Peter Broughton - Paul Ndumbaro - The Analysis of Cable and Catenary Structures-T. Telford (1994)

Catenary
structures
Cable & Catenary structures
PETER BROUGHTON & PAUL NDUMBARO
This
book has been specifically written to provide sound
practical guidance and an understanding of the behaviour of
cable and catenary structural systems. It deals with the
complicated subject of exact formulation in the theoretical treatment of
these systems when subjected to large changes in geometry, in a clear
and concise manner.
The analysis of Cable & Catenary structures includes
theoretical procedures for non-linear analysis of cable and

catenary structural systems, which may be subjected to large
or gross deformations
suitable two-dimensional and three-dimensional numerical

examples of these different systems
the necessary flow charts which bridge the gap between

theoretical procedures and the required computer software
ÿ a computer disk containing a program suitable for the analysis

of structures of general shape, loading systems and patterns
of displacement.
This book will be of benefit to final year undergraduates, postgraduate

engineers and all young practising engineers — in fact, to anyone
seeking a working knowledge of the theoretical aspects of cable and
catenary structures.
ISBN 0-7277-2008-2
V Thomas Telford
9 780727 720085 >

The analysis of cable and catenary
structures
Peter Broughton
Paul Ndumbaro
"U Thomas Telford

Published by Thomas Telford Services Ltd, Thomas Telford 1 louse, 1 Heron Quay.
London E14 4JD
First published 1994
Distributors for Thomas Telford books are

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Classification
Availability: Unrestricted
Content: Original research and analysis
Status: Unrefereed
User: Students of civil engineering and practising engineers and designers
ISBN: 0 7277 2008 2
© Peter Broughton and Paul Ndumbaro, 1994, except where indicated otherwise
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Typeset in Great Britain by Alden Multimedia, Northampton.

Printed in Great Britain by Cromwell Press, Melksham.
Authors
Peter Broughton is currently Project Manager for Phillips Petroleum

Company Norway on the Ekofisk II Development Project and is respon¬
sible for the design, fabrication, and installation of the new process plat¬
form substructure. He has previously held several engineering
management positions within the company, including that of Project
Engineer for the Ekofisk Protective Barrier Project. Through Phillips
Petroleum Company he is also Visiting Professor in the Department of
Civil Engineering at Imperial College, University of London, and lectures
on various specialist courses, including a course related to the analysis
of cable and catenary structures.
Paul Ndumbaro is currently a research student within the Department
of Civil Engineering at Imperial College, University of London. He is
studying the non-linear behaviour of cable structures for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy. He is also a full time lecturer in the Department of
Civil Engineering at the University of Dar-es-Salaam in Tanzania.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the help of Dr D. Lloyd Smith for
providing encouragement and for reviewing the manuscript, and to
Dr P. Davidson for sponsoring the course as part of the MSc course in
steel design. The authors would also like to thank Ms Flo Donovan and
Ms Susanne Hill for typing the manuscript at different stages.
Contents
Notation vii
1. Introduction 1
1.1. General introduction 1
1.2. Sources of non-linearity 2
1.3. Types of structure to which the procedures apply 5
2. Analysis of general two-dimensional cable structures 17
2.1. Global system of co-ordinates and direction cosines 17
2.2. Loads and displacements in the global and intermediate
co-ordinate systems 19
2.3. Transformation from intermediate forces and displacements
to global forces and displacements 22
2.4. Basic displacements and basic forces 23
2.5. Transformation from partial basic displacements to
partial intermediate displacements 24
2.6. Transformation from basic forces to intermediate forces 25
2.7. Transformation from partial basic forces to partial
intermediate forces and partial intermediate displacements 25
2.8. Transformation from basic forces to global forces 26
2.9- Transformation from partial global displacements to
partial global forces 27
2.10. The incremental stiffness matrix for a two-dimensional
cable element 28
3. The contribution of individual element stiffnesses

to the overall structural stiffness matrix 29
V
4. The method of solution of the non-linear stiffness
equations 33
3. Computer program flow charts 37
6. Analysis of general three-dimensional cable

structures 43
6.1. Global system of co-ordinates and direction cosines 43
6.2. Loads and displacements in the global and intermediate
co-ordinate systems 45
6.3. Transformation from intermediate forces and displacements
to global forces and displacements 48
6.4. Basic displacements and basic forces 50
6.5. Transformation from partial basic displacements to partial
intermediate displacements 50
6.6. Transformation from basic forces to intermediate forces 51
6.7. Transformation from partial basic forces to partial
intermediate forces and partial intermediate displacements 52
6.8. Transformation from basic forces to global forces 53
6.9- Transformation from partial global displacements to partial
global forces 54
6.10. The incremental stiffness matrix for three-dimensional
cable element 56
References 57
Appendices 59
1. Computer program for three-dimensional cable structures
allowing for large displacements 59
2. Numerical example of two-dimensional structure
(vertical 2-D truss) 71
3- Numerical example of three-dimensional structure
(3-D hypar roof) 79
4. Contents of diskette and user guide 87
VI
Notation
[A] transformation matrix between intermediate and basic

displacements
A cross-sectional area
! AA] transformation matrix between incremental changes in
element basic displacements with incremental changes in
element intermediate displacements
~d] matrix connecting the incremental changes in intermediate
forces with the incremental changes in intermediate
displacements
e element extension along deformed member axis (basic
displacement)
[E] unit vector of element basic displacements
E Young's Modulus
Fxa force at end of A of element A-B in direction of global X-axis
Fya force at end of A of element A-B in direction of global Y-axis
Fza force at end of A of element A-B in direction of global Z-axis
[k] non-linear portion of [K]
[K] structural stiffness matrix
i Ko] initial stiffness matrix
[K]s overall structural stiffness matrix
| L] load vector (global system of co-ordinates)
L length of element
La original length of element
/p, mp, ftp direction cosines with respect to the P-axis
lq, mq,nq direction cosines with respect to the Q-axis
/r, mT, nr direction cosines with respect to the R-axis
"Pi unit vector representing element basic forces
P element basic force
PQ original element basic force (pre-tension of element)
vii
[R] force vector (element intermediate system of co-ordiantes)
R force acting along the element P-axis
S force acting along the element Q-axis
[T] transformation matrix between global and intermediate
displacements
T force acting along the element R-axis
u displacement acting along the element P-axis
[u] displacement vector (element intermediate system of
co-ordinates)
V displacement acting along the element Q-axis
w displacement acting along the element R-axis
Xa displacement at end A of element A-B in direction of global
X-axis
[X] displacement vector (global system of co-ordinates)
ya displacement at end A of element A-B in direction of global
Y-axis
displacement at end A of element A-B in direction of global
Z-axis
viii
1
Introduction
1.1. General introduction

Cable and catenary structures represent an interesting and unusual struc¬
tural form to the structural engineer. In general, such structural systems
form the main load bearing structural elements for cable suspended
roofing systems, or suspension bridges, or alternatively they form the
restraining system to other structural frameworks or components. An
example of the latter case is the guyed systems used to support and
restrain guyed masts and towers.
The individual cable section (or component) or the chain link element
provides the simplest form of structural element, in that it has only a
component of stiffness in the axial or longitudinal direction. The inter¬
esting aspect of such systems relates to their unusual behaviour, which
is exhibited by a non-linear behaviour due to change in shape or
geometry whilst under external loading. Generally, the behavioural
pattern, for cable or catenary structures, demonstrates a non-linear effect
with an increase in stiffness under increasing load. In most cases, for
these structural forms, a major portion of the structural stiffness is
provided through the initial pre-tension. The application of external
loading generally increases the level of tension in the main load bearing
elements within such a system, with other elements adopting a reduced
level of tension from the original pre-tension level. Very significant non¬
linear behaviour of the structure occurs when the effect of external
loading is to reduce the level of tension within individual elements to
zero. In such cases the contribution of such elements to the overall stiff¬
ness of the structure is eliminated.
Other structural forms, for which the procedures described herein have
application, include inflatable membrane structures.
l
THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES
The theoretical analysis of cable and catenary structural systems has

previously been treated in many different ways.
As an example, the theoretical treatment of a two-dimensional vertical
cable truss by Poskitt1 represented a very particular solution, in which
only changes in vertical displacements were considered. Similarly, the
approach by Krishna and Agarwal2 in the analysis of a suspended roof
model (three-dimensional hypar roof structure) represented a particular
solution, in which only changes in vertical displacements were consid¬
ered. An exact solution of the same numerical problem presented by
Krishna and Agarwal, as discussed by Dickie and Broughton,3 illustrated
the significant difference in the behaviour of the structure when a more
complete theoretical approach had been included. The exact solutions
for the models given in references (1) and (2) are included as worked
examples within Appendices 2 and 3.
Other more encompassing texts, such as those by Vilnay,' Irvine.
Krishna,6 Szabo and Kollar,7 Buchholdt,8 and Otto9 presented various
theoretical procedures for the analysis of cable and catenary systems.
Several of the above authors continued to provide less than general
and less exact theoretical formulations. Other authors presented theore¬
tical procedures which over complicated the problem and very often
were difficult for student engineers to understand and apply. The text
by Otto,9 included a wide variety and description of many forms of
cable/tensile structures.
The present text provides an exact theoretical procedure for the
analysis of cable and catenary structures. This allows for gross non-line¬
arity due to the effects of changes in geometry, or due to elements
becoming slack. The theoretical approach follows a procedure for the
non-linear change of geometry effects of planar (two-dimensional)
frame structures first developed by Jennings,10 which in turn was based
upon the matrix stiffness method of analysis as described by Livesley"
and many others. The theoretical approach is developed for two-dimen¬
sional and three-dimensional cable and catenary structures. This is
followed by appropriate flow charts and the necessary computer soft¬
ware. Useful numerical examples of differing problems are presented.
1.2. Sources of non-linearity

In the majority of cases, most engineering structural forms are considered
to behave in a linear fashion. The analysis of the majority of structures is
2
INTRODUCTION
based upon a linear relationship between applied external forces and

displacements and similarly upon a linear relationship between internal
member forces (or stresses) and member displacements (or strains).
However, there are important exceptions where the above linear rela¬
tionships are inadequate to define the structural behaviour properly. In
these cases it is necessary to provide different and more representative
(accurate) formulations in order to represent more adequately the struc¬
tural behaviour.
For those exceptions, where the structure behaves in a non-linear
fashion, the sources of non-linearity are primarily due to:
(a) non-linear material behaviour, or
(b) non-linear geometric behaviour, or
(c) a combination of both of the above effects.
This text treats the source of non-linearity in the structural behaviour,

which is attributable to changes in geometry.
For the non-linear behaviour of structures due to changes in geometry
(and large displacements) there are essentially two forms of non-linear
behaviour:
(a) structures which demonstrate a softening effect with increasing load
(b) stnictures which demonstrate a stiffening effect with increasing load.
These two different forms of structural behaviour are illustrated in Figs
1.1 and 1.2.
For the former type of structure, as illustrated in Fig. 1.1, the effect
of increasing the externally applied load(s) is generally to produce an
overall softening effect, in which the structure gets progressively less
stiff. The actual shape of the externally applied load(s) versus displace-
p
(i) Arch type of structure (ii) Load displacement behaviour
Fig. 1.1. Structure exhibiting non-linear softening effect
3
ment path can vary (one example is illustrated in Fig. 1.1), and is
dependent upon the structural geometry, the form of external loading,
and the boundary conditions. This form of structural behaviour
is associated with wording such as 'buckling' and 'snap through buck¬
ling'. Generally this structural form, and form of structural behaviour,
is more complex than that associated with the second form of struc¬
ture (b) which demonstrates an overall stiffening effect.
For the latter type of structure, as illustrated in Fig. 1.2, the effect of
increasing the externally applied load(s) is generally to produce an
overall stiffening effect. For this form of structure, it is equally essential
to provide a suitable behavioural formulation in order to develop an
understanding of the structure and to provide a proper representation of
the distribution of internal forces (stresses) and displacements (strains)
within individual elements. This text considers the different types of
structural form for which this type of behaviour is representative, and
develops a theoretical procedure to deal with the latter form of structural
behaviour.
The text introduces the effects of geometric non-linearity which are
due to large or gross displacements of individual elements. For this
latter type of structural form, other very significant sources of non-
linearity are included, and this is due to individual elements becoming
slack (a chain or cable element being unable to accommodate compres¬
sive loading).
(i) Suspended cable type of (ii) Load displacement

structure behaviour
Fig. 1.2. Structure exhibiting non-linear stiffening effect
4
INTRODUCTION
All of the above effects are considered to be important in developing an

understanding of the behaviour of structures, as illustrated with the
simple model in Fig. 1.2, in order to achieve an accurate understanding of
the distribution of internal forces and displacements within the structure.
1.3. Types of structure to which the procedures

apply
The types of structure, for which the text and procedures contained
herein apply, cover a wide range of land based and offshore structures.
The list below is representative of the types of structure
• suspension bridges
• suspended cable net roof structures
• catenaiy mooring systems for offshore semi-submersible drill rigs
• cable stayed masts
• cable stayed offshore deepwater jacket structures
• certain inflatable structures
• catenary moorings for offshore loading buoys
Several of the above types of structure are illustrated below.
Suspension bridge
Fig. 1.3ÿ
Suspension bridge
In this example of the suspension bridge, the curved upper chord

members and the vertical hangers are represented as cable elements, for
which the procedures in this text apply. The vertical columns and the
bottom chord members consist of elements having both axial and
bending stiffness contributions. A large proportion of the inherent struc¬
tural stiffness is provided through initial pre-tension.
5
Suspended cable net roof structure
Fig. 1.4. Suspended cable net roof over rectangular plan
In this example, the curved roof elements spanning between supports

are represented by cable elements, for which the procedures in this text
apply. The boundaries are considered as being either totally rigid or
consisting of elements having axial, shear, and bending stiffnesses about
both primary axes.
These types of roofing system are light weight and relatively stiff for
the amount of material provided. A large proportion of the inherent stiff¬
ness is provided through initial pre-tension.
A numerical example for a three-dimensional hypar structure, as
defined in reference (2), is included in Appendix 3. Several examples of
various forms of cable net roofing structures are referred to, and are
included herein.
Figures 1.5 and 1.6 refer to the Olympic Stadium in Munich. Fig. 1.5
shows an interior view.
6
Fig. 1.5. Interior view of Olympic Stadium, Munich
(Courtesy of Architects Behnisch and Partners with Frei Otto and Engineers Leonard! and Andrea)
Figure 1.6 shows the columns, cable supports and anchorages of the
Olympic Stadium, Munich.
Fig. 1.6. Detail of columns, cable supports and anchorages of the Olympic
Stadium, Munich
(Courtesy of Architects Behnisch and Partners with Frei Otto and Engineers Leonardt and Andrea)
8
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.7 shows a different form of cable net roofing system in the
form of a tent structure for the Diplomatic Quarters in Riyadh.
Fig. 1.7. Heart Tent, Diplomatic Quarters, Riyadh

(Courtesy of Architects Frei Otto and Omrania and Engineers Buro Happold)
Figures 1.8, 1.9 and 1.10 refer to the Jeddah Sports Stadium in Saudi
Arabia. Fig. 1.8 shows the layout of column supports and the cable net
at an intermediate position during hoisting.
9
'fr&i'ir'i-'
wm1
Ftg. /.<S'. Jeddah Sports Stadium, Saudi Arabia. Layout of column supports and cable net during hoisting
(Courtesy of Architects Frei Otto and Engineers Buro Happolcl)
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.9 shows a close-up of the cables and connections. This shows
simple clamp connection detail between cable segments.
a relatively
Figure 1.10 shows a close-up of the simple clamp connection and of
the fabric supports.
Fig. 1.9. Jeddah Sports Stadium, Saudi Arabia. Close-up of cables and of
connections
(Courtesy of Architects Frei Otto and Engineers Buro Happoid)
Fig. 1.10. Jeddah Spoils Stadium, Saudi Arabia. Close-up of the simple clamp
connection detail and of the fabric supports
(Courtesy of Architects Frei Otto and Engineers Buro Happoid)
11
Cable stayed mast
Fig. 1.11. Cable stayed mast
In this example of the cable stayed mast, all the cable stay elements,
which provide lateral support to the vertical mast, consist of cable
elements, for which the procedures in this text apply. The vertical mast
structure usually consists of a framed lattice structure, each element of
which has both axial and bending stiffness.
The purpose of the cable stayed system is to provide a relatively stiff
support to the mast structure and to reduce the effect of environmental
loadings applied to the mast structure itself. Large reactions which
would otherwise have to be accommodated at the base of the mast struc¬
ture (if without stays) are considerably reduced by the actions of the
cable stays. In this way the internal forces within the mast structure and
hence the material required for construction are considerably reduced.
12
INTRODUCTION
Cable stayed offshore deepwater jacket structure
//XSy/ZNN
Fig. 1. 12. Cable stayed offshore deepwater jacket structure
This example is very similar to the previous example of the cable stayed
mast (onshore). In this case, the vertical lattice tower structure is used to
support heavy production equipment above sea level, and is provided
with lateral restraint through the use of a cable stay system. The proce¬
dures described in this text apply to the behaviour of the cable stay
elements. Due to the generally larger scale than for the onshore cable
stayed mast, the geometry and weights involved are considerably larger.
Invariably, the initial geometry of the cable stay elements is curved due
to the considerable weight of the cable system. In this example further
non-linearity is introduced with the effect of the lower portions of the
cable catenary (or chain) system either lifting off or touching the
seabed. Normally, the restraining catenary system is designed to be
most effective in extreme storm conditions, in which the tower structure
is subjected to significant sway motions. In very extreme cases, further
non-linearity is introduced into the system by providing clump weights
on the lower portion of the cable or catenary, which may in turn lift off
or be restrained by the seabed.
The behaviour of such systems is generally more complex due to the
different form of non-linearity introduced into the system, with the objec¬
tive in the design to progressively introduce further increases in stiffness
as the applied loading and deformations increase.
13
Inflatable structures
Fig. J. 13- Inflatable barrage or temporary dam structure
The above example illustrates a cross-section of an inflatable structure

which is used as a temporary dam. Such a system would be used for
flood diversion. Figure 1.13 shows the deformed shape of the inflated
structure under the action of lateral loading due to flood water.
The structural form of this type of structure is achieved through the
inflation of the membrane structure. The membrane structure requires
firm anchorage foundations, as the membrane itself provides little
weight or mass to resist external loadings. For purpose of analysis the
continuous membrane element is sub-divided into suitable element
lengths. The procedures described in this text apply to the behaviour of
the membrane elements, and will allow for the gross changes in
geometry as the membrane is taken from the partially inflated stage
progressively to the fully inflated stage, and finally to the fully deformed
stage due to the application of external loading, as shown in Fig. 1.13.
The purpose of analysis would be to determine the internal forces
within the membrane through all stages of loading, to determine
whether membrane thickness and internal pressure are adequate, and to
determine if the overall geometry under applied lateral loading provides
a sufficient height for the purpose intended.
14
INTRODUCTION
Catenary mooring system for offshore loading buoy
/ \
/ \
-
Fig. 1.14. Offshore catenary mooring system
The above structural system (Fig. 1.14) is represented by an arrangement

of catenary cable or chains. It is used to restrain floating structures such
as offshore loading buoys or permanently moored tankers. Vertical
support to the buoy and rigid arm system to the tanker is provided
through the buoyancy within the buoy. Under severe loading, due to
storm action on the buoy and the tanker, the horizontal displacements
of the system can be considerable. Horizontal resistance to motions is
provided through the stiffness of the catenary chain system, which is
usually pre-tensioned in order to provide an initial stiffness to the
system. The procedures described in this text apply to the behaviour of
the cable or chain catenary system, and will allow for significant
changes in geometry which are experienced by the chains during
severe storm loadings.
15
2
Analysis of general two-dimensional cable

structures
The previous chapter has given a general background into the behaviour
of cable structures, and has described the type of structures to which the
particular methods of analysis have application. The analytical proce¬
dures described are simple but provide an essentially exact formulation
for cable structures subjected to large deformation.
This chapter covers the geometrical non-linear stiffness formulation for
a single planar (two-dimensional) element, consisting of a cable element,
rod, or chain link when subjected to large deformation.
The basis of the theoretical non-linear procedure is based upon the
work by Jennings.10 Whilst the procedure, described herein, for a planar
cable element is simpler than that provided by Jennings (who included
bending effects), the purpose of including the explanation, at this stage,
is to be able to extend the procedure to three-dimensional structures at
a later stage.
2.1. Global system of co-ordinates and direction

cosines
Figure 2.1 provides the position of a typical element within the global
system of co-ordinates (X-Y). The typical element (A-B) has co¬
ordinates at either end given by XA, YA at end A, and XB, YB at end B.
The original length of the element, with respect to the global system of
co-ordinates is given by:
A> = ypfe - XA)2 + (Yb - Ya)2] (2. 1)
17
Fig. 2.1. Global system of co-ordinates
The typical element has the usual properties

A = cross-sectional area
E = Young's Modulus
For element (A-B) it is convenient to define a set of local axes P and Q.

The P-axis coincides with the longitudinal axis of the element (in the
undeformed state), while the Q-axis is orthogonal to the P-axis. The
axes P and Q are referred to as the intermediate co-ordinate system,
and are shown in Fig. 2.2.
From the local element intermediate co-ordinate system it is possible to
define a set of direction cosines for the local axes, (P, Q), with respect to
the global co-ordinate system, (X, Y). Thus:
/p = (XB - XA)/Z0; mp = (Yb - Ya)/ Zq (2.2)
The above terms define the direction cosines of the element longitudinal
P-axis with respect to the global axes (X, Y).
The direction cosines of the element orthogonal Q-axis are given by:
(, = "(Yb - Ya)/Zo; mq = (XB - XA)/Z0 (2.3)
Thus:
lq = -Mp', mq = /p (2.4)
18
ANALYSIS OF GENERAL TWO-DIMENSIONAL CABLE STRUCTURES
Fig. 2.2. Intermediate system of co-ordinates
2.2. Loads and displacements in the global and

intermediate co-ordinate systems
The load vector as applicable to the ends of the element (A-B), and
referred to in the global system of co-ordinates is given by:
[L] = [Fxa, Fya, Fxh, Fyh) (2.5)
The above system of global forces is shown in Fig. 2.3.

The corresponding displacement vector as applicable to the ends of
element (A-B), and referred to in the global system of co-ordinates is
given by:
[X] = [xa,ya, xb,yh\ (2.6)
The above system of global displacements is shown in Fig. 2.4.

The overall objective in the stiffness formulation is to connect the
external global load vector, [L], which will include all global loads
applied to all elements of the structure, with the global joint displace¬
ment vector, [X], The global displacement vector, [X], defines the global
displacements of all elements and element end positions (or nodes)
throughout the complete structure.
19
B Fx,.
A Fx„
Fig. 2.3. Globalforces at the ends of element (A-B)
Fig. 2.4. Global displacements at the ends of element (A-B)
20
This connection of external or global loads to the global displacements

of the structure is through the complete (overall) structural stiffness
matrix [K].
[L] = [K] x [X] (2.7)
The development of the stiffness matrix for such elements provides for
the non-linear effects due to large displacements.
The purpose of previously defining an intermediate co-ordinate system
for each element (P- and Q-axes) was to be able usefully to define a set
of so called intermediate forces and intermediate displacements for a
typical element (A-B). The load vector as applicable to the ends of the
element (A-B), and referred to in the element intermediate system of
[R] = [K, S] (2.8)
where R equals the force acting along the element P-axis, and 5 is the
force acting in the direction of the element Q-axis. The above system of
element intermediate forces is shown in Fig. 2.5.
The displacement vector as applicable to the typical element (A-B),
Fig. 2.5. Element intermediateforces
21
and referred to in the element intermediate system of co-ordinates is

given by:
\u, v\ (2.9)
where u equals the displacement acting along the element P-axis, and v
is the displacement in the direction of the element Q-axis. The above
system of element intermediate displacements is shown in Fig. 2.6.
Fig. 2.6. Element intermediate displacements
2.3. Transformation from intermediate forces and

displacements to global forces and displacements
The element intermediate displacements may be connected to the global
displacements through the transformation matrix [T], in which [T] is
composed of the element direction cosines, as defined previously in
equations (2.2), (2.3) and (2.4):
xa
ru [H -nip k "b ya
(2.10)
k ~k ~mq k mq xh
yb
22
The above equation satisfies displacement compatibility at the ends of

the element and may be written in matrix form as:
[U] = [T] x [X] (2.11)
The corresponding global force vector and intermediate force vector are
similarly related in order to satisfy conditions of equilibrium at the ends
of the element:
fLl = IT'1 x fRl (2.12)
where [T'] is the transpose of matrix [T], and in the expanded form, equa¬
tion (2.12) is written as:
FXa -V
pya -mp — mq
(2.13)
Fxh lp k
Fyb . mv raq _
It is important to note that both the global forces and displacements
and the element intermediate forces and displacements relate to the
original underformed position of the element. This means that there is
no non-linearity introduced in equations (2.10), (2.11), (2.12) or (2.13).
2.4. Basic displacements and basic forces

A further set of more basic element displacements and basic element
forces may be defined, which in turn relate to the element deformed
position (A'-B').
The basic element displacement is given by the element extension as
measured along the deformed member axis.
e — y/[ao + U)2 + v2\ — La (2.14)
In matrix form, equation (2.14) may be written as:
[E] = [A] x [U] (2.15)
where [E] = vector of element basic displacements

[U] = vector of element intermediate displacements
The above systems of intermediate and basic element displacements are
shown in Fig. 2.7.
23
_X
Fig. 2. 7. Element intermediate and basic displacements
The element basic force is given in the form of the element basic-
displacement and any element pre-tension, as follows:
P = PQ + (EA)/L0 x e (2.16)
where
E = Young's Modulus
A = element cross-sectional area
Po = original element axial force (pre-tension)
lo = original element length
p - new or updated element basic force
<? = element extension along deformed element longitudinal axis
(basic displacement)
2.5. Transformation from partial basic

displacements to partial intermediate
displacements
Equations (2.14) and (2.15) provide the connection between the element
basic displacements and element intermediate displacements in absolute
terms. It is convenient to develop the partial derivatives of the element
24
basic displacements with respect to the partial derivatives of the element

intermediate displacements. This is achieved by examining the partial
derivatives of each term in equation (2.14) in turn, thus:
LQ+ u bu
[Se\ = bv
(2.17)
L0 + e L0 + e
In matrix form equation (2.17) may be written as:
[<5E] - [AA] x [b\J] (2.18)
2.6. Transformation from basic forces to

intermediate forces
The transpose of the matrix [AA] is used to connect the intermediate
element forces to the basic element forces, in order to satisfy the con¬
ditions of equilibrium at the ends of the element, thus,
[R] = [AA'] X [P] (2.19)
or, in expanded form the equilibrium equation is given as:
L0 + u
L0 + c x [P] (2.20)
v
_L0 + e.
2.7. Transformation from partial basic forces to

partial intermediate forces and partial intermediate
displacements
intermediate forces and the element basic forces in absolute terms. It is
convenient to develop the partial derivatives of the element intermediate
forces with respect to the partial derivatives of the element basic forces
and the partial derivatives of the element intermediate displacements.
This is achieved by examining the partial derivatives of each term in
equation (2.20) in turn, thus:
25
ZQ + u Pv2 —Pv(L0 + u)
SR Z0 T e x [5P\ (Z0 + e)~ (Z0 T e)3 bu
SS V
+ —Pv(L0 + u) PU„ + u)2
X
bv
-Z0 + e_ (ZQ + £?)3 (Z0 + £?)3
(2.21)
[SR] = [AA'] x [<5P] + [d] x [dU] (2.22)
The above expression can be expanded by substituting for [<5P]

[SP] - EA/L0 x [<5E] (2.23)
and by substituting for [(5E]

[SP] = EA/L0 x [AA] x [<5U] (2.24)
Thus, equation (2.22) becomes:

[<5R] = {[AA'] x EA/L0 x [AA] + [d] } x [<5U] (2.25)
or in expanded form this is given by:

'
L0 + u
bR' L„ + e EA ZQ +u
x — x
bs V Ln L0 + e ZQ + e
_ -La + e .
Ptf —Pv(L0 + u)
(ZQ + ey' (ZD + e)3 bu
+ bv
(2.26)
-Pv (Zu + u) P(Z0 + w)2
(Z0 + e)1 (Z„ + e)1
2.8. Transformation from basic forces to global

forces
Equation (2.12), which connects the element global forces to the element
intermediate forces, is used in conjunction with equation (2.19), which
connects element intermediate forces to element basic forces, thus:
[L] = [T] x [R] and [R] = [AA'] x [P]
26
In expanded form this is written as:
Fxa
"
— lp ~lq 'L0 + u '
Fya -trip — raq

X
Ln + e x[P) (2.28)
Fxh V
Fyh_ mp q J .L0 + e .
Equations (2.11), (2.15) and (2.16) may be combined with equation
(2.27) in matrix form to give:
[L] = [T'] x [AA'] x [PQ + (EA/LJ x [A] x [T] x [X]] (2.29)
In expanded form, this is written as:
Fx
'
-k -k' La + u
Fya — rttp — mq Lo + e EA
1, lq
X X Pn -
Fxh V L0
Fyh . ntp mq .Lq + e . .
y/(La + u)2 + v2 - Z(
lp lp ya
-lq ~™q lq xh
.yb_
(2.30)
2.9. Transformation from partial global

displacements to partial global forces
Equation (2.7) represents the relationship between global forces and
global displacements in absolute terms. It is convenient to develop the
partial derivatives of global forces with respect to the partial derivatives
of global displacements.
Because equations (2.10), (2.11), (2.12) and (2.13) connect the global
forces to the intermediate forces and the intermediate displacements to
the global displacements include only linear expressions, the corre¬
sponding incremental (or partial) changes in the various terms must
equally apply, thus:
[<5U] = [T] x [SX] (2.31)
and
[5L] = [T] x [<$R] (2.32)
27
Equations (2.25) and (2.26) may be expanded by substituting for [<5U|

and [<5R], thus:
[Si] = [T'] x {[AA'] x EA/L0 x [AA] + [d] } x [T] x [<5X] (2.33)
where the expression given by:

[T] x {[AA'] x EA/L0 x [AA] + [d]} x [T]
represents the incremental stiffness matrix [K] .
2.10.The incremental stiffness matrix for a two-

dimensional cable element
The expression given in equation (2.33) which provides the incremental
stiffness matrix, [K , for the element, in expanded form is written as:
"-'p -k '
LQ u
[Kl = ~mv — mq
X
La + e EA LQ+ u v
k V L0 _La + e L0 T- e
L niv mq J _ ,L0 + e .
Pv — Pv(Lq + u)
(L0 -f e)3 Uo + e)3
-Pv (L0 + u) P (L0 + u)2
a„ + o3 ' (Z0 + e)3
/p nip lp Wlp
(2.34)
~mq lq mq
28
3
The contribution of individual element
stiffnesses to the overall structural stiffness
matrix
The previous chapter has dealt with the non-linear stiffness formulation
for a single planar (two-dimensional) cable element. The purpose of this
chapter is to explain both the contribution and location within the
overall structural stiffness matrix of the individual element stiffnesses.
The procedure for incorporating individual element stiffnesses within
the overall structural stiffness matrix has been explained previously by
Livesley,11 amongst others. The purpose of providing a clear explanation
herein is in order to explain fully the computer software, and also in
order that the text is fully complete. The explanation is also equally
applicable for three-dimensional cable structures.
For any structural model, the members (or elements) and the nodes (or
joints) are numbered separately and sequentially. Hence the degrees of
freedom of each node within a complete structure, which are repre¬
sented by the displacements at each node position, are also sequential.
The overall structural stiffness matrix, for a complete structure,
combines the stiffness contributions from individual elements, which are
in turn arranged within the overall structural stiffness matrix in an
ordered and sequential fashion.
For a two-dimensional element, such as a cable element, having two
degrees of freedom at either end, the displacements at either end repre¬
sent a subset of the overall structural global displacement vector, [X],
For a typical element, having ends A and B, the degrees of freedom at
either end are represented by that portion of the global displacement
vector given by (xc, , ya, xh, yh). The stiffness contribution of the element
may be divided into two sets, representing the two ends of the element.
In the sequential overall node numbering system for the complete struc¬
ture, the node numbering, representing the ends of a typical element, is
invariably non-sequential (unless the structure happens to be a combina-
29
tion of single line elements). Thus, the stiffness contributions, repre¬

senting either end of a typical element, are separated and spaced out
within the overall structural stiffness matrix.
From the previous notation, the stiffness contributions of a typical
element had been given in equation (2.33), in which:
[K] = [T'] x {[AA'l x AE/L0 x [AA] + [d]} x [T] (3.1)
represents the stiffness of both ends of the element combined in a single

expression. In the above expression it is useful to define:
[k] = {[AA'] x EA/La x [AA] + [d]} (3-2)
in which [k] represents the non-linear portion of the element stiffness

matrix. Thus, the stiffness contributions of a typical element (to the
overall structural stiffness matrix) are given by:
[K] = [T'] x [k] x [T] (3.3)
Previously the element transformation matrix, [T] , had been given in

terms of the element direction cosines (from equations (2.10) and (2.11)):
[T] = ~lp
/p rap (3.4)
~mq lq mq_
In order to separate the displacements and stiffness contributions at
either end of a typical element, it is convenient to separate [T] into two
separate groups, each representing either end of the element. Thus:
~lp ~mp
[Til = (3-5)
-lq -mq
and
[To] = (p (3.5)
Jq rnq
The stiffness contribution at the first, end of the element is thus given by:
[K„] = [T/] x [k] x [lb] (3.7)
and the stiffness contribution at the second end of the element is given
by:
[K22] = [T2'] x [k] x [T2] (3-8)
30
INDIVIDUAL ELEMENT STIFFNESSES
Additional stiffness terms are also calculated and represent the so-
called cross product terms, and represent the influence of one end of
the element on the other. The cross product stiffness terms are given by:
[K12] = [T/] x [k] x [T2] (3.9)
and
[K21] = [T2'] x [k] x [TJ (3.10)
in which the cross product stiffness terms, [K12] and [K21], are sym¬
metrical within the overall structural stiffness matrix, i.e.
[K21] = [K12'] (3.11)
The stiffness contributions from either end of the elements [Kn] and
[K22], and also the cross product stiffness terms, [K12] and [K21], are
-T&-
[Ki,l [K12]
[Kls
[K21] [K22]
(3.12)
31
assembled in a sequential fashion within the overall structural stiffness

matrix, [K]s, represented in graphical form in equation (3.12).
The spacing of the individual element stiffness contributions, [Kn],
[K12], [K2i], and [K22], within the overall structural stiffness matrix is
dependent upon the sequential node number system, and in particular
is dependent upon the node numbering adopted at either end of a
typical element.
For a typical element, the distance, C, given in the overall structural
stiffness matrix represented by equation (3-12), represents the number
of degrees of freedom in the overall structure which precede those
degrees of freedom associated with the node at end (A) (or the first
end) of the particular element. Similarly, the distance, D, represents the
number of degrees of freedom in the overall structure which precede
those degrees of freedom associated with the node at end (B) (or the
second end) of the particular element.
[Kn], [K12], [K21], and [K22] represents sub-matrices of the element
stiffness matrix. For a typical element in a two-dimensional structure,
each of [Kn], [K12], [K21], and [K22] represents 2x2 stiffness matrices.
The above explanation is equally applicable to three-dimensional
cable structures, in which sub-matrices [Kn], [K12], [K21], and [K22] of
the element stiffness matrix represent 3x3 stiffness matrices
As explained previously, the distances or positions within the overall
structural stiffness matrix, given by the terms C and D, depend upon the
overall element and node numbering system adopted for the structure.
It must be noted that the overall structural stiffness matrix, [K]s, is
symmetrical about the leading diagonal, even allowing for all the non¬
linear terms included within the element stiffness sub-matrices, [K]. All
terms along the leading diagonal of the overall structural stiffness
matrix, [K]s, must be non-zero and positive. For a cable net, or catenary
type of structure, the contributions from individual elements [Ku], [K12],
etc. within the overall structural stiffness matrix should be set to zero if
the basic extension of the individual element given by the term, e,
previously in equation (2.14) is negative. This is a basic source of non-
linearity for these forms of structure, and is due to the fact that individual
elements cannot take compressive loading.
32
4
The method of solution of the non-linear
stiffness equations
The contribution of individual element stiffnesses, as defined by equa¬

tions (2.33) and (2.34) (in Chapter 2), into the overall stiffness matrix of
the complete structure, [K]s, has been defined with equations (3.1) to
(3.12).
Similarly, the relationship between global loads. [L], and global displa¬
cements, [X], in absolute terms has been described by equations (2.29)
and (2.30). In a similar way to that in which the individual element stiff¬
nesses are combined into the overall structural stiffness matrix, as
described in Chapter 3, so the contributions of element forces refer¬
enced to the global axis system in equations (2.29) and (2.30) are
combined to provide a global vector of the internal system of forces
which is applicable to the complete structure.
For equilibrium conditions to exist it is necessary that the sum of the
element forces referenced to the global axis system, as defined in equa¬
tion (2.30), for all elements in the structure, must be equal to the sum of
externally applied loadings. Any imbalance between the externally
applied loadings and the internal system of element forces, as deter¬
mined by equation (2.29). is referred to as inequilibrium.
The aim of this chapter is to explain the method of solution whereby
the 'incremental' or 'tangential' stiffness matrix, as defined by equations
(2.33) and (2.34), is used to determine the inequilibrium between the
externally applied loads and the internal system of element forces, as
defined by equations (2.29) and (2.30), and furthermore to project or
determine a more accurate displaced shape of the structure in order to
significantly reduce the inequilibrium resulting from the difference
between externally applied loads and the internal system of element
forces. The method of solution of these sets of equations is based upon
the Newton-Raphson Method. This procedure is described by Livesley. 1 '
33
The method is explained with reference to a structure which gets

progressively softer with increasing load application, as previously refer¬
enced in Fig. 1.1, but which is equally applicable to cable net type of
structures, which get progressively stiffer with increasing load, as
previously shown in Fig. 1.2.
The Newton-Raphson Method is an iterative method, and of all
possible methods of solution of non-linear equations this method has
the most rapid rate of convergence. The method is based upon succes¬
sively calculating or determining the incremental stiffnesses of individual
elements, and of the complete structure, in order to make an accurate
forward projection of the displaced configuration of nodes and of indivi¬
dual elements, and of the complete structure in order to minimise the
inequilibrium between the externally applied loads and internal system
of element forces. The method is explained with respect to obtaining a
solution for a set of equations for one single increment in the overall
applied load vector. Although the method is applicable to a multi
degree of freedom system, the explanation is simplified and is further
explained with reference to a single degree of freedom (such as a single
node displacement along a particular global axis). This is shown in
Fig. 4.1.
For purposes of explanation, it is required to compute the displace¬
ment vector [X] corresponding with the overall external load vector [L];
with the external load vector, [L], being a single specific increment in
the application of the external loading. In this case the initial overall stiff¬
ness of the structure is represented by [Ko]. This is based upon there
being zero displacements of the structure, with the initial stiffness
matrix, [Ko], corresponding to the undeformed shape of the structure.
The first solution to the equilibrium equations is obtained by combining
the equations in the form
{[L] — [Lo]} = [Ko] x [<5X] (4.1)
where [L] = externally applied load vector

[Lo] = the internal system of element forces within the structure
(as given by equations (2.29) and (2.30))
For the undeformed shape of the structure the magnitude of the

internal system of element forces within the structure, [Lo], is dependent
upon any initial state of pre-tension. The expression {[L] — [Lo]}
represents the amount of inequilibrium in the structure (or the
imbalance between the externally applied loads and the internal system
of element forces). In this case the expression { [L] — [Lo]} represents
34
SOLUTION OF NON-LINEAR STIFFNESS EQUATIONS
[L] Loads
I -J
[Xb]
Displacements
Fig. 4.1. The Newton-Raphson Tangential Displacement Method
the first increment of load to be applied to the structure. The stiffness

matrix, [Ko], and as calculated by equations (2.33) and (2.34), represents
the stiffness of the structure in the undeformed state.
Equation (4.1) is solved, knowing [Ko] and { [L] — [Lo]}, to provide the
incremental change in displacements, [<5X]. The first set of displacements
to be calculated are represented in Fig. 4.1 by [<5X] = [Xa].
At this point, the structure 'has adopted a deformed configuration'
represented by the displacements [Xa], and the inequilibrium between
the externally applied loads and the internal system of element forces is
re-computed.
The revised inequilibrium, or new load vector to be applied to the
structure, is represented in Fig. 4.1 by {[L] — [La]}. In this case [La]
represents the internal system of element forces in the structure given by:
[La] = [T'] x [AA'l x [P] (4.2)
which is the same as the previous equations (2.27), (2.29) or (2.30).
35
Similarly, for the 'deformed configuration' of the structure, represented

by the displacements [Xa] . the revised or re-computed stiffness matrix is
based upon the new deformed shape of the structure. The re-computed
stiffness matrix is represented in Fig. 4.1 by the slope of the line given
by [Ka],
Thus, the revised stiffness matrix and revised inequilibrium vector are
combined to give:
{[L] - [La]} = [Ka] x [5X] (4.3)
The new set of equations are solved to provide the new solution given by
[<5X] = [Xb], as shown in Fig. 4.1.
The process is successively continued by re-computing the new stiff¬
ness matrix at each stage given by [Kn] , and the new inequilibrium load
vector, given by { [L] - [Ln]} in order to determine the displaced config¬
uration of the structure, represented by [X], and which corresponds to
the externally applied load vector [L], The process is continued, with
the solution for the displaced shape of the structure progressively
converging, and given by:
[X] = [Xa] + [Xb] + [Xc] + . . . + [<5X] (4.4)
The solution is considered to have converged when either [<5X] is small,
or the ratio of [<5X]/[X] is small. Alternatively, the solution is considered
to have converged if the inequilibrium vector, given by { [L] — [Ln]}, is
also small and insignificant.
Following the solution of the equations for the particular increment in
the external load vector [L], it is usual to increase progressively the
magnitude of the external load in stages. For structures which demon¬
strate large changes in stiffness it is usual to apply the external loadings
in small increments; such a procedure avoids the possibility of the solu¬
tion method from diverging, whereby the iterative procedure, described
above, does not converge. Possible divergence is more likely for struc¬
tures which exhibit a softening effect with increasing load.
As explained previously, the methods described in this chapter are
equally applicable to structures which get stiffer with increasing load,
which generally include cable net and catenary structures.
36
5
Computer program flow charts
In order to summarize the work of the preceding chapters, and also to

provide the necessary link to the programs, two flow charts are
provided. The first flow chart, shown in Fig. 5.1, provides the overall
sequence of operations, while the flow chart, shown in Fig. 5.2, provides
more detail together with relevant reference points to the locations within
the programs.
Both flow charts are equally applicable to the two-dimensional
program, and also to the three-dimensional program given in Appendix 1.
The flow charts are considered to be self explanatory, and are included
as an essential means of introduction to the programs.
37
Input joint and

element data
Calculate member
direction cosines
Input load vector [L]
Assemble individual element stiffnesses
Assemble [T]and [T] matrices

Assemble [AA] and [AA'] matrices
Assemble [d] matrix
By multiplication and addition,
assemble element stiffnesses
[T] x { [AA'] x EA/L0 x [AA] + [d] } x [T]
Compute internal system of forces
[Ln] = [T'] x [AA'] x [P]
Place individual element stiffnesses in the

overall structural stiffness matrix [K],
Calculate inequilibrium vector ([L] - [Ln])
Solve for ctX:

([L] - [Ln])= [Kn] x [oX]
[ctX] is large
[aX] is small
Print out solution : [X] = [Xa] + [Xb] + ... + [aX]
Fig. 5.1
ÿ Overall computer program flow chart
COMPUTER PROGRAM FLOW CHARTS
Start
Enter number of joints — NJ

Enter number of members — NM
Enter number of loaded joints — NLJ

Enter number of support joints — NSJ
Input joint co-ordinates
Input structural connectivity

and material properties
Input external load

vector [RL]
Input boundary conditions
Compute direction cosines
Initialize intermediate displacements
Input initial pretension forces and

displacement vector DISP = 0
Compute basic member displacements

and basic member forces
Print input data
Initialize stiffness matrix [SK] = 0

for the structure and internal structural
nodal load vector [RLN] = 0
(10a)
Fig. 5.2. More detailed computer program flow chart including program refer¬
ence point locations (part 1)
39
Set element I = 1
Compute positions NC & ND for

element stiffness sub-matrices in
the overall structural stiffness (see eqn. 3.12)
(10b)
Assembly of transformation
sub-matrices [T1] & [T2]
(10c)
Assembly of matrix [AA]

(10d)
Assembly of matrix [D]

(lOe)
Compute element stiffness sub-matrices

[S11] [S12] [S2i] & [S22] and assemble them
in the overall structural stiffness [SK]
(10f)
Compute element nodal load sub-vectors

and assemble them in internal structural
nodal load vector [RLN]
yes
I < NM
no
Fig. 5.2. More detailed computer programflow chart including program refer¬
40
COMPUTER PROGRAM FLOW CHARTS
Compute structural inequilibrium

load vector [UF] = [RL] - [RLN]
Introduce boundary conditions

(12)
Solve system equations [SK] x [DELX] = [UF]

for incremental displacements
(13)
Compute current displacement

Vector [DISP] = [DISP] + [DELX]
(14)
Compute intermediate displacement

U, V & w
(15)
Compute basic member displacements

and basic member forces [E] & [P]
Remove slack elements

(16)
not
converged
Check
convergence
(17)
converged
Print results
(18)
Fig. 5.2. More detailed computer programflow chart including program refer¬
41
6
Analysis of general three-dimensional
cable structures
The previous chapters have dealt with the non-linear stiffness formula¬
tion for a single planar (two-dimensional) element together with the
methods of assembly of individual member/element stiffnesses within
the overall structural stiffness matrix, and the method of solution of the
non-linear stiffness equations.
This chapter covers the geometrical non-linear stiffness formulation for
a single three-dimensional element, consisting of a cable element, roci, or
chain link, when subjected to large deformations, and is a direct exten¬
sion of the procedure described previously in chapter 2.
The procedures, described previously, for the assembly of individual
element stiffnesses within the overall structural stiffness matrix, together
with the method of solution of the non-linear stiffness equations are
equally applicable. In order to make the explanation of the stiffness
formulation for the three-dimensional element straightforward, a similar
format to that in chapter 2 is adopted.
6.1. Global system of co-ordinates and direction

cosines
Figure 6.1 provides the position of a typical element within the global
system of co-ordinates (X-Y-Z). The typical element (A-B) has co-ordi¬
nates at either end given by XA, YA, ZA at end A, and XB, YB, ZB at end B.
The original length of the element, with respect to the global system of
L0 — \/[(XB — XA)2 + (Yb — Y,)- + (ZB — ZA)2] (6.1)
The member intermediate system of co-ordinates, given by the member

axes P, Q, and R, are shown in Fig. 6.2. As previously, the P-axis
43
Fig. 6.1. Global system of co-ordinates
coincides with the longitudinal axis of the element (in the undeformed
state), while the Q-axis is orthogonal to the P-axis, and the R-axis is
orthogonal to both the P-axis and the Q-axis.
The direction cosines, of the local intermediate axes P, Q, and R, relative
to the global co-ordinate system X, Y, and Z, are defined below.
For the element P-axis, the direction cosines relative to the global axis
system are:
/p = (XB - Xa)/£0; mp = (Yb - YA)/Z0; «p = (Z„ - ZA)/Z0 (6.2)
For the element Q-axis, the direction cosines are:
/q = (Xc - XA)/Zo; mq = (Yc - Ya)/Z0; nq = (Zc - ZA)/Z0 (6.3)
In this case the co-ordinates Xÿ, Yc, Zc refer to the co-ordinates of a

convenient point located along the Q-axis at some distance away from
end A of the element.
44
THREE-DIMENSIONAL CABLE STRUCTURES
/
X
Z
J
Fig. 6.2. Member intermediate system of co-ordinates
The direction cosines of the third orthogonal R-axis are given by the
right hand rule:
/r = (rap nq - rip mq); mr = (np lq -
• ÿ ÿ
•
nqf
and nx = (lp mq - mp
ÿ
•
/q) (6.4)
6.2. Loads and displacements in the global and

intermediate co-ordinate systems
The load vector, as applicable to the ends of the element (A-B), and
referred to in the global system of co-ordinates, is given by:
[L] = [Fxa, Fya, Fza, Fxh, Fyb, Fzh] (6.5)
The above system of global forces is shown in Fig. 6.3.
45
Fig. 6.3- Globalforces at the ends of element (A-B)
The corresponding displacement vector as applicable to the ends of

the element (A-B) and referred to in the global system of co-ordinates is
given by:
[X] = [xa, ya, za, xh, yh, zb\ (6.6)
The above system of global displacements is shown in Fig. 6.4.

As previously, the connection of the external or global loads to the
global displacements of the structure is through the complete (overall)
structural stiffness matrix [K] :
[L] = [K] x [X] (6.7)
As previously, the intermediate co-ordinate systems for each element

(P-, Q-, and R-axes) are used in order to define a set of so-called inter¬
mediate forces and intermediate displacements for a typical element
46
-- 1
Fig. 6.4. Global displacements at the ends of element A-B
(A-B). In this case the load vector as applicable to the ends of the
element (A-B), and referred to in the intermediate system of co¬
ordinates is given by:
[R] = [R, S, T] (6.8)
where R equals the force acting along the element P-axis, S is the force
acting in the direction of the element Q-axis, and T is the force acting in
the direction of the element R-axis. The above system of element inter¬
mediate forces is shown in Fig. 6.5.
The displacement vector as applicable to the typical element (A-B),
and referred to in the element intermediate system of co-ordinates is
given by:
[U] = [u, v , w\ (6.9)
47
Fig. 6.5. Element intermediateforces
where u equals the displacement acting along the element P-axis, v is the
displacement in the direction of the element Q-axis, and w is the displa¬
cement in the direction of the element R-axis. The above system of
element intermediate displacements is shown in Fig. 6.6
6.3. Transformation from intermediate forces and

displacements to global forces and displacements
The element intermediate displacements are connected to the global
displacements through the transformation matrix [T], in which [T] is
composed of the element direction cosines, as defined previously in
equations 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4.
48
(L0 + u)
Fig. 6.6. Element intermediate displacements
xa
ya
u "-'p — mp -np lp rnv np
Za
V —4) — mq -nq lq mq nq X (6.10)
Xh
IV .-4 — mr -nT 4 mr nr yb
Zb
The above equation satisfies displacement compatibility at the ends of
the element and is written in matrix form as:
[U] = [T] x [X] (6.11)
The corresponding global force vector and intermediate force vector are
similarly related in order to satisfy conditions of equilibrium at the ends
of the element:
[Li = [T'l x [Rl (6.12)
49
where [T'] is the transpose of matrix [T] . In expanded form, equation

(6.12) is written as:
'
Fxa~ h> -4
F}'a — mp -mq — mr
Fza -rip -nq -nx (6.13)
Fxb k Ir
fyb mp mq mr
. Fzb . . n? nq nr
6.4. Basic displacements and basic forces

The basic element displacement is given by the element extension as
measured along the deformed member axis.
e = y/(La + u)2 + v2 + w2 - L0 (6.14)
In matrix form, equation (6.14) may be written as
[E] = [A] x [U] (6.15)
where [E] = vector of element basic displacements

[U] = vector of element intermediate displacements
The above system of intermediate and basic element displacements is
shown in Fig. 6.7.
As previously, the element basic force is given in the form of the
element basic displacement and any element pre-tension:
P = PQ + iEA)/L0 x e (6.16)
6.5. Transformation from partial basic

displacements to partial intermediate displacements
As previously, it is convenient to develop the partial derivatives of the
element basic displacements with respect to the partial derivatives of the
element intermediate displacements. This is achieved by examining the
partial derivatives of each term in equation (6.14) in turn, thus:
Su
L0+ u v w
M= L0 + e L0 T 6 L0 + e
8v (6.17)
bw
50
(L0 + u)
Fig. 6. 7. Element intermediate and basic displacements
[<5E] = [AA] x [SU] (6.18)
6.6. Transformation from basic forces to

intermediate forces
The transpose of the matrix [AA] is used to connect the intermediate
element forces to the basic element forces, in order to satisfy the condi¬
tions of equilibrium at the ends of the element.
[R] = [AA'] x [P] (6.19)
51
In an expanded form this is written as:
La + u
L0 + e
R
V
S — x[P) (6.20)
Lq + ÿ
T
w
L0 + e
6.7. Transformation from partial basic forces to

partial intermediate forces and partial intermediate
displacements
intermediate forces and the element basic forces in absolute terms. As
previously, it is convenient to develop the partial derivatives of the
element intermediate forces with respect to the partial derivatives of the
element basic forces and the partial derivatives of the element inter¬
mediate displacements. This is achieved by examining the partial deriva¬
tives of each term in equation (6.20) in turn:
Lp + u
L0 + e
<5 R V
3S x \5P\
Lq + e
3T
w
Ln -|- e
P(vz + w ) -Pv(L0 + u) —Pw(L0 + u)

(L0 T e)3 (La + e)3 (Z0 + e)3
3u
H(Z0 + u)2 + w2)
+ -PvUo +
u) -Pvw
3v
Uo + e? (L0 -T <?)3 a0 + 6*);i 3w
—Pw(L0 + u) — Pvw P((Ln + u)2 + u")
(L0 + e)3 ao + ÿ)3 ' Uo + ef .
(6.21)
52
THREE-DIMENSIONAL CARLE STRUCTURES
[SR] = [AA'] x [8P] + [d] x [8U] (6.22)
The above expression can be expanded by substituting for [<5P]
[5P] = EA/Ln x [SE] (6.23)
and also by substituting for [«5E]
[3P] = EA/La x [AA] x [<5U] (6.24)
Thus equation (6.22) becomes
[SR] = {[AA'] x (EA/Ln) x [AA] + [d] } x [«5U] (6.25)
or in expanded form this is given by:
Z0 + u
Lq + e
SR' V FA
x—x
Zn + u IV
3S
3T Z<> +e U ZQ + 6 La + e L0 + e
w
_ Z0 + e .
P(v2 + w2) -Pv(L0 + u) —Pw(Lq + u)

(ZQ + e)3 (Z0 + e)3 Uo + e)3
()ZZ
—Pv(La + u) P((Z0 + u)2 + ZT'2) —Pvw
(Z() T e)3 (ZQ + e)3 (ZQ + c)3
-Pw(L0 + m) —Pvw P((ZQ + m)2 + zz2)
(Z0 + e)3 (Zq ~T c)3 (Z0 + c)3
(6.26)
6.8. Transformation from basic forces to global

forces
Equation (6.12), which connects the element global forces to the element
intermediate forces, is used in conjunction with equation (6.19), which
connects element intermediate forces to element basic forces.
53
[L] = [T'] x [R] and [R] = [AA'] x [P]

[L] = [T'] x [AA'] x [P] (6.27)

+
r
FXa'
" ' ÿ-T
-t ~k -4
+6
1
Fya -nip — mq — mT o
Fza ~nv nq -nr X

V
x[P] (6.28)
Fxh k k 4 Lq + e
Fyh nip mq m, w
Fzh nq nr . L0 + e _
Equations (6.11), (6.15) and (6.16) may he combined with equation
(6.27) in matrix form to give:
[L] = [t] x [AA'] x [Pn + (EA/LJ x [A] x [T] x [X]] (6.29)

'
FXa "/p "4, ~lr Z() +u

Fya —
~mp mq — mT Z0 + e
Fza -np -nq -nr V
X X Po +
Fxh \p k 4 Lo +
Fyh mv mn mr w
.Fzh . nv nr
.Lo + e_
O" yj U0 "I" u)2 v1 w- — L0
ya
~k lp nip riprip
Za
-lq —mq -nq lq mq nq (6.30)
— 4 — mr — nr Xh
4 nr Vb
.Zb_
6.9. Transformation from partial global

displacements to partial global forces
Equation (6.7) represents the relationship between global forces and
global displacements in absolute terms. It is convenient to develop the
partial derivatives of global forces with respect to the partial derivatives
of global displacements.
54
Because equations (6.10), (6.11), (6.12), and (6.13) connect the global
forces to the intermediate forces and the intermediate displacements to
the global displacements include only linear expressions, the corre¬
sponding incremental changes in the various terms must equally apply
[<5U] = [T] x [5X] (6.31)
and
[<5L] = [T'] x [<5R] (6.32)
Equations (6.25) and (6.26) may be expanded by substituting for [<5U]

and [<5R]
[<5L] = [t] x {[AA'] x (EA/ Z0) x [AA] + [d] } x [T] x [5X] (6.33)
where the expression given by

[T'] x {[AA'] x (EA/ La) x [AA] + [d] } x [T]
represents the incremental stiffness matrix [K] .
55
6.10. The incremental stiffness matrix for a

three-dimensional cable element
-/q -4
-rap -mq — m,
ik; =
-rip -nq —nT
4, 4
mp mq m,
nv nq nx
Z0 + u
Lq + e
V EA
x — x
Z0 + u w
Z0 +e LQ + e Zu + e Z0 + e
w
_ Lq + e _
P(v2 + w2) —PvU0 + u) —PwU0 + u)
(Z0 + e)3 a0 + c)3 a„ + c)3
-PvU„ + u) P(U0 + u)2 w2) —Pvw
+ (C + e)3 ' (ZQ + e)3 (L0 -I- <?)3
-Pw{Lo + w) -Pvw P((Z0 + w)2 + ÿ2)
(ZQ + c)3 Uo + ÿ)3 Uo + <?)3
4> 4>
-4) ~mq -nq lq mq nq (6.34)
— 4 —rny —nx 4 wi: nt
The above expression, which provides the 'incremental' stiffness matrix,
[K], is used to relate the 'incremental' changes in global forces, [<5L] with
the 'incremental' changes in global displacements, [<5X] in the manner
[<5L] = [K] x [<5X] (6.35)
56
References
1. POSKITT T. J. Numerical solution of non-linear structures. Journal of the Structural

Division, ASCE, 1967, 93, No. ST4, August, Proc. Paper 5362.
2. KRISHNA P. and AGARWAL T. P. Study of suspended roof model. Journal of the
Structural Division, ASCE, 1971, 97, No. ST6, June, Proc. Paper 8168.
3- DICKIE J. F and BROIJGHTON P. Discussion of paper on study of suspended roof
model. Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, 1972, No. ST1, January.
4. V1LNAY O. Cable net and tensegric shells - analysis and design application. Ellis
Ilorwood, 1990.
5. IRVINE H. M. Cable structures. Penerbit ITB, 1981.
6. KRISHNA P. Cable suspended roofs. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
7. SZABO J. and KOLLAR, L. Structural design of cable suspended roofs. Ellis Horwood,
1984.
8. BUCHHOLDT H.A. Introduction to cable roofstructures. Cambridge University Press,
1985.
9. OTTO F. Tensile structures. MIT Press, 1973.
10. JENNINGS A. Frame analysis including change of geometry. Journal of the Structural
Division, ASCE, 1968, 94, No. ST3, March, Proc. Paper 5839.
11. LIVESLEY R. K. Matrix analysis of structures. Pergamon Press, 1964.
57
Appendix 1
Computer program for three-dimensional cable

structures allowing for large displacement
Al.l. General
The program presented herein is written in FORTRAN and is based on the
formulations and flow charts presented in the main text. The program is
capable of performing static analysis of three dimensional cable struc¬
tures with rigid supports. All loads are applied at the nodal points. The
results obtained for the analysis consist of the vertical and horizontal
displacements of the nodes, and final member forces and changes to
member forces.
The main aim in developing this program was to translate directly the
theoretical formulations into a computer program, with emphasis on
clarity, of all necessary steps, rather than on developing the program effi¬
ciency. In order to achieve this objective the flow charts presented in
chapter 5 have been used. The detailed flow chart is tagged with rele¬
vant reference numbers which appear on the right-hand side of each
main step on the flow chart. The same reference numbers, which
appear on the right-hand side of the corresponding group of lines in the
source code, are used to implement the relevant steps in the flow chart.
A1.2 Input/output data

An input data file for a particular structural problem is prepared using any
text editor. The name of this input data file is requested when the
program is started. Data items in this file are arranged as follows.
• The first lines of data contain the total number of joints, total number
of members, total number of loaded joints and total number of
support joints in the given order.
59
• The next group of lines, which is equal to the number of joints, each
contain the following data items in the given order — X, Y and
Z-co-ordinates of the particular node. The data are arranged consecu¬
tively from node 1 to the last node.
• The following group of lines is equal to the number of members. Each
contains the first and second node numbers of each element, followed
by axial stiffness (EA) of the element. These data items are also
entered consecutively from element 1 to the last element.
• The following group of lines is equal to twice the number of loaded
nodes. Each pair of lines contains the loaded node number on the
first line, followed by the X, Y and Z-component of the applied load
on the second line, for all the loaded nodes starting from lowest
numbered loaded node increasing up to the highest numbered
loaded node.
• The following group of lines is equal to twice the number of support
nodes. Each pair of lines contains the support node number on the
first line, followed by codes for X, Y and Z-restraint on the second
line (if the support is fully restrained in a given direction, then the
code = 1, while if it is not restrained, then the code = 0) for all the
support nodes, starting from the lowest numbered support node
increasing up to the highest numbered support node.
• The final group of lines each contains the value of a pre-tension force
in a member, arranged consecutively from the first member to the last
member.
The results are saved in an output file, the name of which is also
requested at the beginning of the program execution. The first part of
this file contains the input data, followed by the results obtained from
the first cycle of iteration in the Newton-Raphson procedure. This, in
turn, is followed by the final set of results after convergence has been
achieved using the Newton-Raphson procedure.
60
COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR 3-DIMENSIONAL CABLE STRUCTURES
Program for geometric nonlinear analysis of 3-D

cable structures using standard Newton-Raphson
technique
c
PROGRAM CABLE?
DIMENSION X0(90) ,Y0(90) ,Z0(90> ,JN(150) ,JP(150) ,NDOF(270) ,
, ,
RLP ( 150 ) RMP( 150 ) RNP ( 150 ) ,RLO(150) ,RMQ(150) ,RNQ(150) ,
* ,
RLR ( 150 ) RMR ( 150 ) ,RNR(150) ,RL0(150) ,AE(150) ,RL(270) ,
* SK ( 270 ,270 ) ,U( 150) ,V(150) ,W( 150) ,E( 150) ,P(150) ,
* ,
RLN ( 270 ) F'0 ( 150 ) ,UF(270) ,DELX(270) ,DISP(270)
* CHARACTER *16, INF'N OUTFN ,
ITER=0
.
PTN--0 0
ERROR---0.01
WRITE (6,*) 'ENTER INPUT FILENAME (MAXIMUM 16 CHARACTERS)'
READ ( 5 „ ) INFN
*
WRITE (6,*) 'ENTER OUTPUT FILENAME (MAXIMUM 16 CHARACTERS)'
READ (5,*) OUTFN
OPEN ( 8,F ILE= INFN )
,
OPEN ( 1 F ILE=OUTFN )
C- INPUT OF DATA
WRITE ( 6 , )
*
WR ITE ( 6 ,*)'** READ ING IN DATA*****'
* **
WRITE (6 , )
READ ( 8 ,*
) NJ ,NM NLJ NSJ , , -(1)
NDF=NJ*3 *
C- INPUT OF JOINT COORDINATES
, -
CALL JCOOR ( NJ X0 ,Y0 ,Z0 ) (2)
C- INPUT OF MEMBER CONNECTIVITY AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES
, -
CALL MDATA ( NM JN ,JP ,AE ) (3)
C- INPUT OF LOAD VECTOR
C-
-
CALL LOAD ( NDF ,RL. ,NLJ )
INPUT OF BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
(4)
CALL BOUND ( NDF, NDOF, NSJ) -(5)
WRITE 6, )
(
WR ITE ( 6 ,* ) ' *****ANALYSIS***** '
WR ITE ( 6 ) ,*
C- *
COMPUTATION OF DIRECTION COSINES
, ,
CALL DIRCOS ( NJ ,NM ,X0 ,Y0 ,Z0 ,JN JP RLP RMP RNP ,RLQ RMQ RNQ , , , , ,
* RLR RMR RNR ,RL0 ) ,
INITIALIZATION OF DISPLACEMENTS AND PRESTRESS
, -(6)
C-
CALL INIT ( NM ,U ,V ,W ,P0 ,NDF ,DISF' -(7) )
C- COMPUTATION OF BASIC MEMBER DISPLACEMENTS AND BASIC MEMBER FORCES
CALL BASIC (NM,RL0,U,V,W,E,P0,P, AE) -(8)

C- PRINTING INPUT DATA
, , , , ,
CALL OUT 1( NJ NM ,X0 Y0 Z0 ,RL JN JP ,RL0 ,AE ,F'0 ,NDF ) -(9)
10 ITER-ITER+1
WRITE (6, ) 'iteration ' , ITER
C- *
COMPUTATION OF STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS AND INTERNAL SYSTEM OF FORCES
, , ,
CALL. ASSEM ( SK ,NM ,JN ,JP RLP ,RMP RNP RLO RMQ RNQ RLR RMR ,RNR , , , , ,
* RL0 ,U,V,W,E,P, AE ,RLN ,NDF ) -(10)
COMPUTATION OF THE UNBALANCED ( INEQU IL IBR IUM ) LOAD VECTOR
DO 40 1=1,NDF -
40 UF ( I) =RL ( I) -RLN ( I)
>(11)
C- MODIFICATION OF THE SYSTEM EQUATIONS FOR BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
CALL MQDIF( NDF, SK,UF,DISP, NDOF) -(12)

C- SOLUTION FOR INCREMENTAL DISPLACEMENT
, , ,
CALL GE ( NDF SK UF DELX ) -(13)
61
COMPUTING CURRENT DISPLACEMENTS
DO 20 1=1,NDF
20 DISP( I)=DISP( I)+DELX ( I
D-(14)
COMPUTATION OF INTERMEDIATE DISPLACEMENTS
, , , , ,
CALL IND ISP ( NM ,U V W RLP RMP RNP RLQ RMQ RNQ , , , ,
, , ,
RLR RMR RNR D ISP ,NDF JN JP ) - , , -(15)
*
COMPUTATION OF BASIC MEMBER DISPLACEMENTS AND BASIC MEMBER FORCES
, , ,,
CALL BAS IC ( NM RL0 U V W ,E P0 P AE ) , , , -(8)
CHECKING CONVERGENCE
.
CTN=0 0 -
DO 30 1=1,NDF
CTN=CTN+DISP( I) *DISR( I)
CTN=SQRT ( CTN ) /NDF -(17)
CIN=CTN-PTN
CIN=CIN/CTN
PTN=CTN -
SCANNING FOR SLACK MEMBERS
, ,
CALL SLACK ( NM P AE ) - (16)
PRINTING THE RESULTS AFTER FIRST ITERATION
I . .
F ( ITER EQ 1) THEM -
.
WR ITE(1,*) 'RESULTS AFTER ITERATION NO 1 (LINEAR SOLUTION)'
, , ,
CALL 0UT2 ( NJ NM P D ISP ,NDF P0 ,X0 Y0 ,Z0 ) , , -(18)
GO TO 10
END IF -
IF(ABS(CIN) .GE.ERROR) GO TO 10 (17)
PRINTING FINAL RESULTS
WRITE (6,*) -
WRITE(6,*) ' *****WRITING FINAL RESULTS*****'
WR ITE(.l,*) 'CONVERGED AT ITERATION NO.', ITER
-(18)
, ,
CALL 0UT2 ( NJ ,NM ,P DISP ,NDF F'0 ,X0 ,Y0 Z0 ) , -
CLOSE ( 1)
CLOSE (8)
END
SUBROUTINE JCOOR ( NJ ,X0 ,Y0 ,Z0 ) (2)
THIS SUBROUTINE IS USED TO INPUT JOINT COORDINATES AND

JOINT DEGREES OF FREEDOM
,
D IMENS ION X0 < NJ ) Y0 ( NJ ) ,Z0 ( NJ )
WRITE(6, ) ' joint coordinates. ..

DO 10 1=1,NJ * '
,
10 READ (8,*) X0( I) Y0( I) Z0( I) ,
RETURN
END - (2)
SLBROIJT INE MDATA ( NM J N ,JP AE ), , (3)
THIS SUBROUTINE IS USED TO ENTER MEMBER-JOINT CONNECTIVITY MATRIX AND
AE— VALUE FOR EACH MEMBER
,
DIMENSION JN(NM) JP(NM) ,AE(NM)
WRITE ( 6 ,*)' member connectivity & axial stiffnesses

DO 10 1=1, NM
,
10 READ (8.,*) JN ( I) JP ( I) AE ( I) ,
RETURN
END - (3)
62
SUBROUTINE LOAD ( NDF ,RL NLJ ) , -(4)

THIS SUBROUTINE IS. USED TO ENTER EXTERNAL LOAD VECTOR
DIMENSION RL(NDF)
WR1TE(6,*) ' nodal loads...'

DO 10 1=1,NDF
10 RL ( I) =0 0
DO 20 1=1,MLJ
.
READ (8. *) JL
K=( JL-i ) *3+1
,
20 READ (8,*) RL ( K ) RL ( K+l ) ,RL ( K+2 )
RETURN
END - (4)
, -
SUBROUTINE BOUND < NDF ,NDOF NSJ )
(5)
THIS SUBROUTINE SPECIFIES BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
DIMENSION NDOF (NDF)
WR ITE (£>,*) ' boundary conditions.

DO 10 1=1,NDF
.. '
10 NDOF ( I)=0
DO 20 1=1,NSJ
READ ( 8 ,
) JS
*
K= ( JS— 1) *3+1
,
20 READ (8,*) NDOF(K) NDOF (K+l) NDOF (K+2) ,
RETURN
END -(5)
SUBROUT I ,
NE D IRCOS ( NJ NM ,X0,Y0, Z0,JN,JP, RLP ,RMP ,RNP ,RLQ ,RMQ ,RNQ ,
* ,
RLR ,RMR RNR ,RL0 ) -(6)
THIS SUBROUTINE COMPUTES DIRECTION COSINES FOR EACH MEMBER
,
DIMENSION X0(NJ) ,Y0(NJ) ,Z0(NJ) ,JN(NM) ,JP(NM) RLP ( NM ) ,RMP ( NM ) ,
, , , , ,
RNP ( NM ) RLQ ( NM ) RMQ ( NM ) RNQ ( NM ) ,RLR ( NM ) RMR ( NM )
*
* RNR(NM) ,RL0(NM) .
DO 10 1=1, NM
—
A=X0 ( JP ( I) ) X0 ( JN ( I) )
B=Y0( JF'( I) ) -Y0 ( JN ( I) )
C=Z0 ( JP ( I) )-Z0( JN( I) )
RL0 ( I)=SQRT(A*A+B*B+C*C)
RLP ( I) =A/RL0 ( I)
RMP ( I) =B/RL0 ( I)
RNP ( I)=C/RL0( I)
A=RLP ( I)
B=RMP ( I)
C=RNP ( I)
IF( (A.EQ.0.0) .AND. (B.EQ.0.0) ) THEN

RLQ ( I) =0 0
RMQ ( I)=1.0
.
RNQ ( I) =0 0 .
RLR ( I)=-C
RMR ( I) =0 0 .
RNR ( I)=0.0
GO TO 10
END IF
DEN=SQRT ( A*A+B*B )
RLQ ( I)=-B/DEN
RMQ ( I)=A/DEN
63
RNQ ( I) =0 0
RLR ( I) =-A#C/DEN
.
RMR ( I)=-B*C/DEN
RNR ( I) =DEN
10 CONTINUE
RETURN
END - (6)
, , , , -
SUBROUTINE INIT ( NM U V W P0 ,NDF ,DISP )
(7)
THIS SUBROUTINE IS USED TO INITIALIZE THE INTERMEDIATE DISPLACEMENTS1
U,V AND INITIAL PRESTRESS
DIMENSION U ( NM ) ,V(NM) ,W(NM) ,P0(NM) ,DISP(NDF)

DO 10 1=1, NM
.
.
U ( I) =0 0
V ( I) =0 0
.
W ( I) =0 0
10 READ S ,
( ) P0 ( I)
DO 20 1=1,NDF *
20 DISP ( I) =0 0 .
RETURN
END (7)
, , ,
SUBROUTINE 8AS IC ( NM RL.0 U V ,W ,E P0 ,P AE ) , , -(8)
C THIS SUBROUTINE IS USED TO COMPUTE BASIC DISPLACEMENTS AND BASIC
C MEMBER FORCES
DIMENSION RL0 ( NM ) ,IJ(NM) ,V(NM) ,W(NM) ,E(NN) ,P0(NM) P ( NM ) AE ( NM ) , ,

DO 10 1=1,NM
A=RL0 ( I)-HJ( I)
B=V( I)
C=W(I)
E ( I)=SQRT(A*A+B*B+C*C)-RL0( I)
10 P ( I) =P0 ( I) +AE ( I) *E ( I) /RL0 ( I)
--
RETURN
c
END
-
, ,
(8)
SUBROUT INE SLAC K ( NM P AE ) ( 16)
C THIS SUBROUTINE REDUCES STIFFNESS OF SLACK MEMBERS TO ZERO
DIMENSION P ( NM ) AE ( NM ),
.
ZR=1 0E--20
DO 10 1=1, NM
1F(F'(I ) .LT.0.0) THEN
AE ( I)=ZR
.
P ( I) =0 0
--
END IF
10 CONTINUE
RETURN
END (16)
c
, , , ,
SUBROUT INE ASSEM ( SK NM JN JP RLP ,RMP ,RNP RLQ RMQ ,RNQ
, , ,
RLR RMR RNR RL0 ,U V W E P AE RLN NDF )
, ,
, ,,,, ,
., -(10)
*
C
C
THIS SUBROUTINE ASSEMBLES STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS FROM CONTRIBUTIONS
OF INDIVIDUAL MEMBER STIFFNESSES AND COMPUTES INTERNAL SYSTEM OF FORCES
f
, , ,
DIMENSION SK ( NDF NDF ) ,JN(NM) JP(NM) RLP ( NM ) RMP ( NM ) RNP ( NM ) , , ,
, , ,
RLQ ( NM ) RMQ ( NM ) RNQ ( NM ) RLR ( NM ) RMR ( NM ) RNR ( NM ) , , ,
** , , , ,
T 1( 3 3 ) T2 (3,3),RL0 ( NM ) U ( NM ) V ( NM ) W ( NM ) E ( NM ) , , ,
, , , ,
P ( NM ) AA ( 1,3 ) D ( 3 3 ) SS (3,3) ,AAT(3,1) AE ( NM ) , ,
* 511(3,3) ,312(3,3) ,S21(3,3) ,S22(3,3) TIT (3,3) ,T2T(3,3) , ,
* ,
WS(3, 3 ) RLN (NDF) ,-TMP (3,1)
*
64
COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR 3-DIMHNSIONAL CABLE STRUCTURES
INITIALIZATION OF INTERNAL SYSTEM OF FORCES AND STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS
DO 10 1=1,NDF -
.
RL.N ( I) =0 0
(10a)
DO 10 J=1 NDF,
, .
SK ( I J ) =0 0 - (10)
DO 100 1=1,NM
NC=( JN(
ND=(JP(
I) -1) *3
I) -1) *3
-
-
I_nr»h\
r-liuoj
C- ASSEMBLY OF MATRIX T1 AND T2
, ,
CALL ASST ( NM , I,RLP ,RMP ,RNP ,RLC1 ,RMQ ,RNQ ,RLR ,RMR ,RNR T1 T2 ) -(10c)
C- ASSEMBLY OF MATRIX AA
, , , , , , ,
CALL ASSAA ( NM I RL0 U V W E AA ) -(10d)
C- ASSEMBLY OF MATRIX D
, , , ,,
CALL ASSD ( NM , I RL0 U V W E ,P D ) , -(10c)
C- COMPUTATION OF MEMBER STIFFNESSES IN INTERMEDIATE COORDINTE SYSTEM
C- , ,
SS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE STRUCTURAL. ST IFFNESS-S11 S12 S21 % S22
C- TRANSPOSING MATRIX AA INTO AAT
CALL MTRAN (1,3, AA AAT ) , -,(10f)

C- MULTIPLICATION OF MATRIX AAT BY AA
CALL MMULT (3,1,3, AAT ,AA ,SS )
C- MULTIPLICATION OF MATRIX SS BY AE/L-VALUE
G=AE( I)/RL0( I)
CALL MSMULT (3,3, SS G ) ,
C- ADDITION OF THE ABOVE RESULT TO MATRIX D
CALL MADD (3,3, SS D SS ) , ,

C- COMPUTATION OF SUBMATRICES S11,S12,S21 !< S22
CALL MTRAN (3,3,T1,T1T)

CALL MMULT (3,3,3, TIT, SS WS ) ,
CALL MMULT (3,3,3, WS ,T1 ,Sll )
CALL MMULT (3,3,3,WS , T2 S12 ) ,
CALL MTRAN ( 3, 3 ,S12 ,S21 )
CALL MTRAN (3,3, T2 T2T ) ,
CALL MMULT (3,3,3 ,T2T ,SS WS ) ,
CALL MMULT (3,3,3,WS ,T2 ,S22 ) -(1Of)
C- COMPUTATION OF INTERNAL SYSTEM OF FORCES FOR THE GIVEN MEMBER
CALL MMULT (3, 3,1, TIT ,AAT TMP ) - , (10g)

DO 60 K=1 ,3
60 RLN ( NC+K ) =RLN ( NC+K ) +TMP ( K 1) *P ( I) ,
CALL MMULT (3,3,1, T2T AAT ,TMP ) ÿ
DO 80 K=1 ,3
80 RLN ( ND+K ) =RLN ( ND+K ) +TMP ( K ,1) *P ( I) -(10g)
C- ASSEMBLY OF STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS SK BY PUTTING S11,S12,S21 & S22
C- IN THEIR RESPECTIVE POSITIONS
DO 85 IN=1 ,3 -(1Of)
IC=NC+IN
ID=ND+IN
DO 85 LN=1 ,3
JC=NC+LN
65
JD=ND+LN
SK( IC,JC)=SK( IC,JO+Sll ( IN LN ) ,
,
SK( IC,JD)=SK( IC JD ) +S12 (IN, LN )
, ,
.
SK ( ID,JC ) =SK ( ID JC ) +S21 ( IN LN )
SK ( ID .ID ) =SK ( ID,JD)+S22( IN LN )
85 CONTINUE- -(10f)
,
100 CONTINUE
RETURN
END -(10)
c
SUBROUTINE MOD IF ( NDF ,SK UF DISF NDOF ) , , , -(12)
C
C THIS SUBROUTINE IS USED TO MODIFY SYSTEM EQUATION BY CONSIDERING
C THE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
C
, ,
D IMENS ION SK ( NDF NDF ) UF ( NDF ) NDOF ( NDF ) D ISP ( NDF ) , ,
DO 10 1=1,NDF
IF(NDOF (I ) .EQ.l) THEN
DO 20 J=1 NDF ,
UF ( J ) =UF ( J ) -SK ( J , I) *D ISP ( I)
,
SK ( J I.>=0.0
20 SK ( I,J )=0 .0
SMI, I)=1.0
UF ( Ij=DISP( I)
END IF
10 CONTINUE
RETURN
END -(12)
c
. .
SUBROUT INE IND ISP ( NM U ,V W ,RLP RMF' RNP ,RLQ ,RMQ RNQ ,
,
RLR RMR RNR D1SP ,NDF JN, JP ) - ,(15)
,
,
,
,
,
c *
C THIS SUBROUTINE COMPUTES DISPLACEMENTS IN INTERMEDIATE
C COORDINATE SYSTEM
c
,
DIMENSION U ( NM ) ,V(NM) ,W(NM) RLP ( NM ) RMP ( NM ) RNP ( NM ) ,RLQ ( NM ) , , ,
,
RMQ(NM) RNQ ( NM ) ,RLR ( NM ) ,RMR ( NM ) RNR ( NM ) ,DISP(NDF) , ,
* ,
.JN(NM) JP(NM)
*
DO 40 I =1 NM,
NC= ( JN ( I) -I) *3+1
—
ND= ( JF'( I) 1) *3+1
XA=DISP(NC)
YA=DISP (NC+1 )
ZA=DI SP ( NC+2 )
XB=DISP(ND)
YB=DISP ( ND+1)
ZB=DI SP ( ND+2 )
U( I)=RLP( I)# ( XB-XA ) +RMP ( I) ( YB-YA ) +RNP ( I) ( ZB-ZA)
*
**
--
V ( I) =RLQ ( I) ( XB-X A ) +RMQ ( I) ( YB-YA ) +RNQ ( I) ( ZB-Z A )
*
40 W( I) =RLR ( I) ( XB-XA ) +RMR ( I)*( YB-YA ) +RNR ( I) * ( ZB-ZA)
* *
RETURN
c
END ----- (15)
SUBROUTINE OUT1 ( NJ ,NM ,X0 ,Y0 ,Z0 »RL ,JN ,JP ,RL0 ,AE ,P0 ,NDF ) -(9)
c
C THIS SUBROUTINE IS USED TO PRINT INPUT DATA
C
,
DIMENSION X0(NJ) ,Y0(NJ) ,Z0(NJ) RL ( NDF ) ,.JN(NM) ,JP(NM) ,RL0 ( NM ) ,
AE(NM) ,P0(NM)
*
,
WRITE( 1 100 )
WRITE (1,110)
WRITE( 1,120)
DO 10 1=1, NJ
K=( 1-1) *3+1
, , , ,
10 WRITE ( 1 130 ) I X0 ( I) Y0 ( I) Z0 ( I) RL ( K ) RL ( K+l ) RL ( K+2 ) , , ,
,
WR ITE ( 1 140 )
66
WRITE (1,150 )
DO 20 1=1, NM
,
20 WRITE (1,160) I,JN( I) ,JP( I) RL0 ( I) ,AE ( I) ,P0 ( I)
write; i,»)
write; l ) ,
*
100 FORMAT (IX, 'NONLINEAR ANALYSIS OF CABLE STRUCTURES'/,
110 FORMAT (IX, 'JOINT COORDINATES AND LOADS:',/)

120 FORMAT (IX, 'JOINT X-COOR Y-COQR Z-COOR X-LOAD Y-LOAD Z-L.OAD')
,
130 FQRMAT( IX I3,6(2X,E10.3) )
140 FORMATUX, 'MEMBER-JOINT INCIDENCE AND MEMBER PROPERTIES:'/)
150 FORMAT (IX, 'MEMBER NEGATIVE POSITIVE LENGTH AE-VALUE P0'/
JOINT JOINT')
* '
, , , ,
160 FORMAT <3X 13 5X ,13 6X 13,3 ( 3X E10 3 ) ) , .
RETURN
END - 0)
, ,
SUBROUTINE 0UT2 ( NJ ,NM P D ISP ,NDF P0 X0 Y0 Z0) , , , , (18)
THIS SUBROUTINE IS USED TO PRINT OUT THE RESULTS
,
DIMENSION P ( NM ) ,DISP(NDF) P0 ( NM ) ,X0 ( NJ ) ,Y0 ( NJ ) ,Z0 ( NJ )
,
WRITE ( 1 170 )
DO 30 1=1,NJ
J=( I—1) *3+1
XX=X0( I) t-DISP(J)
YY=Y0( I) +DISP ( J+l )
ZZ=Z0( I) +D ISP (J+2 )
, ,
30 WRITE (1,180) I DISP ( J ) D ISF' ( J + l) ,DISP( J+2) ,XX ,YY.ZZ
WRITE( 1 190) ,
DO 40 1=1, NM
,
40 WRITE(1 ,200) I,P( I) (P( I) -P0 ( I) )
170 FORMAT (IX, 'JOINT DISPLACEMENT',/,

'JOINT X-DISP Y-DISP Z-DISF",/)
*
180 FORMAT ( 1X ,I3 ,5X ,6(2X,E10.3) )
190 FORMAT ( IX , ' MEMBER FORCES ' - /
MEMBER FORCE CHANGE IN PRETENSION' )
* ,
200 FORMAT( IX 13, 5X,2(2X ,E10.3) )
RETURN
-(18)
SUBROUT INE ASST ( NM , I,RLP ,RMP ,RNP ,RLQ ,RMQ ,RNQ-,

K ,
RLR RMR RNR T1 T2 ) - , , , -(10C)
THIS SUBROUTINE ASSEMBLES MATRICES T1 AND T2 FOR A GIVEN MEMBER
, ,
D IMENS ION RLP ( NM ) ,RMP ( NM ) RNP ( NM ) RLQ ( NM ) ,RMQ ( NM ) ,RNQ ( NM ) ,
, ,
RLR(NM) RMR ( NM ) RNR(NM) ,T1(3,3) ,T2(3,3)
*
Till ,1)=—RLP ( I
,
T 1( 1 2 ) =— RMP ( I
,
T 1( 1 3 ) =— RNP ( I
,
Tl(2 1) =-RLQ ( I
11(2,2)=-RMQ( I
,
T 1( 2 3 ) =— RNQ ( 1
,
11(3 1) =— RLR ( 1
,
T1 (3 2 ) =-RMR ( I
,
Tl(3 3)=-RNR( 1
,
T2 ( 1 1) =RLP ( I)
T2 ( 1,2 ) =RMP ( I)
T2 ( 1,3 ) =RNP ( I)
12(2,1) =RLQ ( I)
T2 ( 2 ,2 ) =RMQ ( I)
T2 ( 2 ,3 ) =RNQ ( I)
T2(3 , 1) =RLR ( I)
T2 (3 ,2 ) =RMR ( I)
T2 ( 3 ,3 ) =RNR ( I)
RETURN
END - -(10c)
67
c
SUBROUTINE ASSAA ( NM , I,RL0 ,U ,V ,W ,E AA ) , -(1Od)
C
1
C THIS SUBROUTINE ASSEMBLES MATRIX AA FOR A GIVEN MEMBER
C
, , , <
DIMENSION RL0 ( NM ) U ( NM ) V ( NM ) ,W ( NM ) E NM ) AA ( 1 3 ) , ,
DEN=RL0( I)+E( I)
,
AA ( .1 1) = ( RL0 ( I) +U ( I) ) /DEN
AA (1,2)=V ( I) / DEN
AA (1,3) =W ( I) /DEN
RETURN
C
END -<10d)
, , -
SUBROUT INE ASSD ( NM I RL0 ,U,V,W,E,P,D) (10e)
C
C
-
THIS SUBROUTINE ASSEMBLES MATRIX D FOR A GIVEN MEMBER
, , , , ,
DIMENSION RL0 ( NM ) U( NM ) V ( NM ) W ( NM ) E ( NM ) P.(NM ) ,D ( 3 3 ) ,
DEN=RL0( I)+E( I)
DEN=DEN*DEN*DEN
D(1,1)=P< I)*(V( I)*V( I)+W( I)*W( I) ) /DEN
,
D ( 1 2 ) =-P ( I) V ( I) ( RL0 ( I) +U ( I) ) / DEN
* **
D( 1,3)=-P( I)#W( I) ( RL0 ( I)+U( I) ) /DEN
DNU=RL0 ( I) +U ( I)
DNU=DNU*DNU
D ( 2 ,2 )=P ( I) ( DNU+W ( I) *W( I) ) /DEN
, *
D ( 2 3 ) =-P ( I) *V ( I) *W ( I /DEN >
,
D ( 3 3 ) =P ( I) ( DNU+V ( I)*V( I) ) /DEN
D ( 2 ,1) =D (1,2) *
D (3, 1) =D (1,3)
D ( 3,2 )=D (2,3)
RETURN
END - (10e)
C -
SUBROUTINE MADD (N ,M ,A ,B ,C )
C
C THIS SUBROUTINE ADDS MATRICES A(NXM) AND B(NXM) AND PUTS THE RESULT
C IN MATRIX C
C
DIMENSION A ( N ,M ) ,8(N,M) ,C(N,M)
DO 10 1=1,N
DO 10 J=1 M ,
, , ,
10 C ( I J ) =A ( I J ) +B ( I J )
RETURN
END
c
SUBROUTINE MMULT (N,M,L,A,B,C)
c
C THIS SUBROUTINE MULTIPLIES MATRIX A(NXM) TO B(MXL) AND PUTS THE RESULT
C IN MATRIX C(NXL)
C
DIMENSION A(N,M) ,B(M,L) ,C(N,L)
DO 10 1=1,N
DO 10 J=1 L ,
, .
C ( I J ) =0 0
DO 10 K=1 M ,
, , ,
10 C( I J )=C( I J )+A( I K ) *B ( K J ) ,
RETURN
END
C
SUBROUTINE MTRAN ( N M A ,B ) , ,
c
C THIS SUBROUTINE TRANSPOSES A MATRIX A(NXM) AND PUTS THE RESULT IN B(MXN
C
DIMENSION A(N,M) ,B(M,N)
68
DO 10 1=1,N
DO 10 J=1 M ,
10 B(J,I)=A(I,J)
RETURN
END
c
SUBROUTINE MSMULT ( N M A B ) , , ,
C
C THIS SUBROUTINE MULTIPLIES A MATRIX A(NXM) BY A SCALAR AND PUTS
C THE RESULT IN A(NXM)
c
DIMENSION A ( N M ) ,
DO 10 1=1,N
DO 10 J = 1 M ,
10 All ,J)=B*A( 1,0)
C-
C
C
C
C-
RETURN
END
SUBROUTINE GE(N,A,B,X)
--
THIS SUBROUTINE IS USED TO SOLVE LINEAR SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
Ax=b USING GAUSS ELIMINATION METHOD
DIMENSION A(N,N),B(N),X(N)
FOWARD ELIMINATION
(13)
—
DO 30 K=1 N-l ,
CALL SP IV (A B N K) , , ,
DO 20 I=K+1,N
< ,
Z=A I K )
DO 10 J = K N ,
, , ,
10 A ( I J ) =A ( I J ) -A ( K J ) # Z
—
20 B ( I) =B ( I) B ( K ) Z
*
30 CONTINUE
C- BACKSUBST ITUT ION
,
X ( N ) =B ( N ) / A ( N N )
DO 50 L=1 N— 1 ,
K=N-L
SUM=B(K)
DO 40 J=K+1,N
40 SUM=SUM-X(J)*A(K,J)
50 X ( K ) =SUM
RETURN
END
C
SUBROUTINE SPIV ( A ,Y ,N ,K )
C- THIS SUBROUTINE IS USED FOR TOTAL PIVOTING OF Ax = b
DIMENSION A(N,N) ,Y(N)
IF(K.GE.N) RETURN
ABSMX=0 0 .
IMAX=K
DO 10 I=K,N
ABSA=ABS ( A ( I,K) )
I . .
F ( ABSA GT ABSMX ) THEN
ABSMX=ABSA
IMAX= I
END IF
10 CONTINUE
C- SWITCH ROWS
DO 20 J=1 ,N
TEMP=A(K, J)
, MAX J )
A ( K J ) =A ( I ,
69
THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE. AND CATENARY STRUCTURES
,
20 A ( IMAX J ) =TEMP
TEMP=Y(K)
Y(K)=Y( IMAX)
Y ( IMAX )=TEMP
C- SCALE ROW K
Z=A(K,K)
DO 40 J=K,N
--
40 A(K,J)=A(K,J)/Z
Y ( K ) =Y ( K ) / Z
RETURN
END (13)
70
Appendix 2
Numerical example of two-dimensional

structure (vertical 2-D truss)
A2.1. General
In this appendix, a two-dimensional vertical cable truss is analysed for
two interesting load cases using the two-dimensional program !cable2.x',
which is included in the accompanying diskette. This structural model
was previously included in the paper by Poskitt.1 The results which
were given previously included vertical displacements of the nodes and
change in hanger tension forces. Horizontal displacements were not
previously reported. The results produced by the program 'cable2.x'
give both vertical and horizontal displacements of the nodes, together
with final tension forces in each cable segment (and the change in cable
forces).
In the original problem, as previously presented. Imperial units were
adopted, and these have been converted to metric units in the present
example. The previous results were given in graphical form only, hence
it was difficult to make an accurate comparison with the results from the
present program. A comparison is made between results contained in
the previous paper and the present results in both the vertical displace¬
ments and the change in hanger tension forces.
The structure is shown in Fig. A2.1. It consists of an upper and a lower
cable, and 14 vertical hangers with various axial stiffnesses. The span of
the structure is 3-03 m, and the depth at the supports is 0-81 m. Vertical
hangers are equally spaced along the span. A more complete description
of the problem is provided in reference (1).
71
30
28
26
23
27
Node numbering
/
32
36 37 38 39
E
o 20 22 24' 27 28
5
o
3 03 m
Fig. A2.1. Cable truss, joint and element numbering
A2.2. Results
A summary of the results for the two more interesting load cases is
provided. Results for both the linear and non-linear solutions are
included.
Case 1
In this loading case, a single point vertical load of 115-41 N is suspended
from the lower node of the 5th hanger from the left support, as shown
in Fig. A2.2.
Fig. A2.2. Load case 1 (cable truss)
72
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE
Results for displacements are given in Table A2.1 and Fig. A2.3.
Linear Solution Non-linear Solution

Node vertical horizontal vertical horizontal
(D displacement displacement displacement displacement
(metres) (metres) (metres) (metres)
(2) (3) (4) (5)
3 -0-00082 -0-000021 -0-00076 0-00024

6 -0-00328 -0-00089 -0-00307 -0-00074
7 -0-00725 0-00183 -0-00679 0-00178
11 -0-01960 0-00397 -0-01840 0-00368
12 -0-01950 -0-00395 -0-01840 -0-00369
17 0-00069 0-00255 0-00050 0-00216
20 0-00432 -0-00269 0-00383 -0-00267
22 0-00692 -0-00286 0-00626 -0-00280
25 0-00770 0-00283 0-00707 0-00253
26 0-00770 -0-00283 0-00704 -0-00269
Table A 2. 1. Displacements at selected pointsfor load case 1 (cable truss)
0020
g, 0-010
Hanger number Hanger number

—— lower
—•°— upper
Fig. A 2.3- Vertical and horizontal displacements of upper and lower chordsfor
load case 1 (cable truss)
73
THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRl CTURES
Results of the changes in hanger forces are given in Table A2.2 and
Fig. A2.4.

(or hanger no.) Hanger Change in Hanger Change in
(1) force force force force
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
(2) (3) (4) (5)
17 0-0397 0-00126 0-0406 0-00219

20 0-170 0-124 0-0112 0-0669
23 0-0969 0-0473 0-0522 0-00252
25 0-0820 0-0345 0-0500 0-00250
27 0-050 0-0139 0-0378 0-00170
Table A 2.2. Change in tension forces in selected bangersfor load case 1(cable
truss)
60
0)
</)
to
0)
o
c
o
0)
Ol
c
CO
X
14
Hanger number
Fig. A2.4. Plot of increase in banger force for load case / (cable truss)
(Newtons)
74
Case 2
This loading case consists of a point load of 40-5 N applied vertically
downwards at nodes 3, 6, 11, 12, 21, 26, and 29 and a point load of
40-05 N applied vertically upwards at nodes 5, 13. and 25, as shown in
Fig. A2.5.
22
25
27
IT) IT) p 2
2
2 O o
2 6
Fig. A 2. 5. Load case 2 (cable truss)
Results for displacements are given in Table A2.3 and in Fig. A2.6
below.

Node vertical horizontal vertical horizontal
(1) displacement displacement displacement displacement
( metres) ( metres) (metres) (metres)
(2) (3) (4) (5)
3 -0-00237 0-00082 -0-00235 0-00080

6 -0-00107 -0-000317 -0-00119 -0-00034
7 -0-000724 0-000145 -0-00075 0-00016
11 -0-000351 0-000495 -0-00352 0-00052
12 -0-00348 -0-000492 -0-00349 -0-00047
17 0-00437 -0-000017 0-00035 -0-00002
20 -0-00104 -0-000175 -0-00109 -0-000181
22 -0-00344 0-00048 -0-00344 0-000478
25 -0-00070 -0-00014 -0-000130 -0-00000
26 -0-00081 -0-00016 -0-00130 0-00028
Table A 2.3: Displacements at selected pointsfor load case 2 (cable truss)
75
00005
-0-004 -1
0 2
-41-61-81- 1- -L
1
10 12 14
Hanger number Hanger number
—°— lower cable

—•— upper cable
Fig. A 2. 6. Plots of vertical and horizontal displacements for load case 2 (cable
truss) (metres)
Results of the change in hanger forces are given in Table A2.4 and
Fig. A2.7.

(or hanger no.) Hanger Change in Hanger Change in
(1) force force force force
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
(2) (3) (4) (5)
17 0-000 -0-0384 0-0384 0-0000

20 0-0665 0-0211 0-0654 0-0201
23 0-0498 0-00012 0-0500 0-0003
25 0-0686 0-0211 0-0703 0-0228
27 0-000 -0-0361 0-0361 0-0000
Table A2.4 Change in tension forces in selected bangersfor load case 2 (cable
truss)
76
30
20
10
-10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Hanger number
Fig. A2.7. Plot of increase in hanger force for load case 2 (cable truss)
(Newtons)
A2.3. Discussion
Even though this type of cable structure is relatively stiff, it is necessary to
take into consideration the non-linear effects, especially when the
applied loading is irregular, as for load case 2. For example, if the
vertical displacement of joint 26 is considered, it is seen that the solution
from the non-linear analysis is almost 61% higher than the result of
linear analysis. Also it is not realistic to ignore the horizontal displace¬
ments; for example the horizontal displacement of joint 3 is equal to
34% of the vertical displacement of the same joint.
77
Appendix 3
Numerical example of three-dimensional

structure (3-D hypar roof)
A3.1. General
A 3-D hypar roof structure presented in the paper by Krishna and
Agarwal,2 was analyzed using the three-dimensional program 'cable3.x'.
which is given in Appendix 1, and is also available in the accompanying
diskette. In this example the same system of units has been adopted as
was used by the original authors.
In the previous paper, experimental and theoretical results were
presented. In the previous formulations the authors considered vertical
displacements only. The program 'cable3.x' gives results from linear and
non-linear analyses. Both horizontal and vertical displacements are
taken into consideration.
The structure is 12 x 12 feet square in plan (3-65 m x 3-65 m). Two
opposite corners of the diagonal are elevated by 9 inches (0-228 m)
from the origin which is located at the centre of the roof surface. The
remaining two corners are depressed by 9 inches (0-228 m) from the
same origin. In this way, a saddle shape is achieved for the resulting
cable net, which is anchored along the straight rigid beams represented
by the sides of the square, as shown in Fig. A31.
A3.2. Results
Four different load cases were analysed. Results obtained from the
program 'cable3.x' include both linear and non-linear solutions. The
analyses provide global vertical displacements, (Z). and the global hori¬
zontal displacements, (X and Y), in two orthogonal directions for each
joint, as well as final tension force and the change from initial pre¬
tension force in each cable segment. In order to make comparisons,
79
General arrangement
Node numbering
0-75 feet (0-228 m)
Fig. A3.1.
80
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE
results from the paper by Krishna and Agarwal are also given in this
appendix. Only two loading cases are summarized in this appendix, but
results for all four loading cases are included in the accompanying diskette.
Case 1
The first load case considered is for a single vertical load of 0-22 kips
(0-98 kN) applied at node 7, as shown in Fig. A3. 2.
7
ÿ Loaded node
Fig. A3-2. Load case 1 (3-D hypar roof)
81
Results of the displacements for the first load case are given in Table
A3.1.
Results from ref. (2) Linear Solution Non-linear Solution

Node
No. Theor Exper. X Y z X Y z
(1) Z Z (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches)
(inches) (inches) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
(2) (3)
3 -0-218 -0-198 0-000 -0-030 -0-213 0-000 -0-034 -0-241

6 -0-237 0-217 0-000 -0-030 -0-234 0-007 -0-035 -0-258
7 — — 0-000 -0-125 -0-961 0-000 -0-139 -0-965
13 -0-415 -0-285 0-000 -0-055 -0-310 0-000 -0-079 -0-333
15 -0-029 -0-028 0-001 -0-003 -0-029 0-001 -0-003 -0-031
22 -0-061 -0-058 0-000 -0-013 -0-060 -0-001 -0-016 -0-062
31 -0-010 -0-010 0-000 -0-028 -0-009 0-000 0-047 0-007
43 -0-028 0-031 0-000 -0-024 0-027 0-000 -0-041 0-051
44 0-015 — 0-000 -0-008 0-015 0-000 -0-011 0-028
46 0-000 — 0-000 0-000 0-000 -0-001 0-000 0-001
56 0-027 0-030 0-000 -0-007 0-027 0-000 -0-010 0-041
59 -0-001 0-000 0-000 0-000 -0-001 -0-001 0-000 -0-002
65 0-047 — 0-000 -0-018 0-045 0-000 -0-031 0-071
67 0-011 0-010 0-000 -0-001 0-011 0-000 -0-002 0-016
79 0-035 0-035 0-000 -0-011 0-032 0-000 -0-018 0-051
Table A3-1. Displacements for vertical load of 0-22 kips (0-98 kN) at node 7,
load case 1(3-D hypar roof)
82
Case 2
This load case represents distributed load applied on half of the cable
net, while the remaining half is free from loading. The distributed load is
represented by nodal loads (0.022 kips) as shown in Fig. A3.3.
44 46 47
34
ÿ Loaded node
Fig. A3-3- Load case 2 (3-D hypar roof)
83
Results of the displacements corresponding to the second load case are

given in Table A3. 2.
Results from ref. (2) Linear Solution Non-linear Solution

Node
No. Theor Exper. X Y Z X Y Z
(1) Z Z (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches)
(inches) (inches) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
(2) (3)
3 -0-118 -0-126 0-000 -0-014 -0-116 0-000 -0-015 -0-122

6 -0-186 -0-188 0-004 -0-019 -0-184 0-003 -0-021 -0-190
7 — — 0-000 -0-027 -0-254 0-000 -0-029 -0-264
13 -0-364 -0-382 0-000 -0-034 -0-361 0-000 -0-036 -0-370
15 -0-192 -0-248 -0-007 -0-015 -0-191 -0-007 -0-016 -0-192
22 -0-391 -0-357 -0-007 -0-029 -0-389 -0-007 -0-030 -0-390
31 -0-410 -0-452 0-000 -0-029 -0-415 0-000 -0-029 -0-409
43 -0-325 -0-366 0-000 -0-023 -0-325 0-000 -0-023 -0-316
44 -0-315 -0-350 -0-006 -0-018 -0-313 -0-006 -0-019 -0-303
46 -0-240 -0-240 -0-013 -0-005 -0-238 -0-013 -0-005 -0-230
56 -0-102 -0-089 -0-002 -0-017 -0-101 -0-002 -0-018 -0-102
59 -0-043 -0-047 -0-004 -0-001 -0-044 -0-004 -0-001 -0-044
65 0-004 0-004 0-000 -0-022 0-004 0-000 -0-023 0-001
67 -0-012 -0-013 0-000 -0-009 0-000 0-000 -0-010 -0-003
79 0-051 0-046 0-000 -0-016 0-050 0-000 -0-017 0-049
Table A3-2. Displacementsfor vertical loads of 0 022 kips (0 098 k.N) applied to
ÿ ÿ
each node over halfof the cable net, load case 2 (3-D hypar roof)
A3.3. Discussion
When results of linear and non-linear analyses are compared, it is
observed that for the distributed load applied over half of the cable net
(Case 2), there is little difference between the linear and non-linear
results (between 2% and 6%) for the vertical displacements. However, if
the case of single point load applied at node 7 is considered (Case 1),
then it is observed that for some nodes the difference between the
linear and non-linear solution is quite significant. For example, the
vertical displacement of node 45 is 0-027 inches (0-000 685 m) from the
linear analysis and 0-051 inches (0-001 29 m) from the non-linear
analysis, representing a change of about 89%. Also, if the veitical dis¬
placement of node 31 is considered, it is observed that while the result
from linear analysis gives a downward displacement of 0-009 inches
(0-000 228 m), the non-linear solution gives an upward displacement of
0-007 inches (0-000 178 m).
84
In addition, the horizontal displacements are seen to be quite signifi¬

cant relative to the vertical displacements at certain node locations. For
instance, for load case 1 of single point load applied at node 7, the hori¬
zontal displacement at node 31 is almost 670% larger than the respective
vertical displacement.
These results indicate quite clearly that for these types of structures, it
is important when performing the analysis to incorporate non-linear
effects due to changes in geometry. Also, it is important that the hori¬
zontal displacements are included within the theoretical formulation.
83
Appendix 4
Contents of the diskette and user guide
A4.1. Contents of the diskette

The accompanying diskette contains two directories. The first directory,
named TWOD, contains a source code for a program for 2-dimensional
analysis of cable structures (CABLE2.FOR), an executable program file
(CABLE2.EXE), three example input data files (CB21IN, CB22IN and CB23IN)
and their corresponding output files which contain the results (OUT21,
OUT22 and OUT23).
The results reported in Appenciix 2 have been obtained from input files
CB21IN and CB22IN, and output files OUT21 and OUT22, respectively. The
input file CB23IN contains the information for the same cable truss as in
Appendix 2, where in the latter case the load case represents downward
vertical point loads with magnitude of 0-138 kN each applied at all the
nodes on the bottom cable.
The second directory is named THREED and contains a source code for
a program for analysis of three-dimensional cable structures
(CABLE3.FOR), and an executable program file (CABLE3.EXE), together
with four example input files (CB31IN, CB32IN, CB33IN and CB34IN) and
their corresponding output files which contain the results (OUT31, OUT32,
OUT33 and OUT34).
The results reported in Appendix 3 have been obtained from input files
CB31IN and CB32IN, and output files OUT31 and OUT32, respectively. The
input files CB33IN and CB34IN contain the information for the same hypar
roof as in Appendix 3, except that the loading case for input file CB33IN
consists of a load of 0-22 kips applied vertically downwards at node 21,
while load case for input file CB34IN consists of a load of 0-22 kips
applied vertically downward at the central node 43. The corresponding
results are in output files OUT33 and OUT34, respectively.
87
A4.2 User guide
In order to run the programs in the accompanying diskette, type program
name CABI.F.2 or CABLE3, respectively, specifying the required path as
necessary. The program will prompt for an input filename which has to
be entered by the user. This file must be prepared beforehand as
described in Appendix 1, section A1.2 for three-dimensional problems.
An input file for two-dimensional problems has a similar format, except
that in their case all quantities related to the third co-ordinate axis are
left out.
Immediately after entering an input filename and pressing the RETURN
key, a prompt requesting an output filename will appear. The user will
enter an output filename of his or her choice which will contain the
results of the analysis.
The source code provided can be modified as desired by the user.
88

Peter Broughton - Paul Ndumbaro - The Analysis of Cable and Catenary Structures-T. Telford (1994)

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Peter Broughton - Paul Ndumbaro - The Analysis of Cable and Catenary Structures-T. Telford (1994)

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Catenary

The analysis of Cable & Catenary structures includes

theoretical procedures for non-linear analysis of cable and

suitable two-dimensional and three-dimensional numerical

the necessary flow charts which bridge the gap between

ÿ a computer disk containing a program suitable for the analysis

This book will be of benefit to final year undergraduates, postgraduate

9 780727 720085 >

"U Thomas Telford

First published 1994

Distributors for Thomas Telford books are

ISBN: 0 7277 2008 2

Typeset in Great Britain by Alden Multimedia, Northampton.

Peter Broughton is currently Project Manager for Phillips Petroleum

3. The contribution of individual element stiffnesses

3. Computer program flow charts 37

6. Analysis of general three-dimensional cable

[A] transformation matrix between intermediate and basic

1.1. General introduction

The theoretical analysis of cable and catenary structural systems has

1.2. Sources of non-linearity

based upon a linear relationship between applied external forces and

This text treats the source of non-linearity in the structural behaviour,

(i) Arch type of structure (ii) Load displacement behaviour

Fig. 1.1. Structure exhibiting non-linear softening effect

(i) Suspended cable type of (ii) Load displacement

Fig. 1.2. Structure exhibiting non-linear stiffening effect

All of the above effects are considered to be important in developing an

1.3. Types of structure to which the procedures

Several of the above types of structure are illustrated below.

In this example of the suspension bridge, the curved upper chord

Suspended cable net roof structure

Fig. 1.4. Suspended cable net roof over rectangular plan

In this example, the curved roof elements spanning between supports

Fig. 1.7. Heart Tent, Diplomatic Quarters, Riyadh

Cable stayed mast

Fig. 1.11. Cable stayed mast

Cable stayed offshore deepwater jacket structure

Fig. 1. 12. Cable stayed offshore deepwater jacket structure

Fig. J. 13- Inflatable barrage or temporary dam structure

The above example illustrates a cross-section of an inflatable structure

Catenary mooring system for offshore loading buoy

Fig. 1.14. Offshore catenary mooring system

The above structural system (Fig. 1.14) is represented by an arrangement

Analysis of general two-dimensional cable

2.1. Global system of co-ordinates and direction

A> = ypfe - XA)2 + (Yb - Ya)2] (2. 1)

Fig. 2.1. Global system of co-ordinates

The typical element has the usual properties

For element (A-B) it is convenient to define a set of local axes P and Q.

Fig. 2.2. Intermediate system of co-ordinates

2.2. Loads and displacements in the global and

[L] = [Fxa, Fya, Fxh, Fyh) (2.5)

The above system of global forces is shown in Fig. 2.3.

[X] = [xa,ya, xb,yh\ (2.6)

The above system of global displacements is shown in Fig. 2.4.

Fig. 2.3. Globalforces at the ends of element (A-B)

Fig. 2.4. Global displacements at the ends of element (A-B)

This connection of external or global loads to the global displacements

[R] = [K, S] (2.8)

Fig. 2.5. Element intermediateforces

and referred to in the element intermediate system of co-ordinates is

Fig. 2.6. Element intermediate displacements