the
adjoining stations are free from local attraction.
2). By Passometer
It is an instrument shape like a watch which records no of paces.
Total Distance = No of Paces x Average length of 1 pace.
3). By odometer
In this, if a wheel is fitted with gauge meter, rolled along a line.
Distance = No of revolution x circumference of wheel
4). By chaining
➔ it is a process of linear measurement in which distance is to be measured with the
help of chain.
Chaining the total distance.
Chain
Chain is made of galvanized mild steel. It consists of various no of links, each link is
connected with circular ring. the standard length of link is 20cm. the end link includes
the handle.
the distance b/w two consecutive circular ring is called as length of a link
The distance from outer end of one handle to the outer end of another handle
is called length of chain.
Brass Talley is used to read the fractional part of a chain.
In 5m & 10m chain, brass Talley are attached on each meter length.
In 20 & 30m chain, brass Talley are attached at every 5m lengthand a small
brass ring is attached on each meter length of 20m & 30m chain.
Note:-Surveying chain does not gives more accurate results so, a steet Band or Band
having 20m or 30m long is more preferred over it.
Types of chains
Metric chain
1m = 100cm
1 link = 20cm
1m = 5links
5m chain = 25 links
10m chain = 50 links
20m chain = 100 links
30m chain = 150 links
metric chains are used only for rough work.
Note:
1. A/c to Indian standard, every meter length of a chain should be current with
in a limit of +2mm, with a standard pull of 80N.
2. the tolerance limit for 20m chain is ±5mm & for 30m chain is ±8mm.
2). Arrow
It is used to locate intermediate points along a chain line. it is also known as marking
Pin.
3). Ranging Rod
➢ It is made of galvanized iron pipes having length of 2m or 3m&dia of
25-30mm. it is pointed in alternative color of bands black& white or red
in succession. The length of each band strip is 20 cm.
➢ Ranging Rod is used to reach out some intermediate points along
chain line.
➢ It is suitable for small distances.
❖ Ranging pole is used to range out the points at greater distances (more than
200m)
Angle Setting devices
1). Cross staff
i). Metal open cross staff BY Nikhil sir 9560969640
It is used to set perpendicular from a chain line. it consists of 4 metallic heads.
2). Clinometer
It measures Ground slope
3). Optical Square
➢ 2 Reflections
➢ Angle = 45O
• It is used to set perpendicularfrom a chain line.
• In this the angel b/w two mirrors is 45o.
• in this, double reflection takes place.
• In this, incident ray is to the reflected way.
• Prism square can set any angle from a chain line.
Methods of Ranging
1). Direct Ranging
When both the end points are clearlyintervisible then direct singing is to be done.
Note:-
1). In case of dense forest, ranging is done by random line
Method in which pints are located on a random line by taking perpendicular from
tress.
2). A line ranger can also be used to range out some points along a chain line.
3). Stepping methodis used to measure distances along a sloping around. it may be
stepping down or stepping up but stepping down method is to be more preferred.
Principle of leveling
The Principle of is to make a horizontal line site from which vertical distances of
points above or below of this line can be measured.
Teams in leveling
3). Datum
this is any assume level surface w.r.t which vertical distances of the points above or
below, can be measured.
❖ Mean sea level is taken as standard datum
6). Altitude
It is the vertical distance of a point, measured above mean a level.
Note: -
1. Above mean sea level, elevation & attitude will be same.
2. vertical distances are always measured along the line of gravity.
8). station
This is a point at which staff is placed. this point may be having a known elevation is
to be established.
Methods of Leveling
1). Direct Levelling
In this difference of level b/w 2 Point can be determined directly from the instrument it
is also known as spirit leveling.
Defects of a lens
note: -
1. In leveling instrument, spirit or purified synthetic alcohol is used as a liquid in
bubble tube.
2. in leveling instrument, Kepler type of telescope & Ramsden Eyepiece are used
3). the least count of leveling staff is 5mm.
HI = B.S + R.L of BM
Note:- When staff reading increases, then-there is a fall & when staff reading
decreases, there is a rise.
𝑛𝑑𝐿
R = s
𝑆
ϴ = d
206265
N dL
s
S
ϴ = Seconds
𝑆
206265
𝐿𝑛
h = d2/2R
CC= (d2/2R)
Effect of curvature occurs when difference b/w level line horizontal line increases as
the distance of staff station increases from an instrument BY NIKHIL SIR 9560969640
Note:- Due to effect of curvature, staff reading increases & the earth surface appears
to be much lower than they really are.
2). Effect of refraction
1 𝑑2
h = CR = +1/7 CC
7 2𝑅
CR = +1 d2
7 2R
d = distance b/w instrument & staff station (in Km)
R = Radices of earth (R = 6367 km)
CR = +1 d2
7 2 x 6367
CR = +0.0112d2
Where, CR is in meter
d is in km
The effect of Refraction occurs due to change in air density in which ray of light travel
from low air density to the high air density & become bend & staff reading increases.
Combined correction
C = C C + CR
C = -0.0758d2 + 0.0112d2
c = -0.0673d2➔ LEARN
C =- 6 d2
7 2R
∵ c = - 0.0673d2
∴ h = 0.0673d2
d = √ℎ/0.067
d = 3.854 √h
Where, d is in km
& h is in meter
Dumpy level
A dumpy level, telescope& spindle are casted as one piece & leveling screw. There
are following point should be considered for permanent adjustment of a dumpy level.
1). axis of bubble tube should be perpendicularto the vertical axis of instrument.
2). axis of telescope should be parallel to the axis of bubble tube.
3). horizontal cross core should be in a plane which is perpendicular to the
vertical axis of the instrument
4). line of sight should be horizontal.
Note: - if the line of sight is not horizontal, then an error may occurwhich is
known s collimation error. it can be removed by two pegtests.
Reciprocal leveling
When the leveling instrument cannot be placed in b/w the 2 points, the
reciprocal leveling is to be done.
eq River, deep valley.
Note:-Reciprocal leveling can eliminate the effect of curvature, refraction &
collimation error but it can’t remove Parallax error.
Method of tachometry
Stadia method
in this stadia wire are used for taking staff intercept.
it has 2 types.
i). Fixed hair method
in this the stadiainterval (i) is to be fixed but staff interval it is to be varied(s)
ii). marble hair method
in this, the stadia interest (i) is varied but staff intercept is to be fixed(s)
it is also known as vertical base subtense method or subtensetheodolite
method
D = ( )s + c
𝑘
𝑚
where,
k =
𝐹
𝑃
P ➔ pitch
m ➔ sun of micrometer reading
V = ((k/m) s + c) sinϴ
tangential method
in this, two big targets are used & two angles can be measured
𝑠
D =
tanQ2−tanQ1
V = Dtanϴ2
𝑠
D =
tanQ1 + tanQ2
V = Dtanϴ2
Ch-6 plane table survey
plane table is an instrument used for graphical methods in which
sighting, reading & plotting can be donesimultaneously
there is no office work.
Plane table survey is suitable for topographical area & the finished maps
which are produced known as topographic maps.
The survey in which topographic map is to be produced, known as
cartographic surveying.
Plane table survey is suitable, for small to medium scale mapping.
1:10000 to 1:2,50,000
Note: - Plane table survey does not give more accurate result so, less
preferred.
N S
it is a u-Piece of metal frame which carry a plumb bob, it is used for centering
of the plane table board over the station.
6). tripod
7). drawing sheet - A2 Size.
2). Intersection
➔ In this, the instrument has 2 station&used for irregular area or for large
distances.
It is also known as graphical triangulation.
3). Traversing
In this, the instrument has to be set on each of the station as in
succession.
This method can be used for survey of road, railway etc.
4). Resection
It can be defined as the process of locating the instrument station occupied by
the plane station by drawing rays from the station whose positions are
alreadyplotted on the drawing sheet. it can be done in following way:
2-point problem.
i). Itconsists of locating the position of plane table station on the drawing sheet
be observation of two well defined points, where portions have already been
plotted on the plan.
Lehman’s Rule
A/c to Lehman’srules:
1). If Δ of error lies inside the great Δ, then the instrument station (p) will also
be inside.
2). If Δ of error lies outside the great Δ, then the instrument station (P) will
also be inside.
Note:- Radiation &intersection methods are used for plotting details whereas
traversing&Resection can be used for locating the instrument station.
CH-10 Earthwork Calculation
the major objective of surveying is to find out the such as area & volume. it
can be some by plan measurement or fill measurement.
NIKHIL SIR 9560969640
If shape of figure is defined, then it can be subdivided into some simple
geometrical shape such as triangle, rectangle, sourceetc. and the exact formula
can be used to find but these Quantities.
if shape of figure is undefined, then an approximate formula can be used.
Note -area of an irregular figure can be find out by planimeter.
Trapezoidal rule
3). Simpson’s 1/3 Rule
A1 = d1
𝑂1 + 𝑂2
2
A2 = d2
𝑂2 + 𝑂3
2
A = A1 + A2 + ……. + An
Note
1). Simpson’s 1/3 rule is more accurate than trapezoidal rule
2). Simpson’s 1/3 rule assumes that short length of boundaries B/W two
adjacent offset will be a parabolic arc.
3). Simpson’s 1/3 Rule is applicable only for add no. of offset or even no of
section
Measurement of volume
1). End area Method or Trapezoidal Rule.
NOTE:-
An isosceles triangle having two base angles as 56014’ can also be takes as well
conditioned triangle.
Sources of Error
1) Natural
2) Instrumental
3) Personal
Types of Error
1) Mistake
It occurs due to carelessness, sleeping tendency, miscounting etc.
2) Cumulative error
It occurs with same value, some sign in same direction. since it follows a system, so,
it is also known as systematic error.
𝐸 α𝑙
3) Compensating Error
It occurs with same value, same frequency with opposite sign. It neutralizes the effort
of error during measurement.
* If mistake at cumulative error are removed from the permanent then an error still
may occur which is present as accidental error or Random error.
E x √𝑙 l= length of line
Note: cumulative error causes more serious effect on accuracy of survey work.
Errors in Chaining
l × L = L1 ×l1
𝐿′
So, true length of line → l= ( ) l’
𝐿
𝐿,
True area ➔ A = ( )2 A’ → Measured area
𝐿
𝐿′ 3
V = ( ) V’
→ Measured volume
true volume ➔
𝐿
Tapes
1) Cloth Tape
It is made of closely woven liner. This taps is available in length of 10m & 15m.And
width of 15mm. This tape can be easily affected by the moisture, so used for only
Rough measurement.
2) Metallic Tape
When linen is reinforced with brass or copper wire. Then it become metallic tape. This
tape is available in length of 15cm & 20m & 30m. Metallic tape is used for measuring
offset distances.
3) Steel Tape
It is made with strip of steel. This tape is available length of 1 to 50 m & width of 6
to 16mm. A steel tape should not be used in Verification.
4) Invar Tape
It is made with an alloy of steel (64%) & Nickel (36%). This tape is available in length
of 30m, 50mm & 100m. & a width of 6mm. Since, this tape has low value of
coefficient of thermal expansion (x=0.622x10-6/ 0C). So, it does not affect by the effect
of temp. This tape given the most accurate results.
Tip correction
Cl = L1-L l’
L
2) Correction due to Temperature (CT)
CT = ∝ ( TM-T0) l’
CP = P-P0 l’
AE
Where,
P = Pull applied
P0= Standard Pull
A= Cross sectional area of tape
E= Modules of elasticity
if P > P0➔ CP = +ve
P0 > P ➔ CP = -ve
4) Correction due to slope (C0)
C0 = - l’ (1 – cos ∅)
C0 = -( h2 )
2 l’
Where,
h = difference of level b/w end points
L = LENGTH OF SLOPE
CS = - W2 (l’)3
24P2
P = pull applied
NOTE: Generally contours are not visible on the ground except near the sea shore.
Contour Interval
2) Nature of Ground
3) Purpose of survey
For more details → small C.I
for less details → large C.I.
4) Time & Money
1 1
C.I. ∝ & C.I.∝
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑦
4) A Contour may form closed curve. They may close either on the map or outside
the map.
5) A set of closed contour with higher figure inside & lower figure outside may indicate
hill.
5) A set of closed contour with lower figure inside & higher figure inside may
indicate a depression
6) the contour lines are normal in case of watersheds and ridge lines
7) The connecting point of higher elevation to the lower elevation is called as
Ridge Line.
9) 2 contour lines having same elevation may not unite & continue as 1 line having
diff. elevation.
10) A single contour cannot put in 2 lines having different elevation.
Methods of Contouring
1) Direct Method
In this, the points which are to be plotted, measured directly. It consists of 2 steps:
(i) Vertical control- To locate the points.
(ii) Horizontal control – Survey of those points.
2) Indirect Method
In this, some guide points are located b/w the main points & these guide points helps
to measure main points &. And these main points can be plotted on the map but the
guide points don not need to be plotted. It can be done:
i. By Square
ii. By Cross Section
iii. By Tachometer
NOTE:
1) Along a gradient, the line joining points of same elevation is known as contour
gradient or grade contour.
2) The method of provide spacing b/w contour lines is known as interpolation of
contour.
Use of Contour
1) To draw a map.
2) To show intervisibility of point
3) To find out area of the ground
4) To define capacity of reservoirs etc.
5) To locate path of flow
Chapter -9 CURVES
Types of Curves
1) Horizontal curves
This curve is provided when 2 straight line intersect each in a horizontal plane.
NOTE: Horizontal curves are circular in nature.
2) Vertical Curves
This curve is provided when 2 lines at different gradient intersect each other in a
vertical plane.
2) Compound Curve
It consist of 2 circular are having diff. radius with their center of curvature on same
side of common tangent
3) Reverse Curve
➔ It consist of 2 circular are having same or diff. radius with their center of
curvature on the opposite side of common tangent.
➔ Reverse curve is provided when 2 straight lines are parallel or angle b/w them
is very small.
NOTE: Compound curve & Reverse Curve are provided for low speed on Highway &
Railway.
1146
D =
𝑅
1719
• For 30m long arc or 30m chord length, D =
𝑅
𝜋𝑅𝛿
➔ Length of Curve (l) ➔ 𝑙 =
180
T= R tan( )
𝛿
➔ Tangent length (T) ➔
2
)
𝛿
➔ Length of long chord (L) ➔ L = 2 R sin(
2
𝛿
➔ Mid Ordinate (M) → M= R (1-cos )
2
𝛿
➔ Apex or External Distance (E) → E= R (sec − 1)
2
Setting out of a curve is a process of locating the points on the curve by which the
chords can be made by joining these points as it is difficult to measure along an arc.
So, it is done alone a chord. The first chord will be a sub chord all other chords will
be a full chord except the last chord. The last chord may be a sub chord or Full
chord depending on Length of Curve.
Linear Method
In this, a chain or tape is used for linear measurement & It can be done in following
way.
Ox = X2 2R
2) Angular Method
This method is more accurate than linear method. It has 2 type:
i) Rankine’s Methods
In this, a tape is used for linear measurement and a theodolite is used for Angular
measurement. This method is also known as Tangential Angle Method or One
Theodolite method.
In this, 2 theodolites are used for making an angular measurement & linear
measurement is completely eliminated. This method is based on the principle that
angle b/w tangent & sub chord & 10 side of a curve will be same as angle b/w 2
chords on opposite sides.
Transition Curve
1) This is a curve of varying radius, introduced b/w straight line & circular curve.
2) This curve is tangential on both side where it touches the straight line &
circular curve.
3) Its curvature should be zero (R = ∞) at one end when it touch the straight like
& its curvature should be at other end inhere it touches the circular curve.
1
𝑅
4) The rate of increase of curvature along the transitions curve should be equal to
the rate of increase of super elevation.
5) The vertical distance by which outer surface is raised above the inner surface,
called as super elevation.
𝐺𝑉 2
Super elevation (e) ➔ e =
𝑅𝑔
𝑉3
Length of transition curve (L) ➔ L =
∝𝑅
𝐿2
Shift in Transition curve =
24𝑅
1
* ∝< m/Sec2/Sec
3
Where, ∝ = rate of change of radial acceleration.
1) Cubic Spiral or Clothoid
𝑙∗𝑙∗𝑙
Y= L= length of transition curve
6𝑅𝐿
l = radius of curve
vertical Curve
This curve is used to connect 2 gradients in a vertical plane.
these 2 types:
i) Segment curve
Segment or upgrade is followed by a downgrade, and then this curve is formed.
L =
𝑔2−𝑔1
𝑟
TRAVERSING
Direct Angel
It is an angle measured in clockwise direction.
Deflection Angle
It is an angle b/w prolongation of a line to the next line.
(E) = K√𝑁
N → No. of angle
K → constant defined on the characteristics of instrument
Omitted Measurement
If some of the measurement which was taken in the field, was not taken due to same
reason, then these measurements are known as Omitted measurements.
1) Loop Traverse
∑latitude = 0 Or ∑L = 0
∑ Departure = 0 ∑D = 0
2) Link Traverse
∑L = Ls – L1
∑ departure = departure of last point – departure of 1st point.
∑D = Ds – D1
2 2
Closing error m (e) = √ex + ey
𝑒𝑥
𝜃 = tan-1 ( )
𝑒𝑦
∑𝐷
or 𝜃 = tan-1
∑𝐿
𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
or 𝜃 = tan-1
𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑒
Re =
𝑃
Re = 1
𝑃
( )
𝑒
If there is an error of closure than it should be adjusted such chat error of closure
becomes zero, there are following methods for adjusting in traverse. NIKHIL GOEL
9560969640
1) Arbitrary Rule
In this, closing error is to be adjusted according to the surveyor, based on field
condition.
2) Bowditch Rule
• It is also called as compass Rule. This rule is used when length & angle are
measured with same accuracy.
• This rule assumes that closing error occurs due to accidental error.
e1∝ √𝑙 1
1
e2∝
√𝑙2
CL = ± CY ( )
𝑙
𝑃
Correction in Departure of line
𝑝)
𝑙
CD = ± 𝐶𝑋 ( When error +ve , correction –ve
when error –ve, correction +ve
3) Transit Rule
This rule is used to balance a traverse in which angular measurement are more
accurate than linear measurement.
CL = ± CY 𝐿𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝐿1+𝐿
2+𝐿3+⋯
CD = ± CX 𝐷𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝐷1+𝐷
2+𝐷3+⋯
Note:
1) A/c to Transit Rule, angles are change less & length are change more as
compared to Bowditch Rule.
2) Traverse calculation are done in a tabular form which is known as Gale’s Traverse
Table.
Ch – 7 Theodolite
Theodolite is an instrument which used for measuring horizontal & vertical angles,
prolonging a line, measuring distance indirectly.
Types of theodolite
1). Vernier theodolite – In this, venires are used taking the readings. its least count
in 20’’
2). optical theodolite – It is based on an optical system in which measurement are
used for taking the readings. its least count is 1’’.
Note: 1) the size of theodolite is to be defined by the size of lower graduated circle
which vary from 8cm to 25cm.
2) The lower circle is also known as main scale plate & the upper circle is also
known as Vernier plate
3). The horizontal axis of a theodolite is also known as trunnion axis or transverse
axis and the vertical axis is also known as azimuth axis.
Terms in theodolite
1). Transit – it is an operation of rotating the telescope through 180o about its
horizontal axis in a vertical plane.
transit is also known as plunging or reversing
2). swinging
it is a process of revolving the telescope about its vertical axis.
in a horizontal plane
Right swing – clockwise rotation
left swing – anticlockwise rotation
3) lining in
It is a process of establishing intermediate points with the help of theodolite on a
given straight line whose ends are clearly intervisible.
4). Balancing in
it is a process of establishing intermediate points with the help of theodolite on a
given straight line whose ends are not clearly indivisible
Reiteration method
in this, several angles can be measured at one station. all the angles should be
measured form initial station to last station and the horizon is closed as to provide in
check of 360o of all the angles
Vernier scale
1). in 1631, Pierre Vernier invented a scale which is known as Vernier scale.
2). Vernier scale is used to read the fractional part of main scale.
3). the smallest possible value which can be counted on a scale known as least count
Least count = S/n
Where, S = Main scale reading
n = no of division
S = main scale reading
n = No of division
Types of Vernier
1). single venire
in this graduation increases in one direction only
2). Double Vernier
In this graduation increases in both the direction
3). direct Vernier
i). in this Vernier has smaller division than main scale
ii). in this Vernier moves in same direction as of main scale
nV = (n-1)S