Consequences of international migration

Migration is a complex human process which has been in practice since ages and refers to a permanent
change of usual place of residence. People usually migrate from one place to another in search of
livelihood and for a better standard of living. International labour mobility is a means to secure a better
life for the migrants and their families and India is no exception to it. Globally, it is estimated that about
3% of the world population consist of international migration. The share of international migrants in the
world’s population has remained remarkably stable at around 3% over the past 50 years, despite factors
that could have been expected to increase flows. Mostly researchers have focused on explaining why
people move from one area to another. Since last century economist and social thinkers and researchers
have debated the initiation and perpetuation of migration.

International migration plays a significant role in reshaping the social circumstances of emigrants
households and the most tangible of these are remittances, the income that migrants send home.
Remittances is directly related with the development of sending places and with the provision of much
needed resources for emigrant households to achieve that optimal balance between coping with
immediate needs and challenges, minimizing risk, and creating opportunities for future.

1.1 Socio-economic Consequences

Migration is a decision that affects the welfare of the household, the home community, and the whole
economy in various ways. Income is one driver, with people migrating in search of paid employment.
Migration may help to reduce poverty or to halt the slide into poverty. It also helps to tighten rural labour
markets. While migration has economic, social, and cultural implications for the sending and host
societies, remittances the migrants send home are perhaps the most tangible and least controversial link
between migration and development.

Figure 1: Positive effects of remittances

Source: Data above
The direct result of emigration is remittances and an explanation of this outcome has been a matter of
discussion among scholars (Adam 2006). On one hand, most of the early researchers have deduced the
effect of migration negatively. They argued that this promotes spending on unnecessary consumables as
well as the full or partial dependence of the household members on remittances. On the other hand, some
other researchers consider the positive aspects of emigration and remittances (de Haass 2006). These
scholars argue that expenditure out of remittances on consumption may not necessarily be futile as it
contributes to social, cultural, and economic development through financial and social investment. It also
acts as a means of risk sharing and provides security from any unwanted financial crisis. Remittances are
very important for many households in case of developing countries like India where 56 per cent of
remittances are spent to meet day to day expenditure and they are also utilized during expensive social
rituals and traditional transactions such as dowry. Additionally, remittances help in improving the quality
of life by increasing the family's expenditure on education, health care, housing, and other necessities.
They also provide capital for setting up an entrepreneurial venture. It has been argued that remittances
empower the lives of the family members of the migrant at the origin by providing them an opportunity to
take control over their social circumstances and in decision making for themselves as well as for their
other family members ( Bhagat, Keshri and Ali 2013). Thus, remittances have a complex bearing on the
lives of emigrants as well as the left behind population and many researcher show emigration is a strategy
to improve life chances ( Adam 2006; de Haas 2006; Bhagat. Keshri and Ali 2013).

1.2 Emigration, Remittances, and poverty

On the issue of emigration, remittances, and poverty, the literature is clearly expressed. Most studies
show that remittances reduce poverty at the household level. However, this optimistic finding is
supported by many research evidences and play a significant role in reducing poverty at the household
level and also support the growing view that remittances increase investment in developing countries.
Similarly, Hass (2005) uses a cross-sectional and Participatory Appraisal approach from Southern Mexico
to find that remittances play a vital role in alleviating poverty at household level as well as the local
economy, and in improving the livelihood of millions of people. Also, emigrant’s households invest more
than others in housing, agriculture, and small business compared to non-receiving remittances
households.

In the same vein, Franser and Mazzucato (2014) using Kernal matching approach, calculate average
treatment effect between remittances receiving households and non-remittances receiving households.
The results show that remittances have positive and major effects on a non-productive asset such as living
condition and food security in urban Burundi, and remittances also play a significant role in unwanted
crises. A similar approach by López-Videla and Machuca in Bolivia (2014) shows that remittances have a
positive effect on alleviating households poverty in Urban Bolivia, whereas there is no effect on rural
households poverty because migration is a selective process which is associated with high level of cost.
Meanwhile, Soto and Brown (2012) also estimate the effect of remittances on poverty in Tongo, and their
result shows that remittances reduce the incidence of poverty by 31 % and depth of poverty by 49%.
Countering these studies, Edwards and Oreggia (2009) using Kernal and Nearest Neighbour matching
approach, find no systematic difference in labour force participation in remittances receiving households.
They reject the hypothesis that regular flow of remittances create households dependency on remittances.
Ratha (2007) made a strong statement that migrant remittances are most tangible and perhaps the least
controversial link between migration and development. In addition, remittances play a crucial role in
reducing poverty at the household level as 10 per cent increase in per capita official remittances may lead
to 3.5 per cent decline in the share of poor people. Remittances are positively linked with increasing the
productive and nonproductive assets.
1.3 Emigration, Remittances, and Education

On the issue of remittances, and expenditure on education, the literature is two fold. Most studies show
that remittances receiving households have a lower school dropout ratio and these household spend more
on private tuition for children. Salas (2003), using panel data with a two-step estimation in Peru (2007-
10), found that international remittances have a positive effect on the likelihood to send children to
private school. Similarly, researchers also find positive effects of remittances on a school enrolment.
However, this optimistic finding was neglected by Feng Hu (2012) in Rural China. He used probit model
to find that migration of the adult household member has a negative impact on high school attendance of
left behind girl children in rural China, while the remittances can partially compensate for this loss.
Acosta, Fajnzyleber, and Lopez (2007) found a negative effect of remittances on educational attainment
in the Dominican Republic. This view was also supported by Meza and Pederzini (2008) who stated that
remittances in rural Mexico have a negative effect on school attendance.

1.4 Emigration, Remittances, and Health

There are various ways through which migration and health are linked. Migrants leave their place of
origin in order to seek employment at the place of destination which is, in most cases, socially and
culturally alien to them. The place of destination could pose serious problems in the access to food and
nutrition, health care services besides harsh working conditions, inadequate housing and living conditions
influencing the health status of migrants. Migrants are also exposed to the diseases and health risks of
host society as well. It is also possible that some migrants could carry communicable diseases and spread
among the fellow migrants as well as among the host population. The diseases like TB, polio, HIV/AIDS,
various forms of influenza etc. are likely to spread though migration. Thus, there exist a strong link
between health and migration.

Figure 2: Link between Health and Migration

Source: Data above
Migrants are a heterogeneous group who are differentiated by age, sex, ethnicity, education, and skills.
The unskilled and semi-skilled migrants are more likely to be affected by health risks due to their low
income and awareness of health care needs, and also due to lack of support to their health care needs.
Many such migrants not only work hard to increase their income but also constrict their expenditure to
send bigger amount of remittances back home even at the cost of their health. They are also less likely to
be covered by health insurance and health services provided by the employers.

The international migrant workers being non-citizens are not appropriately covered by the health care
services provided by the host countries. They have to depend upon their employers if specified in the
contract, and on their own support and income. Further, their legal status could be a source of
discrimination at the place of destination and they may not get the same level of health care in diagnosis,
treatment, and preventive services that the citizens might be receiving in the host countries. Apart from
the economical, social, and political factors, language barriers may also work against the migrants in
seeking health care.

The health status of migrants, their vulnerability to ill health and their health seeking behaviour are also
influenced by several factors operating at their place of origin. Among them, migrant’s awareness about
their health care needs prior to migration, information provided to them on health risks, and required
preparedness by the native governments, civil societies, and other stakeholders are crucial for good health
of migrants at the place of destination.

1.5 Emigration, remittances, and maternal health care services

On the issue of migration, remittances, and maternal health care services, the literature is two-fold: most
studies show that migration improves the maternal health care services of rural households and
communities through the utilization of social and economic remittances, fertility deferential, health
seeking behaviour, and sexual behaviour. According to Lindstorm (2006) using data from 1995
Guatemala Survey of Family Health and multi-level regression models, there is a significant positive
association between migration and maternal health care services in rural Guatemala. Similarly,
Kanaiaupuni and Donato (1999) in a study of Mexico-US migration find evidence that suggests migrant
remittances lower infant mortality in the long-run through the cumulative effects of remittance flows on
household spending and community development. According to Zachariah, Mathew, and Irudya Rajan
(2001) using the Kerala Migration Survey finds that the receipt of international and internal remittances is
associated with greater use of private hospital facilities to health care services, and a three- fold increase
in the use of private hospitals for anti-natal care and safe delivery. Similarly, Lopez and Chi (2012), using
the data from the 2004 National Demographic and Maternal & Child Health Survey applying interaction
models shows that having an international migrant and remittances increased use of health care services
among low-income Ecuadorians. Hildebrandt and McKenzie (2004) also find overall improved health
outcomes in migrant families. In the same vein, Duryea, Lopez, and OLMEDO (2005) link remittances to
the acquisition of healthier conditions and they show that decrease in infant mortality rates due to
remittances can be further explained as resulting from the acquisition of better infrastructures through
monetary remittances.

International single male migration has a profound impact on the left behind women in addition to the
impact on the standard of living in households. The influx of remittances helps in improving their status
on hand, self-esteem, and confidence on the other. Long physical separation coupled with accumulated
workload and responsibilities may increase the mental stress on the left behind women. Male migration
may also lead to negative impact on family in terms of family dissolution, psychological stress on
women, and breakdown of traditional family system. On the other hand, studies conducted in Kerala,
India on left behind wives of emigrants to gulf countries noted that after emigration of males, women had
to take up major responsibilities and decisions as well as interaction with the outside world, which they
may have never done before. There is greater involvement of left behind wives in decision making, which
ultimately increases their status in the family and society (Zachariah and Rajan 2008; 2012).

Figure 3 Maternal Health Care Services

Source: www.pixabay.com

https://pixabay.com/en/doctor-sonography-ipad-hospital-1807475/ Uploaded Nov. 10, 2016

1.6 Summing up

This module explained the consequences of international migration. The impact of remittances has been
presented giving examples from India and many other developing countries. It shows that remittances do
help the households and areas of origin belonging to many developing countries.

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