Long-Term Performance of Epoxy Coated Clay Bricks

in Sulfuric Acid
J. Liu1 and C. Vipulanandan, M.ASCE2

Abstract: Epoxy-based coatings are used in the rehabilitation and protection against acid attack in industrial and wastewater facilities
made of concrete and clay bricks. In this study, the performance of two epoxy-based coatings on sewer grade clay bricks was evaluated
using a combination of bonding strength and acid resistant tests over a period of three years. The test results showed that the bonding
strength of the epoxy coatings depended on the dry and wet surface conditions of the clay brick at the time of coating. The bonding
strength varied from 0.2 MPa to 3 MPa. The coating films effectively reduced the liquid uptake of the coated clay bricks and pinholes
influenced the weight gain of the coated clay bricks. There was no direct relationship between bonding strength and acid resistant 共weight
gain兲 of the tested coatings. A film model was developed to predict the weight change in coated clay bricks. The mass transfer coefficients
of the coatings varied from 0.8⫻10⫺12 to 7.8⫻10⫺12 m2 /s and 1.7⫻10⫺12 to 6.6⫻10⫺12 m2 /s in deionized water and 3% sulfuric acid,
respectively.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0899-1561共2004兲16:4共349兲
CE Database subject headings: Epoxy coatings; Clays; Bricks; Bonding strength; Acids; Models; Verification.

Introduction
Clay bricks along with cement concrete have been widely used in
the construction of industrial and municipal wastewater facilities.
Many municipalities are discovering that cement concrete and
other cement-based materials in the wastewater collection and
treatment facilities are subjected to microbial-induced deteriora-
tion and the cementitious materials are degrading rapidly 共Sand
et al. 1994; Soebbing et al. 1996兲. In most cases, the pH on the
surface of sewer pipes and manholes is less than 1 共in the worst
case, the pH is 0.5兲 共Islander et al. 1991兲; hence, it is important to
determine how to control this deterioration and extend the life of
the facilities. Coating is one method currently being adopted to
control the degradation of wastewater facilities; however, the ef-
fectiveness of this method for rehabilitating sewer pipes and treat-
ment facilities is still in question 共Vipulanandan et al. 1996兲. Al-
though clay bricks are generally nonreactive material, they are
bonded together with cement mortar, and hence, it is important to
coat the mortar and clay bricks together to protect wastewater
systems.
Wastewater and industrial facilities are generally wet and
hence the application of coating materials onto porous surfaces is
considered a challenge and must be evaluated 共Steele and Steele
1999兲. The surface moisture will depend on the porosity of the
substrates and hydrostatic pressure due to the groundwater table.
Coatings can debond and blister if the hydrostatic pressure ex-
ceeds the tensile adhesion of the coating material. Bonding be-
tween the clay brick surface and the coating material is another
important factor that must be evaluated to determine the long-
term performance of the coating.
Since several factors in the field can affect the performance of
a coating, it is important to identify the factors through controlled
experiments where important variables are studied one at a time
to evaluate coating materials used for rehabilitating and protect-
ing industrial and municipal wastewater facilities.
Objectives
The overall objective is to investigate the long-term performance
of epoxy coated sewer clay bricks. Specific objectives are to: 共1兲
Determine the effect of initial moisture 共in the brick兲 on the bond-
ing strength; 共2兲 determine the behavior of coated bricks with and
without pinholes in water and 3% sulfuric acid; 共3兲 determine the
correlation between bonding strength and chemical resistance;
and 共4兲 model the behavior of liquid uptake by coated clay bricks.

1
Post Doctoral Fellow, Center for Innovative Grouting Material and
Technology 共CIGMAT兲, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Testing Program
Univ. of Houston, Houston, TX 77204-4003.
2
Chairman, Professor, and Director of the Center for Innovative
Grouting Material and Technology 共CIGMAT兲, Dept. of Civil and Envi- Clay Brick Properties
ronmental Engineering, Univ. of Houston, Houston, TX 77204-4003. The average compressive strength of the dry clay brick was 36.9
Note. Associate Editor: Jason Weiss. Discussion open until January 1, MPa 共5,355 psi兲 which meets the requirements in ASTM C 32
2005. Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers. To
共ASTM 1999兲 for sewer brick 关minimum compressive strength 34
extend the closing date by one month, a written request must be filed with
the ASCE Managing Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted MPa 共5000 psi兲兴. The average compressive strength of the satu-
for review and possible publication on September 4, 2002; approved on rated clay bricks was 29 MPa 共4,200 psi兲. The average pulse
September 23, 2003. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in velocity of the clay brick was 2552⫾100 m/s 关共8,372 ft/s兲 共based
Civil Engineering, Vol. 16, No. 4, August 1, 2004. ©ASCE, ISSN 0899- on 25 specimens兲兴. The average unit weight of clay brick speci-
1561/2004/4-349–355/$18.00. mens varied between 19.0 kN/m3 共120 pcf兲 and 22.1 kN/m3 共138

JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004 / 349

Downloaded 04 Sep 2010 to 161.139.144.2. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visithttp://www.ascelibrary.org
Table 1. Properties of Epoxy Coating Materials
Pulse
Coating Densitya velocitya
material 共kg/m3兲 共m/s兲 Barcol
Epoxy-1 1,680 2,829 35– 42
Epoxy-2 1,530 2,730 36 – 40
Remarks Difference was 10% Difference was 3%
a
Bulk coating material properties.
b
Coating film properties.
pcf兲. The average flexural strength was 7.0 MPa 共1,000 psi兲. The
average direct tensile strength of clay brick was 2.3 MPa 共340
psi兲 关varied from 1.4 共210 psi兲 to 3.2 MPa 共468 psi兲兴. The water
absorption of the sewer clay brick was 17% after 24 h in deion-
ized 共DI兲 water.
Coating Properties
Two different epoxy coatings were selected for testing. The bulk
material properties of the two coatings were determined using 38
mm diameter⫻76 mm height cylindrical specimens and the re-
sults are summarized in Table 1. Since there are no standard tests
to evaluate the performance of coated clay brick, ASTM tests
were modified and used in this investigation.
Bonding Strength
Bonding strength between sewer clay bricks and coating materials
was determined over a period of three years. The clay bricks 共dry
and wet兲 were coated by respective manufacturers and the coated
specimens were cured under water up to the time of testing. The
dry clay bricks were kept at the room environment 共temperature
23°C⫾2 and humidity 55%⫾5兲 while the wet clay bricks were
submerged in water for 7 days before coating. Two different
bonding tests: the Center for Innovative Grouting Materials and
Technology 共CIGMAT兲 CT-2 关CIGMAT Standard 共2000a兲, modi-
fied ASTM D 4541兴 and CIGMAT CT-3 关CIGMAT Standard
共2000b兲, modified ASTM C 321兴 were used to determine the
bonding strengths of coatings to clay bricks.
CIGMAT „2000a… CT-2 共Modified ASTM D 4541兲.In this
test, 51 mm 共2-in.兲 diameter circular area was used for testing
关Fig. 1共a兲兴. Coated clay bricks were cored using a diamond core
drill to a predetermined depth to isolate the coating. A metal fix-
ture was then glued to the isolated coating section using a rapid
setting epoxy.
Fig. 1. Bonding test setup: 共a兲 CIGMAT CT-2 test and 共b兲 CIGMAT
CT-3 test
350 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004
Downloaded 04 Sep 2010 to 161.139.144.2. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visithttp://www.ascelibrary.org
Hardnessb
Thicknessb Application
Shore 共mm兲 condition
67–72 3.2 Dry and wet surfaces
71–75 1.5 Dry and wet surfaces
Similar hardness Different coating Physical properties
thickness of the coatings
varied by no more
than 10%
CIGMAT „2000b… CT-3 共Modified ASTM C 321兲. In this test,
the coating was sandwiched between a pair of clay bricks and
then tested for bonding strength 关Fig. 1共b兲兴.
Chemical Resistance
In order to study the chemical resistance of the coated clay bricks,
CIGMAT CT-1 共CIGMAT Standard 共1999兲, modified ASTM G
20兲 was used. The coated specimens were immersed in a selected
test reagent to half the specimen height in a closed bottle so that
the specimens were exposed to the liquid phase and vapor phase
共Fig. 2兲. In this test, 51 mm 共2-in.兲⫻76 mm 共3-in.兲⫻152 mm
共6-in.兲 clay brick prism specimens were used. Dry and wet speci-
mens were coated on all sides and tested. For the test, two pin-
holes were drilled into the coated specimen approximately 15 mm
deep to represent defects in the coating. In order to determine the
effect of pinhole size, diameters of 3 mm, 6 mm, and 13 mm were
selected for testing. The test reagents selected for this study were:
共1兲 DI 共pH⫽5 to 6兲, and 共2兲 3% sulfuric acid solution 共pH⫽0.45;
representing the worst reported condition in municipal wastewater
systems兲. In this test, the changes in 共1兲 the weight of specimen
and 共2兲 the appearance of specimen were monitored at regular
intervals. A total of 32 coated specimens 共16 dry and 16 wet兲 were
tested for each coating material. Control tests were performed
with no pinholes.
Results and Discussion
Bonding Strength
The failure types were characterized as follows: 共1兲 Substrate
failure—Type-1, 共2兲 coating failure—Type-2, 共3兲 bonding
failure—Type-3, and 共4兲 bonding and substrate failure—Type-4.
Fig. 2. Chemical tests on coated clay brick with pinholes-CIGMAT
CT-1 test
Type-1 is the most preferred, where the substrate fails indicating
that the bonding strength is higher than the tensile strength of the
clay bricks. The failure types observed in the tests are shown in
Fig. 3. The variations of bonding strength with time for both
coatings are shown in Figs. 4 and 5 using CIGMAT CT-2 and
CT-3 tests, respectively.
Based on the CIGMAT CT-2 tests 关Figs. 4共a and b兲兴, Epoxy-1
initially had a very high bonding strength with the dry clay brick
surface and the failure was Type-1 where the clay bricks failed.
After a longer period of immersion, the bonding strength of
Epoxy-1 on the surface of dry clay bricks decreased and the fail-
ure type also changed from Type-1 to Type-3 共bonding failure兲.
Epoxy-1 had a lower bonding strength with wet clay bricks ini-
tially and the failure type was Type-3 关Fig. 3共c兲兴. Epoxy-1 gradu-
ally developed the bonding strength and the failure types changed
from Type-3 to Type-1 and Type-2. The results indicate that the
surface moisture conditions affected the performance of the
Epoxy-1 coating. Epoxy-2 had a good bonding strength to both
dry and wet clay brick surfaces during the testing period. The
bonding strengths of Epoxy-2 to dry and wen clay bricks were all
above the 1.4 MPa 关200 psi, which was recommended by Liu and
Vipulanandan 共1999兲兴 as the minimum required bonding strength
of coating with concrete and the failure type was Type-1.
Based on CIGMAT CT-3 tests 关Figs. 5共a and b兲兴, Epoxy-1 had
mixed results with both dry and wet clay brick surfaces; failure
Types-1, 2, and 3 were observed. Epoxy-2 had very consistent test
results and the bonding strengths of Epoxy-2 to clay bricks deter-
mined using the CIGMAT CT-3 test were comparable to the
bonding strength determined using the CIGMAT CT-2 test.
From the bonding test results, failure Types-1, 2, and 3 were
observed with Epoxy-1 coated clay bricks. The results indicate
that the bonding strength of Epoxy-1 to clay bricks was sensitive
to the surface moisture conditions of the clay bricks. On the other
hand, the bonding strength of Epoxy-2 coating to clay bricks was
not influenced by the initial dry/wet nature of the clay bricks. All
failures were Type-1 关Fig. 3共a兲兴 for Epoxy-2 coated clay bricks in
the CIGMAT CT-2 and the CIGMAT CT-3 tests.

Chemical Resistance

The barrier properties of coatings are the key factor in coating

performance 共Thomas 1991兲. One way to investigate the perfor-
mance of chemical resistance of coated clay bricks is to monitor
the change in weight with time. For uncoated clay bricks, the
saturations of the bricks in DI water and 3% sulfuric acid were
about 90% of the ultimate saturation 共according to the weight
change of the clay bricks in two years of immersion兲 after 50 days
共Fig. 6兲. Coatings can substantially reduce the solution uptake of
coated clay bricks. At least two specimens were tested under each Fig. 3. Failure types observed during CIGMAT CT-2 and CIGMAT
condition 共pinhole sizes or dry and wet surface conditions兲 and CT-3 bonding tests
the average results are presented and discussed.
The weight changes in the coated clay bricks under different
conditions are shown in Fig. 7. When coated clay brick specimens Epoxy-2 coated wet specimens was 1.6% after three years of
were immersed in DI water 关Fig. 7共a兲兴, Epoxy-1 coated dry clay immersion.
brick specimens had similar performance to Epoxy-2 coated dry The weight increased with immersion time for the coated clay
clay brick specimens in DI water. The weight increased by 4.2% bricks in 3% sulfuric acid as shown in Fig. 7共b兲. The weight
for Epoxy-1 coated specimens after three years of immersion, as increased by 4.6% and 5.3% for Epoxy-1 coated dry and wet clay
compared to 3.5% for Epoxy-2 coated specimens. Epoxy-1 and bricks, respectively, after six years of immersion and the perfor-
Epoxy-2 coated wet clay bricks had less weight increases than mance can be considered similar. Epoxy-2 coated clay bricks had
coated dry clay bricks in DI water. The weight increased by 1.6% different performance compared to Epoxy-1 coated clay bricks in
and 2.5% for Epoxy-1 coated wet specimens after three and six 3% sulfuric acid. Epoxy-2 coated dry clay bricks had a 0.36%
years of immersion, respectively, while the weight increase for weight increase in three years of immersion while Epoxy-2 coated

JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004 / 351

Downloaded 04 Sep 2010 to 161.139.144.2. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visithttp://www.ascelibrary.org
Fig. 4. Bonding test results from CIGMAT CT-2 tests: 共a兲 dry coated Fig. 5. Bonding test results from CIGMAT CT-3 tests: 共a兲 dry coated
clay brick and 共b兲 wet coated clay brick clay brick and 共b兲 wet coated clay brick

wet clay bricks had a 6.8% weight increase during the same pe-
riod. The results indicate that the surface conditions affected the
chemical resistance 共uptake of acid兲 of Epoxy-2 coating when
immersed in 3% sulfuric acid solutions.
The effects of pinholes on the weight increase of Epoxy-2
coated clay bricks are shown in Fig. 8, where specimens with
pinholes showed faster and greater weight gain as compared to
specimens without pinholes. For the range of pinhole sizes tested,
its effect on the rate and total weight gain are inconclusive.

Relationship between Bonding Strength and Chemical

Resistance

The relationship between the weight changes of the coated clay

bricks and bonding failure types are shown in Fig. 9 for the coat-
ings in DI water and 3% sulfuric acid. Although Epoxy-2 had
good bonding strength to both dry and wet clay bricks than
Epoxy-1, there were no notable differences in the weight changes
for Epoxy-1 and Epoxy-2 coated specimens; hence, it can be con-
cluded that there was no direct correlation between the weight
gain of the coated clay bricks with the bonding strength of the
coatings to clay bricks. Bonding strength cannot be used as the
only criteria to determine the performance of coated clay bricks Fig. 6. Weight changes for uncoated clay bricks in deionized water
共DI兲 and 3% sulfuric acid
as generally used in practice.

352 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004

Downloaded 04 Sep 2010 to 161.139.144.2. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visithttp://www.ascelibrary.org
Fig. 7. Weight changes of coated clay bricks for various solutions:
共a兲 deionized water 共DI兲 and 共b兲 3% sulfuric acid Fig. 8. Weight changes for coated clay bricks with pinholes in 3%
sulfuric acid: 共a兲 dry coated clay brick and 共b兲 wet coated clay brick

Modeling of Weight Change

where D CT ⫽mass transfer coefficient of the coating film 共m2/s兲.
Modeling the weight increase of coated clay bricks can lead to a Assuming that the degree of saturation at the interface
better understanding of the factors controlling the liquid uptake 共coating-brick兲 varies with time t and can be represented by the
by the specimens. The physical model of liquid penetrating exponential function:
through a coating film is shown in Fig. 10. It is assumed there are CT
⫺␤
no chemical changes in the coating and clay brick during liquid S iCT ⫽S CT
0 共 1⫺e
t
兲 (3)
uptake. where ␤ ⫽coating material-related parameter. A high value of
CT
In modeling, the coating film was treated as a plain sheet. The ␤ CT will result in a high rate of saturation at the interface and a
distribution of the degree of saturation within the coating film can high rate of liquid uptake by clay brick.
be obtained using the boundary conditions x⫽0 共liquid–coating The amount of liquid, W(t) passing through the coating film in
interface兲, S⫽S CT
0 and x⫽ᐉ, S⫽S i :
CT
time t can be obtained as follows:
S⫺S CT
0

S iCT ⫺S 0
CT
⫽
x
ᐉ
(1) W 共 t 兲 ⫽A 冕
0
t
Fdt⫽
AgD CT S CT
ᐉ
0
冕 t

0
e ⫺␤
CT
t
dt (4)

0 ⫽degree of saturation of the coating film on the outer

where S CT Integrating Eq. 共4兲
surface, kg共solution兲/m3 共solid兲; S CT
i ⫽degree of saturation of the
coating film on the interface, kg共solution兲/m3 共solid兲; and AgS CT
0 D CT CT
W共 t 兲⫽ 共 1⫺e ⫺␤ t 兲 (5)
ᐉ⫽coating film thickness, m. ␤ CT ᐉ
The rate of liquid transfer, F 共g liquid/s兲 through a plain sheet
under a steady state is given by Crank 共Crank 1975兲 where A⫽surface area of the specimen 共m2兲; and g⫽gravitational

冉 冊
constant.
dS Eq. 共5兲 is the model to predict the weight change in coated
F⫽⫺D CT (2)
dx clay bricks after different periods of immersion. If the initial

JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004 / 353

Downloaded 04 Sep 2010 to 161.139.144.2. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visithttp://www.ascelibrary.org
 Table 2. Material Parameters in Deionized 共DI兲 Water and 3%
Sulfuric Acid
Mass transfer
coefficient, D CT Material parameter
(⫻10⫺12 m2 /s) ␤ CT (⫻10⫺8 l/s)
Coating Surface 3% sulfuric 3% sulfuric
material condition DI water acid DI water acid
Epoxy-1 Dry 7.80 5.49 2.88 2.00
Wet 1.42 6.61 0.69 2.94
Epoxy-2 Dry 2.03 1.67 1.92 1.74
Wet 0.80 6.64 1.84 3.95
Remarks Dry and wet Dry⬎wet Wet⬎dry Dry⬎wet Wet⬎dry
condition

AgS CT
0 D CT CT
⌬W%⫽ CT ᐉ
共 1⫺e ⫺␤ t 兲 ⫻100 (7)
W 0␤
The ultimate saturation for bulk coating material (S CT 0 ) was
obtained from immersion tests on pure coating materials. For the
epoxy coatings tested, the average values of S CT0 were 11 kg/m
3
3
and 13 kg/m in DI water and 3% sulfuric acid, respectively. By
using Eq. 共7兲 to predict the weight change of the coated clay
brick, the mass transfer coefficient, D CT and the material param-
eter ␤ CT of coatings under different testing conditions were ob-
tained. The lower the values of D CT and ␤ CT , the better the coat-
ing in protecting the clay bricks from weight gain.
The values of the mass transfer coefficient, D CT and the coat-
ing material parameter ␤ CT are summarized in Table 2 for the two
epoxy coatings. The model predictions are compared to the ex-
perimental data in Figs. 11共a and b兲. The model predictions
agreed with the experiment results. From Table 2, the mass trans-
fer coefficients (D CT ) of the epoxy coatings on the dry surface
conditions were higher than on the wet surface condition in DI
water. On the other hand, the mass transfer coefficients (D CT ) of
Fig. 9. Relationship between the bonding strength and the chemical the epoxies on the dry surface conditions were lower than on the
resistance of the epoxy coatings: 共a兲 deionized water 共DI兲 and 共b兲 3% wet surface conditions in 3% sulfuric acid. The results indicate
sulfuric acid that the mass transfer coefficients (D CT ) not only depend on the
coating material and the type of solution but also depend on the
surface conditions at the time of application. The material param-
weight of the specimen was W 0 , the percentage weight change eter ␤ CT was higher for dry conditions as compared to wet con-
(⌬W) of the tested specimen can be represented as ditions in DI water and the trend was reversed in 3% sulfuric acid
solution. The parameter ␤ CT varied between 0.7 to 3.95
W共 t 兲 ⫻10⫺8 l/s. The parameters D CT and ␤ CT for Epoxy-1 were higher
⌬W%⫽ ⫻100 (6)
W0 than the Epoxy-2 in the dry conditions and the results were re-
where W 0 ⫽initial weight of the specimen 共kN兲. versed in the wet conditions. The results indicate that Epoxy-2
Eq. 共6兲 can be rewritten as was better than Epoxy-1 in the dry conditions while Epoxy-1 was
better than Epoxy-2 in the wet conditions.

Conclusions

A laboratory testing program was developed for evaluating coat-

ings for rehabilitating industrial and sewer facilities. Two epoxy
coatings with very similar bulk properties were selected for this
investigation and the bonding strength and chemical resistance of
coated clay bricks were studied for over three years. Coated clay
bricks were tested in DI water and 3% sulfuric acid solution. A
model was developed to predict the weight change in the coated
clay bricks in immersion conditions. Based on the experimental
results and model prediction, the following observations are ad-
Fig. 10. Physical model of liquid penetrating through a coating film
vanced:

354 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004

Downloaded 04 Sep 2010 to 161.139.144.2. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visithttp://www.ascelibrary.org

Fig. 11. Comparisons of the model predictions and the experiment
data on the weight change of coated clay bricks: 共a兲 deionized water
共DI兲 and 共b兲 3% sulfuric acid
1. Although the bulk properties of the coatings were similar,
the two epoxy coatings had different bonding strengths with
clay bricks. The moisture on the clay brick surface at the
time of coating affected the strength of one coating. The
bonding strength of the coatings studied varied from 0.2 to 3
MPa.
2. Coatings reduced the liquid uptake for coated clay brick. The
coated clay bricks only had less than 10% weight gain in six
years of immersion in DI water and 3% sulfuric acid while
the uncoated clay bricks were almost saturated 共more than
20% weight increase兲 in 50 days under the same immersion
conditions.
3. There was no direct correlation between the bonding
strength of the coatings to the clay bricks and the weight
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004 / 355
Downloaded 04 Sep 2010 to 161.139.144.2. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright. Visithttp://www.ascelibrary.org
gain of the coated clay bricks; hence in evaluating coating
materials, both the bonding strength and the chemical resis-
tance of coated clay bricks must be studied.
4. The predictions of weight change in coated clay bricks using
the film model were in agreement with the experimental
data. The mass transfer coefficient and the coating parameter
for coating materials have been determined. These param-
eters can be used to compare the performance of coatings.
Acknowledgments
This project was supported by the CIGMAT under grants from the
City of Houston, National Science Foundation 共Nos. CMS-
9526094 and CMS-9634685兲, and various industries.
References
ASTM. 共1999兲. ‘‘Standard specifications for sewer and manhole brick
共made from clay or shale兲.’’ C 32-93, West Conshohocken, Pa.
CIGMAT CT-1. 共1999兲. ‘‘Standard test method for chemical resistance of
coated or lined concrete and clay bricks.’’ CT-1, Center For Innovative
Grouting Materials and Technology, Univ. of Houston, Houston.
CIGMAT CT-2. 共2000a兲. ‘‘Standard test method for pull-off strength of
coatings or linings: Laboratory test and field test.’’ CT-2, Center For
Innovative Grouting Materials and Technology, Univ. of Houston,
Houston.
CIGMAT CT-3. 共2000b兲. ‘‘Standard test method for bond strength of
coatings and mortars: Sandwich method.’’ CT-3, Center For Innova-
tive Grouting Materials and Technology, Univ. of Houston, Houston.
Crank, J. 共1975兲. The mathematics of diffusion, 2nd Ed., Oxford Univer-
sity Press, New York.
Islander, R. L., Devinny, J. S., Mansfeld, F., Postyn, A., and Shih, H.
共1991兲. ‘‘Microbial ecology of crown corrosion in sewers.’’ J. Envi-
ron. Eng., 117共6兲, 751–770.
Liu, J., and Vipulanandan, C. 共1999兲. ‘‘Testing epoxy coatings for dry and
wet concrete wastewater facilities.’’ J. Protective Coatings Linings,
16共12兲, 26 –37.
Sand, W., Dumas, T., Marcdargent, S., Pugliese A., and Cabiron, J.
共1994兲. ‘‘Tests for biogenic sulfuric acid corrosion in a simulation
chamber confirms the on site performance of calcium aluminate based
concrete in sewage application.’’ Proc., 3rd Material Engineering
Conference, ASCE, New York, 35–55.
Soebbing, J. B., Skabo, R. R., and Michel, H. E. 共1996兲. ‘‘Rehabilitating
water and wastewater treatment plants.’’ J. Protective Coatings Lin-
ings, 13共5兲, 54 – 64.
Steele, J., and Steele, C. J. 共1999兲. ‘‘Performance criteria for coatings in
chemical exposures.’’ J. Protective Coatings Linings, 16共7兲, 29–35.
Thomas, N. L. 共1991兲. ‘‘The barrier properties of paint coatings.’’ Prog.
Org. Coat., 19, 101–121.
Vipulanandan, C., Ponnekanti, H., Umrigar, D. N., and Kidder, A. D.
共1996兲. ‘‘Evaluating coatings for concrete wastewater facilities.’’
Proc., 4th Materials Congress, ASCE, New York, 851– 862.