NUMB ERS, DISTR IBUTI ON, AND MOVE MENT S OF A

RACC OON POPU LATIO N IN A SUBURBAN

RESID ENTIA L COMM UNITY

CLIFF O. HOFFM ANN AND JACK L. GOTTS CHANG

ABSTRA CT .-A populat ion of raccoons (Procyon lotor

lotor) was studied in the village
ati, Ohio. The 234.1-
of Glendal e, a suburba n resident ial commu nity near Cincinn
1 percent business
h~c~re (h~) study area ~s approxim ately 64 percent resident ial and
are approxi mately 1.1
dlstnct, With the remamd er being woods and fields. There
ed by other resident ial
people and 0.6 housing units/ha . Althoug h Glenda le is surround
and industri al areas, it was an excellen t habitat for raccoons .
of 237 times. In
During the 2-year study, 150 raccoons were live-trap ped a total
cked an average of 13.2 nights each. One hundred
addition , five raccoon s were radio-tra
raccoon s were estimate d present on the study area in 1973-74 , a density of one
and sixty
section of the study
raccoon per 1.46 ha. Raccoon density was higher in the northern
areas, and (2) the better
area than in the south due to (1) the characte r of the surroun ding
The average trap-
habitat offered by wooded areas, garden plots, and availabl e water.
and the mean greatest
determi ned "minim um home range" for 46 raccoon s was 5.1 ha
um home ranges"
distance traveled for 94 raccoon s was 391.5 meters (m). The "minim
animals used linear
averaged 5.5 times as long as wide. Radio telemet ry showed that
tively small and
travel routes going to and coming from the feeding areas. The compara
high populat ion density, an abundan ce of food,
narrow home ranges are attribute d to
and the linear compon ents of an urban habitat.

of the raccoon
Since the early part of the presen t century the life history and ecology
vely investig ated through out its
(Procyo n lotor) living in the wild has been extensi
in wildlif e refuges and experim ental stations
range. Studies have been conduc ted
Sharp and Sharp,
(Stuew er, 1943; Butterf ield, 1944; Cagle, 1949; Sander son, 1950;
univers ity owned farm (Ber-
1956), manage d marshe s (Dorne y, 1954; Urban, 1970), a
non-urb an areas in the United States
ner and Gysel, 1967), and numero us other
ood, 1952; Stains, 1956; Johnson , 1970; Sonens hine and
(Whitn ey and Underw
are able to exist in urban-
Winslo w, 1972). Althou gh it is well known that raccoon s
and Bonnet t, 1973), no investig ation of
suburb an areas (Seton, 1929; Kieran, 1959; Gill
urban-s uburba n raccoo n popula tions has been reporte d to date.
studies by the au-
Persona l commu nicatio n with city residen ts, prelimi nary field
, 1970) indicat ed that raccoons
thors, and previou s researc h (Schinn er, 1969; Cauley
greater Cincin nati, Ohio. In March 1973 a 2-year
were numero us in various areas of
pping and radio teleme try was underta ken near the village of
study utilizin g live-tra
on the size, structu re, distribu -
Glenda le, Ohio. The purpos e of this paper is to report
suburb an raccoon popula tion.
tion, home range, and movem ents of this
STUDY AREA
of Cincinn ati and Hamilto n in
Glendal e is located approxi mately halfway betwee n the cities
land within and surroun ding Glendal e is rolling
the northern part of Hamilto n County, Ohio. The
n is betwee n 213 and 226 meters (m). Drainag e is from west to east. The
and the general elevatio
on 180 m) is located a short distance to the east.
highly industri alized Mill Creek Valley (elevati
area (Fig. 1) in the central region of the village is delinea ted by the Oak Hill
The actual study
Industri al Park on the south, the Springfi eld-Syca m?re
Cemeter y on the north, the Woodla wn
p line on the east and Congres s Avenue on the west. The 234.1 hectare (ha) area consists
townshi
field and sparsely wooded land,
of approximately 64.0 percent resident ial area, 23.4 percent open
percent woods, and 1.0 percent busines s district. There are approxi mately 0.6 housing
11.6
people live in the study area, an average density of 1.1 people/
units/ha in Glendal e. About 1,570
623
624 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY Vol. 58, No.4

Sa RR

OAK HI LL CEMETERY

N
IIIIIIIIIIIIIII Business District
1'""."::,: :1 Open Field and Spa rse ly Wood ed
1::'.':"<1 Wo o ds
c::=:::J Resident ia l

o
EB
200 M ETER S

FIG. 1.-The Glendale study area, showing place names and area types.

ha. However, the population density in the central village square reaches 6.1 people/ha. Congress
Avenue, a primary highway, and Sharon Avenue and Oak Road are major roads in the study area.
Three parks occur in the study area. The largest, known locally as the Green Belt, is a strip of
thinly wooded land that parallels the southern border, adjacent to and south of Oak Road. The
Green Belt acts as a buffer zone between Glendale and the industrial area immediately to the
south. The two smaller parks are both located within t.~e area west of the railroad tracks; one is
wooded, the other is a playfield.
Land west of the railroad tracks is wooded and the large, old and spaciously arranged homes
and grounds here are well maintained. East of the railroad tracks, the homes are newer, more
variable and more" clumped" together. Large sections ofland in this area are kept vacant and are
used for gardening, horseback riding, and hiking.
November 1977 HOFFMANN AND GOTTSCHANG-SUBURBAN RACCOONS 625

,
A. 't B.
~.~~~\~;'t-_ .. ~.
•
~..-~~.
....
•
- \ . ~~
• I . .... . . .
Os
..'.....
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-

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.... ~-"~
. ~-:
'. '.--.. . . .... ..
· . .. . . . . ....
.,. .A • I

:/ ....: ...
~

\~- . . . .. -;"
.: . ..
"',
I~
.. . '.
••• - I
•s

I
• Swimming Pool _ Pond
• Hollow Trees
- Stream • Garden Plot o Ground Holes
...... Underground Stream ... Feeding Station • Buildings

c. D.

·
~

·
• , ·• 0
0

0 7'
0
0'-'; .-.--.. •
0

6
0
•
••
/6.2 120
21./ 21.1 14.9 13.1
4.4 77 /2.2 •
14.0/8.02.84.7

15.8 1.7
7.4 15.5 3.~

57,
I-- • o. 0 0 2.7
• • 3./ 6.~
•
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-
0 0
59 187 17.1 • 3.2
• 0
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5: ., 0

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0 0 5.6273/6.7 7.4
• 0
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/4.6 3~
.'•
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211
17
8.813.0 /3.9

4.7 23.
4.1,
7.

-• :• •.- •, -. • -- •
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~ •
• • 2.1 3.4 6.1 104 • 12.0/8.08.5 • •:

- - ..
0

- '1 .--1
-!..J
-*-
6.1 1 2 . 3.2 2.9 4.3 6.8
0..3 ~2 ~
---6 -•. 9.6 2J. ~L L1.6 13.6,
/5.4:

• Trap Site § Percent Catch

(!J Traps Set but No Captures
o No Traps Set

EB
FIG. 2.-A) Pennanent water supply, garden plots, and feeding stations. B) Known and proba-
rTI
o zoo METERS

ble raccoon den sites. C) Location of seven trapping sections and trap site positions. D) Distribu-
tion of raccoon percent catch in 2.3 ha grid sections.

Woodlots occur in four different areas (Fig. 1). Many large, mature oak, hickory, ash, sycamore,
beech, and maple trees as well as young trees and shrubs make up these wooded areas. Three
ponds and two streams that flow the entire length of the non-residential area provide an exten-
sive, permanent, natural water supply (Fig. 2a). In addition there are at least 12 permanent
outdoor swimming pools, numerous fish ponds, and bird baths.
626 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY Vol. 58, No.4

The climate is basically continental with a wide range in temperature (Local Climatological
Data, 1973-75). The average length of the freeze free period is 198 days and lasts from mid-April
to the latter part of October. Total precipitation averages 100.7 centimeters (cm), the maximum
occurring during winter and spring and the minimum in late summer and autumn. Annual
snowfall averages 48.0 cm, with the maximum during January and the heaviest full day amounts
recorded in November and February.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Raccoons were trapped using Number Three Havahart Live Traps (Havahart Animal Traps,
Ossining, New York). The traps were baited with a mixture of sardines and dog food, or less
frequently with table scraps, and were placed at semipermanent locations coinciding with
probable raccoon den sites, travel routes, and feeding areas. Traps were checked daily. Captured
raccoons that were brought back to the laboratory were released the following day at their original
site of capture.
Because of the large size of the study area and the small number of traps that could be conve-
niently handled (approximately 15), traps were concentrated in one of seven small sections and
rotated to a different section every 2 weeks (Fig. 2c). Traps were always rotated in order from
section 1 through section 7, allowing for complete coverage in 14 weeks. The entire area was
trapped six times during the intensive trapping period, 18 March 1973 through 30 November
1974. Traps were set an average of 19.4 nights per month accumulating 4,857 trap nights. Follow-
ing this, trapping was conducted intermittently until April 1975. Approximately 46 percent of the
trapping effort was in residential areas, 30 percent in woods, and 24 percent in fields and sparsely
wooded areas. No trapping was conducted in the business district, although one trap placed on
the roof of an auto body repair shop caught one raccoon.
When a raccoon was captured the first time or if it had not been captured within a reasonably
long period of time, it was returned to the laboratory for examination and/or ear tagging. After
being etherized in an anesthesia box (Balser and Kinsey, 1962) the animal was ear-tagged,
weighed, and measured; notes were recorded on its general and reproductive condition. Animals
of both sexes were aged as juveniles, yearlings, or adults on the basis of body weight, length of
canine teeth, and wear on canine and other teeth. Because it is not always possible to separate
these groups using only this criteria (Sanderson, 1961), we examined teat appearance in females
and extrudability of the os penis, size of testes, and externally measured length of the baculum in
males as well. This allowed a separation which we believe was highly accurate. April 15 was used
as the median birth date for separating all age classes of raccoons (Sagar, 1956).
Animals released from traps were followed on foot to discover their denning sites. Although
care was taken not to pressure them into using the first available shelter, some frightened animals
probably did this. Most animals, especially those that had been recaptured several times, reacted
calmly upon release and made purposeful movements to specific sites.
A den site survey was conducted to determine the number and types of dens available in the
study area. Potential den trees were identified by the presence of scats on the limbs or at the base
of the trunk, by the presence of raccoon hair on the trunk or at the entrance to a cavity, and by the
size of the entrance to a cavity. Ground holes were judged habitable or not habitable by raccoons
depending upon the size of the entrance to the hole.
Approximately 24 kilograms (kg) of feces were collected from 11 different locations and
analyzed for food particles. Most of the collecting was done in two old garage-barns and a carriage
house. Fresh droppings were either air- or oven-dried before analysis. The dry feces were crushed
and sorted as to food types.
The telemetry system used in radio locating raccoons operated in the 150 to 160 mHz range.
Transmitters varying in weight from 70 to 75 grams (g) were constructed with the basic circuit
plans described by Cochran (1967). A hand held receiver with a two element Yagi antenna was
constructed for field use. The radio-tracking period lasted from 23 September 1974 to 3 April
1975, during which time five raccoons were instrumented and transmitted an average of 30.4
nights each. Monitoring averaged 13.2 nights per animal. About one-fifth of the total number of
radio-tracking nights were complete ones, extending from one-half hour before sunset to one-half
hour after sunrise. Partial tracking nights were mainly one to two hour "spot checks" to determine
temperature related activity and den site selection.
November 1977 HOFFMANN AND GOTTS CHANG-SUBURBAN RACCOONS 627

TABLE I.-Refuge sites of Glendale raccoons.

Refuge site Frequency of use Percentage

Sewer system or drainage tiles 52 35.9

Abandoned houses, garages,
garage-barns, greenhouses 33 22.7
Ground dens 26 17.9
Hollow trees 11 7.6
Churches 11 7.6
Open trees 9 6.2
Residential homes 3 2.1
Total 145 100.0

RESULTS
Den Sites
Table 1 summarizes the use of seven different types of refuge sites by raccoons
released from live-traps. The figures indicate that den-trees, ground dens, sewers, and
man-made structures are significantly important to Glendale raccoons. Because sewers
are obvious places for released raccoons to hide in, it is possible that this refuge site
was over stressed in the present study.
A majority of the 75 probable den-trees were located in the Johnson-Sawyer Estate
and on Carruther's Farm. Others were scattered throughout the old residential district
and in the Green Belt. All but four of 29 ground dens were found in section 7. Most
ground dens were in well-drained locations and had entrances that could accommodate
the largest raccoons.
A total of28 individual raccoon invasions of buildings were investigated-16 in in-
habited houses, four in barns, two in garage-barns, two in small sheds, two in churches,
one in an abandoned house, and one in a garage. Seven of the dens in inhabited houses
were located about 60 m southwest of the central village business district where 10
different raccoons were captured. Another was the roof of Glendale's Christ Church
where eight different raccoons were live-trapped and where young raccoons were an-
nually born and raised.

Food
The study demonstrated that an unusual variety of foods are eaten by raccoons in
Glendale. At least 7,084 seeds representing 46 different species of plants were found
in fecal samples. The 10 most abundant were as follows: cherries (black, pin, sour);
hackberries; grapes (two types); bumelia; woodbine; rose; firethorn; dogwood (two
types); plum; buckthorn. Animal remains were represented by many small-mammal
skeletal parts, snail shells, beetle parts, crayfish parts, bird eggshells, fur, and feathers.
The most frequently eaten mammal (as determined by examination of fur) was the
eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) and less commonly the Norway rat (Rattus
norvegicus). The presence of aluminum foil, cellophane wrappers, string, paper, cloth,
bits of plastic, and rubber bands in the droppings indicated that the raccoons were also
eating garbage.

Competition
Other wild and domestic mammals that interact with the raccoon were present in the
study area. Between 18 March 1973 and 2 June 1974, 84 opossums (Didelphis vir-
giniana) were captured 156 times. House cats (Felis catus) were captured on 89 occa-
sions. Although only four dogs (Canis familiaris) were captured during the study, a
628 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY Vol. 58, No.4

TABLE 2.-Monthly live-trapping of raccoons in Glendale, Ohio, from 18 March 1973 through
30 November 1974.
Month Nights trapped Trap nights Raccoon captures Percent catch*

March 1973 12 116 7 7.70

April 26 353 28 9.52
May 21 303 40 16.60
June 28 373 39 13.00
July 23 259 26 12.18
August 23 313 32 12.52
September 15 222 23 13.37
October 26 367 37 11.69
November 18 232 9 4.42
December 7 87 1 1.26
January 1974 20 218 7 3.84
February 26 318 11 4.07
March 20 280 7 2.73
April 27 358 15 4.57
May 29 222 34 22.08
June 11 118 3 2.86
July 15 143 28 22.95
August 10 64 8 15.53
September 5 62 5 9.01
October 18 197 15 8.65
November 27 252 12 5.18
Totals 407 4,857 387 (mean) 9.70
* Corrected for sprung traps (Nelson and Clark, 1973).

survey showed that at least 138 were present in the area. Most were confined but some
apparently roamed at will. Small dog packs were often sighted in the early morning
and evening, and a few individuals were observed at all hours of the night.

Population Size
During the period 18 March 1973 to 30 November 1974 a total of 150 raccoons were
live-trapped in Glendale. Ninety-six of these were subsequently recaptured, a total of
237 times. In addition, six dead animals were found, two of which had not been
previously marked (the sex and age of one could not be determined), making a total of
393 records for 152 animals. Seventy males and 81 females were identified, giving a
male to female ratio of 0.87. Seventy-three juveniles (37 males, 36 females) and 78
non-juveniles were captured, a ratio of 0.94. Table 2 summarizes the monthly distribu-
tion of nights trapped, trap nights, raccoon captures, and percent catch.
Trapping data from the period 18 March 1973 through 2 June 1974 was used to
estimate population density. This period includes only animals born during or before
1973 because young-of-the-year born in the spring of 1974 did not appear in traps
until after 2 June 1974. Two different population estimates were made using trap-
recapture models; a third estimate was made using the distribution of capture fre-
quency.
Using the Lincoln Index (Davis, 1953) an estimate of 151.1 raccoons (95 percent
confidence limits, 100.7 and 215.3) was determined for Glendale during 1973-1974.
Hayne's method (Hayne, 1949) estimated 141.2 (102.9 and 225.1) raccoons in the
Glendale population. A third estimate was made using the geometric distribution of
capture frequency (Edwards and Eberhardt, 1967). With this method it is possible to
estimate the number of animals that are not caught. When the number of raccoons
caught in Glendale at each of nine different frequencies is plotted semilogarithmically,
a regression line with a significant correlation (r = -0.903, P < 0.001) is obtained.
November 1977 HOFFMANN AND GOTTS CHANG-SUBURBAN RACCOONS 629

TABLE 3.-A Chi-square test relating trap-reflected distribution with each of three habitat
types in the Glendale study area from March 1973 through April 1975.
(O-E)'
Number of Observed number Expected number --E-
Area trap nights of captures of captures

Residential 2,256 164 177.84 1.08

Woods 1,495 169 116.83 23.30
Open field and sparsely
wooded land 1,209 58 96.33 15.25
Total 4,960 391 391.00 39.63

The estimated number of animals not captured, 66.3, when added to the known
number of captured animals, gave an estimate of 187.3 as the total Glendale popula-
tion. We believe, however, that this estimate of raccoons not captured is probably too
high. The percent catch of unmarked animals declined significantly during the four
rotational periods (5.76, 4.21, 0.70,0.75), so that by the third and fourth periods few
new raccoons were being captured. The mean of all three estimates, 160 is considered
to be closest to the actual number of raccoons living in the Glendale study area during
1973-1974.

Distribution
Distribution was studied by dividing the study area into 2.3 ha sections, and the
percent catch of raccoons was calculated for each section (Fig. 2d). The percent catch
was used as an index to the relative number of raccoons assumed to be living in or
using a section. A regression of average percent catch for the 11 grid columns with the
column number did not exhibit a significant correlation (R = 0.069, P < 0.42), suggest-
ing that east-west linear trends in trap-reflected distribution do not exist. When the
average percent catch for each of the 10 grid rows is plotted against the grid row
number, however, the fitted least-squares line has a significant correlation (R = 0.564,
P < 0.05).
Total trap nights and raccoon captures from 131 trap sites were used to investigate
the reasons responsible for the non-random distribution of Glendale raccoons. Three
analyses were made. The first analysis (Table 3) tested whether the three habitat
types-residential, field, or woodlot had the same amount of raccoon activity. Results
showed that there was a significant difference in raccoon activity between the areas
()f = 39.63, d.f. = 2, P < 0.001) with the woodlot type contributing most of the X2
value. The residential areas exhibited less activity than expected and the field
areas much less than expected. Fitch (1958) states that wide expanses of open field are
generally avoided by raccoons.

TABLE 4.-A Chi-square test of capture success in each of seven trapping sections.

Observed no. of Expected no. of (O-E)'

Number of captures of captures of --E--
Section trap nights different raccoons different raccoons

841 31 36.04 0.71

1
544 28 23.32 0.94
2 4.85
3 646 16 27.56
604 28 25.44 0.26
4 0.15
5 737 34 31.80
821 30 36.04 1.01
6 5.48
7 767 45 31.80
4,960 212 212.00 13.40
Total
630 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY Vol. 58, No.4

TABLE 5.-A Chi-square test of capture success as a function of distance from aquatic habitat.

Distance
from aquatic Number of Observed number Expected number (0 -E)'
habitat (m) trap nights of captures of captures
-E--

0-60 1,432 138 112.89 5.59

61-121 963 75 75.91 0.01
122-182 578 40 45.56 0.68
183-243 460 57 36.26 11.86
244--304 263 14 20.73 2.19
305-365 459 29 36.18 1.43
36~26 383 24 30.19 1.27
427--487 82 5 6.46 0.33
488-548 106 1 8.36 6.48
54~09 114 3 8.99 3.99
610-670 39 1 3.08 1.40
671-731 81 4 6.39 0.89
Total 4,960 391 391.00 36.12

The second test (Table 4) compared observed and expected numbers of different
raccoons caught on each of the seven trapping sections. Results showed that the distri-
bution differed significantly (X 2 = 13.40, dJ. = 6, P < 0.05) over the 21-month trap-
ping period. In this analysis, the best trapping area was section 7.
Three of the four sections that have an abundance of water produced a greater
number of raccoon captures than was expected. The third Chi-square analysis (Table 5)
examined the number of trap nights and raccoon captures at various distances from
streams and ponds. The Chi-square value was significant (X 2 = 36.12, d.f. = 11,
P < 0.001) and clumping occurs at distances of 0 to 60 m and 183 to 243 m. Two
hundred and thirteen or 54.5 percent of the total number of captures were made at 0 to
121 m from water where 48.3 percent of the trapping effort was concentrated.

Home Range Movements

A summary of the information gathered on the trap-reflected movements of Glendale
raccoons is presented in Tables 6 and 7. The average distance between the two most
extreme points of capture for 94 animals caught two or more times is 391.5 m (Table 7).
When all six sex and age groups are combined, the average minimum home range area
for 46 animals caught in at least three different trap sites is 5.1 ha (Table 6). Home
ranges, once established, changed little during the course of our study.
Minimum home ranges of the Glendale raccoons were converted to circular home
ranges (furthest distance between captures is used as the diameter of a circle) in order
to statistically compare them to circular ranges given by Stuewer (1943) and Schinner

TABLE 6.-Summarization of live-trapping movement data.

Average index
Number of raccoons Average minimum Average circular of linearity
Age-sex caught three or home range home range (length/width) of
group more times (ha) (hal minimum home range

Adult males 6 15.8 52.3 6.3

Yearling males 6 5.1 40.5 5.3
Juvenile males 9 2.8 11.7 5.7
Adult females 10 3.8 14.6 5.5
Yearling females 5 4.6 30.2 8.1
Juvenile females 10 2.3 10.0 3.5
Average for
entire sample 5.1 23.0 5.5
November 1977 HOFFMANN AND GOTTSCHANG-SUBURBAN RACCOONS 631

woo INDUSTRIAL PARK

N
.... Den Site
•
•
.-.
Representative Radia Fix
Dumpster, Garbage Cans
Live-Trapping Range
Radia-Tracking Range
c:=J Open Field and Sparsely Wooded
t:·:·: :·1 Woods
EB
rl- - - ' - - - ' 1
o 200 METERS

FIG. 3.-The movements of juvenile female number 136 as determined by radio location.

(1969). When Stuewer's data for 19 adult males, 17 adult females, 27 juvenile males,
and 24 juvenile females was compared to that for Glendale (assuming equal variation
for both populations) it was found that Glendale home range diameters were signifi-
cantly shorter and home range areas smaller (t = 17.05, d.f. = 131, P < 0.001). In com-
parison to Schinner's data the reverse is true; Glendale home range diameters were
longer and home range areas significantly larger (t = 4.17, dJ. = 54, P < 0.001).

TABLE 7.-Summarization of live-trapping movement data.

Number of raccoons Average distance (m)

caught two or more between two furthest
Age-sex group times points of capture

Adult males 12 542.9

Yearling males 9 686.7
Juvenile males 27 317.9
Adult females 15 328.6
Yearling females 12 390.5
Juvenile females 19 310.9
Average for entire sample 391.5
632 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY Vol. 58, No.4

Glendale raccoons have extremely linear home ranges. The 46 minimum home
ranges determined averaged 5.5 times as long as wide (Table 6).
Radio transmitters were attached to collars on five raccoons and the animals were
radio-tracked during the autumn, winter, and spring of 1974-1975. The pattern of
movements of number 136, a juvenile female are "typical" of the raccoons that we
followed (Fig. 3). In the early evening, emerging from one of several daily resting
sites, she would move quickly south where most of the night was spent feeding in the
dumpsters behind various commercial buildings. At about 0400 or 0500 a sudden
move north took her to a residence where she fed in the garbage cans until shortly
before sunrise. At this time the signal from her transmitter often was lost. Closer
investigation showed that she was following an underground drain culvert to reach
one of several den trees that she used as a daytime resting place. Toward the end of her
tracking period a resting site was found inside the belfry of a nearby chapel. The
maximum linear distance traveled by this raccoon was 1,569.7 m and the area enclosed
by its daily travel route was approximately 10.5 ha.

DISCUSSION

Den Sites
Stuewer (1943) states that, "For raccoons the essentials of habitat seems to be pres-
ent in areas with a pennanent water supply, tree dens, and available food," These
three basic requirements are abundantly present in the village of Glendale. Stuewer
further states that the absence of den trees may serve to limit raccoon numbers and,
according to Whitney and Underwood (1952), when den trees are present, they are
preferred by raccoons. Giles (1942), however, found that the numerous hollow trees in
his area were "forsaken" for rock shelters. Dorney (1954) estimated that 90 percent of
the raccoons on his marsh area used ground dens and that, "-raccoon populations in
habitat deficient in den trees may be limited by a lack of hole-diggers ...." Mech et al.
(1966) found that in Minnesota, ground beds in cattail marshes were the only type of
den used from September through November. The total number of den trees identified
in our study more than equalled the number of raccoons captured in both 1973 and
1974 and many den trees were probably overlooked (Fig. 2b). Suitable buildings on
the study area obviously supplied an additional number of dens that would not be
available to raccoons in non-urban areas. To gain entrance into a dwelling, raccoons
will either enlarge an already existent hole or gnaw and scrape their own hole.

Food
Whitney and Underwood (1952), in a synopsis of all known foods of the raccoon,
mention 52 types listed from all available literature to that time. The numbers of
different plant foods found in various studies range from seven for river bottom rac-
coons on the high plains of northeastern Colorado (Tester, 1953) to 19 for raccoons in
Illinois river bottomlands (Yeager and Rennels, 1943).
There are several explanations for the many kinds of plant foods found in the Glen-
dale raccoon feces. The corn, watermelon, cantaloupe, raspberries and grape seeds
could have been obtained in either gardens or garbage cans. The many bird feeders
operated by area residents probably provided the sunflower seeds and millet. Oats
may have been obtained in the barns of two residents that kept horses. Rose, dogwood,
firethorn, woodbine, holly, and other trees and bushes have been planted by residents
for ornamental reasons.
Gander (1966) contends that raccoons will not accept carrion; if this is true, it must
be assumed that some Glendale raccoons either directly prey on rabbits and rats or
consume them after they are recently killed on roads. Road-killed rabbits were seen
frequently but rats were never observed. Birds may be killed outright by raccoons.
November 1977 HOFFMANN AND GOTTS CHANG-SUBURBAN RACCOONS 633

Seton (1929) states that raccoons will occasionally rob nests and Whitney and Under-
wood (1952) state that they are the potential enemies of all birds.

Competition
Opossums are likely to compete with raccoons because they too are mainly noctur-
nal omnivores that favor the same type of habitat and do not construct their own dens
(Stuewer, 1943). Cats were observed rummaging through garbage cans and they are
well known for preying upon small mammals. George (1974) found that 50.2 percent of
rural house cat predation in southern Illinois was crepuscular and nocturnal, a time
coincident with raccoon activity.
Beck (1973) states that free-ranging dogs may easily disperse rats and cats and may
be the top consumer of garbage in the urban ecosystem. Because the majority of
Glendale dogs are fed regularly by their owners, it is unlikely that they normally use
garbage as part of their diet. However, the presence of dogs near garbage cans might
discourage some raccoons from investigating this potential food source.

Population Size
In 1973 the entire mid-year period from May through October was profitable for
catching raccoons with May showing the greatest percent catch. In 1974 raccoons were
most active during May, July, and August. In June 1974 trapping was conducted
outside the study area and, thus, is not comparable with other data. The 21 month data
shows that trap activity was greatest from May through October (9.2 to 14.1 percent
trapping success). Cumulative raccoon activity in Stuewer's (1943) four year Michigan
live-trapping study peaked in August and was greatest in the months of May, July, and
August. The shorter activity period presumably reflects the more northern latitude of
this area.
Although the estimates of population density are close to the actual number of
raccoons marked, the assumptions implicit in our two trap-recapture models (that is,
equal trappability and no migration) may not have been met. This is suggested by the
fact that juveniles dominated the catch from August through January and they probably
interfered with other animals being captured. Also, areas of excellent raccoon habitat
adjoined the study area facilitating their movements in and out.
Assuming 160 raccoons live in the study area, there would be one animal per 1.46 ha
which is one of the highest raccoon densities published to date. Williams (1936) esti-
mated 10 to 12 raccoons were present on a 65-acre (26.3 ha) tract in a Cleveland
metropolitan park, a density of one raccoon per 2.19 to 2.63 ha. This density was a
rough estimate based entirely on track observations. Butterfield (1944) found a raccoon
population on a select section of Ohio hill country to be one raccoon per 4.74 ha. The
highest density was reported by Twichell and Dill (1949) who hand-captured 100
raccoons from 102 acres (14.3 ha). The area, a strip ofland bordering two creeks had
been closed to hunting for 10 years prior to their study, and was considered excellent
raccoon habitat. Urban (1970) reported one raccoon per 5.71 ha in a marsh habitat, and
Sonenshine and Winslow (1972) reported one raccoon per 5.79 ha in an agricultural~
woodland study area. Schinner (1969) found an unusually high average monthly density
of one raccoon per 1.02 ha in the Clifton suburb of Cincinnati. Clifton is 4.0 kilom-
eters (km) north of downtown Cincinnati, has a human density of 4.18 people per
ha and a housing density of 2.23 housing units per ha (Census Tracts, 1970). Al-
though percentages of residential, wooded, field, and business areas are similar,
Clifton is about four times as heavily populated and has four times the number of
houses as Glendale. Clifton is bordered on two sides by wooded and open areas and on
two sides by residential areas. From these data, it would appear that raccoons are able
to successfully exploit urban areas where the necessary living requirements exist.
634 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY Vol. 58, No.4

Distribution
The increase in raccoon numbers from south to north can be explained by the type of
habitat immediately adjacent to the study area boundaries and the presence and distri-
bution of water, dens, and food within the study area. The Woodlawn Industrial Park,
an area of concrete and steel, lies immediately south and is poor habitat for raccoons.
Raccoons are thought to be present in good numbers and probably randomly distrib-
uted in the residential areas to the east and west. The region beyond the northern
boundary is decidedly rural. The Oak Hill Cemetery, which contains many possible
den trees and two ponds, is in this area. Also, there are large areas of woods and fields,
streams, a few residential homes and a number of small farms. This area, which is
obviously good raccoon habitat, ends 1.5 km north at a large shopping center.
Section 7, our best trapping area, has Carruther's Farm in the northern portion,
whereas the lower portion is a quiet residential area. On Carruther's Farm a penna-
nent feeding station of cracked com is maintained alongside a small lake; many large,
well isolated den trees and a stream occur east of the lake. The residential portion of
section 7 contains a tree-lined stream, numerous garbage cans, and many old houses,
garages, and sewers. The combination of available den trees, water, and supplemental
food and denning sources are thought to have made this the most attractive area to
raccoons during the 1973-1974 trapping period.
Section 2 which has numerous den trees and a good water supply also had more
raccoons than expected. Both sections 4 and 5 were good raccoon areas. Section 4 has
much stream acreage, vacant fields, woods, and a rich natural food supply. In addition,
summer gardens provide another food source for raccoons in this area. Section 5 was a
productive trapping section probably because of its position alongside sections 4 and 7
and because of the large number of artificial den sites such as chimneys, attics, base-
ments, garages, barns, sheds, and the sewer system. In comparison, section 3 does not
have as many den sites and is not adjacent to more productive sections; consequently,
fewer raccoons were captured in this section. Few raccoons were captured in section 1
where there were few den trees and the natural food supply in the fields was undoubt-
edly curtailed by the village practice of mowing several times each summer.
Sonenshine and Winslow (1972), using a Chi-square analysis, found that in one of
their two study areas, 98 percent of the captures were within 0 to 399 feet (121 m) from
water. However, in a second area of upland agricultural food supply (primarily un-
gathered field com) only 36 percent of the captures were made 0 to 121 m from water.
Permanent water did not seem as important in the distribution of raccoons in our study
area. This may be attributed to supplemental foods such as garbage and handouts
available to Glendale raccoons.
Home Range and Movements
In this study home ranges determined by trapping are described by the "minimum
home range" method (Mohr, 1947). This method was chosen because it most closely
agrees with the results obtained using radio telemetry. The concept of home range
described by Burt (1940) is the one used here. Generally it was found that adult and
yearling males had larger home ranges and moved greater distances than the other
groups. However, yearling raccoons traveled farther than adult animals, and yearling
females had larger home ranges than adult females. Probably this is because yearling
animals, newly independent from their mothers, must move to less densely populated
areas to find a suitable range. It is also significant that females may mate and rear
young their yearling year, whereas males do not. We did not find the penis extrusable
in any of the one-year-old animals until well after the breeding season, indicating that
they would not mate until their second winter.
In comparing minimum home ranges, it can be assumed that food (and other re-
sources) was not as abundant in Stuewer's study area in southern Michigan and that a
November 1977 HOFFMANN AND GOTTSCHANG-SUBURBAN RACCOONS 635

raccoon might travel much farther for the same amount of food as one in Glendale.
Conversely, in Schinner's study area there was ample food, many den sites and abun-
dant water. The quality of the environment in determining home range size has been
well documented for other species (Allen, 1938; Neville, 1968; Ables, 1969).
Stumph and Mohr (1962) noted that linearity of home ranges in mammals is com-
mon. These authors reviewed home range data cited by various workers for several
species of mammals and found the ranges to be generally about two to three times as
long as wide. In Michigan, Stuewer (1943, Figs. 33-38) reported raccoon home ranges
2.5 to 3 times as long as wide. In the Cedar Creek Natural History Area, raccoon home
ranges were generally one to two-thirds as long as wide (Tester and Siniff, 1965: Fig. 3;
Turkowski and Mech, 1968: Fig. 4; Schneider et aI., 1971: Fig. 2). In the urbanized
Clifton study area (Schinner, 1969: Fig. 13) seven raccoons had an average width to
length ratio in their home ranges of 1 to 8.3.
We believe the factors responsible for the linearity of home ranges in Glendale are
the readily available food supply and the effect of the linear urban habitat. The "beat-
en paths" followed by individuals going to and from their regular feeding areas along
such places as buildings, hedges, and walls were often littered with aluminum foil
pans, tin cans, bread bags, cellophane wrappers, and other "trophies."
Urban (1970) states that radio-tracked raccoons moved considerable distances over
short periods and spent long periods of time in areas where shallow water was present.
This behavior is similar to that found for Glendale raccoons except the distances
moved were shorter and the time was spent in areas where garbage and not shallow
water was common. Raccoons studied by Bider et aI. (1968) in Montreal spent long
periods at favored feeding places and later visited minor food sources before returning
to the den site, which was not always the same one used the night before.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to express their appreciation to the people of Glendale, without whose help
and cooperation this study would not have been possible. Financial assistance was provided by
the Biology Department, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio.

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