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Industrial Power Systems Handbook Donald
Industrial Power Systems Handbook Donald
Handbook
D O N A L D BEEMAN, Editor
Manager, Industriaf P w e r Engineering
Industrial Engineering Seclwn
General Electric Company, Schenectady, New Yorlc
FIRST EDITION
Short-circuit-current Calculating
Procedures
capacity of t,he power source. The larger the apparatus which supplies
electric power t o the system, the greater the short-circuit current will be.
Take a simple case: A 440-volt three-phase lo-lip motor draws about
13 amp of current a t full load and will draw only this amount whether
supplied by a 25-kva or a 2500-kva transformer bank. So, if only thc
load currcnts arc considered when selecting motor branch circuit break-
ers, a 15- or 20-amp circnit, breaker wnuld he specified. However, the
size of t,he power system back of the circuit breaker has a real bearing on
the amount of the short,-circuit,current. which can flow as a result of a
short circuit on the load side of the circuit breaker. Hence, a much
larger circuit breaker would be required to handle the short-circuit current
from a 2500-kva bank than from a 25-kva bank of transformers.
A simple mathematical example is shown in Fig. 1.1. These numbers
MOTOR LOAD
El IOOV
100 A
CURRENT
5 AMP
~ ~ 1 0O.HM
1S
APPARENT
IMPEDANCE
20 OHMS
MOTOR LOAD
CURRENT
I000 A 5 AMP
2 1 = 0.01 OHMS
FIG. 1.1 Illustrotion showing that copocity of power source has more effect on rhort-
circuit-current magnitude than load.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 3
All these can feed shorecircuit current into a short circuit (Fig. 1.3).
Generators are driven by turbines, diesel engines, water wheels, or
other types of prime movers. When a short circuit occurs on the circuit
fed by a generatar, the generator continues t o produce voltage because the
field excitation is maintained and the prime mover drives the generator
at substantially normal speed. The generated voltage produces a short-
circuit current of a large magnitude which flows from the generator (or
generators) to the short circuit. This flow of short-circuit current is
limited only by the impedance of the generator and of the circuit between
the generator and the short circuit. For a short circuit a t the terminals
of the generator, the current from the generator is limited only by its own
impedance.
FIG. 1.2 Normal load and short-circuit currents are analogous to the conditions shown in
the hydroelectric plant.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT ULCULATlNG PROCEDURES 5
SHORT CIRCUIT
CURRENT FROM
INDUCTION
MOTOR
FIG. 1.3 Generators, synchronous motors, and induction motors all produce short-circuit
current.
SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR
-€t
,- \
SHORT CIRCUIT
CURRENT FROM
MOTOR
. .-.. .
SYSTEM
-
SYNCMOYOUS '
Yoroll
-.
. . 1.._
FIG ,.__ ..,. l.r o.
5 IBmlowl c..o
e f. 0s-
. ..
SHORT'. I cillogrclm of short-circuit current
CIRCUIT produced by a synchronous
motor
The inertia of the load and rotor of an induction motor has exactly the
same effect on an induction motor as on a synchronous motor; i.e., it
drives the motor after the system short circuit occurs. There is one
major difference. The induction motor has no d-c field winding, but
there is a flux in the induction motor during normal operation. This flux
acts like flux produced by the d-c field winding in the synchronous motor.
The field of the induction motor is produced by induction from the
stator rather than from the d-c winding. The rotor flux remains normal
as long as voltage is applied to the stator from an external source. How-
ever, if the external source of voltage is removed suddenly, as it is when a
short circuit occurs on the system, the flux in the rotor cannot change
instantly. Since the rotor flux cannot decay instantly and the inertia
drives the induction motor, a voltage is generated in the stator winding
causing a short-circuit current to flow to the short circuit until the rotor
flux decays to zero. To illustrate the short-circuit current from an
induction motor in a practical case, oscillograms were taken on a wound-
rotor induction motor rated 150 hp, 440 volts, 60 cycles, three phase, ten
poles, 720 rpm. The external rotor resistance was short-circuited in each
case, in order that the effect might he similar to that which would he
obtained with a low-resistance squirrel-cage induction motor.
Figure 1.6 shows the primary current when the machine is initially
running light and a solid three-phase short circuit is applied a t a point in
the circuit close to its input (stator) terminals a t time TI. The current
shown is measured on the motor side of the short circuit; so the short-
circuit current contribution from the source of power does not appear, but
only that contributed by the motor. Similar tests made with the machine
initially running a t full load show that the short-circuit current produced
T.
TRANSFORMERS
ROTATING-MACHINE REACTANCE
CURRENT DETERMINED
BY SYNCHRONOUS
OF TOTAL OSCILLOGRAM
OCCURS AT ONLY TWO ENDS SHOWN
THIS TIME.
HERE. THIS REPRESENTS
THE BREAK BETWEEN
THE TWO PARTS.
TIME-
(8)
FIG 1.8 Variation of generotor short-circuit current wilh time.
These terms are used to describe the symmetry of the a-c waves about
the zero axis. If the envelopes of the peaks of the current waves are
symmetrical about the zero axis, the current is called symmetrical current
(Figs. 1.9 and 1.10). If the envelopes of the peaks of the current waves
are not symmetrical about the zero axis, the current is called asymmetrical
ENVEWPES OF PEAKS
OF SINE WAVE ARE
SYMMETRIGAL ABOUT
THE ZERO AXIS.
ZERO
AXIS
ZERO AXIS
AX1 S
TOTALLY 0 F F SET
PARTIALLY O F F S E l
FIG. 1.11 Asymmetrical (I-c waver. The conditions shown here ore theoreticol a n d ore
for the purpose of illustration only. D-C component will r a p i d l y d e c a y to zero i n a c t u a l
circuits.
current (Fig. 1.11). The envelope is a line drawn through the peaks of
the waves, as shown in Figs. 1.9 to 1.12.
For the sake of explanation, many of the illustrations, such as Figs.
1.11, 1.15 to 1.19, show sine waves of current uniformly offset for several
cycles. It should be noted that in practical circuits the amount of asym-
metry decreases rapidly after the occurrence of the short circuit in the
system. This decrease of asymmetry is shown qualitatively in illustra-
tions such as Figs. 1.12, 1.20, 1.23, and 1.24.
Oscillograms show that short-circuit currents are nearly always asym-
metrical during the first few cycles after the short circuit occurs. They
also show that the asymmetry is maximum at the instant the short circuit
occurs and that the current gradually becomes symmetrical a few cycles
after the occurrence of the short circuit. The trace of an oscillogram of a
typical short-circuit current is shown in Fig. 1.12.
GENERATOR TRANSFORMER
REACTANCE, X = 19%
RESISTANCE. R = 1.4%
I
RESISTANCE I S LESS THAN OF THE REACTANCE HENCE MAY
BE NEGLECTED WITHOUT AN APPRECIABLE ERROR
- NEARLY 90'
DIAGRAM
SHOWING
SINE WAVES
CORRESPONDING
TO VECTOR
DIAGRAM
FOR ABOVE
CIRCUIT
FIG. 1.13 Diagrams Illustrating the phase relations of voltage and short-circuit current.
14 SHORT-CIRCUll-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
GENERATED VOLTAGE
SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT
ZERO
AXIS
FIG. 1.14 Symmetric01 short-circuit current and generoted voltage for zero-power-factor
cirwit.
-SHORT
CIRCUIT
CURRENT
If,in a circuit containing only reactance, the short circuit occurs a t any
point except a t the peak of the voltage wave, there will be some offset of
the current (Fig. 1.16). The amount of offset depends upon the point on
the voltage wave at which the short circuit occurs. It may vary from
zero (shown in Fig. 1.14) to a maximum (shown in Fig. 1.15).
I n circuits containing both
reactance and resistance, the s~,?&&,R&!~~
amount of offset of the short- CURRENT
circuit current may vary be-
tween the same limits as for
circuits containing only react-
ance. However, the point on
the voltage wave a t which the
short circuit must occur to pro-
duce maximum asymmetry
dependsupon the ratioof react-
ance to resistance of the cir-
cuit. Maximum asymmetry
is obtained when the short cir-
cuit occurs a t a time angle
+
equal to 90" 0 (measured
forward in degrees from the
zero point of the voltage wave)
where tangent 0 equals there- ASYMMETRICAL
actance-to-resistance ratio of
FIG. 1.16 Short-circuit current and generated
the circuit' The short-circuit voltage in zero-Dower-factor circuit. Short cir-
current will be symmetrical cuit occurred between the
when the fault occurs 90"from point and peak of the generated voltctge wove.
that point onthe voltage wave. This condition i s theoretical and for illustration
an example, assumeacir- purporer only. The short-circuit current will
gradually become symmetrical in practical
cuit that has equal resistance CiTCUit.,
and reactance, i.e., the react-
ance-to-resistance ratio is 1. The tangent of 45" is I ; hence, maximum
offset is obtained when the short circuit occurs a t 135' from the zero
point of the voltage wave (Fig. 1.17).
MAXIMUM OFFSET
FIG. 1.17 Short-circuit current and generated voltage in circuit with equal reactance and
resistance. This condition i s theoretical and is shown for illustration purposes only. The
short-circuit current will gradually become symmetrical in practical circuits.
ASYMMETRICAL
AC COMPONENT
TOTAL CURRENT
DC COMPONENT
AC COMPONENT
ZERO A X I S
a = b = D C COMPONENT
FIG. 1.19 Components of asymmetrical short-circuit current in which short circuit occurred
at some point between the zero point and p e a k of the generated voltage wave. This is a
lhsoretical condition similar to that shown in Fig. 1.18.
I8 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
As mentioned previously, the examples shown in Figs. 1.13 and 1.18 are
for purposes of illustration only. In practical circuits the d-c component
decays very rapidly, as shown in Fig. 1.20.
INITIAL M A G N I T U D E OF D-C C O M P O N E N T
The magnitude of the d-c component depends upon the iustant, the
short circuit occurs and may vary from zero, as in Fig. 1.14, to a maximum
initial value equal to the peak of the a-c symmetrical compoiieiit, as i n
Figs. 1.15 and 1.18. When the short circuit occurs at any other point,
such as shown in Fig. 1.19, the initial magnitude of the d-c componciit is
equal to the value of the a-c symmct,riral component a t thc instant of
short circuit. The above limit,s hold true for the initial magiiitudc of d-c
eomporient in a system regardless of the reactance and resistance. Ilow-
ever, the d-c componeut does not continue to flo~va t a constant value, as
shown i n Figs. 1.18 and 1.19, unless there is zero resistauce i i i the circuit.
DECREMENT
C COMPONENT
AC COMPONENT
FIG. 1.20 Trace of orcillogrom showing decay of d-c component and how orymmetricd
short-circuit currenl gradually becomes symmetrical when d-c component diroppearr.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 19
until the circuit was interrupted. However, all practical circuits have
some resistance; so the d-c romponent decays as shown in Fig. 1.20. The
combination of the decaying of d-c and symmetriral a-(*components gives
an asymmetrical wave that changes to a symmetriral wave whcti the
d-c component has disappeared. The rate of decay of the currents is
called the decrement.
X/R RATIO
The X / R ratio is the ratio of the reactance to the resistance of the cir-
cuit. The decrement or rate of decay of the d-c component is propor-
tional to the ratio of reactance to resistance of the complete circuit from
generator to short circuit. The theory is the same as opening the circuit
of a battery and an inductive coil.
If the ratio of reactance to resistance is infinite (i.e., zero resistance),
the d-c component never decays, as shown in Figs. 1.18 and 1.19. On the
other hand, if the ratio is zero (all resistance, no reartance), it decays
instantly. FOFany ratio of reactarice to resistance in between these
limits, the d-c component takes a definite time to decrease to substantially
zero, as shown in Fig. 1.20.
! I n generators the ratio of subtransient reactance to resistance may be as
?much as 7 0 : l ; so it takes several cycles for the d-c component to dis-
appear. In circuits remote from generators, the ratio of reactance to
resistance is lower, and the d-c component decays more rapidly. The
higher the resistance in proportion to the reactance, the more IaRloss
from the d-c c.omponent, and the energy of the direct current is dis-
sipated sooner.
a = 37Y. OF b (APPROX )
C- TIME
CONSTANT I N OF D C COMPONENT
SECONDS
nent. The d-c time constant is the time, in seconds, required by the d-c
component to reduce to about 37 per cent of its original value a t the
instant of short circuit. I t is the ratio of the inductance in henrys to the
resistance in ohms of the machine or circuit. This is merely a guide to
how fast the d-c component decays.
Stated in other terms, it is the time in seconds for the d-c component to
reach zero if it continued t o decay a t the same rate it does initially
(Fig. 1.21).
The rms values of a-c waves are significant since circuit breakers, fuses,
and motor starters are rated in terms of rrns current or equivalent kva.
The maximum rrns value of short-circuit current occurs at a time of about
one cycle after short circuit, as shown in Fig. 1.20. If there were no
decay in the d-c component, as in Fig. 1.18, the rrns value of the first
cycle of current would be j.732 times the rrns value of the a-c component.
I n practical circuits there is always some d-c decay during the first cycle.
An approximate rrns value of one cycle of an offset wave whether it is
partially or totally offset is expressed by the equation
MULTIPLYING FACTOR
In the general case for circuits rated above 600 volts, the multiplying
factor to account for d-c component is 1.6 times the rms value of the a-c
symmetrical component at the first half cycle.
For circuits rated 5000 volts or less where there is no local generation,
that is, where the supply t,o the bus is through transformers or long lines,
the multiplying factor to ralculate the total current at the first half cycle
may be reduced to 1.5. For circuits 600 volts and less, t,he multiplying
factor to calculate the total current at the first half cycle is 1.25 when the
circuit breaker is applied on the average current in three phases. Where
single-phase conditions must be considered in circuits GOO volts and less,
then to account for the d-c component in one phase of a three-phase cir-
cuit a multiplying factor to calculate the total current at the first half
cycle of 1.5 is used.
For some calculations, rms current evaluations a t longer time intervals
than the first half cycle, such as three to eight cycles corresponding to the
interrupting time of circuit breakers, are required. Multiplying factors
for this purpose may be taken from the curve in Fig. 1.22.
Table 1.2 gives the multiplying factors commonly used for applying
FIG. 1.22 Charts showing multiplying factors to account for decoy of d-c component for
various X / R ratio of circuits.
22 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURREM CALCULATING PROCEDURES
RG. 1.23 Tracer of orcillogramr of rym- FIG. 1.24 Arymmelrical short-circuit current
metrical short-circuit currents from utility, from dl sources illustrated in Fig. 1.23 plus
panerator, synchronous motors, and induc- d-c component.
lion motors. The shape of the total com-
bined currents is illurtmted by the bottom
hace.
24 SHORT.CIRCUIT-CURRENT U L C U U l l N G PROCEDURES
I !
I (
I t
a
/
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 27
is not designed to interrupt the rated mva but will interrupt some
value less than rated mva.
This is very significant in the rating of power circuit breakers for,
as poiuted out later, the circuit hreaker will interrupt a maximum of
only so many amperes regardless of voltage. At any voltage less
than the minimum operating voltage the product of the maximum
kiloampere interrupting rating times the kv times the square root of
3 is less than the mva interrupting rating of the circuit breaker.
5-6. Insulation Level (Withstand Test)
5 . Low-frequency rrns kv (19): the 60-cycle high-potential test.
6. Impulse crest kv (60) : a measure of its ability to withstand lightning
and other surges. This is applied with an impulse generator as a
design test.
7-9. Current Ratings in Amperes
7. Continuous 60 cycles (1200 or 2000): the amount of load current
which the circuit breaker will carry continuously without exceeding
the allowable temperature rise.
8-9. Short-time Rating
8. Momentary amperes (60,000) : the maximum rms asymmetrical cur-
rent that a circuit breaker will withstand including short-circuit cnr-
rents from all sources and motors (induction and synchronous) and
the d-c component. This rating is independent of operating voltage
for a given circuit breaker.
This is just as significant a limitation as mva interrupting rating.
It defines the ability of the circuit breaker to withstand the mechani-
cal stresses produced by the very large offset first cycle of the short-
circuit current. This rating is nnusually significant because the
mechanical stresses in the circuit hreaker vary as the square of the
current. It is the only rating that is affected by the square law, and
therefore is one of the most critical in the application of the circuit
breakers. The rating schedules of power circuit breakers are so pro-
portioned that the momentary rating is about 1.6 times the maximum
interrupting rating amperes.
9. Four-second (37,500): the maximum current that the circuit breaker
will withstand in the closed position for a period of 4 sec to allow for
relaying operating time. This value is the same as the maximum
interrupting rating amperes.
10-13. Interrupting Ratings
10. Three-phase rated mva (250): the three-phase mva which the circuit
breaker will interrupt over a range of voltages from the maximum
design kv down t o the minimum operating kv. In this case the
28 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURREM CALCULATING PROCEDURES
interrupting rating is 250 rnva between 4.76 and 3.85 kv. The mva
to be interrupted is obtained by multiplying the kv a t which the cir-
cuit breaker operates times the symmetrical current in kiloamperes to
be interrupted times the square root of 3. The product of these must
not exceed the rnva interrupting rating a t any operating voltage.
11. Amperes a t rated voltage (35,000): the maximum total rms amperes
which the circuit breaker will interrupt a t rated voltage, i.e., in the
case of the example used above 35,000 at 4.16 kv (4.16 X 35.000 x
fi = 250 mva). These figures are rounded. This figure is given
for information only and does not have a limiting significance of
particular interest to the application engineer.
12. Maximum amperes interrupting rating (37,500) : the maximum total
rms amperes that the circuit breaker will interrupt regardless of how
low the voltage is. In this example, this current is 37,500 amp. At
minimum operating voltage, 3.85 kv, this corresponds to 250 mva,
and, for example, a t a voltage of 2.3 kv this corresponds to 150mva.
The circuit breaker will not interrupt this much current a t all volt-
ages, i.e., i t will not interrupt this much current if the product of
current, voltage, and the square root of 3 is greater than the mva
interrupting rating. This current limit determines the minimum kv
a t which the circuit breaker will interrupt rated mva (column 4). At
any voltage lower than that given in column 4, this maximum rms
total interrupting current determines how much the circuit breaker
will interrupt in mva. Therefore, when the voltage goes below the
limit of column 4, the mva which the circuit breaker will interrupt is
lower than the rnva rating given in column 10 by an amount propor-
tional to the reduction in operating voltage below the value of column 4.
13. Rated interrupting time (8 cycles on 60-cycle basis): the maximum
total time of operation from the instant the trip coil is energized until
the circuit breaker has cleared the short circuit.
What limits the Application of Power Circuit Breakers an on inter-
rupting-and Momentary-duty Basis? In so far as applying power cir-
cuit breakers on an interrupting-duty basis is concerned i t can be seen
from the foregoing that there are four limits, none of which should be
exceeded. These must all be checked for any application.
1. Operating voltage should never at any time exceed the limit of
column 3, Table 1.1, i.e., the maximum design kv.
2. Interrupting rnva should never be exceeded a t any voltage. This
limit is sig’nificant only when the operating voltage is between the limits
of columns 3 and 4, Table 1.1. It is not significant when the operating
voltage is below the limit of column 4, Table 1.1, because maximum inter-
rupting amperes limit the mva to values less than the rnva rating.
3. Maximum interrupting rating amperes should never be exceeded
SHORT-CIRCUIT.CURRENT CALCUUTING PROCEDURES 29
even though the product of this current times the voltages times the
square root of 3 is less than the interrupting rating in mva. This figure
is the controlling one in so far as interrupting duty is involved when the
voltage is below that of column 4, Table 1.1 (minimum operating voltage
a t rated mva).
4. Momentary current should never be exceeded a t any operating
voltage. Modern power circuit breakers generally have a momeutary
rating in rms amperes of 1.6 times the maximum interrupting rating in
rms amperes. As a result, where there is no short-circuit-current contri-
bution from motors, a check of the interrupting duty only is necessary.
If this is within the circuit-breaker interrupting rating then the maximum
Short-circuit current, including the d-c component, mill be within the
momentary rating of the circuit breaker.
Where there is short-circuit contribution from motors, the momentary
rating of the circuit breaker may be exceeded, before the interrupting
rating is exceeded in a given cirruit. Whenever there are motors to be
considered in the short-circuit calculations, the momentary duty and the
interrupting duty should both be checked.
How to Check Momentary Duty on Power Circuit Breakers. Siuce the
short-circuit current is maximum a t the first half cycle, the short-circuit
current must be determined a t the first half cycle to determine the maxi-
mum momentary duty on a circuit breaker.
To determine the short-circuit current a t the first half cycle, it is neces-
sary to consider all sources of short-circuit current, that is, the generators,
synchronous motors, induction motors, and utility connections. The
subtransient reactances of generators, synchronous motors, and inductiou
motors are employed in the reactance diagram. Since the d-r component
is present a t this time, it is necessary to account for it by the use of a
multiplying factor. This multiplying factor is either 1.5 or l.G, as out-
lined in Table 1.2. Typical circuits where the 1.5 multiplying factor can
be used are shown in Fig. 1.25. The procedure is the same, regardless of
the type of power circuit breaker involved.
How to Check Interrupting Duty on Power Circuit Breakers. To check
the interrupting duty on a power circuit breaker, the short-circuit current
should be determined a t the time that the circuit-breaker contacts part.
The time required for the circuit-breaker contacts to part will vary over a
considerable range, because of variation in relay time and in circuit-
breaker operating speed. The fewer cycles required for the circuit-
breaker contacts to part, the greater will be the curreut to interrupt.
Therefore, the maximum interrupting duty is imposed upon the circuit
breaker when the tripping relays operate instantaneously. In all short-
circuit calculations, for the purpose of determining interrupting duties,
the relays are assumed to operate instantaneously. To account for
SEPES-DIVEN
SEN-RIO-EIELI', tCA
1
30 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
HIGH VOLTAGE
INCOMING LINE
2400
4160
4800 VOLT
INCOMING
L I N E FROM
UTILITY
$ o,:4600
A6,0 V BUS
T O P L A N T LOAD TO P LANT L O AD
(0) NO GENERATION NO GENERATION (b)
IN THE P L A N T IN THE P L A N T
13.6 KV
U U
USE 1.6
MULTIPLYING
FACTOR
u.-L NO GENERATION
ON THIS BUS
NO GENERATION
2400, 4160 OR
(C) TO LOAD
FIG. 1.25 One-line diogrom of carer where the multiplying factor 1.5 may be used on
circuits rated less than 5 h.
c
.: .. . .. ,
,, ,.. . .
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 31
1 Generators. 1 I
I I 1 frequency
changers I 0
w
C
a
Interrupting duty 2
Eight cycle or slower (general case). .......... Above 600 wlh Any ploee where symmetricmi I .O Subtransient
Rva cycle.. .............................. Above 600 volt, short-circuit kva i s loss than 1.1 Subtransient
500 mva ii
Momentary duty s
s
z
Generol GOSO.. ........................... Above 600 volt) Near generoting station 1.6 Subtransient
Lar than 5 k.. .......................... 601 to 5000 volh Remote from generating do- 1.5 Subtransient
lion (X/R rotio l e u thon I01
High-voltaqe Fuses
5
Three-phose I n o interrupting duly
All typos, including dl wrront-limiting fuses. .... Above 600 wih Anywhere in system I .O Subhqndent 1 Transient 1 Neglect
0
Cirwit b r w b r or contocto~lype. ............ 601 to MOO volts bywhere in system 1.6 Subtransient Subtrmdent Subtransient
Clrcvit b r e e b r or contartor type.. ........... 601 lo 5000 volts temote from gener.ting 11.- 1.5 Subtransient Subtrmdent Subtransient 8
lion lX/R ratio leis than 101 R
0
m
Apparatus. 600 Volts and Below z
Interrupting or momentary duty
WAVE OF AVAILABLE
1
FIG. 1.26 Grophic sxplonotion of the current-limiting action of current-limiting fuses.
See Fig. 1.27 for method of determining available short-circuit current.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CAKULATING PROCEDURES 35
These three-phase mva ratings have been selected so they will line u p
with power-circuit-breaker ratings. For example, a high-voltage fuse
rated 150 mva and a power circuit breaker rated 150 mva can he applied
on the basis of the same short-circuit-current calculations. Of course, the
application voltage must he factored in each case.
High-voltoge M o t o r Starters. High-voltage motor starters generally
employ for short-circuit protection either current-limiting fuses or power
circuit breakers. The short-circuit-current calculations for applying
these motor starters are the same as those for high-voltage fuses and
power circuit breakers, respectively.
0 GENERATOR
TRANSFORMER
MOTORS
CABLE
SHORT ClRCUlTED 8 1
J UMPER OF Z E R O CABLE
IMPEDANCE
SHORT
CIRCUIT
FIG. 1.27 Connections for determining available short-circuit current for testing rhort-
circuit protective devices.
38 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
Base kvo
DIAGRAMS
GENERATOR
C
I UTILITY SYSTEM
TRANS D GENERATOR
CABLE E
SHORT
CIRCUIT
LARGE CABLE J
MOTOR
480 VOLT
MOTORS
INFINITE
H BUSES
4160V.
I I I
1T ?;
A&??
Y T T - 3
& + * +
r y r-x
MAX. DUTY FOR
THESE BREAKERS
OCCURS FOR
SHORT CIRCUIT
HERE
FIG. 1.30 Location of faults for maximum Short-circuit duty on circuit breakers.
44 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
impedance diagram. The example of Fig. 1.31 shows the error that
might result in neglecting cable resistance.
I n secondary network systems of 600 volts and less, the resistance as
well as the reactance of the tie-cable circuits between substation buses
should be included in the impedance diagram. The example of Fig. 1.32
shows the effect of cable resistance in reducing short-circuit current in a
typical industrial network.
n n
SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT USING
REACTANCE ONLY = 51000 AMPERES,
T I E CIRCUITS
208 Y / l Z O V O L T S .
200 FT
2- 250 M,CM
3 CONO. CABLES ~~~~~T
I N PARALLEL
200 F T
FIG. 1.32 One-line diogrtlm of low-voltage secondary network system showing effect of
resistance of cable tie circuits.
REbCTbNCE QOW,
TO UTILITY SYSTEM OF UTILITY OR5.,s 0.25% OR
SYSTEM 25 %
REbCTbNCE OF
REbCTbNCE EQUIVALENT
OF 7 5 0 K V b MOTOR
TRbNSF. 5.5%
IMPEObNCE O I b G R b M
750 K V b BASE
SHORT EQUIVALENT MOTOR
CIRCUIT 750 KVb
El
hKVA
SHORT
CIRCUIT
TO UTILITY SYSTEM
EQUIVILENT MOTOR
375 K V b
REbCTbNCE
OF UTILITY
SYSTEM
REbCTbNCE
OF 7 5 0 KVb
TRbNSF.
IMPEObNCE OIbGRbM
2 0 8 Y / 1 2 0 VOLT SYSTEMS
750 K V b BASE
0.50% OR
50 %
REACTbNCE OF
EQUIVALENT
MOTOR
FIG. 1.33 Oiagromr illustrating how to include motors in low-voltage radial systems.
40 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
any one time is equal t,o 50 per cent of the combined rating of all step-
down trausformers and/or generators supplying power to that one bus,
Fig. 1.33. For large commercial buildings the 50 per cent figure may
be too low. Check carefully the mot,or load on all large 208Y/120-volt
systems.
I n the generalized rases referred t o in paragraphs 1 and 2 , no specific
ratio of induction t o synchronous motors or no specific number of motors
which prcduce unusually high short-circuit current,s has been set fort,h.
T o account for these variables, a n average motor reitctance ihcluding
leads is assumed t o be 25 per cent for the purpose of preparing application
tables like Table 1.5 and in making short-circuit st,udies where no more
accurat,e data are available. It will he noted that the average motor
reactance of 25 per cent is based on the transformer or supply-generator
kva rating. This figure is between the values of 28 per cent for induc-
tion mot,ors and 21 per cent for synchronous motors given in Table 1.14.
Where the division between synchronous and iuduction motors is known,
then more accurate calculations can be made by using the assumed motor
reactances of Table 1.14. T h e reactances given in Table 1.14 are based
on motor kva ratings and not supply transformer or generator ratings.
750 KVA
T
A 500 KVA 750 KVA
-480 VOLTS
500 KVA
v
FIG. 1.34 Diagram illustrating how lo include motors in lowvoltage secondary network
rvrternr.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 49
After it has been decided what elements of the one-line diagram are
to be considered in the impedance diagram, the mechanirs of making
the impedance diagram and of determining the short-circuit-current
magnitude are as follows.
Treatment of Sources of Short-circuit
7
GENERATOR OR MOTOR OF Current. The generators and motors
ZERO IMPEDANCE are treated as if they comprised a gen-
erator of zero reactance plus an external
reactor to represent the reactance of the
EXTERNAL TO machine windings, Fig. 1.35. The first
REPRESENT IMPEDANCE OF step in making an impedance diagram
GENERATOR OR MOTOR. is torepresent every generator and motor
or groups of motors and utility supply
FIG. 1.35 One-line representation by a reactance connected to a zero im-
of generator or motor in impedance pedance bus or so-called “infinite bus,”
diogmm. Fig. 1.36. This bus represents the in-
ternal voltage of the generators and motors.
Completing the Impedance Diagram. The second step is to add the
reactance of cables, buses, transformers, current transformers, circuit
INFINITE BUS
SHORT 6.04V
INFINITE BUS CIRCUIT
I 0.0805 %
X ~ O ~ z
FIG. 1.37 Complete reaclomce diagram for system shown in Fig. 1.28. Steps for com-
bining reactances into o single resultant value.
52 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
The base number is also called unit value since in the per-unit system
it has a value of 1, or unity. Thus, base voltage is also called unit
voltage.
Any convenient number may be selected for the base number. For
example, for the columns below, a base of 560 is used:
Per-unit Volue
Number with 560 as a Base
93 0.17
125 0.22
560 1 .oo
2053 3.65
numbers that are similarly related to two different base numbers. For
example :
Core A Cole B
Norm01 "0th 2300 460
Volts during motor starting 2020 420
The above figures in themselves have little significance until they are
compared each with its normal condition as follows:
Vollr during starting per-unit of normal 0.88 0.91
Per Cent. Obviously per cent and per-unit systems are similar. The
per cent system is obtained by multiplying the per-unit value arbitrarily
by 100 to keep many frequently used per-unit values expressed as whole
integers. By definition,
a number
Per cent =
base number
x 100 (1.22)
Do not then in addition arbitrarily select base ohms since it has already
been fixed by the first two selections because of Ohm’s law.
z = -E
I
base volts
Base ohms = (1.23)
base a m p z s
Using the selected base values, all parts of an electric circuit or system
may be expressed in per-unit terms as follows:
volts
Per-unit volts = (1.24)
base volts
amperes
Per-unit amperes = (1.25)
base amperes
ohms
Per-unit ohms = (1.26)
base ohms
In practice it is more convenient to select:
Base volts
Base kva
The base values of other quant.ities are thus automatically fixed. Hence,
for a single-phase system,
base kva X 1000
Base amperes = (1.27)
base volts
base kva
Base amperes = (1.28)
base kv
base volts
Base ohms = (1.23)
base amperes
where base kva is single-phase kva and base volts is single-phase volts.
For a three-phase system:
base kva X 1000
Bme amperes = (1.29)
X base voks
base kva
Base amperes = (1.30)
4 X base kv
hase volts
Base ohms = (1.31)
4 X base amperes
where base kva is three-phase kva, base volts is line-to-line, and hase ohms
is per phase.
Per-unit Ohms. In practice i t is desirable to convert directly from
ohms to per-unit ohms, without first determining base ohms. By Ohm’s
law,
base volts
Base ohms = (1.23)
base amperes
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 55
Substitute Eq. (1.27) (which gives the base amperes) into Eq. (1.23), to
obtain
base volts
Base ohms =
(base kva X 1000)/base volts
(base volts)P
Base ohms = bsse kva x 1000
(1.32)
By definition:
ohms
Per-unit ohms = (1.26)
base ohms
Substitute Eq. (1.32) into Eq. (1.26) to obtain
ohms
Per-unit ohms =
(base volts)e/(base kva X 1000)
ohms X base kva X 1000
Per-unit ohms = (1.33)
(base voltd2
ohms X base kva
Per-unit ohms = (1.34)
(base kv)2 X 1000
where base kva is single-phase kva and base kv is single-phase kv.
When dealing with a three-phase system, i t is usual to select three-phase
kva and line-to-line volts for the base values. Convert the above expres-
sions to these bases to obtain
ohms X base kva X 1000 X 3
Per-unit ohms =
(base volts X d .3 ,)z
ohms'X base kva X 1000
Per-unit ohms =
(base volts)2
ohms X base kva
Per-unit ohms = (1.35)
(base kv)* X 1000
where ohms are per phase, kva is three-phase kva, and kv is line-to-line
voltage.
Usual Base Numbers for System Studies. If per cent or per-unit ohms
reactance is used, the next step is to choose a kva base.
In system studies it is usually desirable to select as the base voltage the
nominal-system voltage or the voltage rating of the generators and supply
transformers. Base kva will usually be selected as the kva rating of one
of the machines or transformers in the system, or a convenient round
number such as 1000, 10,000, or 100,OOO kva. After choosing the kva
base, convert ohmic reactance of cables, wires, current transformers,
etc., to per cent or per-unit ohms reactance on the chosen base, using
Eq. (1.1) or (1.2) or Table 1.3.
If ohms reactance is used, convert all per cent reactances to ohms by
Eq. (1.3).
Where two systems of differing voltage are interconnected through a
56 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
transformer, select a common kva base for both systems and the rated
voltage of each system as its own base voltage. (These base voltages
must have the same ratio t o each other as the turn ratio of the transformer
connecting the two systems.) Base ohms and base amperes for the two
systems will thus he correspondingly different. Figure 1.38 shows a
typical example.
Once the system values are expressed as per-unit values, the two inter-
connected systems may be treated as a single system and any calculations
necessary carried out. Only in reconverting the per-unit values of the
results to actual voltage and current values is i t necessary t o remember
t h a t two different voltages actually existed in the system.
Change of Base Number. Frequently the impedance of a circuit ele-
ment may be expressed in terms of a particuiar base kva, and it may be
desirable t o express it in terms of a different base kva. For example, the
reactance of devices like transformers, generators, and motors is given in
per cent on their own kva rating, and their reactances must be converted
to the common base, chosen for the study by means of Eq. (1.5) or (1.36).
Per-unit ohms on kva base 2
- base kva
x (per-unit ohms on kva base 1) (1.36)
base kva 1
Similarly, a machine rated a t one voltage may actually be used i n a
circuit a t a different voltage. Its per-unit impedance must thus be
changed to a new base voltage.
GENERATOR MOTOR
1000 KVA I0;YKVA o(lOOO KVA)
13800 2300
VOLTS VOLTS
PRIMARY SECONDARY
RATING RATING
13200 2400
VOLTS VOLTS
FIG. 1.38 Method of converting bore volts, kva, amperes, and ohms from one value to
onother.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES n
Reference to Eq. (1.35) shows that per-unit ohms is inversely propor-
tional to the square of base volts. Thus:
Per-unit ohms on new base volts - - (old base volt.s)* (1.37)
Per-unit ohms on old base volts (new base volts)*
and
Per-unit ohms on new base volts = per-unit ohms on old base volts
(old base volts)2
(1.38)
(new base volts)2
Equations (1.37) and (1.38) may be used for per cent ohms as well as per-
unit ohms.
Converting Ohms to a Common Voltage Base. When using ohms
instead of per cent or per-unit in the impedance diagram, it is important
to convert the ohmic values to a common voltage base by Eq. (1.13).
For example, if the short-circuit current is being calculated in a 480-volt
system (supplied by transformers rated 480-volt secondary) fed through a
cable and a transformer from a 2400-volt system, the ohms impedance of
the cable in the 2400-volt circuit must be multiplied by 48O2/24OO2to
convert it to ohms on a 480-volt base. The transformer ratings, i.e., 480,
240, etc., and not system ratings, if different from transformer rating, are
used as the voltage base for short-circuit-current calculations.
Representing the Utility Supply System. The utility system must be
represented by a reactance in the impedance diagram. Sometimes this
utility-system reactance is available in per cent on a certain base. If so,
it is merely necessary to convert this value to the common base used in
the impedance diagram. To do this, use Eq. (1.5). In some cases the
utility engineers will give the short-circuit kva or current that the utility
system will deliver a t the plant site. In otker cases, only the interrupting
capacity of the incoming-line circuit breaker is known. In these cases to
convert short-circuit kva, current, or incoming-line breaker interrupting
rating to per cent reactance on the kva base used in the reactance diagram,
proceed as follows:
If given short-circuit kva, convert to per cent by using Eq. (1.6).
If per-unit is desired, use also Eq. (1.4).
If given short-circuit amperes (rms symmetrical), convert to per cent
by Eq. (1.7) and to per-unit by Eqs. (1.7) and (1.4).
If only the kva interrupting rating of the incoming line circuit breaker
is known, convert to per cent by Eq. (1.8) and to per-unit by Eqs. (1.8)
and (1.4).
XI = -
(d(z2)
21 +
22
(1.40)
For combining several parallel reactances
1 1 1 1 1 1
-=_
2. 2,
+ - + - +X -I + E
2 2 2,
(1.41)
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 59
INFINITE
c.
P~T& T( $*,
* T . Pm EQUIVALENT Y
e c , TO
CONVERT P I T I , PITI
c. EQUIVALENT Y.
STEP x z
STEP# I
COMBINE SERIES REACTANCES
PI~TI,RBT~,ETC.
I
&Pa.
--&-
Ct
cs
a"3+c*
L c4 +
COMBINE 2 C t , 3 + C+ AND
THEN REPEAT STEPS 2.3 e 4
UNTIL ONE EOUIVALENT
DRAW NEW DIAGRAM REACTANCE IS OBTAINED.
STEP-* 3 STEP t t 4
Some systems are such that they cannot he reduced by merely com-
bining series and parallel rgactances. For example, take the one-line
diagram of a circuit as show in upper left-hand corner of Fig. 1.39. The
\
reactance diagram is shown the ypper righehand corner of Fig. 1.39.
In addition to combining serieszind parallel reactances, it is necessary to
convert a triangle of reactances such as PI,
TI,PzrT , and C1to an equiva-
lent Y of reactances by the formulas of Fig. 1.40. By these conversions,
I
B=
ob + a c + be a=-
0c
b A+B+C
a b + a c + bc "
c= b:
A+B+C
A = ob+oc+bc A8
C:
a A+B+C
FIG. 1.40 Formula for converting a triangle or delta of three impedances to a Y of three
equivalent impedances, and vice verso.
3 SERIES EQUIVALENT
IMPEDANCES IMPEDANCE
FIG. 1.41 Example illustrating the combining of series impedances.
The equivalent impedance
rl
2 %= VZ + + +
73 j(z1 + zz+ 4 (1.42)
Using the numerical values of Fig. 1.41,
2, = 1+ j 2
22 = 2 +j3
= 0.5 + j l
21 = (1 + 2 + 0.5) + j ( 2 + 3 + 1) = 3.5 + j G
The above is applicable when impedances are expressed in ohms, per-
unit or per cent.
Combining Parallel Impedances. Parallel impedances may be
reduced to one equivalent impedance as follows (see Fig. 1.42):
(1) Reduce the per cent values of resistance and reactance in each of
the given parallel circuits to a per-unit basis by dividing per cent figures
by 100 or convert the per cent values to ohms. Per cent values can be
used in the following if the multiplier 100 is applied properly, e.g.,
T X
(Branch 1) 0.05 0.15
(Branch 2) 0.008 0.108
(2) Calculate the impedance squared z2 of each circuit
2% = r' + 2
'
1
(Branch 1) rlz + = ZI', e.g., 0 .052+ 0.1547-0>25
21'
(Branch 2) r 2 + zz2= zz2, e.g., 0.008z+ 0.108* = 0.0117
(3) Obtain the ratios of r/z' of each circuit
Tl 0.05
(Branch 1) -', e.g., -= 2.0
21 0.025
rz
(Branch 2) -, e.g., 0.0°8 - 0.683
z'2 0.0117
~
1
Any number of parallel circuits may be accommodated by additional
horizontal columns as fo branch 1 and branch 2, etc., their resultant
(r/z2)’s and (x/z2)’s heling added to obtain G O and Bo.
Multiplying and Dividing Impedances. Two impedmces may be
multiplied as per the following equations:
(21) (22) = 23
21 = TI +jXl
ZP = T S +j x ,
23 = r8 +
jxa
2 3 = (TI +
jXl)(Tt + jZ2)
= (TIT2 - 2 1 2 2 ) + j(TIX2 + TBZL)
13 = (nrz - XIXZ)
j a = j(r1zz +
rczJ 1
Two impedances may be divided according to the following equations:
(1.44)
TI +j x , - jxt
=-x- TZ
r2 +j x 2 TZ - jxt
(1.45)
After the reactance diagram has been reduced to a single value, the
value of symmetrical short-circuit kva can be determined by Eq. (1.14),
(1.15), or (1.16). To determine the symmetrical short-circuit current, use
Eq. (1.17), ( l . l S ) , or (1.19).
Equations (1.14) to (1.19) do not allow for any d-c component. Table
1.4 gives figures for converting kva to amperes.
Apply Proper Multiplying Factor. The final step is to apply the
proper multiplying factor from Table 1.2. To determine the total rms
short-circuit current or kva, use Eq. (1.20).
64 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
11,000 0.0525
11,500 0.0502
12,000 0.0481
-
~
/
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 65
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
LEX REACTOR
O N E LINE DlAGRPlM
I
J
k GENERATOR
-XI fc
FIG. 1.43 One-line diagram and equivalent circuit for duplex reactor.
66 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCUUllNG PROCEDURES
circuit for the duplex reactor is as shown in Fig. 1.43. For preliminary
calculations, an average figure off. = 0.5 should give results of sufficient
accuracy.
Equivalent Circuit of Three-winding Transformer. When making
short-circuit calculations of power systems which include three-winding
transformers, there is a question on how to use the designer's reactance
values. Designers give reactance values between pairs of windings.
Figure 1.44A shows a three-winding transformer, and Fig. 1.44B shows
its equivalent circuit. The following equations are easily derived and are
the proper ones to use in short-circuit studies:
xs = + X2e c -
XIB XAC
(1.46)
(A1 mi
FIG. 1.44 (A1 One-line diagram and (61 equivalent circuit diagram of three-winding
transformer.
INCOMING LINE
A
A
SOURCE 0.25 Yt
MOTORS
I
TRANSFORMER
750 KVA
5.5 x x
(0.055%)
REACTANCE DIAGRAM
480 VOLTS
M$ (0)
0.0625 1 2 5 v 1x=--XIXI%
+x2-0.0625t025
0.0625XC125-0,05% T 5 %
- yj;xo,4&
750
I
o,050
X 18,000 AMPERES SYMMETRICAL [ 1.18)
(d)
FEEDERS
BREAKERS
- PLAN
CHANNEL B U $ - 4 0 0 0 A
150'
n
I w nus o'
II
NETWORK TRANSFORMER
NETWORK
PROTECTOR
1 3 2 0 0 - 2 1 6 ~ / I 2 5 VOLTS Z500 A
KvA
y Z
INCOMING LINE
5 O YVA SC L-
rnY"l
ELEVATION
.""...
CD"Yl
CIRCUIT
BREAKER
4000
FIG. 1.46 Arrmgement of equipment for large 208Y/120-volt spot network system.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 69
The equipment for this example is arrauged as shoirn iir Fig. 1.46. The
one-line diagram is shown in Fig. 1.47.4 which iurludes the hayir reartanre
data on the circuit elemenk. The impedauce diagram is shown i n Fig.
1.47B. Figure 1.47C shows the condensed diagram to illustrate t,he rela-
tive distribution of reactance in the system. It will be noted t,hat the
overhead bus R has 70 per cent as much impedance as the romhinatiotr of
all the transformers an8,huses ahead of it,. Elimiiiatiug this item would
J
cause a serious error in t h magnitude of short-circuit, curretit.
The intermediate steps etween Figs. 1.47H and 1.47C can be worked
out by followiug t h e fa oing text.
The short circuit is located just ahead of the maiii 4000-amp circuit
breaker as this determiires the available short-circuit, curreut, which this
circuit breaker must interrupt. As pointed out previously, air circuit
breakers are applied 011 the basis of availahle rurreiit, and therefore \\.heir
calculat,ing the short,-rirruit duty oil them, t,he impedalire of t,he rirciiit
breaker is not included.
Large High-voltage Power System. T h e examplc shown in Fig. 1.48
is typical of what might, be eucouritered i n a steel mill. The kva base
chosen is 100,000 kva. Precise data are available 011 large motors and are
used in the short,-circuit, st,udy. Since the large mot,ors roiistitute only
part of the motor load, the remaining motor load is estimated. For short
circuits on the 22-kv system t,he motor load is assumed to be equal to the
capacity supplying each 22-kv bus, or 62,500 k r a aiid 20,000 kva.
Should more precise data be available regarding ronnevted mot,or load,
these data should be used for simulating motor ront,ribution for faults on
the 22-kv system. In t,his example, the connected horsepower 011 the
6.0-kv bus mas known t,o be as shown in t,he diagram.
To check the momentary dut,y at F , 011the KY-kv bus, the primary sys-
tem should be represented by its equivalrut, subt,raiisieiit reartaure nf
12.2 per cent. For interrupting d u t y on the 6.9-kv bus, t,he primary
syst,em should be represented by a reartanre equivalent t o the iirterrupt-
irig duty on t,he 22-kv system, or 17.5 per cent.
These large complicated syst,ems should he set up 011 a calculating
board to enable accurate ausivers t,o he obtained easily.
and short-circuit-current calculation procedure for spot network system show in Fig. 1.46.
72 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
c:
74 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
4tL
PRIMARY SYSTEM REACTANCE ON 3-PHASE BASIS.
TRANSFORMER X =O.O3Ym
TOTAL X ~ 0 . 0 4 %
1
F+ 100 000 KV4 3 PH4SE
SH& ClRCUlT DUTY
B4SE 5 0 KV4
0.00198
PRlM4R"X
TR4NS X
0036%
-
PRIM4RY SYSTEM RE4CT4NCE ON 3 P H 4 K 84%
:0 0005~~
B451S~00a)5X2iOO019~
H4LF WlNDlNG RE4CT4NCE OF TRMIYORMER42 XO0310036X
TWW R
00172%
'I RESIST4NCE " .' ~144X0012~001720/1
:o.
ticularly in circuits of 60 volts or less, many charts, tables, and curves
have been prepared to eliminate the necessity for detailed calculations.
Some of the more usef 1 ones are presented here.
UNIT SUBSTATIONS
%
?]-'"
"2 x,
SHORT CIRCUIT primary short-circuit capacity of 150,000
kva.
See 480-volt application table. Follow
FIG. 1.51 0 n e - k diagram the vertical column under the 1000-kva suh-
showing location of short circuit
station rating down to the 150,000-kvaavail-
for determinotion of short-circuit
currents shown in Table 1.5. able primary three-phase short-circuit kva
line in thetable. The availableshort-circuit
current a t the 480-volt bus is indicated as 30,400 amp.
The unit substation application Tables 1.5 and 1.6 make it easy to
determine the short-circuit current a t the main unit substation bus. By
the use of the simple estimating curves the short-circuit, current at the end
of the secondary feeders can he easily determined too. Henre these tables
and the curves shown in Figs. 1.52 and 1.53 make it easy quickly to esti-
mate the short-circuit current a t any point in a secondary system 600
volts and less fed by standard load-center unit substations.
The curves are for 60-cycle operation. Figure 1.52 is for cable cirruits
and Fig. 1.53 for bus feeders.
The results are in terms of the three-phase average asymmetrical rm
value during the first cycle corresponding with the basis of rating for low-
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 77
FIG. 1.52 Chart for determining short-circuit current a t end of cable circuit consisting of
three-conductor cable in conduit or interlocked-armor cable (60cycler).
2
TABLE 1.5 Available Short- circuit C u r r e n t f r o m ' t o n d a r d T h r e e - p h a s e Unit S u b s t o t i o n s
SECONDARY RATING: 2 0 8 Y / l 2 0 VOLTS, THREE PHASE SECONDARY RATING: 240 VOLTS, THREE PHASE
Substation kva rating Substotion kra rclting
Available
Primary 112.5 150 225
1 1 I I I 1 1 300 500 750 1000 I500
three-
phase
short- Normol current, amp rmal current, en
-
Fi.C"it
kw 313 417 625
1 1 1 1 1 1 834 1388 2080 2780 4170 270 361 1 542 722 1 1203 1804
-
Total low-voltoge short-circuit Curlenh, thousands of amperes
. ~ ~
-
50.000 10.0 11.9 15.9 20.7 32.4 42.3 53.3 48.7 9.4 11.2 15.1 19.7 31.1 41.3 52.2 71.2
100.000 10.3 12.2 16.5 21.7 35.0 46.8 60.4 61.3 9.6 11.5 15,6 20.6 33.3 45.1 58.3 82.5
'$
150.000 10.4 12.3 16.7 22.1 36.0 48.5 63.3 74.5 9.7 11.6 15.8 21.0 34.2 46.6 60.8 87.5 2
250,000 10.4 12.4 16.9 22.4 36.8 50.0 65.9 80.0 9.7 11.7 16.0 21.2 I 34.9 48.0 63.0 92.0 5
500.000 10.5 12.5 17.1 22.6 37.5 51.3 67.9 85.5 9.8 11.8 16.1 21.5 35.5 49.0 64.8 95.9 2
Unlimited 10.5 12.6 17.2 22.9 38.1 52.5 70.2 90.0 9.8 11.8 16.2 21.7 I 36.1 50. I 66.7 100.0 $
~
-
NOTE: or different voltoge bare, multiply short-circuit current values in table by NOTE: 3. For differed wltmge hose. I tipiy 9
208 240
the ratio values in toble by the ralio
naw voltoge n o r *olt.*e
NOTE: 2. Motor short-circuit current contribution is 2.5 times the transformer normal NOTE: 4. Motor short-circuit current-contribution is 5.0 t i m n lhe t m n r
I a
current for 50% connected motors. former norm01 current for 100% connected moton.
former
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.5 5.5 5.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.5 5.5 5.5
impedance,
%
80 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
FIG. 1.53 Chart for determining short-circuit current (it end of feeder bur. The type
designations refer to General Electric Company bus I60 cycles).
Required Data. The basic data needed to enable the use of Figs. 1.52
and 1.53 are the following:
1. System operating voltage
2. Available short-circuit current at the source bus (average asym-
metrical)
3. Length and construction of the feeder circuit
4. Connected motor load at the feeder terminal
Procedure for Use of Figs. 1.52 and 1.53. The evaluation of feeder
terminal short-circuit current involves only four simple steps (see Fig.
1.54):
1. Locate the magnitude of source-end short-circuit current on the
proper left-hand operating voltage scale.
2. From this starting point move along to the right following along a
curve or an interpolation between adjacent curves until the desired length
of specific feeder construction (horizontal scales) is reached.
3. Project the latter point horizontally to the left and read the short-
circuit current contributed by the feeder on the same scale as used in 1.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 81
t
k--
H I
.
1
i
I
,/CP)OICI I I l l I
I_ 850
FEEDER L m m " I
FIG. 1.54 Example rhowing how to use the charts of Fig. 1.52 and 1.53.
Available primary
25 137.5 I I 1
50 75 100 150 1 1 I 1
200 250 333 500
24,550 amp
Motor contribution, bus R = 5 X 03 = 315~
K
.........
XdRt ratio..
................... I 1 I I I 1
1;;s I:* s1: !l Ii6
2
1.02
4
FEE0ER:Zf:Rf tjxf OHMSIPHASE
IFROH TABLES)
:'I
\J VAIL4ELE
SHORT ClRCUlT CURRENT DESIRED HERE
IS'CURRENT CONTRIBUTION FROM FIG. 1.56 One-line diagram for rhort-
SOURCE *"STEM circuit-current calculation ot the end of
ly*CURRENT CONTRlBUTlON FROM
LOAD LCCAL YOTORS feeder circuits-genernl core.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 07
I 4 R X
I
I CABLE
FIG. 1.57 Equivalent circuit for determining cable lengths given in Tables 1.6 lo 1.9.
From the equivalent circuit per phase shown in Fig. 1.57 and using the
nomenclature of Fig. 1.57, a general expression for the length of cable t o
limit the short-circuit current can be derived. The equation is
L 2 R2 - X
~ Z 2 1 , 2 / I ,-
E= 221,
Where I J I , is large or R is small, the equation reduces to
88 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
Conductor
Coble length 1, ft
size
__
I
- -
No. 14 A x g
No. 12 Awg
..
..
No. 10 A w g . .
26.9
42.6
67.5
7.3
11.4
17.9
::::
69.0
1:;
21.8
4.7
7.4
11.7
27.5
43.6
69.5
9.1
14.4
22.8
5.3
8.5
13.4
2.4
3.8
5.9
No. 8 Awg ... 106.5 28.0 109.4 34.2 18.3 110.0 36.0 21.1 9.3
No. 6 Awg ... 165.0 42.6 170.3 53.0 28.0 171.5 56.1 32.7 14.2
N e . 4 A w g ... 254.0 63.7 263.0 81.0 42.6 265.5 86.3 43.8 21.4
No. 2 A w g . . . 384.5 91 .O 402.0 122.1 63.0 407.0 131 .O 75.8 31.8
No. I Awg , , . 468.0 111.0 488.0 146.8 75.2 497.0 159.1 91 .4 38. I
No. 110 Awg . 564.0 126.8 592.0 175.0 87.2 606.0 192.8 110.7 44.0
No. 2 '0 A x g . 664.0 144.8 706.0 206.0 100.8 723.0 228.5 128.8 50.9
No. 3/0 Awg . 775.0 162.0 827.0 237.5 114.2 852.0 267.0 149.1 55.4
No. 4/0 Awg . 890.0 180.0 960.0 271.0 127.8 990.0 308.0 171.2 64.7
250MCM.. . . 962.0 190.5 038.0 290.5 135.5 1072.0 333.0 184.1 69.0
- - -
I , = avail le short-circu: urrent in kiloamperes a t source end of cable
I f = short-circuit current kiloamperes ior short circuit a t end of cable of length L
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 89
I. 50 1005~ 100
I5
I, 25
5 / 1 25
5 / 50
5 i l 50 5 ~ 2 5 /
Conductor
Cable length 1, fl
sire
- ~ ~
No. I 4 Awg. , ... 21.5 5.8 21.9 7.0 3.8 22.0 7.3 4.3 1.9
No. 12 Awg.. , .. 34.1 9.2 34.6 11.0 6.0 34.9 11.5 6.8 3.0
No.lOAwg ..... 54.1 14.3 55.2 17.4 9.3 55.7 18.3 10.7 4.7
No. 8 A x g . . , ... 85.4 22.4 87.6 27.4 14.6 88.1 28.8 16.9 7.4
No. 6 Axg.. . ... 132.5 34.1 136.5 42.4 22.4 44.8 26.2 11.4
No. 4 Axg.. .... 203.3 51.0 210.5 64.8 34.1 69.0 39.9 17.2
No. 2 Axg.. , ... 308.0 73.0 321.5 97.8 50.4 105.0 60.7 25.5
No. I A x g ...... 374.0 89.0 391.0 117.5 60.2 127.4 73.2 30.5
No. 1/0 Awg .... 452.0 101.5 474.0 140.1 69.8 485.0 154.2 88.7 35.2
No. 210 Awg .. . . 532.0 115.8 566.0 164.8 80.6 579.0 183.1 03.0 40.7
No. 3/0 Awg . ... 621.0 29.6 663.0 190.0 91.4 682.0 214.0 19.3 44.4
No. 4/0 Awg , .. . 713.0 144.1 768.0 216.8 102.2 793.0 246.5 37.0 51.8
250 M C M . . ..... 771 . O 52.5 832.0 232.8 108.6 860.0 266.8 47.7 55.2
~ - - - - -
I. = availab short rcuit current kiloampcrcs i S O I I I ~ Pcnd of
I1 = short-c uit current in kiloarnperPs for short circuit at m i l of c
TABLE 1.9 limiting Effect of Cable on Short-circuit Currents a t 240 Volts,
Three Phase
Three Single-conductor Cables in a Mmgnetic Duct
- -
100 100
25 50
-
I
~
Conduclor
Cable length 1, ft
*i*e
- __ - - __ - ~ __
No. 1 4 A x g ....__..10.8 2.9 11.0 3.5 1.9 11.0 3.7 2.2 I .o
No.12Axg ........ 17.1 4.6 17.3 5.5 3.0 17.5 5.8 3.4 I .5
No. 1 0 A w g ........ 27.0 7.2 27.6 8.7 4.7 27.9 9.2 5.4 2.4
No. 8 Awg ......... 42.7 11.2 43.8 13.7 7.3 44. I 14.4 8.5 3.7
No.6 A x g ....__.._ 66.3 17.1 68.3 21.2 11.2 68.7 22.4 3.1 5.7
No. 4 A x g ......... 101.5 25.5 105.3 32.4 17.1 106.4 34.5 '0.0 8.6
No. 2 A w g . . ....... 153.8 36.5 160.8 48.9 25.2 163.0 52.5 0.4 2.8
No. 1 Awg ........_ 187.0 44.5 195.5 58.8 30.1 199.3 63.7 6.6 5.3
No. 110 A x g ....... 226.0 50.8 237.0 70. I 34.9 242.5 77. I 4.4 7.6
No. 2/0 A w g . . ..... 266.0 57.9 283.0 82.4 40.3 289.5 91.6 I .5 0.4
No. 3/0 A x g .._....310.0 64.8 331.5 85.0 45.7 341 .o 107.0 9.7 2.2
No. 4/0 Axg.. .. ... 356.0 72.1 384.0 108.4 51.1 396.5 123.3 8.5 5.9
250MCM ........_.385.0 76.3 416.0 116.4 54.3 430.0 !33.4 3.9 7.6
-- --- - - -
I. available short-circuit currcnt in kiloampercs at source end of eahle
=
I , = short-circuit current in kiloamperrs for short circuit a t end of cahlc of length L
PO SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
Conductor
25
5 25
50 I I
lo:
Cable length 1, h
lG
100
25
100
50
sire
-- - - -
No. 14 Awg....... 9.3 2.5 9.5 3.0 I.6 9.5 3.1 1.9 0.8
No. 12 Awg....... 14.8 3.9 15.0 4.8 2.6 15.1 5.0 2.9 1.3
No. 10 Awg...... . 23.4 6.2 23.9 7.5 4.1 24.2 7.9 4.6 2.0
No. 8 Awg........ , 37.0 9.7 38.0 11.9 6.3 38.2 12.5 7.3 3.2
No. 6 Awg........ 57.4 14.8 59.2 18.4 9.7 59.6 19.5 11.3 4.9
No. 4 Awg........ 88.0 22.1 91.3 28.1 14.8 92.2 29.9 17.3 7.5
No. 2 Awg........ 133.4 31.6 139.4 42.4 21 .9 141.4 45.5 26.3 11.0
No. 1 Awg........ 162.1 38.6 169.3 50.9 26.1 172.5 55.3 31.7 13.2
No. 110 Awg...... 196.0 44.0 205.3 60.7 10.3 210.0 67.0 38.4 15.3
No. 2/0 Awg...... , 230.5 50.2 245.0 71.5 14.9 L51.0 79.4 44.7 17.7
No. 310 Awg...... , 269.0 56.2 287.0 82.4 19.6 295.5 92.7 51.8 19.2
No. 4/0 Awg...... 308.5 62.4 132.5 94.0 i4.3 143.5 106.8 59.5 22.4
.......
,
250 MCM.. , 334.0 66.0 160.0 100.8 17. I 172.0 115.5 64.0 23.9
-
100
Per cent X : =
times normal stalled rotor current*
TABLE 1.1 1
Range M-t Common
15-25 20
a Nearly all salient-pole generators built by General Electric Company since 1935 have
amortisseur windings.
Add transformer reactance:
For compound-wound converters add 12 per cent.
For shunt-wound converters add 7 per cent.
These data are useful for estimating reactances of individual large motors of
several hundred or several thoumnd horsepower.
* With rated voltage and frequency applied.
92 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
K w ..ling
w rating Volt.g* rating
__
0.8 power facer
1200 3600
rpm rpm
~
I per rent
Xi.
per cent
-I 1
600 "0th or less-induction 28'
600 volts or lewynchronous l i t e m 1 end 2 indude motor leads1 21 29
600 volh or l e u i n d u c t i o n 34'
600 volts or les-ynchronour litems 3 and 4 indude motor leads 27* 35
and step-down bansformen1
Motors above 600 volt-induction 20
Motors above 600 volt-ynchronwr 15 25
Motors above 600 volh-indudon 26
Motors o b w e 600 voltriynchromur litems 7 and 8 include step- 21 31
down transformers1
I
* Based on AIEE Standard No. 20.
1 -
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 95
Plant
Induction Sydrnnom
Cement .............................. 40 60
Machine shops ond IexHIe.. ............. 85 15
Rubber and rolling mills................. 50 50
Paper (excluding grinder mobs). ........ 67 33
Commercial ond offiso.. ................ 50 50
Installed
Energized
motor k w to
motor kva source kva
PI.3 to insbled (excluding
motor k w ,
SPW").
per cent por cent
Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per. cent Per cent
R X z R X z
~-
3 1.7 I .5 2.3 2.2 1.7 2.8
5
10
15 1.5 1.7 2.3 I.6 I .6 2.3
25
75
100 I .2 2.3 2.6 1.2 3.5 3.7
Self-cooled or Forced-oil
High voltage Low voltage woter-cooled cooled
rating, per cent rating, per Cenl
For high-voltagr insulation elassrs intermediatr of those given, use the imppdancr
of thc next higher listpd insulation class.
For transforrncrs with a load-ratio control add 0.5 prr ccnt to the vaIu?s IistFd
abovc crcrpt in those eases in which a IOWPY impedaner has heen sprrifirtl.
Thc p ~ cr m t resistance on the hase given above rangrs from 1.0 down to 0.06.
X =
(
0.023 log, D
2s
+ K)
X = reactance, ohms per 1000 ft at 60 ryrlrs; S = spacing of couduc-
tors (center t o center), in.
D = diameter of ronductors, in.; K = a rocffirient dependent upon ratio
of iriside diameter of a ronductor to outside diameter of condurtors. For
standard strand construction K = 0.25
98 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
This formula does not take into account any increase of reactance due
t o the spiraling of the strands. Such increase is usually negligible in
three-conductor cables and in large single-conductor cables, but it may
amount to 1 to 2 per cent in small single-conductor cables.
The effect of irregular spacing of the conductors and of magnetic
binder causes an increase of reactance of single-conductor cables, com-
pared with otherwise equivalent three-conductor cables. Cable insula-
tion thickness varies with different types of insulation for a cable of a
given voltage class. The approximate reactances of cables taking into
account these variables are shown in Tables 1.20 t o 1.22.
R' X R' X Z
N . 2 Awg . .
O 0.0203 0.00513 0.0209 0.0197 0.00344 0.02000
No. I Awg.. 0.0163 0.00500 0.0171 0.0157 0.00342 0.01606
No.l/OAwg. 0.0131 0.00495 0.0140 0.0125 0.00340 0.01296
R* X z R' X z
No. 14 Awg
No. 10 Awwg.
. 0.3135
0.1240
0.00969
O.OO8M
0.3135
0.1240
0.3135
0.1240
0.006664
0.005745
0.3291
0.1241
No. 8 Awg .. 0.0779 0.00788 0.0781 0.0779 0.005308 0.07808
Based (1 75 c.
-- ---
TABLE 1.22 Correction Factors for Nonmagnetic Ducts
Single-condudor a b l e ,
Where more precise data are not available, the values given in Tables
1.20 t o 1.23 may be used in short-circuit-current calculations without
significant error.
System voltage
Plvg-in type:
Upto600 ............. 98.8 24.7 15.8
60110 1000 ........... 62.4 15.6 10.0
Lox-impedance type:
Upto600 ............. 45.2 11.4 7.3
60110 1000 ........... 17.2 4.3 2.7
135010 1600 .......... 10.8 2.7 1.7
2000 ................. 7.6 1.9 1.2
FIG. 1.58 Chart showing reactance VI. spacing of rectangular bus bars 160 cycler).
FIG. 1.59 Chart showing reactance VI. spacing of rectangular bur bars I60 cycler).
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
FIG. 1.60 Chart showing reactance YI. spacing of rectangular bus bars (60cycled.
104 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
FIG. 1.62 Chart showing reactance VI. spacing of channel bus bars I60 cycler).
-
~ - B - I -A- I ~
spacings (up t o 8 ft) and from Figs. 1.64 and 1.65 for spacings up t o
20 ft.
Under usual application conditions, transmissiodine reactance
varies over quite a narrow range. Table 1.27 includes the usual varia-
tions as well as “average ohms per mile” which are normally satis-
factory for quick estimating work. Very large conductors, used to
carry unusually large amounts of power for short distances, have abnor-
mally low reactance so that this tahlr is not applicable.
L--- 67“
4 - P I N CROSSARM
AND SPOOL- TYPE
SECONDARY RACK
6 - P I N CROSSA-M
FIG, 1.63 Spocing of pins on four- and six-pin crossarms for vie in calculating line reoc-
tance on 2400/4160-Y or 48OO-volt circuits.
106 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
Normal tronrmiirion
Approximate
Line in.ul.tion equi*o1ent
class, kv dell. spocing of Reoctonce,
conductors. ft ohms per mile
size
lslrmded ~ o p p e i l
69 8
14
115
138 16 0.70-0.80
161 20 411 UIUDI sizes both copper 0.75
220 20 and oluminum
287 40
* 115 12 44 5.5
230 12 66 8.0
460 I8 I10 14.0
575 I8 112 16.5
2,300 30 I54 20.0
4,160 30 220 29.0
6,900 36
13.800 42
22,000 48
33,000 54
type W, covering current ratings from 100 t o 800 amp based on tests
at short-circuit currents, are given in Table 1.30. The values in Table
1.30 apply t o t,ransformers with a serondary burden of I volt-amp or
less at 5 amp or a t normal i:urrent. For higher burdens, the impedance
referred t o the primary side will be somewhat increased, but the increase
is far less than that occurring a t normal currents, berause of the reduced
mutual inductance between primary and secondary windings. The
reactance values based on low burden are conservative fur calculations
of maximum short-circuit current.
TABLE 1.30 Over-all Reactance of Type W Current Transformers,
Referred to Primary Winding
Approximate Values at Short-circuit Cvrrenh with D-C Component, Rms Symmetrical Component
Ronging from 15,000 to 55.000 Amp
Current Rating of Reactance (11
Primary Winding, 60 Cycles,
Amp Ohms
100 0.0035
I50 0.0017
200 0.0010
250 0.00066
300 0.00050
400 0.00032
500 0.00022
600 0.00019
800 0.00012
These values are also representative of t,he order of magnitude of the
reactance for current transformers of the following types, rated a t 5000
volts: JW1, JW4, JW6, JW14, WC12, WFI, WF6, and WF12.
Reactances for other designs of current transformers of the wound
primary type may be estimated by applying the folloming approximate
factors t o the values of Table 1.30.
Type of Current Foctor to Be Applied to
Transformer Reactance Vduer in Table 1.30
KF85-7,500 volt 1.8
JSI-15,000 volt 0.4
Current Transformers Having a Bar-type Primary Conductor. For
bar-type current transformers with currerit rat,ings from 1000 t o 4000
amp, such as t,ypes bS2-GO0 volts, WC15-5000 volts, KC60 7500 volts,
the react,arice has an approximate order of magnit,ude of 0.000070 ohm
a t currents within the range from 10,000 t o over 80,000 rms symmct,rical
amperes, with or ait,hout d-c component,.
T h e reactauce depends on the spacing bctweeu phases, since a COIL-
siderable amount of air flux links the primary bar conductor. The
value given is t,hat for !&in. phase spacirig wit,h the t,ransformers side by
side, reprcserit,ing an average value for the three phascs for t,hree-phase
short circuits. Strictly speaking, the reactance in the three phascs will
I12 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
I
Per cent ,O(lCt(l"L*
Ion base of C ~ C .k rd
No. of No. of Circ. Kva of
Type phoier core, "Oil, r.g"l.tol
!-
Min Avg Max
~ _ _ -~~
Indue.. ......... I or 3 .. 2400 I?
I n d w . . ......... Ior3 .. to I0 0.65 0.85 1.00
4800 96
_____ _ _
Amp
rO~Y1.101
~ _ _ _ _
Step ............ 1 1 2400 Allrolings O.O+ .... 0.6
Step. ........... 3 I lo to160omp O.O+ .... 0.7
Step. ........... 3 3 13,800 Over 160arnp 0.15 .... 1.0
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 113
REFERENCES
1. A I E C Committee Rrport. Simplified Calculation of Fault Currents, E k e . E’ng.,
Octobrr, 1912.pp. 509-511.
2. A I I * X Committee Ilrport. Simplifird Calmlation ai Fault Currmts. Trans.
AlEE’. 1942, Vol. G I . pp. 113:3-11:35.
3. Revision Made to AIICI: Report, Simplified Calculation of Fault Currents, Efec.
Emf,.. February, 194d. p. 65.
4. Darling. A. G., 4-C Short Cirrriit Caleiilating Procdure for Lon--roltage Systems,
‘I‘mns. A I E E . l!)41, Vol. GO, pp. 1121-1136.
5. Srhurig, 0. It.. Fault Voltngr Drop and ImpPdanre a t Short-circuit Ciirrmts in
Low Voltngr Circuits. Trans. A I E E , 1941, Vol. 60, pp. 479-486.
6. AIEE Committw Rrport. Simplifird Calculation of Fault Currents, Trans. A I E E ,
1948, Vol, 67, p. 1433.
Chapter 2 by R, H. Kaufmann
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
plugging. There mould he a balanced set of currents, but this time the
application of rated voltage would cause currents of about six times
rated value. In other words, the impedance appears to be the same in
all three phases, but its value is now $6 = 0.16 per-
kJ!
unit, or 16 per cent. The effect of mutual winding
coupling alone may make the effective impedance
per phase as low as 16 per cent or as high as 300
or 400 per cent.
There is one significant observation. So long as
the three currents are equal and separated by the
same angular displacement, the effect of currents I s
and I , on the voltage drop in phase A will be iden-
Thus Z , = Z B = Z c .
This also identities the fact that the impedance voltage drops I a Z A ,
I,Z,, and I c Z c are separated by the same angles as I,, I , , and I c .
These are two very important facts which emphasize the value of
symmetrical components.
Ic
CASE I CASE 2 CASE 3
lPOSlTlVE SEOUENCEl (NEGATIVE SEWENCE) (ZERO SEOUENCE)
THE OPERATOR 0
-02
0.5tj0.866
f /71:a2
/ ,
,1.5tJO.866
/ /
\+
/
I /
/
I/ /
//
//' a3
\
Ir-0.-50.866
0.5 1.5-~0.866
:I a
RESOLUTION OF SEQUENCE C O M P O N E N T S
Id = Ih0 = 1.0 =
I, + I, + I,
3
Positive sequenre:
I,, =
1, + a l e + a21c-
2
-
IS,= all., =
a21A I S+ + alc
3
I C 1= aI., =
aIA + + Ic
a21a
3
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 121
Srgativc sequence:
I,, =
I, + a2IB+ a l e
3
.\I1 three i.urrctits whii.11 romprise each of the three component systems
now have been dekiiicd. The sum of all t,hree compotrcnt currents of
each phase should equal the original actual phase current.
Phase il :
Phase 13 :
I B + la? f
= Ib, IbO
-
- a?IA + I I I+ a l c + aIr -t I , + azIc + I , + I , + I c
3 3 3
= >SIA(aP + a + 1) + I a ( l + 1 + 1) + I c ( a + a2 + 1)
= !5(0 + 31, + 0) = I B
Phase C:
Ic = + I,, + I d
I,,
- + a21e + IC a'IA + a l a + IC + I., + 1, + I c
+
3 3 3
= 4$IA(a + az + , I ) + IB(a* + a + 1) + I c ( 1 + 1 + 1)
= >$(O + 0 + 3Ic) = Ic
? >
1 hus a means now has been devised of separat,ing the three actual line
currents (or voltages) into t,hree systems of symmetrical components, and
further it, has bee11shown that the sum of the three component quantities
of earh phase does exactly equal the original true line current (or voltage).
Several fuiidamental equatioiis and commonly used relationships are
listed i n Tahle 2.1.
1.0 =
In + Is + I c = I,, = I d
3
PER-UNIT SYSTEM'
value throughout a wide range of physical size and voltage rating. For
example, the impedance of a transformer mill be about 0.05 per-unit (6 per
cent) on its own rat,ing as a base quite independent of size or voltage
rating. If expressed in ohms, the numerical value of Z would vary
widely wit,h 110 sigu of any common denominator. Also, in the per-unit
system a particular per-unit value of current flowing into one side of a
transformer comes out the other side as the same per-unit value.
Refer to Chap. 1, page 54, for a complete list of equations relating
~ e r - u n i tvalues.
SYSTEM APPLICATION
Segative sequence:
0 = I.dZm + + +
ZL2 ZTJ Tio*
v., = + +
-ra2(zGs zL2 zr2)
Zero sequence:
0 = I.o(Zo0 + + Zro) +
ZLO v.0
vm0= -r,,(zoot z t o+ zTd
Combined :
Ti" = v.1 + ve/02+ v.,o
= E, - Iai(Zoi + Z L I+ Z T -~ Za,(Zci + Zr.2 + Z T ~
- I~O(200 + ZLO + ZTO)
It will be useful to draw the individual sequence circuits such as indi-
cated on Fig. 2.7. Xote that the circuit for the positive sequence is
"WY
ZG ZL
.".. 1A-h
vb
Ec/
".,. ..."
E+T I6 -w
V0
. .....
FIG. 2.6
.,.A
tc * vc
Typical symmetrical three-phase circuit.
126 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
E a = 101 ( Z G I + Z ~ I + Z T ~ I ~ V O I
0 = 102 ( Z G Z t Z L 2 1 Z T Z 1 t VO2
0 - 100 (ZGO+ Z L O t Z T O I t YO0
VA = v o l t v02+v00
= E o - I o l ( Z G l t Z L l tZT11-102 (ZGZ+ZLZ+ZTZI
-1w ~~tz,~+z,l
FIG. 2.7 Equivalenl sequence circuits of Fig. 2.6 (in terms of the A phase)
TYPE OF APPROACH
_ _ _ _~_ _ - _ - - 1 Ib=lol EO
POSITIVE
I 2, +ZX
SEQUENCE I IS= 0216
N+ v,; zx
- -v/JI.- - -2
I IC = o h
_c
1.3
E2F
The boundary coiiditioris a t the short-circuit point are
I, =0
I, = -Ic
v, = vc
LINE-TO- LINE SHORT CIRCUIT (SOLID1
vc
II' - 0
Ig =-Ic
vg =vc
SHORT CIRCUIT
EcE5 :.
v b<' VB vc
SHORT CIRCUIT
EOUIVALENT SEQUENCE CIRCUITS (A PHASE REFERENCE )
PER PHASE
Ian =
I* + I , + 5 -- o + I* - I ,
=o
3 3
The positive- and negative-sequence currents in the A phase will he
diametrirally opposite sinre
Id =
+ aIll + a l l , -- 0 + a I s - a l l , --~
I, (a-aa)IB
3 3 3
I,, + d l , + a I c - - 0 + a l l a -_
a I= s _ (az-a)Is
_ - - _- _ (a-a’) I ,
I,? =
3 3 3 3
I., = -Id
The solution now hinges 011 the equality of voltage on the B- and
(‘-phase ronductors at the short rircuit.
V B = a2E. - a21.1Z1 - aI.*ZZ
V , = aE,, - aI.lZ1 - azI.zZz
To make V” = ITc
aE.
al., = - aIa1 - -
z , + z,
la, = ~
the magiiit,ude is of interest,, in which case 110 attentioil need bc given the
relative phase angle between this current and the refereure voltage.
The same generalized siilution ran bc applied to a rase in vhich the
short circuit contains impedanre. Suppose the linc-to-line impedance t o
be Z F . This can be simulated by i.onsidering the systcm to he extended
through an additional symmetriral branch containing an impedance
ZF/" per phase. 4 solid line-to-line fault at, the end of this branch pro-
dures the efleot nf an impedance Z P ronnerted line-to-line on the basic
system.
The solution is as follows, using Figs. 2.8 and 2.11:
Line-to-line connect,ion (line B to line C )
( 2 ) connected to (3); (I) open
For a line-to-line impcdance Z F , make ZX = Z F / ~
For a line-to-line short rircuit, make ZX = 0
Reference phase: A
(Bourrdary conditions: I , = 0, I , = - I c , V ( , ) = V ( , ) ]
. .
- EG
- -j
+ z,+ z,
Resolving further, the solution hecomes simply
E,
Is = v3 z, + ( Z F / 2 ) + z*+ ( Z P / 2 ) = - I,
En
= 41P.F z1+ z, + z,
POSITIVE
SEQUENCE
I
I
I
I
Iai -
~
- Val
-"W&
zF/2
NEGATIVE
II
SEQUENCE I
N 22 va 2 zF/2
* - +v'AVP
1a2-
FIG. 2.1 1 Equivalent circuit for line-to-line short-circuit analysis.
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 131
{+:%:
equivalent Zomill be three times the value of Z,.
..
EOUIVALENT SEQUENCE
CIRCUITS I N TERMS OF
T H E A PHASE
3Zn
I L-G CONNECTION
:- I THROUGH IMPEDANCE ZF
M 4 G h E TnE SYSTEM S
EXTEhDED THRObGh Q
BALAhCED C.RCJlT OF ZF
PER PhASE LZFI’ZF~=ZFO=ZFI
ZERO
N _---__-__- -1
I
I
SEQUENCE zo ZF I
VVAv “20 .,,* +*., -1
Iao --t
FI
I35
POSITIVE
SEOUENCE
'
I
I $+EO
Iai+
&
z vl:
- - -1
I I
I
ZERO
SEOVENCE VOO I
+--A
100-
FIG. 2.1 5 Equivalent circuit for double line-to-ground short-circuit analysis.
TRANSFORMER CHARACTERISTICS
CONNECTION
ZERO SEQUENCE CIRCUIl
-(
ZT
4-- --
x x
F 3 2
131 ( - P H
-
Y
-7:
SPECIAL CASE- 3 - P H CORE TVPE
---(
N
131 I-pn
P
N
-
(see Fig. 2.18). Thus the zero-sequence circuit will be interrupted at the
jurirtion with a Y-connected winding if the neutral is.uugrounded.
Iao
With standard d-lta-Y or Y-delta transformms, H I (high voltage) will hc 30" shcad
of X I (law voltage) for normal phase sequence. H I will hc 30" behind X , with oppo-
site phase sequence.
Many investigators pwfer to exprrss the relationship hetween high- and low-ten-
sion line currents in B slightly different manner so as to simplify the associated phase
shift opcration, for example,
NOTE: If currents w e not in per-unit, the transformation ratio must also he fac-
tared in.
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS I39
Zero-sequence current, in a circuit connect,ed t o a grounded-neutral
Y-connected winding can flow if zero-sequence rurrent, in t,he secondary
windings can he caused t o flow in the direct,iori iiidicat,ed by the secoridary
arrows, (see~Fig.2.19).
If the secondary currents in Fig. 2.19 cannot flow, the primary zero-
sequence current is limited t o the magnetizing current of the core (in t,he
order of 5 per cent of rated current for 100 per cent impressed voltage).
This represents a Z O of ahout, 2000 per cent on the transformer rating,
which for practical purposes may he regarded as infinite.
A n exception to this rulc is presented hy the thrce-phase core-type
design whose construction is as indicated in Fig. 2.20. The flow of zero-
sequence current, in the primary windirig produces magnetic flux whii,h
is in phase in the same direction in all three core legs. Since there are no
external core legs between upper and lower core yokes (as would exist in a
shell type of three-phase design),
the zero-sequenre flux must re-
turn largely through the air.
The steel tank walls provide a
fairly low reluctance path forpart
ofthereturn circuit, but thecross-
over to t,he core yoke at both the
topand bottom isdirectly through
air. The magnetizing reactance
represented by this flux path c
FIG. 2.20 The three-phase c k - t y p e tronr-
usually he in the order of 30 to ,-, ..
50 per cent on the t,ransformer
rating, which is low enough to have practical significance.
Zero-sequence current in a circuit connected to a grounded-neutral
Y-connected winding can flow if another set of transformer wiridiiigs is
connected in delta as in Fig. 2.21. The closed delta provides a circuit for
t h e flow of zero-sequence current. The impedance presented to the flow
of current is the interminding impedance Z, (the same as the normal
positive sequence ZT), Kote, however, that the zero-sequence currents
are not repeated in the outgoing line circuit but are short-circuited within
the delta winding.
140 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
FIG. 2.21 A circuit connecting with a grounded Y-connected transformer winding with a
delta winding on the same core structure.
FIG. 2.22 A circuit connecting with a grounded Y-connected transformer winding with
another grounded Y winding on t h e same core structure.
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 141
MOT MOT
C U RR E N T IK=CTR.VIOI
VOLTAGE l i = mR A T I O I
ZERO SEO'lENCE POS!TIVE SEQUENCE
JO 8661
-
NOTE - 8"
INTERCWNGING LINES B B C
METER WILL READ Vo2
cuits. The circuit breakers too are often inadequate in these old syst,ems.
Thus, when a short circuit does occur it is almost cert,ain to cause a major
shutdown with possible damage t o other propert,y as well as loss of
production.
5. Use an engineering approach. If the short-circuit,-protection proh-
lem is approached on an engineering basis instead of depending on good
luck, the plant investment can be more adequately protected and undue
risks eliminated. Good luck over a period of years may give a false
assurance that failures are never going t,o occur, but, good luck eventually
runs out as it has in so many cases. The cost of a loss due t o a failure
then is far more than it would have been to modernize the switchgear oil
a planned step-by-step basis.
In the engineering approach a study is made to determine t,he weak
spots in t,he electric system and remedy them hefore a major shutdown
occurs, with attendant financial and production loss. The engineering
approach is of a prevent,ive nature, i.e., finding the weak spots and correct-
ing them before a failure does occur.
No one would t,hink of running a boiler indefinitely just hecause “ i t
had never failed.” Preventive maint,enance involves continually repair-
ing and replacing weak parts hefore they fail. The results of the failure
of an inadequate circuit breaker can he as serious as a boiler failure; so the
same intelligent engineering approach should be used in providing safe,
adeyuat,e circuit breakers as is used with other machinery even thongh
one has heen lucky enough over a period of years t o avoid the failure of an
inadequate circuit breaker. Luck might change for the worse tomorrow;
so it may pay real dividends not t o be complacent ahout short-circuit
conditions.
To have a safe power system with low maintenance cost and high
service continuity, adequate circuit prot,ertive equipment is necessary
throughout the ent,ire system from the place where the power system
enters the plant down t o t,he smallest motor or light.
An Example of W h a t Can Happen When Available Short-circuit Cur-
rents Exceed the Interrupting Rating of Short-circuit Protective Devices.
An inadequate circuit breaker mas mounted in a svit,ch riiiim which was
part of the distribution system. A short circuit occurred in the outgoing
rable. The short-circuit duty was well above the interrupt,ing rating of
the circuit breaker i n the switch house. As a result, the circuit breaker
attempted to open the circuit hut did not havetheability todoso. There-
fore, the circuit breaker failed, blew up, and when it did two things hap-
pened. First, the circuit breaker at the source had t o clear the fault in
t,he failed circuit hreaker and thus drop all the load instead of just the one
load on the fauky hranch. This meant unnecessary loss of prodwt‘ * ion.
Second, a fire resulted and completely destroyed the switch house.
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 147
FIG. 3.1 Rerull of foilure of inodequote oil circuit breaker on heovy short circuit.
Fortunately the switrh house was isolated from nl.her I~uildit~gs, and orily
the switrh house burned dn\vn. llad this fsilurc ocwrrcd i n a fiict,ory
tiuilding, the damage could have been much more cxLensive.
r.
Ihe picture, Fig. 3.1, tells the st,nry of what happened hotter thaii ii
book of mords could.
The irony of this fiiilurc was that, the plant, erigineer had ri~cogriizetlt h e
inadequacy of the circuit hrcakers in this swit,ch house aiid was replacing
t,hem with adequat,e ones. The ot,her circuit breakers in this switi.h
house had already hcen rcplaced mit,li adequat,e unes, and t.liey \wre
destroyed too.
One can never tell how long hia luck will last wii.h inat1t.quat.e circuit
breakers or fuses. It, may rim out sooner tliaii one thinks.
CIRCUIT BREAKERS-GENERAL
FUSES-GENERAL
Fuses are often considered for circuit protection because of their low
first cost. Before selecting fuses in place of circuit breakers, there are
certain general characteristics and limitations which must be recognized
and considered as well as cost.
While fuses have their proper applications, one must look rarefully a t
the fuse picture in general and then more closely a t specific fuses to see
how many of the hasic requirements are met.
Generally Do Not M e e t All Requiremsnts. One of the first and fore-
most considerations is that fuses in themselves do not meet the basic
requirements for a complete short-circuit protective device. Fuses alone
(except t,he oil-fuse cutouts) do not incorporate any switching means to
permit closing in on high currents or to switch load currents. T o meet
the basic requirements it is necessary that a fuse other than a n oil-fuse
cutout be used in conjunct,ion with a properly rated interrupter or safety
switch. In this combination the fuse provides the ability to open ahnor-
ma1 currents automatically. The switch should provide the ability to
open load currents and moderate overcurrents which are below the blow-
ing point of the fuse and should provide the ability t,o safely close in on
short-circuit currents up to the interrupt,ing rating of the fuse. When
the switch is in the closed position, it should be able to carry safely what-
ever current the fuse will pass.
The operation of fuses in combination with interrupter switches at
moderate overcurrents imposes problems not easily overcome. The
fundamentals of the problem can be seen by referring to Fig. 3.2. To
illustrat,e one phase of the problem, let us assume that it takes $6 see only
to close and open a switch manually. Should there be a moderate over-
load when the switch is opened and closed rapidly, as there may well be
because of connected motors, etc., the switch would have to open perhaps
several times its rating because the operation took place so quickly that
the fuse did not have time to melt. This area is represented by the
crosshatched section of Fig. 3.2. For example, an interrupter switch
might he rated to make 20,000 amp, carry 20,000 amp momentarily, and
to open 100 amp. This switch, when used with a 100-amp E-rated fuse*
or even a much smaller rated fuse, may not be adequate on moderate
values of current,. At 1000 amp, for example, the blowing time of the
fuse may be 3 see. An operator may close the switch and open it within
36 see. The fuse would not have had time to melt, and the switch vould
be required to open 1000 amp, or ten times its rating. Whenever
the circuit interruption takes place in two separate devices which are
* E-rated fuses will carry their rated eurrmt eontinuouslv and blow in 5 to 10 min
at 200 to 264 per cent of rated current.
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 151
AMPERES
FIG. 3.2 Interrupter-switch rating and fuse time-current characteristics showing per-
formonce on moderate overcurrent..
152 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT
and larger, they lose more and more of their current-limiting ability.
Sinre the current-limiting ability of fuses is most useful in branch-circuit
protection, the handirap of having to use small ratings to get effective
rurreut-limiting artion is not so pronounred, as most branch circuits are
of small rurrent rating anyway.
Industry Standards. Fuses above 600 volts are made according to
indnstry st,andardsesrept, that standardized levels of interrupting ratings
are not set up. Low-voltage fuses have no a-c interrupting standards,
although surh st,andards may be available in the future. See further
disrussion nuder voltage classification.
Mechanical Simplicity a t Low Current Ratings. Fuses and their asso-
ciated switches for low-current circuits, i.e., about 200 amp or less, are
simpler mechanically than circuit breakers. For higher current circuits
t,he switrh, if built, t o have the necessary momentary and interrupting
abilit,y, loses its advantage of mechanical simplicity.
I11 selecting circuit breakers YS. fuses, the techniral ronsideratious cer-
tainly favor the rirruit breakers in most rases. Because of this, circuit
breakers are generally considered the only acceptable protective devices
by most engineers for all'lorations in industrial plants where switching
and short-rirruit protectioii is required except for some hranch circuits
and control circuits and motor starters. Fuses and switches are pre-
ferred for some hranch rircuits because of the fast operation of the fuse.
Besides the technical roiisiderations, economirs is a factor. While cost
is very important, it is secondary to the technical considerations noted
above and secondary to select,ing the devire that has an adequate inter-
rupting rating for t,he servire. Berause there may he in some cases a
wide difference in rost between circuit hreakers and fuses, there is a tend-
ency to get so involved in economic issues in the selection of circuit
breakers vs. fuses that technical ronsiderations are lost sight of. AS a
result many hazardous syst,ems are installed to save a few dollars in first
cost, a saving that may soon be lost because of the poor performance and
higher maintenanre of inadequate equipment, particularly in low-voltage
circuits. It is for that reason and because the technical cansiderations
vary somewhat with voltage that the technical considerations are reviewed
in further detail as a function of voltage class.
There are other factors in the selection of fuses for overcurrent protec-
tion. These factors involve mainly coordination with relay time-current
characteristics or the time-current characteristics of built-in devices on
circuit breakers (see Chap. 9).
I54 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES A N D CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT
* Standai rating8 are 15, 20, 25,35, 50,70,90, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 225, 250,275,
.> - - ., .__.)-__., ....
or where it may he received from the utility at low voltage and for the
secondary svitchgear of load-center unit substations or in main subdis-
tribution centers, Fig. 3.4. They are also applicable for individual
branch-circuit prokction where t,he highest qualit,y device is required and
where special time-current characteristics are necessary for coordination.
They are particularly applicable for braneh-circuit protection for larger
loads over 200 amp or for smaller loads where, as stated above, highest
quality protection is desired or electrical operation is required. These
circuit breakers have longer life built into them than do other types of
low-voltage circuit breakers and are, therefore, suitable for many more
operations, particularly where there is moderately repetitive duty imposed.
Selective Tripping vs. Cascading. Large air circuit breakers may
be used either in selective tripping systems or in cascade systems. Selec-
tive tripping systems, Fig. 3.5, are those in which the circuit breakers are
set to trip selectively so that the one nearest the fault operates first so
that only the faulty portion of the circuit is deenergized. I n this case all
circuit breakers should have adequate interrupting ratings, that is, their
rating should be equal to or greater than the short-circuit duty a t the
156 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND ClRCUlT EQUIPMENT
ELECTRICALLY
OPERATED
SU0 - DISTRI0UTlON
CENTER
-
& 1500 KVA LOAD CENTER
A
UNIT SUESTDTION
ERANCH FEEDER
CIRCUIT BREDK-
+FEEDER CABLE
/
SHORT CIRCUIT DUTY
DT THIS POINT 32.000 ~UE-BU~
DMP RMS DSYMMETRICDL 7
A
*
/I' ERDNCH FEEDER CIRCUIT
)BREDKERS RATED 25000
DMP INTERRUPTING
V
SHORT CIRCUIT DUTY
DT THIS POINT 22000
DMP RMS DSYMMETRICDL
-
I
&I500
i KVA LOAD CENTER
UNIT SUBSTATION
MAGNETIC TYPE
I I '
MOTOR
I SHORT CIRCUIT DUTY
AT THIS POINT 50.000AMP
CONTRIBUTION RMS ASYMMETRICAL
9000AMP
FIG. 3.6 One-line diagram showing large oir circuit breakers applied in cascade with
only one source of low-voltage power.
I
f
&I000 KVA LObD CENTER
-UNIT SUBSTATION
I I I -knunar
I
NOTE! INSTbNTANEWS snom CIRCUIT DUTY
T R I P E L E M E N T ON HERE 26000 AMP RMS
FEEDER B R E I K E R B ISYMUETRICbL
MUST BE SET bT
12000 bMP(OQ X I 5 0 0 0 1
FIG. 3.7 One-line diagram showing large air circuit breakers in cascade applied
remote from the main source of power.
160 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTEtTlVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT
Where there are two or more sources of current to a bus with cascaded
feeder rircuit breakers, the following rule applies, Fig. 3.8. All main A'
circuit breakers (i.e., A : , A : , A : ) must be tripped instantaneously when
the total short-circuit current through the hacked-up B circuit breaker
exceeds 80 per cent of its interrupting ratings.
The example in Fig. 3.8 shows what the various instantaneous over-
current trip settings of the main circuit breakers should be for a given
case. The rule is that the instantaneous setting must be proportioned t o
the short-circuit current delivered through the main circuit breaker in
question. The interrupting rating of the B circuit breakers is 50,000
amp. When the total current reaches 40,000 amp, the current delivered
by these various sources is 6000 amp, 8000 amp, and 18,800 amp. The
motor contribution is 7200 amp. All currents are rms asymmetrical.
Cascaded operation is a means of lowering the cost of short-circuit pro-
tection in secondary systems. In the cascaded system, smaller feeder
circuit breakers are used than in the selective system; therefore this
differential favors the cascaded system from an economic standpoint.
I t must be recognized, however, that the service reliability of a cascaded
system is poorer than that of a selective system because in a cascaded
system, whenever a feeder short circuit draws a current in excess of 80
per cent of the interrupting rating of the feeder circuit breaker, the main
circuit breaker is tripped out and service on all feeders served by that
main circuit breaker or breakers is lost until the service is restored by
reclosing the main circuit breaker. This application has proved satis-
factory from a service-reliability standpoint for many industrial processes.
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE OEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 161
d:3J)
7 4 7 , 0AMP
0 0
rMOTOR
CONTR IBUTION
7200 AMP
THIS FAULT DRAWS
40.000 AMP R M S
ASYMMETRICAL
FIG. 3.8 One-line diogram showing lorge air circuil breakers in cascade wilh more
ihan m e source of power to ihe main low-volloge bur.
-
bJ
m
TABLE 3.3 Air-circuit-breaker Application Tables-Cascade System and Selective System
600 Volts ond Less
Ratings required for equipment for Ironsformer and feeder circ~itl,with selection of circuit breaker 8 on basis of cascade sydsm and selective trip system. Other
fadois than short-circuit duty ore important in the selection of circuit breakers for selective trionine. Refer to monvfocturer for other lirnitotions.
Standards. The XEMA Standards that, apply to all large air circuit
breakers are KO. SG3-1951.
I
&75D
A
1:
KVA MAX
CIRCUIT
CASE
MOLDED {1h
1 )
)
+MOLDED CASE
BREAKERS
I N PLUG-IN
DEVICE
INDIVIDUAL
MOLDED CASE
BREAKERS
DISTRIBUTION CENTER
MOLDED CASE
BREAKERS
FIG. 3.10 One-line diagram showing where molded-core air circuit breakers can be ap-
plied in a low-voltage power distribution system.
Application. Because of their small size and lower cost, the molded-
case circuit breakers find application for branch-circuit, protection where
the interrupting duty is within their interrupting rating, Fig. 3.10. They
also find applicabion on the secondaries of some small light-duty Ioad-
center unit substations.
Not Suitable for Cascade Operation. These circuit breakers are not
suitable for cascade operation wit,h large air circuit breakers berause they
operate so fast that the large air circuit breakers are not able to protect
them (see iVEhlA Standards for Large Air Circuit Breakers, Section
SG3-3.43). Xeither are they suitable for cascading vith ot.her molded-
case circuit breakers. This conclusion mas reached after exhaustive tests.
166 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT
I
600 ~ 0 1 1 s
rrrtingr amp
~-
7,500 15-100
20,000 15,000 15.000 15-100
25,000 20,000 15.000 125-225
30,000 25,000 25,000 125-225
50,000 35,000 25.000 125-600
FUSED SWITCHES
FIG. 3.1 1 High-copocity interrupting (HCI) enclosed switch with high interrupting-rating
current-limiting silver-rand fuses (EJ-6).
Volts
! -I,
Amperes Volts 1
I
Amperes
15-20-30
and EJ-6 fuse. amp
byml
100.000
100.000
100,000
200 l00,000
-L LOAD CENTER
UNIT SUBSTATION
FIG. 3.1 3 Curves showing the current-limiting choracterirtics of type EJ-6 silver-sand
current-limiting fuses (60cycler).
I70 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT
will withstand 9000 amp rms for 0.2 cycle. So, the 30-amp fuse vill pro-
tect a wire which will be required to carry 30-amp load current.
This current-limiting feature, in addition to protecting small wires in
systems of high short-circuit-current capacity, can protect small switching
devices. It is for this reason that the type HCI switch can he used with
type EJ-6 fuses 011 circuits where the available short-cirruit-current duty
is as high as 100,000 amp.
The t,ype HCI switch and EJ-G fuse combination has high interrupting
rating arid is current-limit,ing in its operation which enables it to beusedin
many places where molded-case circuit breakers would not have adequate
interrupting rating and where large air circuit breakers would be too ex-
pensive, too large, or not applicable from an engineeriug standpoint. For
example, a circuit breaker for a 30-amp circuit fed from a certain low-
voltage bus may require a circuit breaker with 100,000 amp interrupting
rating. The wire or cable mould have t o be of the order of 350 MCM t o
withstand the short-circuit current. I n the first place, a 100,000-amp
interrupting rating circuit breaker cannot be built with a 30-amp trip coil
that will withstand the short-circuit forces or heating. I n the second
place, any 30-amp load devire mould not have terminals that would
accommodat,e 350-MCM cable, the size required to withstand 100,000
amp. The use of an EJ-G current-limiting fuse and the HCI switch rated
30 amp would provide adequate short-circuit protection, and the current-
limiting effect of the fuse mould enable a wire of smaller size t o be used.
The switch and fuse comhinat,ion is not generally suitable for main feeder
circuit protection because of the fact that it is difficult to make the fast
current-limiting fuses operate selectively with other overcurrent protec-
tive devices that would be in the circuit between the fuse and the load.
Standards. Information for standards on fuses may be obtained from
the Underwriters Laboratories, Incorporated, bulletin, Standard for
Fuses.
Information on st,aridards for enclosed switches (safety switches) may
be obtained from IJnderwriters Laboratories, Incorporated, bulletin,
Standard for Enclosed Switches or NEMA Publication No. 42-78,
Enclosed Switch Standards.
There are many types of power circuit breakers availahle, but basically
they are divided into the oil t,ypc and the nillcss type. I n the field 2.4- t o
13.8-kv t,he oilless-type cirruit breaker, Fig. 3.14, has largely superseded
t h e oil-t,ype circuit breaker. In indoor metal-enclosed switehgear of the
st,ation t,ypc for circuits 13.8 Lo 34.5 kv, the air-type circuit breakers are
in general superseding the oil-type vircuit breakers. I n the field above
11.A kv for outdoor switchgear, oil circuit breakers are most commonly
used, Fig. 3.15. For the sake of the discussion here relative to d e c t i o n
of equipment>fiom a short,-rircuit standpoint, it makes no difference
whcthcr the rircirit breakers are of t,he nil or oilless type.
Ratings Available. High-voltage power circuit breakers are availahle
in ratings from 2.4 kv up to over 300 kv and in interruptirig ratings from
15 mva up to 25,000 mva. Complete listings of power circuit breakers
can he found iii the latest copy of S E R l A Standards SG&l954. T h e cir-
cuit, breakers most comtnonly used in industrial plants are the oilless or
air type, sho\rn i n Fig. 3.14. The available ratings of this type of cir-
cuit breaker are given in Table 1.1 (Chap. I).
FIG. 3.14 Typical ille err (air) power circuit breaker ar wed in metal-clad switchgear for
c i t w i t s rated 2.4 to 13.8 kv.
172 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT
FIG. 3.15 Outdoor frome-type oil circuit breaker 01 used in circuits rated above 15 kv.
This circuit breoker i s rated 34.5 kv.
Q P OUTDOOR POWER
C I R C U I T BREAKERS
Q GENERATOR T TYWI
GENERATOR TRANSFORMER
CIRCUIT BREAKER SECONDARY
CIRCUIT BREAKER
!
' MAlN FEEDER
CIRCUIT BREAKER
A AHEAD O F L I N E
OF L I M I T A M P
MOTOR STARTERS
LARGE OU
HIGH VOLTAGE
MOTORS
FIG. 3.16 One-line diogrorn rhowing where oilless power circuit breakerr in metal-clad
rwitchgeclr and outdoor power cirwit brecikerr may be applied in industrial power dir-
tribution ryrtemr.
174 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT
There are many types of power fuses available for circuits rated 2.4 kv
and above. These t,ypes of fuses, generally speaking, divide t,hemselves
into three categories. The first is the power fuse, typical examples of
which are shown in Fig. 3.17 which are for high-rapacity power circuits.
The second type that is slightly differeni, i n construct,ion i s the oil-fuse
cutout, which i s really a combination of a cntout and a fuse immersed
in a container of oil, Fig. 3.18. The third type of fuse is used mainly in
distribntion cutouts for overhead opcir-wire outdoor distriliutioii systems
of utilit.ics in urban and suburban areas, Fig. 3.119.
FIG. 3.17 Typical high-voltage (above 600 volts1 power furer: Ifeft) current-limiting non-
enpulrion silver-rand type, (right] "on-current-limiting expulsion outdoor type.
176 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DNICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT
SMALL POWER
IyTy\ TRANSFORMER
I
LIMITING
FIG. 3.20 One-line diagram rhowing where high-voltage (above 600 VOllS) Power
may be applied in industrial power distribution systems.
178 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT
MOTOR STARTERS
T i p s RH ............................................ 1 75 I50
5 75 145
8 75 140
Short-circuit current.
~ ~~
omp
11.25 X rymmetricall 1.5 to 2 cycles
linrt. trip)
>g s*c
9,000-1 0,000 ........................... No. 1 Awg No. 2/0 Awg No. 4/0 Awg
10,000- 12.500 50 mvo .............. 250 mvo No. 1/0 Awg Na 3/0 Awg 250 M C M
12.500-15,000 ...... 100 mva 150 m w ....... No. 2/0 Awr No. 4/0 Awg 300 M C M
15.000-20.000 ........................... No. 3 / 0 A w r 300 MCM 400 M C M
20,000-25.000 00 m w 150 m w 250 m w 500 m w No. 4/0 AWI 350 MCM 500 M C M
25,000-30.000 ........................... 250 M C M 400 MCM 600 M C M
30.000-35.000 ...... 250 mva ....... 750 mvo 300 M C M 500 MCM 750 M C M
35.000-40.000 5 0 m r o ....... 500 mvm ....... 350MCM 600 MCM 750 M C M
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQVIPMENT 183
has been proved to be valid for canductor sizes of No. 8 Awg or larger*),
the conductor heating is governed by the following:
For Copper:
"I. -8.
FIG. 3.23 Short-time bhort-circuit) heating limits of copper cables and correlation of
current and time to elevate the copper temperature from 75 to 150 C (dlheat is oirumed
to be stored in the copped.
Fuse S m a l l ~ twire
Sm.lle.t wire
roting, normally vied,
protected
amp RH insulation
EXAMPLES
former iri question is good for full short-circuit current (sixteen times
normal) for 5 sec. It is desired that the feeder cable have the same
ability.
Solution: Rms symmetrical amperes = rated current X 16 = 240 x
16 = 3900 amp. The duration of this current as defined by the condi-
tions of the problem is 5 sec.
Assume X / R ratio = 10 or less
From chart A of Fig. 3.23, K 1 = 1; ( X / R ratio of 10 and time of 5 sec)
Henre, the total rms amperes affecting cable heating = K , X 3900
= 1.0 X 3900 = 3900 amp
On the large rhart of Fig. 3.23, locate the intersection of the horizontal
3900-amp line and the 250-MCM conductor diagonal line. The per-
missible time (read on the bottom scale) is indicated to be 12 sec (75 to
150 C hasis).
The 250-MCM cable will adequately meet the 5-sec requirement.
Example 2. Feeder circuits are t o be run from a 480-volt 60-cycle
load-center unit substation at which point the short-circuit duty is
25,000 amp (20,000 symmetrical rms amperes). What is the smallest
reasonable feeder conductor size based on the use of a 25,000-amp inter-
rupting rating air circuit breaker which trips instantarieously (1.5 cycles)
a t currents in excess of fifteen times the normal rating?
solulion:
Symmetrical current = 20,000 amp
Time duration = 1.5 cycles
Rms amperes = 20,000 X 1.25 = 25,000
See preceding text for explanation of 1.25 factor K ,
On the large rhart of Fig. 3.23, locate the intersection of the horizontal
25,000-amp line and the vertical 1.5-cycle line. The minimum size con-
ductor (75 to 150 C basis) whose curve is above the intersection is a
KO.1 Awg.
Example 3. A 4-kv feeder is t o be run from a substation at which the
symmetrical short-circuit current is 25,000 amp. A continuous load
caparit,y of 1000 kva is desired (113 amp), and a KO.2/0-Awg coronol
cable run is being considered. Line relaying is to consist of standard
time-overcurrent relays on the & tap and S o . 5 time-lever setting
v i t h 250/5-amp rurrent transformers. Instantaneous attachments are
not planned, but could be used if set at 3000-amp line current.
Solution:
Symmetriral short-circuit current = 25,000 amp
Case 1. No instantaneous attachment on relay
Rms symmetrical short-circuit current = 25,000 amp
Relay operating time = 50 cycles; (From published time-current
curves)
Circuit-breaker operating time = 8 cycles
188 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT
r
189
T i m e - seconds
I
190 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT
= 63.8 C, or 64 C
The maximum momentary temperature for coronol at 5 kv is 145 C
(see Table 3.6).
From detail chart B , Fig. 3.23, the correction factor K for an initial
conductor temperature of 64 C and final of 145 C is K = 1.13.
From the large chart of Fig. 3.23, the permissible time for 27,500 amp
in No. 3/0-Awg conductor (75 to 150 C basis) is 6.7 cycles.
The permissible time corrected t o a 64 to 145 C basis is K X 6.7
= 1.13 X 6.7 = 7.6 cycles.
Therefore, a No. 4/O-Awg conductor is the correct selection since a
No. 3/O-Awg conductor would fail t o meet the 8.5-cycle requirement.
The fusing current time curves for copper conductors are shown in
Fig. 3.21. The curves are based on the folloiving assumptions:
1. Radiatiou may be neglected because of the short time involved.
2. Resistance of 1 cu cm of copper at 0 C is 1.589 microhms.
3. Temperature-resistance coefficient of copper a t 0 C is 1/234.
4. Melting point of copper is 1083 C.
5. Ambient temperature is 40 C.
Data are an adaptation from the eight,h edition of “Standard Handbook
for Elect,rical Engineers.”*
* A . E. Knowlton (editor-in-chief), “Standard Handhook for Electrical Engineers,”
8th ed., Chap. 4, McGraw-Hill Book Company, h e . , S e w York, 1949.
Chapter 4 by W. R. Crites and Maynord N. Halberg*
VOLTAGE DESIGNATIONS *
It is necessary t o have a n understanding of the voltage names of sys-
tems and t,he voltage rat,ings of various pieces of apparatus used in the
system before start,ing a discussion on system-voltage problems so t h a t
the proper voltage identification can be used throughout. It is also
necessary t,o know v h y the voltage designat,ions are applied t o help in
understairding the system-voltage disussion in the following sections.
The volt,age-identification structure is summarized iu Table 4.1. For
each of the nominal syst,em voltages listed, t,he table gives voltage ratings
of generators, transformers, motors, and (in some cases) lamps. T o
illustrate the use of Table 4.1, consider a 13,800-volt system. The
generators would be rated 13,800 volts. Transformers stepping power
down from transmission voltage would have secondary windings (I?,
Fig. 4.1) rated 13,800 volts. Transformers steppiug power down t o
utilization vokage in load-center substations would have primary mind-
ings (C, Fig. 4.1) rated 13,800 volts. Motors connerted directly to the
13,800-volt bus would lie rated 13,200 volts.
From the foregoing summary and Table 4.1 it is evident that care must
tie exercised in using the proper voltage ident,ifiration for each piece of
equipmelit as well as for the system. Some fundamental rules are as
follo\vs :
1. When speaking of equipment, the rated voltage is used, aud it is the
voltage to which the operating characteristics are referred.
2. When speaking of systems, rat.ed voltage is not an applicable term
because various piwes of equipment in a given system often have different
voltage ratings. Therefore, t,he term n o m i n a l s y s t e m vollage is used for
convenient designation of systems and circuits t o define the voltage class.
The problem of proper identification would be easier if all apparatus
of a given voltage class had the same vokage rating. Then, of course,
tem voltage could have that same value. Possibly if the
industry were starting over again, vokage ident,iticatioii mould be made
that simple. But, as syst,ems grew, voltages were ini,hed up t o compen-
sate for t,he voltage drop between source arid load.
As a result, of t,hese changes that have taken pla(.e over a period of years,
transformer arid generator voltage rat,ings are generally higher than
utilization-eiiuipment vnltagc rat,ings. There is logic in this in that the
voltage rating of transformers, for example, is t,heir no-load rating.
Since most plants are supplied by transformers, the concept has beeri
acceptcd that, supply equipment will have a higher voltage rating than
utilization equipment,. This means that in a 480-volt system, for cxam-
* For a iiirthrr rrpansion of t h i s srihjpet F W l < I ~ ~ I - X 1 5 MKPport.,
A l’refrrrrd Volt-
age I h t i n g s of :\(: Systrrris and Equipmmt, N I X l’uhliration lo. R-6. S E M A
I’ulilirstion l o . 117, \lay, 1‘JIU.
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS. VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 193.
ple, transforniers or geiierators supplying motors ivoiild have a ratiiig of
480 volts whereas t,he motors irould have a ratiiig of 440 volts. Part of
this ditrereiicc: is compeiisated for by voltage drop iii the traiisformer aiid
in the distributioii system betiveeii the traiisformers aiid the motors.
Therefore, in general, the voltage at the motors is reasoiiably iiear thc
iiame-platc ratiiig iii the average system.
I n older types of distrihiitioii systems it i m s commoii prartire to use
step-doivii trmçformers irith a Iower primary voltage ratiiig thaii thc
transformers which ivould siipply that systcm. For example, the ti'aiis-
former steppiiig dowi from the iitility voltage ofteii hnil a ratiiig of 2400
volts oii the secoiidary, aiid the traiisformer steppiiig doi\-ii to the utiliza-
tioii voltage of 480 or 240 volts had a ratiiig of 2300 volts oii tlie primar?..
Becausc of the desigii of preseiit-day systems n-itli smaller drgi'ers of
volt,age drop, aiid judirioiis m e of taps i i i traiisformers, the prartirc is, as
INCOMING
4\
1
MASTER U N I T
SUBSTATION
( P R I M A R Y SUBSTATIONI
( A I P R I M A R I WINDING
u (IF USEDI
ml SECONDARY WINDING
X
P L A N T P R I M A R Y D I S T R I B U T I D N VDLTAGE
LOAD C E N T E R U N I T
SUBSTATION
(SECONDARY SUBSTATION IN FACTORYI
PRIMARY WINDING
WINDING
evident from Table 4.1, t o use the same voltage rating for all traiis-
former windings connected t o a given system voltage. This is true
whether the transformers are stepping down to this system or steppiug
down from this system.
TABLE 4.1 Boric Pattern of Voltage Identification
Three-phase Systems
208Y/120'
240
480*
600
20sY/l20
240
480
600
208Y/120
240
480
600
208 or 120
240
480
600
440
I
220 or 208 208.118. or 120
220 236
165
* In ~ P I Vinstallations, or W ~ P ~ P Ya srlwtion
P ~ oi voltngr can l i p ~ n a d rthrsr
. i ~ r cprc-
ferrrd s y s t m valtagrs.
t Specifying t h e w valiirs for motor voltsgcs is itnportarrt: For instnnw. motors to
opprste on -IltiO-. GWC-, or 18,800-volt systrins should Iw rntcil 4000. (i(iO0. or 1:1,200
volts, resp2ctively.
The one-line diagram (Fig. 4.1) shows a t y p i i d method of distributing
power in industrial plants and will be used as referenre to identify some
portions of the systems and equipment referred to.
Transformer voltage ratings are hased on the no-load values, and the
ratio of primary to secondary rated wltages is equal t o the turn ratio.
The transformers have a voltage rating for each xindiiig. These are
VOLTAGSSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 195
aiid two below normal, giving a total adjustment of plus or minus 5 per
cent,. With these t,aps in the primary winding, a transformer actually
has five different ratios. I t vould he very cumbersome to refer to all five
of these ratios in all discussions; therefore, when in the following dis-
cussion a transformer is referred t o as having, for example, a rating of
2400-480 volt,s, the discussion will apply equally well whether the trans-
former is operated 00 the cenher t a p or other taps. Regardless of the tap
used, the t,raiisformerwill still be referred to as a 2100-480-volt transformer,
Comhined light arid power systems are frequently used where motors
are supplied a t 180 volts, for example, and lights are supplied at 120 volts
from the same 480-volt system, using dry-type transformers. The
standard primary volt,age ratings for t,hese light,ing transformers are 600
volts, 480 volts, arid 240 volts, aiid the standard secondary vohage ratings
are 208Y/120 volts and 120/240 volts. Two rated kva 5 per cent below
normal t,aps are provided in these transformers t,o allow for operation of
120-volt lamps near t,heir rated voltage when the voltage on the 480-volt
system is below 480 volts as it normally vill be.
2
mTwI
4I HIGH VOLTAGE BUS
FIG. 4.2
merit,
Unit transformer generator arronge-
A t the other end of the system are the motors, and their rat,ings reflect
the fact that voltage at utilizatioii equipment is somewhat loirer t,haii a t
the sources of power because of voltage drop.
Single-phase motors are usually rated at 115 or 230 volts.
The standard voltage rat,ings of polyphase motors are given in Table
4.1.
TABLE 4.4 M o t o r Voltage Ratings
110 "0111 550 "011. 6,600 Volt.
208 volt. 2,300 ~011s I1.000 volt,
220 wit. 4,000 ~ o l t i 13,200 volts
440 rolls 4,600 volts
OTHER APPARATUS
rating and motor rating in a given voltage class. For instance, industrial
heating devices are rated at 115,230, 4G0, and 575 volts. Capacitors are
rated at 230, 460, 575, 2400, 4800, 7200, 12,470, and 13,800 volts.
Singlo Phase
120
120/240
240
Three Phore
An ideal electric power system is one which will supply constant fre-
quency and volt,age at rated name-plate value t o every piece of apparatus
in the system. I n modern power systems, frequency is a minor problem.
It is impractical, however, t o design a power system which will deliver
absolutely constant rated name-plate voltage to every piece of apparatus.
Since this cannot he attained, what are the proper limits of voltage varia-
tion in a n industrial plant? These should be determined by the charac-
teristics of the utilization apparatus. First, certain definitions are
essential to underst,arid clearly the discussion of this problem.
Voltage Spread. Voltage spread is the difference between the maxi-
mum and minimum voltages which appear at any location in a system
under riormal operating conditions. Voltage spread is not intended to
cover momentary voltage changes uf a transitory nat,ure such as those
due t o switching surges, motor starting, welders, etc. The first part
of this discussion is primarily concerned with voltage spread a t utiliaatiori
equipment. This is the diKercnce between the maximum and minimum
voltages a t the terminals of the utilization equipment under normal
system operating conditions (Fig. 4.3). Maximum values usually appear
during light load and minimum values a t full load on the electric system.
Another important type of voltage spread is primary or supply voltage
spread which is the difference between the maximum and the niinimum
voltage a t the service entrance or plant primary bus of a particular plant
under normal operating conditions.
Voltage Zone. Voltage zone is the envelope of all voltage spreads for
a particular voltage class of system.
For any specific voltage class designated by a nominal system voltage
there inherently exists an appreciable range of operat,ing voltages between
the systems having the highest and lowest voltages for this class. Coun-
trywide, this zoue is larger thaii the voltage spread at, ariy one location
because of recognized differences in practices of different companies.
* The data in this sretion arc l a r ~ c l yadapted from an AIEE Industrial Power Sys-
tem Coinmittre 1Lpurt. Industrid Voltag- Ilrquirpmeats, Elec. Eng., vol. 6 i , 1948,
pp. 358-374.
3.3 7. z
PRIMARY 5 , LONGEST SECONDARY FEEDER
SYSTEM
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _NO_ LOAD
_ _ _VOLTAGE
_~ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 480
1
2500--
s
r SPREAD
2400- IN
-
0
Y Y
0 SECONDARY
2 SYSTEM
>
E 0
N
Y
v)
>
E
TRANSFORMER VOLTAGE DROP
k9 Q
2 2300-
(L
P
FEEDER VOLTAGE DROP
T.
Y
NO LOAD VOLTAGE
<
0
5
>
0
> 2200- PRIMARY VOLTAGE SPREIO, NO LOAD TO F U L L LOAD AT VOLTS
*
I PLANT SERVICE LNTRANCE
I I
E
L 0
MINIMUM FULL TRANSFORMER VOLTAEE DROP
LOAD VOLTAGE
To show the effect of voltage drop in a plant it will be assumed that the
primary voltage is maintained a t a constant value regardless of plant load.
The simple circuit shown in Fig. 4.4 will be used as an illustration. The
primary voltage is assumed to be of such magnitude that the secondary
voltage on the transformer is 480 volts a t no load. Referring to Fig. 4.5,
a t extremely light load there is essentially no voltage drop through the
transformer or in any of the secondary circuits connected to the trans-
former. Consequently, the voltage is substantially the same throughout
the plant, and any lights or other incidental load connected a t this time
is subject to practically the no-load voltage. It is particularly significant
a t this point to recognize that transformer voltage ratings are the no-load
SECONDARY BUS
TRANSFORMER
CIRCUIT
2 470-
:rp
4 6 0 ~
y)
3
9 460
450
_ _ _ _ _ ~.
----
TOTAL VOLTAGE
TRANS FA NO
VOLTAGE DROP
THRU
15 VOLTS
sE~!~48oro~?p~"2~Ts
G?!E?
LOAD VOLTAGE-480 VOLTS
]----____________________
TRANSFORMER-
l,z
VOLTAGE DROP IN
SECONDARV
FEEDER-IOVOLTS
_________________-__
--- -___
IN BRANCH
CIRCUIT-
5 VOLTS
_
A
DROP
FIG. 4.6 Full-load voltage conditions for circuit shown in Fig. 4.4. No primary voltage
spread.
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 203
ratios. For example, a transformer rated 4160-450 volts will produce
480 volts a t no load with 4160 volts applied to the primary.
When load is connected to the transformer, current flows, and this
causes a voltage drop in the secondary circuits as shown in Fig. 4.6. At
t,he secondary bus the voltage drop caused by the current flowing through
the transformer is assumed to be 15 volts. With constant primary volt-
age the secondary bus voltage varies from 450 volts a t no load to 465
voks at full load--the voltage spread a t this point is 15 volts. There are
assumed additional drops of 10 volts in the secondary feeder and 5 volts
in the branch circuit, making a total drop to load A of 30 volts. If the
lowest voltage in the plant exists a t load A , then the maximum voltage
spread is 30 volts (450 a t no load to 450 volts a t full load, or 30 volts).
In designing an industrial power system the voltage spread should be
kept t o a minimum consistent with reasonable first cost. If the spread is
too great,, the voltage may be too high a t light load, causing equipment
operating during that period to burn out, or voltage may he too low a t full
load a t much of the utilization apparatus, impairing the performance and
reducing the production obtained from the equipment,
The second cause of voltage spread is the primary voltage spread a t the
plant service connection. This may be caused by voltage drop in the
primary system, or it may be due to regulation of the primary system by
voltage regulators. To show the effect of primary voltage variation,
assume that the primary voltage drops as load comes on in the plant.
The transformer taps have been selected so that the no-load voltage is
450 volts as in Fig. 4.5. When load comes on the power syst,em,the same
voltage drop occurs as in Fig. 4.6, but in addition, the primary system
voltage is assumed t,o drop sufficiently to cause an additional 10-volt drop
in the vokage at the secondary of the transformer. This primary voltage
spread adds to the total voltage spread in the plant, making the spread
480 to 440 volts or a total of 40 volts as is shown in Fig. 4.7 instead of only
30 volts as shown in Fig. 4.8 where there was no primary voltage variation.
The primary voltage spread may not always be in the direction shown
in Fig. 4.7. The primary voltage may rise when the load comes on
because of voltage regulators in the primary feeder circuit or because of
other voltage regulators in the primary power system. This voltage rise
of the primary reduces the voltage spread in the plant, as shown in Fig. 4.5.
Very weak primary systems with a high drop or regulated primary sys-
tems whose load cycle does not coincide with the load cycle of the plant
may cause excessive voltage spread in the plant-beyond the limits shown
in Table 4.9. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.9. Automatic voltage regula-
tion is required in such cases to bring the voltage spread within the limits
shown in Table 4.9. Changing transformer taps to increase the vo1t:ige
a t full load will not solve the problem because that will increase the
no-load voltage beyond 450 volts.
204 VOLTAGLSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
-
480- ----
470-
VOLTAGE DROP THRU VOLTAGE DROP IN
y1
TRANSFORMER SEOWDARI FEEDER
9 15 VOLTS
VOLTAGE DROP IN
450 -
TOTAL VOLTAGE SPREAD
440 _________________________________
I
480 TO 440 VOLTS 140 VOLTS1 --- -______
FIG. 4.7 Full-load voltage conditions for circuit shown in Fig, 4.4 with 10 volts (on 480-
volt baris) primary voltage spread. Primary voltage varies from maximum at no load to
minimum a t full load.
VOLTAGE DROP I N
SECONDARY FEEDER-
10 VOLTS
FIG. 4.8 Full-load voltoge condition3 for circuit shown in Fig. 4.4 with 10 volt. (on 480-
volt basis) primary voltage spread. Primory voltage varier from minimum at no load to
maximum at full load.
_____
;1
_________NO LOAD VOLTAGE - 480 VOLTS
470 ~
4SO
G 440 ___---
VOLTAGE DROP THRU
VOLTAGE DROP IN
SECONDARY FEEDER
430 TRANSFORMER lo VOLTAGE DROP
2s__vw3
420
TOTAL VOLTAGE SPREAD
4 8 0 TO 410 VOLTS 170 VOLTS)
410 .
.
J
V O L T A G b S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 205
I Voltage Variotion
This table s h o w gencral effcets, which will vary somewhat for specific ratings.
are applied by the utilities. The higher the motor voltage rises, the lower
the power fartor mill become. This may result in a greater penalty and
hence a higher power bill.
While the temperature rise at full load on standard motors decreases
slightly for moderate overvoltages, the temperature rise may increase on
certain types of sperial motors a t even very small overvoltages. Over-
voltages of 10 t o 1.5 per cent have caused numerous burnouts on special
four-speed grinder motors. Motors rated for intermittent load are also
materially affected by overvoltagcs.
While marry drive applications are not seriously affected by voltage
deviations as much as plus or minus 10 per cent from rated voltage, there
are import,ant applications that are.
Effect on Synchronous Motors. The effect of voltage variation on the
performance of synchronous motors is similar t o that on induction motors.
However, while t,he starting torque varies as the square of the voltage,
the maximum or pull-out torque varies directly with the voltage.
From the above discussions it will be noted that, in general, voltages
slightly in excess of motor name-plate rating have less detrimental effect
V O L T A G k S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 207
!
3
i!
a
2
0
c PER CENT NORMAL VOLTS
3
9
a
FIG. 4.10 Characteristics of large gar-filled incandescent type C lampr. There are the
average of many lampr.
208 V O L T A G b S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
96.0 80 47 1900
102.0 85 58 850
108.0 90 70 400
110.4 92 75 300
112.8 94 81 225
115.2 96 87 170
117.6 98 93 130
120.0 100 I00 100
122.4 102 105 75
124.8 104 115 60
i
x I RECOMMENDED OPERATING RANGE
BEST PERFORMANCE
I I
L I N E VOLTAGES
Fluorescent lamps also differ from filament lamps in that the frequency
of start,irig is a factor iii the life obt,ained. Rated life is usually based on
3 hr of operation per start,. For 10 hr operation per start, the lamp's life
is increased approximat,ely 35 per cent.
Therefore, ally data 011 life vs. circuit voltage for the normal range in
operat,iiig voltage ivould have little significaiice. At voltages below the
lower limit, insufficient preheat current for proper cathode emission prior
t o starting may result in short life. At voltages heyoiid the upper limit,
the overcurrent operat,ioii may rcsult in unsatisfartory lamp life.
Effect on Mercury Lamps. The effect of voltage variation on mercury
lamps is shown in Fig. 4.12.
Effect on Resistance Heating Devices. The energy input and there-
fore the heat output of resistaiice heaters varies in general with the square
of the impressed voltage. Thus a 10 per cent drop in voltage will cause
a drop of 19 per cent in heat, output. This, however, holds true only for
an operating range over which the resistance remains constant.
M a n y healing devices are conservat,ively designed arid if thermostati-
cally controlled may operate satisfactorily even if the voltage varies 10
per cent or more.
However, in many rases the designer must confine his heating units into
a miiiimum of space and must, therefore, operate them near maximum
rating. Also the temperature requirements for many heating applica-
tioiis IiecessiMe the operation of the heating units a t maximum tempera-
ture. h drop i n voltage meaiis a drop in heat input, varying with the
square of the voltage, and a loss in production. On the other hand,
excessive voltage will increase the temperature of the heating units and
therefore will reduce their life. This condition applies especially t o fur-
naces operating at high temperatures near the maximum permissible for
I I I I /I/ I I I
I I I I
I
I I
I
u OC
60
40
I
0
U
10
I
60
P R I M V0LTIT.F -I
70
I
rn
CCYI
I
90
1
wo
I
110
I
iao
I
130
0 s TIIANSFORMER TAP SETTING
I
140
the type of heating unit used. To assure uniform high production and the
best operating conditions, the voltage should be maintained mithiu a
spread of plus or minus 5 per cent of rated voltage.
Effect on Infrared Heating Processes. Although the filaments of the
lamps used in these installations are of the resistance type, the energy
output does not vary with the square of the voltage because the resistance
varies a t the same time. The radiated energy vs. voltage is shown in
Fig. 4.13 for the rating of 115 volts used on industrial infrared lamps.
The wattage input is nearly proportional t o the energy output for a volt-
age range of 50 t o 150 per cent of rated voltage. The change in wattage
and radiated energy is only 7 per cent for a 5 per cent change in voltage.
However, this might he more harmful thau a larger change in typical
resistance heaters employing thermostatic controls, if the product dryiiig
is very sensitive t o temperature differences. For the usual paint-drying
applications, no voltage coutrols are required with infrarcd lamps.
Uniformity of product speed in the oven is the usual objective for coii-
veyerized operations. Differences in heating requirements are rea,dily
accomplished by connecting the infrared lamps to a number of circuits,
so that some of the lamps can be switched on and off in accord with t,he
exact, heat,ing needs. I n t,he cases vhere lamp sivitching cannot rom-
pensat,e for the volt,age variat,ions, it may be necessary to use a voltage
regulator to maintain conveyer speed and product quality.
Effect on Electronic Equipment. The current-carrying ability or emis-
siou of all elect,ronic tubes is affect,ed seriously by voltage deviation from
rating. Figure 4.14 shows typical emission curves plotted agairist
cathode heater voltage. Curve 1, entitled Oxide Coated, applies t o most
of the thyratrons, pliotrons, and rereiving tubes. Curve 2 for thoriated
tungsten applies t o the small transmitter tubes and some of the hattery-
FIG. 4.13 Radiant-energy output of General Electric Company industrial infrared lamps
QI a function of impressed voltoge.
212 VOLTAGE- STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
40LL
20
0
30 40
and 15 per cent undervoltage. Since an a-c solenoid has an inrush current
of approximately ten times the sustained value when sealed, the branch
circuit sJpplying it should be of ample capacity to prevent an excessive
voltage drop.
Effect on Capacitors. The corrective capacity of capacitors varies
with the square of the impressed voltage. A drop of 10 per cent in the
supply voltage, therefore, reduces the corrective capacity by almost 20
per cent, and where the user has made a sizable investment in capacitors
for power-factor correction, he loses the benefit of 20 per cent of this
investment.
480
A00 ! 440,* 460
550,* 575
! 420-480
525-600
Drsigriations for nominal system voltages are those commonly used in industrial
plants.
* ThPse are standard polyphase-motor voltage ratings.
t Polyphase power loads may not operate satisfactorily a t this l o m ~ rlimit
In designing industrial power distribution systems, the system design
engineer should design for voltage spreads not in excess of those mentioned
in Tables 4.8 and 4.9. If anything, it would be desirable to design for
closer limits to allow for critical utilization apparatus that may be devel-
oped and widely used in the future. The history of electricity in indus-
trial plants has been to extend its use to more and more functions. As
* Thcse rwommcndstions are in iuhstantial agreement with thP recommmdations
of the joint EM-SEMA Committce whirh puhlishrd their findings in a report, Prc-
ferrpd Voltage Ratings of AC Systems and Equipmcnt.
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 21s
Recommended limits af
voltage at terminalr of
high-voltage moiors
Nominal syitem Motor-nome-plote
dtage *oltoge rating
2400
2400 ~ 2300" 1I 2160
2250
3920
2380
2480
4320
1
4160
4800 4600 4500 5000
6900 6600 6470 71 30
I
* I'rmrnt standard rnot,or voltagc rating.
well as driving the utilization equipment, it is alço used for a11 types of
rritical proccss control systems; therefore, its role is hecorniiig exceedingly
important, and t o fulFiI1 this role effectively, good voltage must he rnain-
taiiied iii industrial plants.
L I G H T FLICKER V O L T A G E REQUIREMENTS
5
0
Y
w 3
5
0
' t
t-
z
Y
0
,'w
a
0
DllO PL" "0"I DlPI PLI1 SECOND
10 82 6 J 2 I 30 12 L
YlUUlLI IFCOYDL
TIME BETWEEN DIPS
FIG, 4.15 Relation of magnitude of voltage dips to frequency of dips for incandescent
IWlPS.
Some examples will serve t,o illustrate the better voltage conditions in
the load-cetit,er system. The average 480-volt load-renter substatioii is
rated 750 h a . With ail average load density of 10 va per sq ft, this sub-
statioir will servc a i l arca of 73,000 s q ft,. Ideally, the load area would be
a square, with the substatioii esartly i i i the renter; then the longest feeder
length ivould tie about l(i5.ft. Rut it i d 1 he assumed t,hat t,he area is
somewhat rcctaiigular atid that the suhstatioii rannot he lorated exactly
at the center. The artual length of the longest feeder might then he
ahout 200 ft.
Figure 4.16 rontains charts showing the voltage profiles for this 480-volt
suhstatioii. The trairsformcr taps should lie set for 480 secondary volts
when the primary voltage is at its maximum atid with no load on the sub-
station. The highest, voltage that is eticoi~titered by ally equipment
served hy this substatioii is 480 volts. At maximum load, voltage drop
has its maximum effect. A 4 pcr rcnt voltage reduction i u the primary
system is assumed, to illustrate the Ion--voltage rondition. This could
he due to a dcrreasc i n the power-vompauy supply voltage with inrreased
load on its system. h drop of 15 volts due t,o traiisformer react,ancc can
he experted. Assuming the 200-ft feeder t o ronsist of a 250-MCM cahle
per phase and to he fully loaded a t 80 per rent power factor, i t mill~iutro-
218 V O L T A G b S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
duce about another 7 volts drop. h final 5 volts may be lost in the branch
circuit. The result is a minimum voltage at the end of the branch circuit
of 433 volts. In this system, voltage varies between the limit,s of 433 volts
and 480 volts---a voltage spread that should, in general, be satisfactory.
The old-type system often uses a suhstatioii as large as 3000 kva at 480
volts. And not heing of unit substation construction, it has to be located
at one edge of the load area-probably with the t,rausformers outdoors.
With the same load density as before, 10 va per sq f t , the 3000-kva snb-
station must supply an area'of 300,000 sq ft,. I n this substation the
longest feeder will probably be ahout 900 ft. The corresponding feeder
voltage drop will be 29 volts. Here the voltage spread is from 411 to 480
volts. Such a spread is well heyond the recommeuded limits. A full
load voltage of 411 i s too low t o be coiisidered good practice; 420 i s the
recommended minimum voltage for 440-volt motors.
7 5 0 KVA
SU0STATlDN
460
2440
420
400
NO LOAD VOLTAGE CONDITIONS WITH PRIMARY
VOLTAGE a T M A X I M U M
2 440-- --
> SECONDARY FEEDER/
420 -- VOLTAGE DROP- 7 VOLTS
VOLTAGE DROP-
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS. VARIATIONS. CALCULATION O F DROPS 219
60
48
w
0
a
3
0
> ABLE FULL LOAL
k 51ZE AMP
3
U U0.4 90
n
U vo. I I40
w 000 210
z 500 MCM 4 0
7 24l -
201 -
W
z
J
( -
5
SECONOARY FEEDER LENGTH(FEET1
FIG. 4.17 Chart showing length of three-conductor 600-volt cable in iron conduit to
produce 2 3 per cent voltage drop a t the most unfavorable power factor and full load
on the cable.
FIG. 4.18 A typical outdoor packoged substation in which bod-ratio control con be
incorporated.
222 VOLTAGLSTANDARD RATINGS, 'VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
tem. When load-ratio control is installed, both the utility and industrial
plant can operate their systems independently and to their own best
advautage without interference voltage wise.
Figure 4.18 illustrates an outdoor substation, typical of those whose
transformers can include load-ratio control.
Voltage Regulators. If power is supplied by the utility at below
15 kv, the only transformation required is at the individual load-center
substations. Load-ratio control in each industrial load-center unit sub-
station is uneconomical and even may he impractical. Hence, where the
primary-voltage spread is wide enough to require voltage regulation,
separate voltage regulators should be installed in the primary supply,
Fig. 4.19. For this service either three-phase step voltage regulators
(Fig. 4.20) or induction voltage regulators (Fig. 4.21) can be used. Their
standard range of voltage regulation is plus or minus 10 per cent. The
question is sometimes raised as to whether two induction regulators
should be connected in open delta. This is slightly less expensive than
three regulators to regulate three-phase circuits. However, the open-
delta connection creates an unbalanced voltage condition that should be
avoided. The voltage unbalance is small but may be enough to increase
STEP OR
INDUCTION
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
REGULATOR HOLDS
CONSTANT VOLTAGE
HERE
\ v v
t
Y
FIG. 4.20 Typicol three-phore step voltage regulator roted 13,200 volts, 208 kvo, plus
or minus 10 per cent voltage regulotion.
FIG. 4.21 Typicol induction voltage regulator rated 225 kvo, 4330 volts, plus or minus 10
per cent voltoge regulation.
224 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
the heating appreciahly in fully loaded polyphase motors. For this rea-
son, best prartice avoids the open-delta conneition in favor of three-phase
regulation.
It is rerommended that serious consideration be given the addition of
t,hese regulat,ors i n the plant supply lines whenever the expected voltage
spread in the primary supply lines exceeds ahout 5 per cent.
Regulators may he hypassed for maintenance and a t the same time
maint,ain unregulat,ed service t o the plant. Itegulat,ors, like any other
piece of apparatus, must be given consideration from a short-circuit,
standpoint.
Feeder Voltage Regulation. trt,ilit,iesoften regulate individual feeders
at distribution voltage (2100 or 416F volts, for example) t o compensate
480 VOLTS
SECONDARY FEEDER
INDUCTION VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
FEEDERS TO
MOTORS, ETC
LIGHTING FEEDER
LIGHTING LOAD
120 VOLTS
FIG. 4.22 One-line diagram showing the opplication of air-cooled induction voltage
regulators for secondary feeder regulation.
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 225
for the voltage drop i n that, feeder. The itidustrial plaut does iiot often
ry, since \.oltage drops in individual primary ferde
usually small, less illan 1 or 2 per cent. Thus, regulation of voltage a t
the main h s is more rwmmotily used.
While there seems t o he little, jirstifiratioii for irrdividuul primary-feeder
regulation, there may be many appliratioris for individual seroiidary-
feeder reeulation.
._ . ,tlie voltage spread may I)<> satisfartory
For examuk,
for t,he majorit,y of utilization e q u i p
ment, such asmotors, welders, etr., but
not, considered good cliough for lights.
I n such cases, t,he lighting feeder may
be regirlat,ed and the rest irnregulated,
Fig. .4.2%. For such applications, air-
~ooledregirlalorslikethat shown in Fig.
4.23 may be used.
I n other cases, individual loads a t
GOO volts or less may require voltage
regulation t,o obtain the desired per-
formance from the equipment,. Rirh
loads might he heating unit,s, process
cont,rol, infrared ovens, hluepririt ma-
chines, lights, radio arid television
transmitt,ers, brooders, etc. Where
these loads are served at, utilizat,ion
voltage, aii iridrictimi regulator like
that, of Fig. 4.23 may be used.
lnductrol P o w e r Pock. A iie\\- dc-
velopment is a regulating loi\~-voltage
subst,atioII known as the Inductrol
Power Pack. It, is a itiiit made up
primarilyof an indurtioii voltage regu-
lator arid a dry-t,ype transformer.
The transformer is rat,ed 480 or 600
volts on t,he primary aiid %08Y/lZOor FIG, 4.23 A modern induction voltage
120/240 volts on the secondary. A regulator for circuitr 600 volts and leis.
Typical of either single 01 three phase.
primary switching- arid protective de-
vice arid secondary terminals complete the package. This unit may
be used for supplying regulat,ed lighting power from general-purpose 480-
or 600-volt feeders or for supplying any other loads with regulated 120-
volt power from 480- or 600-volt power systems.
Shunt C a p a c i t o r s . Refer t o Chap. 8 for a comp1et.e discussion of the
application of shunt capacitors t o improve voltage conditions.
Autotransformers. I n some cases where the general voltage level is
226 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
lorn and transformt?r taps cannot he used t,o correct for it, autotrans-
formers may he used t o provide a permanent boost i n voltage. T h e
autotrausformer does riot reduce t,he spread.
A t,ypiral appliration xvouid lie in the case of a, 208Y/120-voll system
supplying 220-nolt, mot,ors. The volt,ege may be proper lor the lights
hut not high eiiimgh for t,he 220-volt motors. An autolrmisformer could
he used l o step 208 volt,s up t o 220 volts for the motors only.
Generator Voltage Regulators. Where power is generated by t h e
plant,’s oxvti geiir.ralors, the voltage on t,he powerhouse bns can be held
constant or exwi varied with load to compensate for voltage drop as load
comPs on. Problems of voltage rcgulat,ion where industrial generators
are operalnd iri parallel with utility systems are referred to in Chap. 15.
All modern transformers in ratings above 100 kva and most or those
helow that kva rating have taps in the windings to change the turn ratio.
The taps do not materially affect the voltage drop through the trans-
former; they merely change the turn ratio, hence the no-load voltage
ratio. For example, a standard transformer rated 2400-480 volts may
have four 2>5 per cent taps in the 2400-volt winding. The standard for
these taps in transformers used in industrial systems is to have two 256
pcr cent, taps above 2400 volts and two 24i per cent taps below 2400volts.
The no-load ratios of such a transformer would be as given in Table 4.11.
TABLE 4.11 No-load Voltoge Ratios of Standard Transformer Rated
2400-480 Volts
2520-480 “0th 5% obove tap
2460-480 volts 236% obove top
2400-480 volts Norrnol rating top
2340- 480 volts 2>P% below top
2280-480 volts 5% below tap
These taps do not improve voltage regulation but are only for changing
the general vokage level iq the plant. If a 2400-480-volt transformer is
connected to a system whose maximum voltage is 2520 volts, then the
2520-480-volt tap could be used which would provide a maximum of 480
volts no load on the system, as shown by curve A , Fig. 4.25. If, for
example, another system had a maximum no-load voltage of 2400 volts,
then the 240&480-volt t a p could be used to provide 480 volts no load in
the plant. This would be as shown in curve B , Fig. 4.25. Similarly if a
plant had a maximum voltage of 2280 vo!ts, then the 2280-480-volt tap
could be used to provide a maximum of 480 volts no load in the plant, as
shown in curve C , Fig. 4.25. It will be noted that in all cases the second-
ary no-load voltage is 480 volts; so the secondary system does not know
2600-
-
-
-
- 4 8 0 VOLTS MAX
U - 440 V
c 480 -
2 2400 ---- ---- _ _ _MAX
VOLTS ____-- MIN
> - -?
>
(r
- B 40
VOLTS
U - SPREAD
I
(L
-
a 440V
2300-
- --------- ________
480 VOLTS MAX MIN
VOLTAGkSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 229
no-load voltage. By using the next tap u p on the transformer, that is,
the one rated 2460-480 volts, the turn ratio of the transformer has now
been changed so that the no-load voltage is 472 volts, as shown in curve
B , Fig. 4.26. The voltage spread will be substant,ially the same, i.e.,
40 volts, so that the minimum voltage is now 432 volts, which is well
above the recommended minimum for plant distribution systems.
By judicious selection of the transformer t a p t,he voltage within the
plant can he kept Tyithin acceptable 1imit.s provided that the primary
voltage does not vary more than about 5 per cent and that the plant dis-
tribution system is designed along modern lines with the load-center sys-
tem using short secondary feeders and transformers not larger than about
1500 kva a t 480 volts or proportional sizes a t other secondary volt,ages.
Changing taps cannot, correct conditions where voltage spread is t,oo
great. For example, suppose a plant suffered from low voltage at remote
points and had a large volt,age spread. T o be specific, suppose the spread
was 80 volts and the minimum voltage at the remote end was 400 volts,
then the maximum voltage would be 480 volts. If taps are changed to
raise the general voltaga level, the spread will not change but the 400-volt
I
- -- --4-
8 5-VOLTS - --- -_-
---MAX
g 2400 40
a VOLTS
I- SPREAD
J
0
5
> 440 V MIN
a
a
I
-
LL
P
FIG. 4.26 Voltage profile showing that rotisfactory voltages con be obtained without
excessive no-load voltage by proper election of taps on transformer.
230 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
-
HIGH LOAD VOLTAGE
I . Normal
drop.
2. Normol NO load
i I Volt.ge r e g d o t o r
Tronlformer ,ap setting
Voltage 'egulalor
IBI
1A1
101
drop. Tranrformer top 'elting (A1
LIGHTING FLICKER
minimum may he raised t o 420 volts. At the same time the maximum is
raised to 500 volts, too high for generally sat,isfactory performance.
Conversely if the maximum voltage is too high and a wide spread exists,
the chatrgiug of taps, to reduce t,he maximum voltage, reduces the mini-
mum vokagc still further.
-
- I ( R cos '+ sin
( I X cos 8 - I R sin S ) l
+
+ 2(en I R cos 8 + I X sin 8 )
If es is known,
Line-to-neutral voltage drop
= I R cos 8
- I R sin 8)*
+ I X sin 8 + ( I X cos 8 2e.
234 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
SENDING END
OR BUS VOLTAGE
\
R E C E I V E R OR
LOAD VOLTAGE
CALCULATED
VOLTAGE DROP
F ACTUAL
VOLTAGE DROP
ERROR
FIG. 4.28 Diagram indicating magnitude of error when using Eqr. (4.7) and (4.8).
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 235
transformer rated 4160-480 volts. The load is 1500 kva at, 0.85 power
fact,or.
Solution: Enter the chart on the horizontal scale a t 2000 kva. Extend
a vertical line t o its interpeetion with the 0.85-power faetoP t u n e .
Extend a line from this point horizontally to the left t o its intersection
with the vertical scale of per cent voltage drop for rated load. Multiply
this value by the ratio of actual load to rated load.
Per cent drop at rated load = 3.67
Per cent drop at 1500 kva l5Oo X 3.67 = 2.75
= ~
2000
Actual voltage drop = 2.75 per cent X 480 = 13.2 volts
Figure 4.30 applies to the 34.5-kv insulation class transformers in
ratings from 1500 to 10,000 kva. These curves can be used t o determine
the voltage drop for transformers in the 46- and 69-kv insulation classes
by using appropriate multipliers a t all power factors except unity. To
correct for 46 kv, multiply the per cent vokage drop obtained from the
chart by 1.065, and for 69 kv multiply by 1.15.
Example. Find the per cent voltage drop in a 5000-kva 69,000-
13,800-volt three-phase 60-cycle liquid-filled transformer carrying 3500
kw a t 0.8 power factor.
Solution: Enter chart Fig. 4.30 a t 5000 kva and read per cent voltage
drop where this transformer size intersects the 0.8-power factor curve.
Per cent voltage = 4.25 for 5000 kva
6
NOTE: CURVES ARE BASED ON 6 PERCENT
Q IMPEDANCE FOR 34.5 KV CLASS
5 I I I I I I I
05
w
I
4-
&
54
a
0
U
0
u
0
3
4
5
8
I-
,
z
Y
Y
U
Y I
a
FIG. 4.30 Tronrformer voltage-drop curves for three-phase transformers, 34%-kv volt-
age class.
VOLTAGbSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 237
W
LL
w
n
I
4
8
0
0
LL
w
0
u)
3
0
>
z
-
&
z
n
W
c
3
4
50
>
VOLTAGGSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 239
FIG. 4.33 Voltage-drop curves for three-conductor 5000-volt cable in magnetic conduit
or interlocked-ormor cable.
242 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
Voltoge Drop in Busway. Figures 4.35 and 4.36 may be used to deter-
mine the approximate voltage drop in a busway. Figure 4.35 applies to
a busway that is designed specifically for low-voltage drop. Figure 4.3F
applies t o a typical feeder busway of the type used with plug-in switches.
Figure 4.35 gives the line-to-line voltage drop in volts for GOO-, 800-,
1000-, and 1350-amp low-voltage-drop busway. These curves apply
only for balanced loading of the busway at an operating temperature
of 70 C.
The voltage drops for other than rated load may be obtained by multi-
plying the voltage drop for rated load by the ratio of actual load to rated
load, Similarly, the voltage drop for lengths other than 100 ft may he
M 40 60 BO W O 20 40 60 80 100
LOAD POWER FACTOR LOAD POWER FACTOR
W A D POWER FACTOR
FIG. 4.35 Voltage-drop curves for low-voltage-drop burwoy ot rated load. 70 c
operating temperature assumed.
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 243
obtained hy multiplying the voltage drop for 100 f t by the ratio of actual
length to 100 ft.
These corrections are expressed in the following formula:
Actual line-to-:ine voltage drop
actual load actual length
= voltage drop for 100 feet at rated load X
rated load 100 ft
Example. Find the voltage drop on a 200-ft run of 800-amp husway
carrying a 600-amp load a t a 90 per cent power factor.
Solution: Enter Fig. 4.35 for au 800-amp husway at 90 per cent power
factor on the horizontal scale. Follow a vertical line to its intersection
4 . 5 X 3 = 13.5 V O L T S
FIG. 4.36 Voltoge-drop curves for typical plug-in bvrwcly carrying rated load.
244 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
OVERHEAD LINE
A
W
250 KVA
440 VOLTS
0.7 PF LAGGING
FIG. 4.37 System one-line diagrom used 01 a baris for examples of system voltage-drop
Calcdatio".
V O L T A G k S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 245
Solution
1
1
Equations'
used
I
I
Bur A I
i
Bur 8 I
I
Secondary
feeder load
Solution 2 was made by using the exact formulas Eqs. (4.3) and (4.4).
It shows that the phase angle of each successive voltage level is shifted to
lag slightly the no-load voltage. It should he recognized that the use of
this exact formula does not necessarily mean that the answer is exact,
because it is necessary to use a cut-and-try process in the solution. As
with any cut-and-try process, a point is reached where the added accuracy
to be obtained does not justify another trial, and therefore the answer is
not absolutely exact.
In solution 3, voltage-drop charts were used to determine voltage drop.
The error involved in this method results from the greater margin of
error in reading charts and in the arithmetical additiou of voltage drops
slightly out of phase.
Solution 4 involved the use of charts but neglected t,he cut-and-try
procedure necessarily employed in the other solutions. The cut-and-try
procedure was used in the other solutious because the load kva x a s
assumed to be constant as the voltage changed and therefore t,he load
currents changed. In this solution the current x a s assumed to remain
constant as the load voltage varied.
Solutioii 1 is given helow as an example.
Solution 1: Calculatiou by approximate Eq. (4.7).
246 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
6.73 ohms
x, = 6.0 X (34.4)'10,000
X (0.975)' X 10 =
v = 4X 155(3.09 X 0.8 +
8.25 X 0.6)
= 4X +
155(2.48 4.95)
= 4 X 155 X 7.43
= 1990 volts
Bus A volts
= (source voltage - voltage drop) X (power transformer ratio)
4.160
= (33,500 - 1990) 34,4
o,975
VOLTAGE- STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 247
= 0.634 ohm
INTRODUCTION
I t is rharactrristic of most a-c motors that the riirrent, which they draw
oii startiirg is mu(.h higher t,han t,heir rrormal running ( w r e n t . Syn-
i~hronousand sqnirrel-rape iudi~rtionmotors started 011 full voltage may
draw a c u r ~ w i tas high as sevt!ii or eight t,imes their fnll-load running
rurrcnt. This sriddeir increase in the (.usrent, drawn from the power
system may r c s i i l t iii csressive drop i n volt,age unless it is considered in
VOLTAGbSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 249
the design of the system. Folloii-ing are methods for ralculatiug the
voltage drop which results from startiug of three-phase induction aud
synrhronous motors.
M O T O R - S T A R T I N G METHODS
........................
Full.roltage stmrter. 1 .O 1 .O 1 .O
Autotransformer:
........................
80 Per Cent t o p . . 0.80 0.64 0.68
65 per cent tap.. ........................ 0.65 0.42 0.46
50 per cent tap.. ........................ 0 .so 0.25 0.30
Resistor storm, single step [adjusted for motor
voltage to be 80 per cent of line voltogel 0.80 0.64 0.80
Reoctor;
50 per cent tap..
45 per <*"I top..
.......................
........................
.I 0.50
0.45
0.25
0.20
0.50
0.45
......................
37.5 per Cent t o p . . 0.375 0.14 0.375
Part-winding starter [low-speed m o l ~ r sonlyl:
75 per cent winding. ..................... 1 .O 0.75 0.75
50 per cent winding. ..................... 1 .O 0.50 0.50
less than for full-voltage starting. They are both changed approximately
in proportion t o the amount of winding connected. That is, for a typical
low-speed motor, at the half-winding connection, the current and torque
are approximately equal t o one-half their full winding values. This
method is comparable in cost with autotransformer starting, and also
provides a smoother transfer to the running connection. However, this
method is seldom advantageous for motors above 514 rpm (fourteen
poles), because it provides relatively less torque for such motors.
Starting of Wound-rotor Motors. Wound-rotor motors are invariably
started on full voltage, but control is provided which inserts a high
resistance in the secondary winding on starting and short circuits this
resistance in one or more steps as the motor comes up to speed. This
serves to limit the starting current drawn by the motor-usually to
about 150 per cent of full-load current. Furthermore, this current will
have a high power factor. Consequently, the voltage drop caused by
starting this type of motor is comparatively small. On the other hand,
wound-rotor motors and their control have a relatively high cost.
100
90
80
$ 70
2
d"
>
5 50
Y
u 40
IL
f 30
20
ov
10
0 2 3 4 5 6
TIME- SECONDS
motor is essentially similar, up to the time of pull in. I n the case illus-
trated, a full-voltage starter is used, and the full-voltage starting kva is
ahout 100 per rent of t,he generator rating. I t is assumed that the gen-
erator is provided with an automatic voltage regulator.
Curves .A and R show the performance, with the regulator operating,
for init,ial loads on the generator of zero and 50 per cent, respectively.
The minimum voltage is about 75 per cent and is not affected much by the
iriitial load. This is typical with most initial loads which consist of a
combination of lighting loads and partially loaded iuduction motors.
The voltage regulator restores the voltage ton-ard normal in about 2
see. At, this time the motor is usually st,ill at low speed and drawing a
high current.
The initial load on the generator has an important effect on the value t o
which the voltage is restored by regulator action. This is illustrated by
curve B , for whirh the voltage is restored by the regulator to only about
85 per cent of normal. This restored voltage is the voltage available for
breaking away and accelerating the motor. When the motor comes up
to speed, its current becomes much less, so that t,he regulator then restores
the generator voltage to 100 per rent. The reason the regulator usually
cannot restore the voltage to 100 per cent when a large motor is started
on a heavily loaded generator is that the exciter maximum (ceiling)
voltage limits the available generator excitation.
Sometimes it is only necessary to calculate the minimum voltage. In
other cases it is also necessary to calculate the restored voltage available
for break away and accelerations. Methods of estimating each of these
voltages are included.
Minimum voltage is needed to determine whether undervoltage devices
and contactors connected to the system mill drop out, or running motors
stall, during the disturbance. The minimum voltage is also a determin-
ing factor in light flicker. The restored voltage is necessary to estimate
the torque available for starting the motor.
Usually it is sufficient to determine the minimum voltage and the
restored voltage based upon the current drawn by the motor at standstill,
i.e., upon the locked-rotor current. It is sometimes necessary, however,
to determine the restored voltage throughout the acceleration of the
motor. Although the current drawn by a motor decreases as it comes u p
to speed, resulting in an increasing generator voltage, the load torque
may also increase with speed so that a higher voltage is necessary to
ensure acceleration.
In the case of a synchronous motor i t may be necessary to check the
restored voltage at the speed at which field excitation is applied (95 per
cent of synchronous speed or higher) to make sure that the motor will
pull into step. The pull-in torque of a synchronous motor varies approxi-
VOLTAGLSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 253
mately as the square of the voltage at the motor terminals just before
application of field.
Distribution-system Voltage. Frequently there are transformers,
lines, or cables between the motor starter and the generator or generators
supplying the power for starting. The drop in the transformers, lines, or
cables will be additional to the generator drop. Often practically all the
drop is in this distribution equipment. The drop in this equipment is
not reduced by the action of voltage regulators. Consequently, when
practically all the drop is in transformers, lines, and cables, the voltage
falls immediately and docs not rerover till the motor approaches full
speed.
Minimum Voltage. The curves of Fig. 4.39 may he used for estimating
the minimum voltage occurring at the terminals of a generator supplying
power to a synchronous or squirrel-cage induction motor which is being
254 VOLTAGLSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
GENEIIbTOR e I T E O K"&
~ W T DIRECT-CONNECTED
" EXCITER * HULTlPLlERS TO *ILLOW FOR "IMIAITION OF EXClTER
.....~ WIT"
~ BELTED
.. EXCITER RESPONSE WlT" GENERATOR IN1TIAL L o l o
NUMBERS ON CURYES ARE R P N lNlTlbL LOAD (PER C E N T , UULTlPL" I( B"
NUMBERS I" BRACKETS &RE EXClTER R P H (00 ,70
75 I55
50 I"5
25 I25
0 ,oo
FIG. 4.40 Typical valuer of performance factor K for (I-c generators.
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 255
A-C
GENERATOR
EXCITER
FIELD 1 u
GENERATOR
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR ''lL
( B A S E D O N Y l x l Y u Y EXCITATION-IZOPER C E N T O F R A T E D G E N E R A T O R F l E L O C U R R E N T I
which can be obtained by greatly inrreasing response; that is, the genera-
tor voltage will dip a t least a certain amount before the excitation system
can do anything about it.
Effect of Initial Voltage. Often the voltage rating of the generator
supplying a motor is higher than that of the motor. A 440-volt motor
might he supplied by R 480-volt generator and a 2200-volt motor by a
2400-volt generator.
In such cases, the motor-start,ing kva should be adjusted t o take this
into account,. The kva drawn hy a motor increases as the square of the
line voltage. If t,hr startiiig inrush of a 410-volt motor is 1000 kva a t
440 volts, it will be 1190 kva at 480 volts because (480/440)* = 1.19.
This is the value which should be used to determine the generator mini-
mum voltage (from Fig. 4.39) regardless of the actual initial voltage.
For example, assume that, with an initial voltage of 480 volts, the starting
of the 440-volt motor (drawing 1190 kva at 480 volts) causes the voltage
t o drop t o 75 per rent of the initial value, or 3G0 volts. If the voltage
regulator is set t o hold a voltage of 440 volts, starting of the same motor
will produre approximately the same voltage drop in per cent of the
initial voltage, i.e., the voltage will drop t o approximately 75 per cent of
440 volts, or 330 volts. This shows that, from the standpoint of the
minimum voltage, the regulator should be set t o maintain rated voltage
on the generator even though the motor voltage is lower.
As far as the restored voltage is concerned (Fig. 4.42), this is not
affected by the initial voltage except that the voltage mill not recover t o
a value higher than the initial voltage since this represents the setting of
the voltage regulator. For example, if the initial voltage (setting of volt-
age regulator) is 90 per cent of rated generator voltage, the recovery
voltage in per cent of rated generator voltage will be as shown by the
curves of Fig. 4.42, except that all curves will become horizontal lines at
90 per cent voltage.
Effect of Initial load. The voltage curves of Figs. 4.39 and 4.42 were
prepared on the basis that the initial load on the generator draws con-
stant current duririg the voltage disturbance. This sort of load charac-
teristic is representative of many systems and results from the use of
induction motors, all of which are not fully loaded.
An induction motor at no load will draw a current approximately
proportional t o the applied voltage, because the current is principally
magnetizing current. A fully loaded induction motor will tend t o have
constant kva input since its speed and power factor do not change much
with variations in line voltage. Consequently, a fully loaded induction
motor will draw more current if the voltage is lower, t o maintain the
power constant, A system load consisting of both heavily loaded and
258 VOLTAGbSTANDARD RATINGS. VARIATIONS, UL6UUTION OF DROPS
lightly loaded motors will therefore tend to draw nearly constant current
since a lowering of the voltage causes a reduction in the current to some
motors and an increase in the current to others.
A constant-current type of load will have very little influence on the
minimum voltage during motor starting. It will, however, have an
important effect on the value of the restored voltage of generators, as
previously described.
Lighting loads usually have little effect upon voltage disturbances due
to motor starting. This is true because lighting loads usually constitute
a small proportion of the total load on a generator, and also because of
their high power factor.
If the system load consists primarily of lightly loaded induction motors,
the per cent minimum voltage and recovered voltage will both tend to be
higher than indicated by the curves.
If the initial load consists entirely of heavily loaded induction motors,
the voltage disturbance from motor starting will be more severe than
indicated by these figures.
Initially connected synchronous motors are beneficial in reducing the
disturbance due to motor starting. They are most beneficial when
lightly loaded. Therefore, it is helpful to start synchronous motors first
in a plant so that they will be on the line to help in the starting of large
induction motors later. Synchronous motors will not be helpful, how-
ever, if the voltage disturbance is so great as to cause them to pull out of
step.
Although the curves in this section are based on initial loads of the
constant-current type, they may be used for cases involving other types.
This is done by adjusting the motor-starting kva by an amount corre-
sponding to the change in current to the initial load, caused by the drop
in voltage. The increase or decrease in motor-starting kva is such as to
change the motor-starting current, a t the minimum voltage, by the same
amount as the change in the lagging wattless component of the initial
load. That is, the effect of the initial load is primarily due to a change
in the wattless component, and this can be simulated by a change in the
motor-starting kva. Since the change in current and the minimum volt-
age are dependent upon each other, a trial-and-error procedure is involved.
The first trial is often sufficient,if the change in current is determined a t
the voltage corresponding to the case of a constant-current initial load.
For example, consider a generator whose voltage would dip to 75 per
cent if a 100 per cent motor-starting load were applied when a 50 per cent
constant-current initial load is being carried. If, instead, the initial load
consisted of fully loaded induction motors a t 0.8 power factor, the dip
would be more severe, because a t 75 per cent voltage the lagging wattless
current to the running motors would be increased from 30 per cent of the
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 259
PF __
-R C F N T
VOLTAGE
DROP
18
17 30
16
U 25
> 15
Y
14
20
z0 13
12 15
2 I ! 10
10 5
09
g 08
'
07
LL 06
05
a 04
w
2 03
F 02
1
3 01
= o
0 0'2 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 18 20
I N I T I A L LOAD KVA
RATIO OF
MOTOR STARTING KVA
seldom cause the starting power factor to he high enough to reduce volt-
age drop greatly, except for the first steps when several are used.
Effect of Drop in Generator Speed. Since the power factor of motor-
starting kva is low, the amount of kw load applied to a generator is seldom
large. Furthermore, the voltage drop, by reducing the electrical output,
also reduces the new load applied. For example, a motor-starting load
of 100 per cent of generator-rated kva at 0.3 power factor will involve a
suddenly applied km load less than 30 per cent of rated kva, or 37.5 per
cent of rated kw for an 0.8 power-fartor generator. The speed drop is
not likely to be excessive if good governing means are employed. For
most motor-starting problems, it may safely be neglected.
As speed dips, a corresponding dip appears in the voltage, which is in
addition t o the voltage drops considered in this section. For cases where
speed dip may be sufficiently great to be important, this should be con-
sidered, but calculation of speed drop is beyond the scope of this book.
The voltage drops in lines, cables, and transformers are often as impor-
tant as generator voltage drop. In fact, they are frequently more impor-
tant. For example, if the total kva of connected generators in the power
system is more than 100 times the horsepower rating of the motor being
started, then the generator voltage dip will be less than 1 per cent, and it
will be quickly eliminated by regulators. In such a case, however, the
motor will probably be supplied through a transformer bank. If the
transformer-bank kva rating is only slightly larger than the motor rating,
the voltage drop may be quite severe.
Voltage Drop of Transformers. The curves of Fig. 4.44 may he used
for estimating the voltage drop through typical transformers when start-
ing a synchronous or squirrel-cage induction motor connected to the
secondary of the transformer. The secondary voltage on starting of the
motor, in per cent of the initial secondary voltage, is plotted against the
motor starting kva. The latter is expressed in per cent of the trans-
former-hank kva rating and is the kva which wouldhedrawnhythemotor
being started if rated transformer secondary voltage were maintained.
The curves of Fig. 4.41 neglect the effect of primary-voltage drops
caused by motor starting. Methods of taking these into account will he
explained later.
Note that the secondary voltage is plotted in per cent of its initial
value. This initial secondary voltage is determined by the initial pri-
mary voltage, the t a p setting, and the initial load. It may he deter-
mined by measurement or by suitable calculations. It is usually slightly
less than the rated secondary voltage.
VOLTACbSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 261
The curves of Fig. 4.44 were prepared on the basis that the initial load,
if any, draws constant current during the voltage disturbance. This is
typical of a system consist,ing of both lightly loaded and heavily loaded
inductiou motors. If the initial load consist,s largely of fully loaded
induction motors, the curves of Fig. 4.44 may still be used provided that
the motor-starting kva is first multiplied by the fartor shown in Fig. 4.43.
The curves of Fig. 4.44 apply for motor-starting power factors in the
usual range of 10 t,o 40 per cent. For wound-rotor motors which have a
starting power factor of about 80 per cent, the drop in voltage will be
about 70 per cent of that shown.
Voltage Drop of Cables and Overhead Lines. The curves of Figs.
-1.45 and 4.4G may be used for estimating the voltage drop through cables
and overhead lilies n-hcn start,iiig synchronous and squirrel-cage induction
motors supplied through these circuits.
I n using these figures, it is first necessary t o determine the length of the
circuit in feet, the initial voltage at the load end of the circuit, and the
motor-starting kva a t the iuitial voltage. These quantities are combined
to obtain the loading factor .If as follows:
motor-starting kva
M =
at the initial voltage x (% )
ci:ri ne):,t
(initial voltage)2
262 VOLTAGkSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
For example, if the motor-starting load were 1000 kva, the circuit 1000
ft long, and the initial voltage 2400 volts, the loading factor M would be
1000 x 1000 = o,1,3
(2400)'
Figure 4.45 shows that for this case the voltage drop at the load end of
a typical three-conductor cable is 1.5 per cent.
This illustration gives data for three circuits: a three-conductor cable,
a single-conductor cable, and an overhead line. It will be noted that the
voltage drop in an overhead line is greater than that for a cable.
If two circuits are in parallel, the drop is equal to that for a single cir-
cuit of one-half the actual length of each circuit.
The voltage drop in a line or cable depends upon the conductor size and
spacing. Consequently, for different cases than those illustrated in Fig.
4.45, the voltage drop may be somewhat different. This is illustrated by
Fig. 4.46 showing the voltage drop for a range of circuit configurations.
The points corresponding to the circled cases in Fig. 4.45 are circled in
Fig. 4.46.
Figure 4.46 applies for the condition hf = 1.0. It may be noted,
however, that the curves of Fig. 4.45 are nearly straight lines. Hence,
the voltage drop for other values of M may be estimated by multiplying
the values of Fig. 4.46 by M . This provides a simple method of esti-
mating the voltage drop for motor-starting loads.
The power factor of the motor-starting load is assumed to be 0.3 power
factor. For conductor sizes above No. 0 Awg, variations over the usual
range from 0.2 to 0.4 power factor will not have an important effect on
voltage drop.
Figures 4.45 and 4.46 are based on a frequency of 60 cycles per sec.
Lines and cables for systems operating a t lower frequencies mill have less
voltage drop. The voltage drop will be reduced approximately in pro-
portion to the frequency for all couductor sizes above KO. 0 Awg. For
smaller sizes, the reduction will he less.
Voltage Drop of Reactors. The voltage drop in a current-limiting
reactor on starting a squirrel-cage induction or synchronous motor may
be estimated from the transformer curves of Fig. 4.44.
Current-limiting reactors are usually described as having a certain
per cent reactance on a specified system-kva and syst,em-voltage base.
The motor-starting kva of Fig. 4.44 should be that drawti at the specified
system voltage expressed in per cent of the specified system kva.
If the per cent reactauce of a reactor does not lie between 5 and 8 per
cent, multiply the motor-starting kva by the ratio X / 5 , where X is the
actual per cent reactance of the reactor, and read the voltage correspond-
ing to this equivalent motor-starting kva on the 5 per cent reactance
curve.
V O L T A G E - S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 263
100 0
"
Y
Q
90 10
80 20
70 30
0
0 0.1 02 0.3 0.4 05 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
LOADING FACTOR, M = ~ ~ ( L E N G T H IN FT.) ~
(A) 3- CONDUCTOR C A B L E - (NO. 4 / 0 - A W G - I 5 K V )
(6) I - CONDUCTOR C A B L E - ( N O . 4 / O - A W G - 6 IN. SPACING)
(C) O V E R H E A D L I N E - N 0 . 4 / 0 - A W G - 1 5 K V
CIRCLED P O I N T S APPEAR O N FIG. N O 4 46
FIG. 4.45 Variation of voltage drop with looding factor M for typical liner and cables.
c:
FIG. 4.46 Voltage drop in lines and cables with loading factor M of unity.
264 V O L T A G b S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
Effect of Series Capacitors. Sometimes it is advantageous t o include
series capacitors in the distrihut,ion system t o neutralize the reactance of
lines, cahles, or t,rausformers. Series capacitors redure voltage drop.
The amount of redurt,ion depends upon the raparitor rating. For further
informat,ion on series capacitors, refer to Chap. 8.
Voltage Drop of Power Systems. Motors are frequently supplied
from power systems cotisistirig of complicated uetworks of lines and
cables for which a calculation of the voltage drop ~vouldhe difficult.
The voltage drop may be est,imated, however, if t,he short-circuit current
is known at the point of power delivery.
The short-circuit rurrent is usually expressed in kva.
When motor-starting kva is drawl from a system, the voltage drop in
per cent of the initial voltage is approximately equal to 100 times the
motor-startiiig kva divided by the sum of this kva and the short-circuit
kva. The motor-starting kva used should be that drawn by the motor if
the initial system \&age were maintained. For example, if a 1000-hp
motor has a startirig kva of 5000 if initial system voltage were maintained
and the system short-cirruit kva is 50,000, the voltage drop will be
approximately
5000/(5000 + 50,000) X 100 = 9 per cent of the initial voltage
In many systems the short-circuit kva varies over a wide range, depend-
ing upon the number of parallel h e s that are in service, system inter-
connections, etc. In such cases the highest short-circuit kva is the one
usually determined since it must he the one used in selection of equipment
which is t o carry or iritcrrupt the short-circuit current. For calculating
voltage drop, oil the other hand, the minimum short-circuit kva should
be used since the corresponding operating condition will give the highest
voltage drop.
The short-circuit kva of power systems varies over a wide range, as
shown in Table 4.14. A corresponding variation occurs in the voltage
drop produced by a certaiu motor-starting kva.
TABLE 4.14 Power-system Short-circuit Kva
Usual Range of
System Voltage Short-circuit Kvo
2,400 15.000-1 50,000
4,160 25.000-250.000
6,900 50.000-500.000
13.800 100.000-1,000,000
23,000 I50.000-1,500,000
34,500 150.000-1,500,000
69,000 150,000-I,500,000
I 15.000 250.000-2.500.000
The various curves and other data that have been presented allow
estimates of the voltage drop due to motor starting to be made quirkly
with minimum iuformation on the motor and circuit elements involved.
For cases not adequately covered by these data, the formulas given below
may he used.
Static Circuit Elements Only. First assuming that all the voltage
drop occurs in static circuit elements such as transmission lines, cables,
transformers, and reactors, the voltage at the motor starter mill he
equal to
Z.W
(4.12)
before adding to the ohmic resistances and reactances of the motor and
other circuit elements on the serondary of the transformer. If two or
more transformers are in series between the circuit element and the
motor, the actual resistance and reactance in ohms should be multiplied
by the square of the product of the various no-load voltage transforma-
tion ratios. For transformers equipped with taps 011 either primary or
secondary winding, the voltage ratings used in the above formulas should
correspond to the t a p setting.
Using the per-unit system, it is generally convenient to select as base
kva the kva drawn by the motor at rated motor voltage, which is
X starting current in amperes X rated motor volts (4.13)
1000
268 VOLTAGLSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
and select rated motor voltage as the base voltage. Iii this case Z , = 1.
The per cent resistanre and reactance of a transformer, with the motor
connected t o its secondary, should be multiplied by
f Motor-starting kva at \ Isecondary voltage ratiug\'
rated motor voltage
\ G t i n g of transformer ) \ of transformer
rated motor voltage
1
(4.14)
A second transformer in series would have its per cent resistance and
reactance multiplied b j the above expression and also bj' the square of
the no-load volhage transformation ratio (secondary voltage divided by
primary voltage) of t,he first transformer. The resistaiice and reactaiice
of circuit elements that are expressed iii ohms should be multiplied hy
Motor starting kva at rated motor voltage
."
(Rated "r )
volts ' x 1000
(4.15)
except where the circuit element is separated from the motor by a trans-
former, in vhich case the multiplier is
Motor-starting kva at rated mot,or voltage
(~~__
Prjmary voltage r a h g of transformer
-x
Secondary voltage rating of transformer
rated motor volts
1000
) x 1000
(4.16)
If t v o or more transformers are in series bet,ween the circuit element and
the motor, the transformer no-load voltage ratio which appears in the
above espression should be replaced by the product of the no-load vokage
transformation ratios of the various traiisformers. Where voltage taps
are provided on a t,ransformer, the voltage ratirigs used in the above for-
mulas should correspoiid t o the t a p sett,ing.
The resistance and reactance of circuit elements connected in series
can be added directly. For circuit elemeots connected in parallel, equiva-
lent wlnes of resistance and react,ance can be det,ermined hy the method
given in Chap. 1.
If current to other loads is flowing in one or more of the circuit elements
between the motor and the const,ant voltage point mhen the motor is
started, the above formula for voltage a t the motor mil1 still apply,
assuming that these other loads are of the constant-current type, i.e.,
the current drawn does not change ivhen the voltage drops. Such load
currents must, of course, be considered io determining the initial voltage
at the motor starter. A method for taking into account loads whose
current varies u i t h voltage will be given later.
Often it is desirable t o know the effect of motor starting on the voltage
V O L T A G b S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS. C A L C U U T I O N OF DROPS 269
d(Rw
d(RX + Rs)*+ (x.w
(X, +
+ R i ) 2+ + x1)2
XS)2
X initial voltage a t motor starter (4.17)
X
+ n,)z +
d(fi,,
Z I,
(x,“+ xsjz
rated geiierator voltage
x(.initialgeiieratorvoltage
.. ) (4.19)
(4.20)
If there is a transformer between the generator arid the motor, the vollagc
a t the mot,or starter should be multiplied by the no-load volt,agc traus-
formation ratio (primary voltage ratiiig divided by secondary voltage
rating) of the transformer before suhstitutiiig it in the above formula.
With t,wo or more transformers in series, use as a multiplier the product
of their no-load voltage transformation ratios. If the calculated mot,or-
st,arting kva a t rated generator vokage differs appreriably from the first
estimate, a serond estimate based on the calculated value can be made
and the calculatioiis repeated until a close rherk is obtained.
Motor-starting Power Foctor. Use of the preceding formulas requires
a knoivledge of the motor-start,ing power fartor ((WS 8.,,). The starting
power factor of squirrel-cage induction and synchronous motors var-
ies over a rather wide range, depending upon the rating and desigii
characteristics.
Approximat,e values of starting power factor for typiral squirrel-rage
induction motors are given in Fig. 4.47.
Low-speed (450 rpm aiid below) synchronous motors for reriprovatirrg
compressor drive usually have a start,itig p o m r fartor bet,ween 0.20 aiid
0.40. Synchronous motors for rrntrifugal pump drive, on the other
hand, have starting power fartors generally between 0.15 and 0.35.
Where motor-start,ing power factor must be kuo\vn more acrurately, a
value should be ohtailled from the motor manufacturer.
With reduced voltage starting, the p o m r factor of the rurreut drawl
from the line may be somewhat different from the motor-starting power
factor. An autotransformer starter has oiily a small effect on the porver
fact.or, but the magnetizing current of the autotransformer makes the
power factor of the current drawn from the line slightly less t,han the
motor-starting p o w r factor. With a reactor st,arter, the power factor
-"
50.60
0.70
-=
A
0.50
0.40
0.M
=w 0.20
B O.I0
0.001 I I I I l l I I 1 1 I I I I
5 K) I5 20 30 40 50 75 100 150 M o 300 500 700 1000
HORSEPOWER RATING
FIG. 4.47 Approximate 3tor:ing power factor of typical squirrel-cage induction motors.
272 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS. VARIATIONS. CALCULATION OF DROPS
of thc. riirri.iit dmwi from t h r liiie \ri11 eqiial the motor-startiiig power
f w t o r miiltiplird Iiy thi: volt,age ratio (motor volt,age divided hy liiie
voltage) of t h r startcr. .i rc:sist,»r starter, oii the other haiid, results i i i a
power fartor for t h r riirreiit drawii from the liiie equal t o
REDUCED-FREQUENCY STARTING
I LINE
TRANYORMER
rrT" BANK
From Fig. 4.46, for M = 1, 4/0 line, 3-ft spacing, voltage drop is 11.5
per cent. Since M = 0.292, drop in line is 0.292 X 11.5 = 3.36 per
cent. Voltage a t end of line (neglecting generator voltage drop) is
100 - 3.36 = 96.64 per cent of initial voltage (6700 volts).
Kva applied to generator a t rated generator voltage
voltage a t end of line
= starting kva a t rated generator voltage X
initial line voltage
VOLTAGLSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 275
i
( itransformer
n i t i a l secondary
X 0.9664 X 0.93 =
secondary
voltage
2690 kva
voltage ) = 2300 X (
6900 X mo
22002400)
The per-unit system will be used n.ith base kva equal to the motor-
starting kva a t rated motor voltage (2300 kva) and base voltage equal to
rated motor voltage (2200 volts). On this basis, the motor constants are
z, = 1
cos On/ = 0.3 B M = 72.5'
R.u = Z . w cos BM = 0.3
X M = Z M sin Bar = 0.954
The resistance and reactance of the transformer vill equal the per cent
values multiplied by
Motor-st,arting kva a t secondary voltage rat-
rated motor voltage ing of transformer
Kva rating of transformer rated motor voltage
X
z Y (rated generator voltage
d ( R , ,+ &)2 + (X,, + Xs)*
~~
far below the single-impulse \vit,hstaiid abilit,y. One may conclude that
a reduct,ion in either the magnitude or duration of overvoltage stress will
in general result in longer useful life.
OVERVOLTAGE SOURCES
There are many varied sources of overvoltages of sufficient magnitude
to be damaging t o the insulation of a-c industrial power distributioii sys-
tems. 111t,liis chapter the mechanism by which the more prominent over-
volt,ages are created v i l l be described and preventative measures sug-
gested. ‘Treatment of t,he following will be included:
I . Static
2 . Physical contact nith a higher voltage system
3. I1esouani.e effects ill series inductive-capacitive circuits
4. Repetitive int,ermittent short circuits
5 . SIT-itrhing surges
(i. Forced-current zero-current interruptiou
7. Autotransformer connections
8. Lightiiitig
Of these, most are the result of effevtsdirectly within the electric system
itself. I n contrast, lightning (a vicious source of overvokage) is com-
municated to the electrical system from nature’s powerhouse in the
heavens above.
STATIC
Wind-blown sand or dust can become highly charged and impart rela-
tively high voltage to exposed overhead electric conductors. Moving
belts rutiiiing on iioiimet,allic pulleys can also develop high voltages by
st,at,icmeans which may in turn be communicated t o electric system con-
ductors if electric enclosing frames arc improperly grounded. The rate
a t wtrirh electric i,harge is communicated t o electric system conductors
by stat,ir means is extremely low. Even a rather high-resistance ground
i~iiincrtionon the electric system n d l discharge these stat,ic currents t o
ground as fast as they are rereived with negligible overvoltages. I n
addition to grounding the elect,ric service system, it is important that
electric machiue frames arid all metallic enclosures which contain electric
circuit conductors be effectively grounded (see Chap. 7).
both circuits at the point of contact. If Lhe low-voltage circuit does not
have its neutral grounded, its potential will be increased t o t h a t of the
high-voltage system or flashover mil1 occur. If Lhe low-voltage system is
anchored close t o ground potential as hy Lhe use of a solidly grounded
neutral, high values of current may flow from the high-voltage system,
b u t a much lower voltage will appear than with an isolated neutral system.
Accidental cootacts hetmeen primary and secondary voltages on indus-
trial systems are guarded against by the use of metal enelosures and metal
barriers which separate conductor systems of different operating poten-
tials. In some cases overhead circuits have both primary and secondary
on the same pole, but substantial clearances reduce Lhe danger of acci-
dental contact t o a minimum. Occasional cross-ups have occurred
between primary and secondary on overhead circuits, and a few cases are
known where failure has occurred between primary and secondary inside
a transformcr.
UNINTENTIONAL
CONNECTION
PHYSICbL CONNECTIONS
7
'..
N O R M b L POSITION O F
P, / 4 8 0 V VOLTAGE TRIbNGLE C xq
I \:ol,
I I \,\
I
I 1
I 3-
L-
2 Eb= 2 4 0 0 V
b
L,--'
I
e0
FIG. 5.1 Overvollage on 480-volt ungrounded ryrtem rerulting from contcxt with a higher
roltoge ryrtem.
GENERATOR OR
TRANSFORMER
xs A PHASE
"A"*"
Eg -E'.c
%
5
I
I
.
" 4
Y
J
z
LL
4 3
"Y
7
Ec
' 2
.i
-
f
BROKEN L I N E
GROUNDED
AN INDUCTIVE WINDING :CIDENTbLLY b GROUNO FAULT bT A F U S E PROTECTED ONE BROKEN OVERHEbO LINEGROUNDED
CONNECTED BETWEEN 01 PHASE h N D T R I N S F O R H E R C I N BLOW ONE FUSE ON T H E L O A D SIDE OF T H E B R E A K
GROUND LEbVING THE REACTbNCE OF TRANSFORMERS CONNECTS T H E REACTANCE OF TRANSFORMERS
12 4 N D T 3 I N P b R A L L E L B E T W E E N L I N E AND 12 AND 13 I N PARbLLEL B E T W E E N L I N E
GROUND 1 NOTE I I b N D GROUND [NOTE II
NOTE I
Y U N G R O U N D E D T R I N S F O R M E R CONNECTIONS
WOULD PRODUCE T H E SAME EFFECT
FIG. 5.4 Examples of unintentional high-reactance connections between line and ground.
284 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
48OV 3-PH 6 0 C Y
o
s i i o m m ~ uTO~GROUND -
PHVSlCbL CONNECTDNS
NORMAL POSITION
OF
?--.
IP
UOLTME TRIANGLE; -,,,
/'
b
remain at a d-c potential equal to the crest value of the a-c voltage wave.
All this merely says that there will be little tendency for any voltage to
reappear across the gap in the short circuit immediately following the
current zero which occurs at B .
During the next half cycle, however, the a-c generat,ed voltages will
reverse their polarities (vectors rotate 180°),which would cause the three-
phase vector voltage pattern to assume the position shown in the upper
part of C . Kote that during this one-half cycle time interval, the poten-
tial of the A phase has progressively inrreased from zero value to about
twice the normal line-to-neutral crest voltage relative to ground potential.
This value of line-to-ground potential of the A phase may he sufficient to
break down the gap in the ground-fault circuit arid reestablish the corinec-
tion between the A phase and ground. If so, the A-phase potential will
tend to be suddenly yanked to ground potential. Iuevitably there will
be some system reactance in the A-phase conductor to the ground short-
circuit point which would result in an oscillation of the A-phase-conductor
potential between plus 2 and minus 2 at a frequency probably 20 to 100
times normal. If the short circuit consisted of a solid metallic connection,
this oscillation would decay to zero, leaving the A-phase conductor at
ground potential. Xote that associated with this high-frequency transi-
Ei"' E;
Y--
+ $ CYCLE --tC $ CYCLE 4
€0
NORMAL
A B C D
FIG. 5.7 Overvoltages on ungrounded systems due to repetitive momentary contact be-
tween one line and ground.
288 SYSTEM 0VERVOLTAGES.-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
although it does produce 73 per cent overvoltage on two of the phase con-
ductors. It therefore seems reasonable to assume that the multiple
failures result from the appearance of overvoltages considerably in
excess of 173 per cent normal.
Distribution-system ox,ervoltages of repetitive-restrike or intermittent-
ground origin can be entirely eliminated by effective system neutral
grounding (see Chap. 6). Resistance grounding with a resistance ground
fault of any value upward of the line-to-ground charging current mill be
effective. For various other reasons it mill he evident that higher values
of available ground-fault current will he desirable. If reactance ground-
ing is contemplated (it rarely finds application in industrial systems), it
is important to keep the reactance of the grounding circuit sufficiently
low so that the ratio of X o is no more than ten times X , . If this ground-
ing reactanre value is exceeded, opportunity is given for another type of
repetitive restrike action which can result in overvoltages t o ground.
The ground-fault neutralizer (Petersen coil) represents one special case
of high-reactance grounding which is free of overvoltages by repetitive
restrike action. This is due t o the fact that the reactance value is care-
fully selected so that the oscillating circuit formed hetmeen it and the
system-to-ground capacitance will oscillate a t normal line frequency.
Following a ground-fault cnrrent shutoff point as at B in Fig. 5.7, the
potential of the electric system neutral with respect t o ground would
oscillate between plus and minus 1 at fundamental frequency as controlled
by the tuned grounding reactor and system capacitance t o ground. Thus
as the potential of the n-phase conductor with respect t o the neutral due
to the generat,ed voltage in the supply system alternates from minus 1 t o
plus 1, the free oscillation of the zero-sequence circuit remains in step
with it, with the net result that the potential of the A-phase conductor
tends t o remain at ground potential. Voltage of normal frequency
gradually reappears as the free oscillation in the zero-sequence circuit
decays. I n general, some 15 or 20 cycles will elapse before the potential
of the previously shorted phase increases t o three-quarters of normal
value. Thus, the freedom from restrike is due t o the long-delayed
reappearance of voltage across the line-to-ground circuit.
SWITCHING SURGES
normal current zero and prevent reestablishing current flow during the
following half cycle. As a result of this action it is unnecessary that the
stored magnetic energy in the inductance of the circuit be disposed of
during interruption. Interruption takes place at a normal current zero,
at which time the stored magnetic energy is zero.
A quaiitative understanding of the mechanism whereby such over-
voltages are generated will be useful. Of first consideration is the amount
of voltage change which would tend to appear across the switching con-
tacts if they were switched open. For example, in Fig. 5.8, a line-to-line
short-circuit condition between phases A and B is illustrated. With the
circuit breaker still closed, the potential of a' and b' must be common and
will lie midway between potentials e, and ea, as indicated in the vector
diagram. With the vector relationships shown in the figure, the current
in the faulted circuit will be going through zero, which affords an oppor-
tunity for the circuit breaker to make an interruption if the contacts have
parted. If current flow is interrupted at this current zero, the potential
of a' tends to return to e. while that of point b' tends to return to eb.
SHORT CIRCUIT
;-, -\, ,
,, " ' "
VOLTAGE RELATIONSHIP WITH
SHORTCIRCUITON AT THE T I M E OF A
CURRENT ZERO IN THE SHORT CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT e.' = eb'
(VOLTAGE mob AT MAX VALUE1
FIG. 5.8 Overvoltages due to interruption of (I line-to-line short circuit at current zero.
SYSTEM O V E R V O L T A G E S - C A U S E S A N D PROTECTIVE MEASURES 291
CBPOLENOI ISTHE
4e, FIRST TO CLOSE
c, MOTOR TERMINAL B
W I L L TEND TO ABRUPTLY
JUMP TO e. BUT OUE TO
FIG. 5.9 Possible switching overvoltage when motor running breaker closes lopen-cycle
autotransformer start).
292 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
.. . .... ..
\i,
A L L C B POLES S T I L L CLOSE0
e,....
i
0 1W I L L T E N 0 TO JUMP TO e0,AND
Q p T O T H E NEW EA WITH .TRANSITORY
EXCURSIONS SHOWN BY DOTTED LINES
FIG, 5.10 Possible overvoltager when interrupting o synchronous motor during out-of-
step conditions.
294 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
FORCED-CURRENT-ZERO INTERRUPTION
however the overvoltage will persist until the magnitude of current has
been returned t o zero value.
Because of the overvoltage problems, the vacuum contact switch finds
little applicatioii. The vacuum switch tends t o shut off current com-
pletely the instaiit that the contacts part. Unless suitable overvoltage
suppressors are associated with such an interrupter, high voltages will be
developed if applied in inductive circuits. The overvoltages so produced
may he sufficient t o sparkover the outside of the vacuum switch unless
some other portion of the circuit breaks dowu a t a lower voltage.
Current-limiting fuses constitute an example of a forced current
interrupter. They possess the property of being able t o reduce the rur-
rent t o zero value ahead of a normal current zero. Overvoltages are
developed during the operation of such an interrupter. As supplied by
reputable manufacturers, the design of the internal elements contains
special features mhirh rontrol the magnitude of such overvoltages, and
full-srale tests are applied to prove the resulting performance t o ensure
that overvoltages so developed d l be within the safe withstand value of
the electric insulation of the voltage class t o which it is t o be applied.
Because of the overvoltage problem, current-limiting fuse interrupters
of a particular voltage rating should not be applied t.o electric systems
of lower operating voltage. I n other words, a 7500-volt rated current-
limiting fuse should not he applied on a 2400-volt operating system
because overvoltages developed iu its operation will be dangerous t o a
2400-volt insulation level.
AUTOTRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
PHYSICAL CONNECTIONS
\
\ I
i FIG. 1 1 1 Overvoltage on un-
\ I
'"'
b
grounded systems due to a
ground connection on the wind-
ing of an autotrans-
RESULTING (IOLTAGE vEcmR DIAGRAM former.
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 1P7
character to be found in test areas are of relatively small physical size
and do not impose restrictive requirements on the necessary system
grounding equipment. As a matter of fact, on all low-voltage-system
equipment (GOO volts and less) it is the standard practice to ground the
neutral solidly.
The application of three-phase transformers or three-phase banks of
single-phase transformers, mhich do not incorporate a closed-delta wind-
ing in their make-up, should in general be avoided or quite rarefully
examined to ensure that the resulting operation will be free of damaging
overvoltages. This would be equally true of Y-connected autotrans-
formers (see reference 4). Berause of the nonlinear shape of transformer
magnetizing curves, the required transformer magnetizing current to
produce a fundamental frequency sine wave of voltage will contain rather
prominent amounts of harmonic currents. In a Y-connerted transformer
system energized from a three-phase supply in the absence of a delta-
connected winding, the transformers are unable to obtain a sourre of
third-harmonic current or multiples thereof because these are of zero
sequence. As the result of the inability to obtain a third-harmonic
exciting current, there will appear a third-harmonic voltage whirh may
be as much as 50 per cent of the normal operating potential. Should the
neutral of such a transformer system become grounded intentionally or
accidentally and the supply system be ungrounded or high-resistance
grounded, this third-harmonic voltage will be imparted to and appear on
the system phase conductors and represent a sustained source of over-
voltage. Even though the transformer system neutral is ungrounded,
some fraction of the third-harmonic voltage will appear on the phase con-
ductors, depending on the ratio of capacitance to ground within the trans-
former structure to the distributed capacitance to ground of the rest of the
system.
Core-type three-phase transformers present a fairly low zero-sequence
magnetizing reactance which would hold the zero-sequence voltage to
much lower levels than shell-type three-phase transformers or banks of
three single-phase transformers and are thus much less susceptible to
overvoltage difficulties. If operated with grounded neutral on an
ungrounded-neutral system, a careful check should be made to ensure
freedom from neutral instability, as treated in reference 3.
While grounding the electric system neutral may not solve all the
troubles of the Y-Y transformer connections, it will eliminate appearance
of overvoltage on the phase conductors of a system to which such a bank
of transformers might be connected.
Overvoltage Example. A great many specific cases of system over-
voltages have been analyzed, identified, and catalogued. All types are
well represented. Space will not allow a lengthy treatment of these
298 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES A N D PROTECTIVE MEASURES
(A1
A-PHASE
FUSE OPEN
( FJI
FIG. 5.1 2 Circuit conditions responsible for an orenoltoge experience on an ungrounded
power system.
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 299
outdoor) through exposed overhead lines which often bring power t o the
plant or, in some cases, distribute power withiu the plant.
Direct Strokes and Induced Surges. Lightning may produce an over-
voltage on a transmission line either by a direct stroke to the line or by
electrostatic induction from a stroke t o earth iri the vicinity of the line.
The probable maximum voltage appearing ori a liiie by a direct stroke is
15 million volts and for an induced surge, 500,000 volts. These voltages
appear between conductor and ground.
Wave Shopes. Although the voltage surges produced hy lightning
have high magnitudes, their duration is very short. I t is measured in
microseconds (millionths of a second). Typically, the voltage rises very
rapidly (in 1 t o 10 psec) t o the maximum or “crest,” value and theu decays
more slowly, reaching 50 per cent of the crest value in 20 t o 150 psec.
As illustrated in Fig. 5.13, the shape of a voltage or current, surge pro-
duced hy lightning (and those produced artificially for test purposes) is
customarily expressed by two numherç. The first, is the time from the
“virtual zero” of t,he wave front t o the time the wave reaches crest value,
while the second numher is the time from the virtual zero t o the time the
voltage or current has decreased t o 50 per cent of the crest value. The
-CREST VALUE
t
f
-
I
I
I
ZERO TIME O F CURRENT WAVE
I
.
ZERO TIME O F VOLTAGE WAVE
I
b
&tu-
t 3 -
4 I
T i a N
MICROSEMXIDS
1. _I
WAVE- SHAPE OF
VOLTAGE WAVE ti X 12
CURRENT WAVE t 3 X t e
virtual zero of a wave front is the intersection with the zero axis of a
straight line drawn through the points on the front of the wave which
are 30 per cent and 90 per cent of the crest value for a voltage wave and
10 per cent and 90 per cent of crest value for a current wave. Both times
are usually expressed in microseconds. To illustrate, a 95-kv lf.5 X
40-psec wave is one that has a crest value of 95 kv, rises to crest value in
134 pser from the time of virtual zero, and decays to 50 per cent of crest
value (47.5 kv) in 40 psec from the time of virtual zero.
Traveling Waves. The voltage surge produced on a transmission line
by lightning does not appear simultaneously at all points on the line;
instead, it appears at successively later intervals of time as the distance
from the point of the st,roke increases. Furthermore, the magnitude and
shape (voltage vs. time) of the surge remain approximately the same at
all points of a uniform line, but are simply displaced in time phase. In
effect then t,he surge which appeared as a voltage-time wave on the line
where the stroke occurred becomes two identical voltage-distance waves
on the line which travel at uniform velocity in oppvsite directions from
the point of origin.
Keglecting all resistances, it can be shown that
1. The voltage waves travel along the conductor without change in
magnitude or shape with a velocity equal to l / d T C fps, where L is the
inductance in henrys per foot of line and C i s the capacitance in farads per
foot of line.
2. A current wave accompanies the voltage wave and is of exactly the
same shape, that is, a t any instant at any point on the line, the current
flowing in the conductor is directly proportional to the voltage from con-
ductor to ground.
3. The ronstant of proportionality between the current and voltage is
called t,he surge impedance Z and is equal to 4 r C ohms, where I, i s the
inductance in henrys for any unit length of the line and C is the capaci-
tance in farads for the same unit length. The current in amperes is equal
to the voltage in volts divided by the surge impedance in ohms.
The inductanre and caparitance of an overhead line are such that the
velocity of a current or volt,age wave (called velocity of propagation) is
equal to the velocity of light in free space, which is 984 ft per psec. In
most ralrulations the round number 1000 is used. The propagation
velority in a cable varies with its construction, but a typical value is
600 f t per psec.
The surge impedanre of an overhead line varies with the size of the
ronductor and its height aboveground, but is usually between 400 and
500 ohms. A typical value for a cable is 30 ohms.
Reflection of Traveling Waves. A change occurs in a traveling wave
when it reaches the junction between two conductors of different surge
302 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
impedance, for example, an overhead line and rahle. The original wave,
called the inrident wave, gives rise to two waves at the t,ransition point,
namely, a “refracted” wave whirh rontinues on through the second con-
ductor and a “reflected” wave which starts traveling hack over the first
conductor.
If, at any instant, E is the voltage of the incident wave at the junc-
tion, then E X (Z, - Z,)/(Z, + ZJ is the voltage of the reflected
wave, where Z, is the surge impedance of the first rouductor (over whirh
the surge arrived) arid Z , is the surge impedaure of the second ronduc-
tor. The voltage of the refracted wave at the junrtiorr is the sum of
the voltages of the incident and reflected waves, that is, it equals
E X (222)/(Z2 + Zi).
Reflected and refracted current waves accompany the corresponding
voltage waves, the constant, of proportionality being t,he surge impedanre
ZIor Z2 of the conductor the wave is traveling oil. A reversal of dirert,ion
of a voltage wave, without change i n polarity, reverses t,he direction of
flow of current.
As indirated by t,he equations, if Z 2 is greater than Z,, a voltage wave
reflects positively at, the junctioo and the voltage a t the junrtion (equal
to the voltage of the refracted wave) is greater than the vokage of the
incident wave. In the limiting rase if 2%is infinite (the line is open), the
voltage at t,he junction is double the voltage of the inrident wave. On
the other hand, if Z,is less than Z , , the wave reflerts negatively and the
refracted wave is less than the incident wave. For the limiting rase of
Z2 equal t o zero (the line is shorted t o ground), the volt,age a t the junr-
tion is, of course, equal t o zero. The current t o ground will equal twire
the current of the incident wave.
Although neglecting all resistances represents an idealized condition,
the simplified relations this makes possihle are useful in many practical
situations.
INSULATION CHARACTERISTICS
short duration, it is the impulse tests that are important as far as protec-
tion against these overvoltages is concerned.
Basic Impulse Insulation levels. The impulse test which is most com-
monly used consists of the application of a 155 X 4O-psec full-wave volt-
age surge of a specified crest value to the insulation of the equipment
involved. The crest value of the wave is called the basic impulse insula-
tion leuel (abbreviated BIL) of the equipment. T o simplify the design
and appliration of elertrical equipment, the Joint Committee on Coordi-
nation of Insulation of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers
(AIEE), the Edison Electric Institute (EEI), and the Xational Electrical
Manufacturers Association (KEMA) have established a series of Stand-
ard Basic Impulse Insulation Levels. These are listed in Table 5.1. It
was the intent that the impulse level assigned t o any equipment should he
taken from the standard series. This has generally been done, but in
some cases the value adopted for a given insulation class is that shown in
Table 5.1 for a different reference class.
Boric
Reference impulse Reference
<I.., in."lation <I..,
kv led. kv
kv
~
*The 95-kv BIL was estahlished for rertain types of equiprnrnt in t h e 15-kv class.
Oil-immersed
Oil-immersed
distribution transformers and
power transformers and
"Oltage regulotorl;
current-limiting reactors
in.trument trondormers'
lnlUlotior
.I.%,
kv
Chapped-wore test 56
"II-r.Yc
X 40 ! Chopped-rare test
tell
Min time to ,mat, Min time to
Crest, 3-11,, crest,
Rashover, Ro-rhovar.
kv kv kv
p*oc
I .2
2.5
5.0
8.66
30
45
60
75
ii
69
88
1 1 .o
1.25
1.5
1.6
45
60
75
1 %i I I .5
1.5
1.6
15 95 110 I 1.8
- I
* Thr YSIUP ivm for the 15-kv insulation rlass apply to instrument transiormers
oi the 151.-kv ulatiou PLSS. For the 1511-kv class thc full-wavr test is 110 kv and
the rlropp~rl-wnrrt p s t is 130 kv with 2.0 ~ S C Cto flashover.
8.66 35
I5 50
PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
place as the a-c current goes through zero. The action is similar t o the
operation of an expulsion fuse.
I n the valve-type arrester, on the other hand, interruption of follow
current depends upon having in series with the gaps a column of material
whose resistance varies inversely a s some power of the voltage applied.
Hence, this “valve ” material exhibits a relatively low resistance when the
overvoltage due t o lightning exists, but as soon as the voltage returns to
normal its resistance increases t o a high value. This reduces the magni-
tude of the follow current to a value which can be interrupted by the
series gaps. Xormally interruption takes place the first time the a-c
current goes through zero. The construction features of one design of
valve-type arrester are shown in Fig. 5.14.
Expulsion-type arresters have assigned current interrupting ratings
FIG. 5.14 A valve-type lightning arrester with section removed to show features of
construction.
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES A N D PROTECTIVE MEASURES 307
slid should not he applied to systems whose fault current exceeds such
ratings. Furthermore since some of the gas-producing material is
destroyed each time the arrester operates, there is a limit t,o the number
of operations t o which they can he safely subjected. Valve-typc arresters
have ueither of these limitations. The expulsion arrester also has a
higher sparkover voltage, although following sparkover it exhibits a
lower resistanre t,o the flow of lightniug discharge current than does the
valve-type arrester. Finally the gaseous disrharge from an expulsiorr-
type arrester makes it uusuitable for moiiriting wit,hin equipment enclo-
sures or in close proximity to other elertrical apparatus. For these
reasons the valve-type arrester is used almost exclusively for the prot,ec-
tion of equipment on industrial power systems.
Voltage Rating of Arresters. The voltage rating of an arrester is
defined as the highest a-c voltage (rms value) hetween its line and ground
terminals a t which it is desigued t o perform its operating duty cycle.
I n effect it represents the highest voltage at, which it is guaranteed to
interrupt the follow current after sparkover on a voltage surge. It does
not represent the voltage at which the arrester sparks over; in fact,
industry standards specify that an arrester shall not sparkover at any
60-cycle voltage less than 150 per cent of its rating.
As n.ill be shown (see Application Proredure) the proper voltage rating
of a n arrester for any system depends not only on the syst,em voltage but
also on how the system is grounded.
Protective Characteristics of Arresters. The two characteristics of a
lightning arrester which determine the degree of protection it can provide
are (1) its impulse sparkover voltage and (2) its discharge voltage, i.e.,
the voltage which appears across its terminals during the passage of dis-
charge current. The latter is sometimes referred t o as the I R voltage
drop or simply I R drop.
Two different sparkover voltages are usually published by the arrester
manufacturers. One is the “critical sparkover voltage” with a l!i X 40-
psec wave, i.e., it is the crest value of the 1>6 X 40 wave which will cause
sparkover on 50 per cent of the applications of this wave. Sparkover
occurs on the tail of the wave. The other is the average voltage at which
front of wave sparkover occurs with the voltage wave rising at the rate
specified in the AIEE standards for arrester tests, namely, 100 kv per
psec for each 12 kv of arrester rating. This sparkover voltage is generally
higher-as much as 50 per cent higher for some arresters-than the crit,i-
cal sparkover voltage for a I f 5 X 40-psec wave.
Arrester discharge voltages usually published are the average crest
values of the voltage appearing across the arrester terminals when dis-
charging a 10 X 20-psec current wave having various crest values such as
1500, 3000, 5000, 10,000 and 20,000 amp.
300 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
Type of Arrester
1 ayeroge "(IiYe, per cent
..........
Distribution. 25 20
Line................. 20 15
.............
Stotion. I5 10
Effect of Altitude. Since the sparkover voltage of a gap varies with the
atmospheric pressure, the protective characteristics of arresters are
afferted by the altitude a t which they are installed. This is true even if
the arrester has a sealed gap since the seals employed are not expected t o
maintain a pressure different from the surrounding atmosphere for any
extended period. Standard arresters are considered suitable for altitudes
up to GOO0 ft. Special arresters are available for altitudes of 6001 t o
12,000 ft and for altitudes of 12,001 t o 18,000 f t .
Classification of High-voltage Arresters. Arresters in ratings of 1000
voks and higher are classified in accordance with their principal charac-
t,eristirs and field of application as follows:
1. Distribution-type arresters
2. Line-type arresters
3. Station-type arresters
Distribution-type arresters are available in voltage ratings of 1, 3, 6,
9, 12, 15, arid 18 kv. Though designed primarily for the protection of
dist,ribut,ion transformers, they are also used to protect other equipment
such as metering and switching devices, voltage regulators, distribution
rapacitors, and cable. The arresters are small, lightweight units t h a t are
readily mounted on poles or crossarms, have reasonably good protective
rharacteristics, and are very low in cost.
Line-type arresters are available in voltage ratings of 20, 25, 30,37, 40,
50, GO, and 73 kv. They are relatively small and lightweight, are moder-
ate in cost, and have good protective characteristics. They are used for
the protection of the smaller transformers and substations in the medium-
voltage range.
309 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
Type of Arrester
1 ayeroge "(IiYe, per cent
..........
Distribution. 25 20
Line................. 20 15
.............
Stotion. I5 10
Effect of Altitude. Since the sparkover voltage of a gap varies with the
atmospheric pressure, the protective characteristics of arresters are
afferted by the altitude a t which they are installed. This is true even if
the arrester has a sealed gap since the seals employed are not expected to
maintain a pressure different from the surrounding atmosphere for any
extended period. Standard arresters are considered suitable for altitudes
up to GOO0 ft. Special arresters are available for altitudes of 6001 to
12,000 ft and for altitudes of 12,001 t o 18,000 f t .
Classification of High-voltage Arresters. Arresters in ratings of 1000
voks and higher are classified in accordance with their principal charac-
t,eristirs and field of application as follows:
1. Distribution-type arresters
2. Line-type arresters
3. Station-type arresters
Distribution-type arresters are available in voltage ratings of 1, 3, 6,
9, 12, 15, arid 18 kv. Though designed primarily for the protection of
dist,ribut,iontransformers, they are also used to protect other equipment
such as metering and switching devices, voltage regulators, distribution
rapacitors, and cable. The arresters are small, lightweight units that are
readily mounted on poles or crossarms, have reasonably good protective
rharacteristics, and are very low in cost.
Line-type arresters are available in voltage ratings of 20, 25, 30,37, 40,
50, GO, and 73 kv. They are relatively small and lightweight, are moder-
ate in cost, and have good protective characteristics. They are used for
the protection of the smaller transformers and substations in the medium-
voltage range.
310 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
Average discharge
A v e r a g e impulse
oltage with 10,00O-~mp
rporkover voltage
10 x zo-psec CUrlent
V0ltog on AlEE test wove, kv
wave, kv
rating,
kr __
Distribution
OrreSler.
~ ~
3 I8 13 I5 11
6 34 23 30 22
9 48 35 44 33
I2 61 43 55 44
I5 71 53 69 54
18 84 ... 78
Line Line
Or,e.te,S O,,&e,*
20 75 72 92 72
25 93 89 Ill 90
30 110 I06 I35 108
37 136 131 I64 132
40 147 136 I77 144
50 183 178 222 179
60 220 214 271 217
73 267 261 328 262
97 ... 345 ... 349
I09 ... 388 ... 394
121 ... 430 ... 438
145 ... 51s ... 523
169 ... 602 ... 610
195 ... 691 ... 698
242 ... 860 ... 872
FIG. 5.16 Rotating-machine form of station-type FIG. 5.17 Surge protective capaci-
lightning arrester rated 6 kv. tor rated 6900 volts, 25 to 60
cycler, 0.5 ilf.
312 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES--CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
FIG. 5.19 Single-pole lightning arrester FIG. 5.20 Three-pole lightning or-
with porcelain housing roted 650 volts, rester in metol core roted 650 volt>.
for outdoor service. for indoor or outdoor service,
FIG. 5.21 Capacitor-type lightning orrerter rated 0 to 750 volts, 4 rrf for w e on d-c
cirwiti. lnruloting cop and sleeve removed ot one end to show terminol.
314 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
APPLICATION PROCEDURE
age. It depends upon the relation between the zero- and positive-
sequence impedances of t,he syst,em. For example, if the ratio of zero-
sequence reactance X Ot o the positive-sequence reactance X I is positive
and less than 3 and the rat,io of the zero-sequence resistance R , t o the
positive-sequence reactance X I is less thau 1, the voltage from sound
conductors to ground will not exceed 140 per cent of the system liue-to-
neutral voltage or about 80 per cent of t,he system line-to-line volt,age.
Such a system is said to he “effei.t,ivelygrounded,” and t,he arresters used
are referred to as “80 per rent arrest,ers.” Some syst,ems are grouudcd so
that arresters of even lower voltage rating can he used as far as the orer-
voltage caused by line-to-ground f a u h is concerued. This, however,
should he done only after a careful check of the possible overvoltages
from all sources t,o make sure that v o h g e s in excess of t,he arrester rating
are not likely to occur at the time of sparkover.
Table 5.5 lists the voltage ratings of arresters usually selected for
(1) ungrounded or resistauce-grouuded systems and (2) “effectively
grounded” systems. Selections are show1 for all system voltages likely
to he encountered in industrial plants.
As shown in Table 5.5, 3-kv arresters are often used on 2.4/4.1C,Y-kv
grounded-oeutral systems and 9-kv arresters on 7.2/12.47-kv grourided-
neut,ral syst,ems, akhough in t,hcse cases the arrester rating is only 125 per
cent of t,he nominal system line-to-neutral voltage. Before using these
lmi-er rat,ed arresters, the maximum operating voltage and the rise iu
soulid-conduct,or-to-ground rokages with a linn-t,o-grouud fault, should be
determitied t o make sure that under these conditions the voltage applied
to the arresters will not exceed their rating. I n geueral they should not
be used on industrial pmver systems unless (1) the ratio of zero-sequenre
reart,ance X o to the positive-sequence reactance X I is less thau 1.5 and
(2) the ratio of the zero-sequence resistance Ro t,o t,he positive-sequence
reactance X I is less thau 0.5.
Even though a system meets the qualifications of an eflectively
grounded system at the power source, it may not a t other points in the
system because of the impedance of intervening lines. Furthermore,
the system may be “effectively grounded” under uormal operating
conditions, but certain faults or other emergencies may result in the
opening of switches which leaves a portion of the system ungrounded
but still energized either from generators or from mot,ors whirh can
temporarily act as generators. Such possibilities should he considered
before selecting the voltage rating of arresters to he applied on what
appears t o be an effectively grounded system.
Choice of Arrester Type. Where the arrester voltage ratiug required
is 3 t o 15 kv, a choice must be made between the distribution-type and
the station-type arrester. Similarly, if the rating required is hetween 20
316 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
Nominal system
voltage, kv Sy*tom "e"Ir.1 System neutral
ungrounded or effectively
'eiirtonce groundeq grounded
2.4 3 3
2.4/4. I6Y 4.5. or 6 t 4.5,;or 6
4.16 4 . 9 or 6 4.5. or 6
4.8 6 4.5* or 6
6.9 7.5*or9 6
12 I5 12
7.2112.47Y 15 9 t o r I2
13.2 (or 13.81 15 12
23 25 20
34.5 37 30
46 50 40
69 73 60
115 121 97
I38 145 121
FIG. 5.22 Effect of reparotion between a lightning arrester and the protected equip-
ment on the rotio of the maximum voltage a t the equipment to the sparkover voltage of the
arrester (doer not include any effect of the voltage at the arrester following its sparkover).
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 319
PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS
Separation diitonce, ft
tribution-type arrcsters are usually used a t the junction, but those at the
switchgear should preferably be of the station type (see Fig. 5.23).
If the cable eoiiiiectiiig niet,al-clad gear t o an exposed overhead line
does have ii coritiiiiious metallie sheath, the set:orrd set, of arresters at the
gear may or may not be rec.]uired. It depends upon (1) tho iiisulation
level of the gear, ( Z j the type and
... . . . .. voltage rating of the arresters
provided at the junction, aiid (3)
the length of the cable. An
analysis of this ease was made
on t,he basis of the followiiig
assumptions :
1. The arrestors at the jiinc-
tioii maintain a voltage at, this
point which does not exceed the
sparlrover voltage of the arrester
as given in Table 5.8.
2. The maximum voltage at
the switchgear must be limited
to 80 per cent, of its BIL.
3. The volt,age waves which
appear on the overhead liue arid
reach the cable junction have a
const,ant rate of rise which does
not exceed 1000 kv per psec.
4. The surge impedance of the
overhead line is 500 ohms, and
t h a t of the cable is 30 ohms.
FIG. 5.23 Stofion-type lightning orresterr
5 . The velocity of propagat,ion
(rotating-mochine form) mounted in metal-
clad switchgear. of the surge iii the cable is GOO f t
per $see.
The r e s u k of the analysis are shown in Table 5.7.
I n all cases the grouiid terminal of the junction arrester should be cori-
iiected to t,lre cable sheath as me11 as t o ground, aiid at the switchgear the
cable sheat,h should he eonri d to the ground bus (see Fig. 5.24A).
This is essential if no arresters are provided in the gear aiid is desirable
in any case. Where large single-coiiductor cables are used, it may not be
desirable t o ground bot,b ends of the sheath because of excessive sheath
curreiit. I n this case the lightning-arrester ground terminal should still
be coririected directly t o the cable sheath arid the sheath grounded at the
switchgear, hut the connection t o ground at the arrester should be made
through aii isolatiiig gap, as shown in Fig. 5.24R.
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 323
’The use of
-
arresters on a 4.16-kv system requires an X d X , ratio IPSS than
Y
that necessary t o make the system “effectively grounded” (see Selection of Arrester
Voltage Rating).
t The 4.5- and 7.5-kv arresters are available only in the station type.
t Arresters required in snitchgesr if length of cable exceeds this value.
Sparkover voltogs. k r
V0lt.go rating
of arraters,
Distribution-type Stofion-type
kv
.r,der* .lr,e*t*r*
-I 3 22
I 15
6 42.5 25
P 60 37
12 74 52
15 81.5 64
324 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGLS-CAUSES
AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
type arresters and a set of protective capacitors (as used for rotating-
macliitie protection) at the junction of the rable and overhead line. The
ground terrniual of both the arresters aiid the caparitors should be con-
nected to the rable sheath as \yell as t o ground (directly or through a n
isolating gap), aud the (.able sheath should he eoiniected t o the ground
bus a t the switchgear.
11, a l l - P ~ ~
I?
CABLESHEATH
- . -T-
q&2 ’
4
1
-<4p
~
4 -
PROTECTION OF SUBSTATIONS
FIG. 5.25 Substation with lightning masti for direct stroke protection and station-type
lightning arresters far protection agoinrt surges entering the station over the incoming
liner.
326 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES A N D PROTECTIVE MEASURES
The best protection that can he provided for aerial cahle against direct
lightning strokes consists of grounding the messenger and sheath a t every
pole and securing as low a ground resistance as possible. This is to
allow a lightning stroke to the messenger to drain off by current flow to
earth without causing the voltage of the messenger and sheath to rise
excessively above the voltage of the cable conductors. If an aerial cable
joins a n open-wire line, lightning arresters should be installed at the
junction to protect the cable insulation against lightning surges which
arrive over the open line. The ground terminal of these arresters should
be connected directly to the cable messenger and sheath as well as to
ground.
Since the voltage and current surges produced in the messenger of
aerial cable by a lightniug stroke to the messenger result in voltage and
current surges in the cable conductors, it is generally recommended that
aerial cahle be considered the same as open-wire lines as far as the pro-
tection of terminal equipment is concerned.
stand is simply the crest of the fi0-cycle high-potential test whose rms
value is twice rated (line-to-line) voltage plus 1009 volts. This means
that special effort must be made to limit the magnitude of the surge
voltage which reaches the terminals of the machines. Secondly, the
steep front of the voltage surge produced by lightning may damage the
turn insulation even though the magnitude of the surge is limited t,o a
value which can be safely withstood by the major (ronductor-to-ground)
insulation. Such damage is avoided by reducing the steepness of the
voltage wave which reaches the machine. Finally, as a result of the
above limitations, lightning protertive equipment must be considered
even though the machine is connected to the exposed overhead line
through a transformer whose line side is adequately protected by a
lightning arrester. A voltage surge of a magnitude and a steepness of
front u,hich will damage machine insulation can be t,ransmitted through
a transformer by electrostatic and electromagnetic coupling.
The scheme of protection recommended differs somevhat for (1)
machines connected direct,ly to exposed overhead lines and ( 2 ) machines
connected to exposed overhead lines through transformers.
Protection of Machines Connected Directly to Exposed Overhead
lines. First to protect the turn insulation, the maximum rate of change
of voltage (steepness of wave front) applied to the machine must be
reduced to a value which will limit the resultant turn-to-turn voltage to a
safe value. This is accomplished by (1)connecting a protective capacitor
between each line and ground in the path of the incoming surge (pref-
erably a t the terminals of the machine) and ( 2 ) connecting a distribution-
type arrester from line to ground a t a distance of 1500 to 2000 f t out on
each directly connected exposed line. Then to ensure reliable protection
of the major insulation, a station-type arrester should be connected in
parallel with the protective capacitor.
When located at the terminals of the rotating marhine, the ground
terminals of both the arresters and capacitors should be connected
directly to the machine frame, which of course should be connected to the
plant ground bus. When the protective devices cannot be located
directly at the terminals of the machine, it is preferable to bring the
incoming lines to the terminals of these devices and then on to the
machine, as shown in Fig. 5.26A4,rather than use separate leads from the
machine terminals to the protective devices, as shown in Fig. 5.2CR.
For additional improvement in the protection provided, the exposed
lines should be shielded by overhead ground wires for a distance of approxi-
mately 2000 ft out from the plant, This reduces the possibility of direct
strokes terminating on the circuits close to t,he station. It also ensures
that a voltage surge originating on the line, beyond the arrester which is
installed 1500 to 2000 f t from the station, will have its amplitude limited
328 SYSTEM 0VERVOLTAGES.-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
n
r3 L
J 'I
3-
MACHINE t----
I -
DISTRIWTION-TYPE
ARRESTER
' 6
f+t ARRESTER
Ls c GROUND
CDNNECTION
I
t 1500-2000 FT -I
FIG. 5.27 Arrmgement of lightning protective equipment for <I rototing mochine com
nected directly 10 on exposed overheod lhe.
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 329
FIG. 5.28 Arrmgemenl of lightning protective equipment for D rotating machine con-
nected to on e.,,ored overhead line through a transformer.
330 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
ARRESTER
*GROUND
'CONNECTION
f7
CONNECT ARRESTER
-.ARRESTER
ARRESTER GROUNDCONNECTEDTO
TRANSFORMER TANK
OVERHEAD GROUND WIRE
MACHINE
DISTRIBUTION-TY PE
ARRESTER
OONNECTYM
FIG. 5.30 Arrangement of lightning protective equipment for a rotating machine con-
nected to exposed overhead lines both directly and through a transformer.
Mochine
Protective capacitors
- - ~
st.tion-type orrester, 1 Distribution-type orrc~tcrs
~
*olt.ge
rating Voltage rating Voltage rating
Iphose-to
~ ~
-I- ~
1
RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMER ANODES
MERCURY
CATHODE
I ~
+ DC
T I
I/
4
FIG. 5.31 Typical scheme of lightning prokction for a mercury-arc rectifier.
334 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
REFERENCES
1. Modern Conwpts of Lightning ProtPetion for Transmission and Distribution
Circuits, Ocneral Electric Company Publication GET-I720A, 1948.
2. Lightning Protective Equipment for Rotating Machines, Gerieral Electric Com-
pany Puhlication GEA-l743H, 1953.
3. Shott. €1. S.. and H. H. Peterson, Critoris. for Xeutral Stability of Wye-Grounded
Primary Ijroken Delta Secondary Transformw Circuits, Tmns. A I E E , vol. 60,
November, 1941.
4. Blrmie, L. F., and A. Bwajian, "Transformer Engineering," 2d ed., John Wiley
& Sons, Ine.. New York, 1951.
5. Schroeder. T. W.,The Cause and Control of Somr Typcs of Switching Surges,
Tions. A I E E , vol. 6 2 , November, 1943.
6. AIEH Committee Rcport, Poner Systmn Overvoltages Produccd by Faults and
Switching Operations, 1948.
7. AIEE Committee Rcport, Corrdation of System Overvoltagcs and Pystem
Grounding Impedance, 1943.
8. Lewis, W. W.."The Protection of Transmission Systems Against Lightning,"
John UIIPy & Sons, Inc., New l-ork, 1950.
9. Brwley. L. V., "Traveling Waves on Transmission Systems," 2d ed., John WilQy
& Sons, Inc., New York. 1951.
10. Joint Cornmittcc on Coordination ai Insulation of AIEE, E E I , and KEMA,
Standard Basic lmpulsc Insulation l,evels, EEI Publication No. H-8, NEMA
Publication No. 109, 1941.
11. National Clcetrieal Manufacturers Association, Standards of Lightning Arresters,
Publiention Kos. LAl-1852 to I,A5-1952, 1952.
12. "American Standard for Lightning Arrestprs for Alternating Current Power
Circuits," ASA Standard C62.1, 1944.
13. Hunter, E. M.,E. Pragst, and P. H. Light, Dctermination of Ground-fault Cur-
rent and Voltages on Transmission Systrrns, Cen. Elec. Rev., August and Novem-
ber. 1939.
336 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
System Grounding'
spot on the coil. Much to the bewilderment, of the operating men and
according to the expectations of the plant engineer, no mnre than the 73
per cent increase in the voltage to ground on the other two phases
occurred. The main ingredient of the overvoltage (discontinuous con-
duction) had been omitted.
This is an actual case of severe prolonged experience of overvoltage of
repetitive restrike origin on a 280-volt ungrounded system.
This story is spectacular because of the magnitude of the disturbance
and consequential damage. Similar occurrences of lesser extent are not
uncommon, however, and there is evidence that they are more frequent
than realized. It is a characteristic of ungrounded systems that they are
subject to relatively severe transient overvoltages. This trouble can be
avoided by proper grounding of the system, and other importaut benefits
are also obtained. For a detailed explanation of the nature and causes of
these overvoltages, refer to Chap. 5 .
System grounding has been practiced since the beginning of electric
power systems. This method of operation has not been universally uni-
form even within a given voltage class of systems or between various
operating companies. On the other hand, rertain systems are nearly
always grounded, for example, 120-volt lighting circuits.
The problem of whether or not a system neutral should be grounded,
and how it should be grounded, has sometimes not had the complete
understanding and engineering analysis which it deserves. As a conse-
quence, the grounding of many systems has heen hased on past experience
or opinion, and therefore system grounding practice is found to vary
widely on existing systems. On the other hand, most new systems con-
form to modern grounding practices.
A comprehensive review of the problems involved in grounding the
neutrals of industrial power systems clearly shows that it is generally
advantageous to ground all power-system neutrals regardless of voltage
or of process in the plant. The application in practical systems, however,
must be tempered by the availability of standard a p p a r a h s for new sys-
tems and the equipment and practices in an existing plant.
DEFINITIONS
The word “grounding” is commonly used in electric power system
work to cover both “system grounding” and “equipment grounding.”
To avoid confusion or possible misunderstanding, this chapter is devoted
exclusively to the subject of system grounding. The following chapter
(7)is devoted to equipment grounding.
These terms are defined by the National Electrical Code as follows:
SYSTEM GROUNDING 339
UNFAULTED
CIRCUIT
UNGROUNDED
- 4 )TRANSIENT
OVERVOLTAG ES
fI
+-
POWER SOURE
t I MAY CAUSE
1
I SECOND FAULT
I HERE
-
4,
c-
lb- POTENTIAL
, -SINGLE- LINE- TO
~ GROUND FAULT
' I
i SECChD
GROUNC
FAULT
FIG. 6.2 Double line-to-ground faults on ungrounded system result in outages of two
circuits and high-level fault currents which can cause severe damage to equipment.
FIG. 6.3 One ground foult on an ungrounded ryrtem may cause ground foultr in other
connected apparatus.
-:;i:::VOLTAGE
FU LL LIN E -T O -
LINE VOLTAGE
NEUTRAL
NORMAL
GROUND
GROUND * P O T E NT I A L
VOLTAGE
Y
cent higher than normal. Figure G.4 illustrates the increase i n line-to-
ground voltage due t o a ground fault. Usually the insulation het,ween
each line and ground is adequate t,o withstand full line-to-line voltage.
However, if this voltage is applied for loug periods, it may result in failure
of insulation which may have deteriorated hecausc of age or severe
service conditions.
Line-to-ground faults on ungrounded-iieutral systems muse a very
small ground-fault current t o flow through the raparkanre of cahles,
transformers, and other electrical equipment ou t h e system. This current
may have a magnitude from a few amperes t o 25 amp or more 011 larger
rLA
J
- ~.
1 I I
T T h
1Y 1Y s
Y
2Y
T
s5 3
"
5
SWITCHES
hll. G K g
FIG. 6.6 Ungrounded low-voltage system with single line-to-ground fault in one circuit.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 345
Grounded-neutral system
I Ungrounded system
Safety. ... . .. . . ... SAFEST-Only 277 voits to ground Normolly 277 volts to ground when
at m y time (assume good ground no around on sydem. 480 vdti 10
and 480 volts maximum line to line1 ground on two conductors when one
phore i s grounded
SAFEST-Voltage on system limited Voltage on recondory system may be
to obout 277 volts when primary to as high as primary voltage for
secondary failure OCCUR in Irons- breakdown between primary and
former supplying system rocondory Ironsfarmer windings
SAFEST-Ground fault in ~ontroi Control circuit ground fault likely to
wiring cmn put only 58 per ~ e n line
f put full v ~ l t o g eon cantactor closing
volloge on line-to-line connected coils
LO"t.dO, closing coil.
Service rdiobility. HIGHEST-Ground faults ore mod- Port or 011 of system must be taken
ily located and repaired; syitem out of service to Rnd ground faults
need not be taken out to Rnd Subject to severe transient overvolt-
ground faults age*
HIGHEST-Ground foults arc locd- Ground faulh if not removed may
ired and trip off immediately upon occurrence of a second
HIGHEST-h%nimizes Irondent over- ground foult cause N o circuits to
voltages on the system goout atonce, thus causing 0 lossof
twice (IS much production equipment
HIGHTEST-Flooting grounds are Floating or arcing grounds likely
very unlikely
Maintenonce cost.. .. LOWEST-Ground faults arc easily Time must be spent hunting ground
located fault,
Fin1 coil. . . .. ...... About same (IS delta-connected
substation and ground detector
High-vollage Rvoresce Provides 277 volts for direct opera- Mud use step-down handormen
lighting lion of fluorescent lights. resulting from 480 to 277 volts or lower
in a cod roving by lhe elimination
of lighting Ironsformers and a
reduction in copper
348 SYSTEM GROUNDING
Grounded-neutral system
I Ungrounded system
Safely. ..... ....... SAFEST: Single line-to-ground faulh Subject lo severe troniient over-
are tripped off immediocly voltages
Somice roiiobllity . .... HIGHEST: Ground faults are readily Part or 011 of system must be taken
located and repaired out of service to find fovltr
HIGHEST:Limited fault current C(IUSFI Ground foulh, i f not removed, may
a minimum of damage to equip- upon occurren~eof (I second ground
ment [with conventional resistonce fault C W S ~ two circuiti to go out at
grounding) once, lhur couiing the 1 0 s of Wice
as much production equipment
HIGHEST: Minimizer transient over- High fault current assdated with two
voltages on lhe system line-to-ground, faulh moy result in
more damage to equipment
Maintenance cost.. ... LOWEST: Ground fauih ore easily Ground faulh ore more diticult lo
locoled locote
First C o l t . . . .... ..... ABOUT SAME: Adds cost of resistor Requires ground-detector and fault-
and nwtral relaying locator equipmentto be comparable
GROUNDING TRANSFORMERS
System neutrals may not be available, particularly in many old systems
600 volts or less and many existing 2400-, 48On-, and 6900-volt systems.
When it is desired to ground existing delta-connected low-voltage sys-
tems (0-600 volts), grounding transformers are used to form a neutral
which is then connected solidly to ground. I n like manner, 2.4- t o 15-kv
SYSTEM GROUNDING 34P
>
L I N E LEADS
1171
1 t- _.)
I -
(0) WINDING SHOWN ON CORE
NEUTRAL LEAD
-
(b) SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
OF CONNECTIONS
FIG. 6.7 Zigmg three-phore grounding transformer.
350 SYSTEM GROUNDING
APPLICATION
A
A A
-
GROUNDING
TRANSFORMER
GROUNDING
R E S l STOR
-
T R A N SFORMER
{Jq3GROUNDlNG i
L
~
GROUNDING
RESISTOR
$ (b)
SOLID GROUNDING
0
I UNGROUNDED
Y
I
5?
3. RESISTANCE GROUNDED cp
5 GROUND F A U L T
NEUTRALIZER
GENERATOR
SOLIDLY
GROUNDED
POWER
TRANSFORMER
SOLIDLY
GROUNDED
GROUNDING
TRANSFORMER
SOLIDLY 7
T
FIG. 6.1 1 Methods of solidly grounding the neutral of three-phase systems.
RESISTANCE GROUNDING
ground voltages which exist during a line-to-ground fault are nearly the
same as for an ungrounded system (except transient overvoltages). This
is illustrated in Fig. 6.13.
A system properly grounded by resistance is not subject to destructive
transient overvoltages. For resistance-grounded systems at 15 kv and
$9 Y
NORMAL
LINE-TO-,
NEUTRAL
+' POTENTIAL
- VOLTAGE DROP
+! IN GROUNDED
PHASE,DUE TO
GROUND CURRENT
FIG. 6.1 3 System voltage diagrams during single line-to-ground faults. (All voltage5
a t operating frequency-transient voltages not shown.)
SYSTEM GROUNDING 357
REACTANCE GROUNDING
GROUND-FAULT NEUTRALIZERS
POWER CIRCUIT
BREAKER REOUIRED
GROUNDING
REACTOR)
FEEDERS
3 CT’S
FIG. 6.15 Three-current transformers and ground relay required for each circuit in
special ground-fault-neutralirer application.
the voltage ratings commonly required, plus the advantage of being able
to operate the low voltage either grounded or ungrounded. Substations
rated 240 volts are normally delta-connected. To obtain grounded-
neutral operation in this voltage class, either the 208Y/120-volt substa-
tions or 240-volt delta substations with grounding transformers may be
used.
Relatively high ground-fault currents are usually required to operate
the standard overcurrent protective devices in circuits 600 volts or less.
Thus low-voltage systems are solidly grounded to assure sufficient fault
current for operation of protective devices.
Three levels of fault current are of interest in considering grounding
methods for low-voltage systems. These are (1) ground-fault currents
greater than three-phase fault current, (2) ground-fault currents equal to
three-phase fault currents, and (3) ground-fault currents less than three-
phase fault current. I t is desirable to design toward condition 2. There-
fore, systems supplied only by transformers are grounded solidly, in which
case condition 2 will obtain. However, if generator neutrals are grounded
solidly, condition 1 will obtain. Since the generator may not be braced
for the values of ground-fault current which can flow, it is necessary to
use a low-value neutral reactor t o bring the ground-fault current down to
three-phase fault-current value. For all practical purposes. this is
thought of as “solid” grounding rather than “reactance” grounding
because the resulting ground-fault current remains high.
Where grounding transformers are required to establish a neutral, it is
usually desirable to limit the ground-fault current to less than three-phase
fault current to keep the transformer size within practical limits. In this
case it is necessary t o investigate the tripping characteristics of interrupt-
ing devices and establish a transformer reactance which will assure ade-
quate current for tripping.
Condition 3 romes about in actual practice, either with transformer
solidly grounded or generator grounded through a neutral reactor, because
of the resistance of the ground return path. In medium-voltage systems,
this resistance has little effect. Referring to Table 6.4, 0.1 ohm in a
13.8-kv system neutral has practically no current-reducing effect. How-
ever, in low-voltage systems this resistance has a considerable effect.
Thus, 0.1 ohm in the neutral of a 240-volt system reduces the current by
as much as 95 per rent. Also, the system voltage is low enough that the
hazard from shock due to the flow of ground current through thestructure
of a building is minimized compared with higher voltage systems. All air
circuit breakers and fused knife switches must have three overcurrent
elements for application on three-phase grounded-neutral circuits. These
devices will trip for the same value of current whether the fault is three
phase or single phase t o ground. Hence, special ground relays are not
362 SYSTEM GROUNDING
D. If Y-connected generators on system Use resistonce grounding 1. Ganaroton used for grounding should be of ode-
quate sire bee Toble 6.61
2. When severe lightning exposure is present, gen.
erator may be grounded through 1ow-vobe reactomc
Grounding reiistor- to permit use of g'~vnded-nevtml-t~pOlightning
orrede.,
3. Small systems. where the resulting ground-fault cur-
rant would not be excessive, may be reactance
grounded, if desired, in the interest of economy v)
<
Do not ground solidly
-
E. If Y-connected transformers on system Use redstance grounding
[we tronsformen which supply power to
the system, ovoid transformen which are
___-
G! Y ~ --
1. Capacity of transformen used for grounding should
be of odequote size (see Toble 6.61
2' . Smell systemr, where the resulting growd-fault cur- 0
a
P
c
loads on the system) rent would not be excessive, may be solidly grounded. z
if desired, in the interest of economy 0
Resistor- -
2
0
-~ -_---__ _ _ __- __
F. If no Y-connected generators or tronr- Use one or more grounding transformers with resistors I. In m o l l systems. where the r e d l i n g ground-fault cur-
formers on system rent would not be exesrive, lhe growding trans-
former may be solidly grounded in the intorest of
economy
-to bur
-
366 SYSTEM GROUNDING
-7 X 250,000
100o = 1750 kva
lnduitriol Utility
I10 K V SYSTEM
83 K V S Y S T E M
4 16 K V S Y S T E M
Nn
"f GROUND REQUIRED HERE TO %ROUND
N E U T R A L OF 4 8 0 V O L T S Y S T E M
480 VOLT S Y S T E M
GROUND AT L O A D
When there are two or more major source bus sections, each section
should have a t least one grounded neutral point, since the bus tie circuit
may be open, as shown in Fig. 6.18. If there are two or more power
sources per bus section, there should be provisions for grounding at least
two sources at each section.
GROUNDING
RESISTOR GROUNDING
RESISTOR
(MAY BE OPEN)
FIG. 6.18 Grounding CI system consisting of two or more sections which may operate
independently.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 371
When a power system has only one sourre of power (geuerat,or or trans-
former), grounding of the neutral of this sourre may he arcomplished as
shown in Fig. 6.19.
Provision of a switrh or rirruit breaker to opeu the neutral rirruit is
not necessary berause (1) neutral rirvuits have prartirally zero poteutial
with respect t o ground exrept duriug the short interval of a fault; heuw
breakdowns are unlikely; (2) it is not desirable to operate the system
ungrounded by haviug t,he ground ronnertiou open while the generator
or transformer is in service; (3) uenbral si7-itrhing equipment greatly
increases the cost of grounding.
I n the event that some means of disrounertiug t,he grouud (.ounertion
is required in a particular rase, a metal-rlad rircuit hreaker should he
used rather than a n open disconnert s\vit,rh for indoor iustallatioirs. The
latter is hazardous t o personnel if a ground fault should orcur at the time
the switch is opened or closed. The merit of metal-rlad equipment over
open wiring and open devices is generally rerognised for all types of
electric equipment notwithstanding the iurreased rost for metal-clad
switehgear.
4%
S I N G L E GENERATOR
$ Y8
Y
SINGLE TRANSFORMER
( 0 ) (b)
FIG. 6.19 Grounding CI single power source.
372 SYSTEM GROUNDING
ances are frequently used. With this arrangement, the neutral of each
generator or main transformer bank is connected directly toits neutral im-
pedance without intervening switching equipment, as illustrated by Fig.
6.20 ( a ) t o ( c ) . No special operating instructions are required since each
impedance is automatically connected whenever the corresponding power
9
Y
$
Q$ v
GROUND BUS
A A A
v v v
GROUNDING
RESISTOR
$
Y Y
(d) $
Y
FIG. 6.21 Neutra1 grounding b>i rneonr of neutrd bur and switchgear.
374 SYSTEM GROUNDING
RESISTANCE GROUNDING
UNGROUNDED GROUNDED - N E U T R A L
GENERATOR NO.1 GENERATOR NO.2
FAULT OCCURS
ÇOMEWHERE IN GROUNDING
WINDING E E - RESISTOR
TWEEN NEUTR
AND L I N E _íGROUND)
TERMINAL
- t
""'~
" " ' ~ " ~ ' ~ -
(GROUND P O T E N T I A L )
-' ~ ' ~
t
@
VOLTAGE FROM ELECTRICAL
NEUTRAL TO ANY POINT ON
WINDING I S EETWEEN 50%
AND 100%
part of the windings. Therefore, a ground fault at any point in the wind-
ing w i l l produce a ground-fault current of 50 per cent or more of the
resistor current rating.
REACTANCE GROUNDING
(6.1)
SOLID GROUNDING
I I
Reridor........................... ............. 10
Reador.. .........................
Grounding transformer.. ............
* Insulation rlass is drtrrrnintd hy circuit line-to-neutral v a l t a g ~ .
t Tcn sxonds is ntlrquate ior the conventional system. Standard ratings oi 1 mi",
10 mi", and continnous are svailablc.
RESISTOR RATING
Type of relay
Equipmsnt protected
per Cent
P$ 1200 AMPERE
GROUNDING RESISTOR
1200/5 C T
FEEOERS
T i € CIRCUIT
8 0 0 / 5 CT
$
T
FEEOER
400/5C.T.
REACTOR RATING
N0.I N0.2
x'd = 26%
KVA A & I000 KVA
FIG. 6.24
1) Xd = 2 5 %
Reectance-grounded generotorr and rolidly grounded tranrformer on 480-
volt ryrtem.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 383
X (ohms) = x(%
__ kvz
base kva
lo (ohms per phase) (6.7)
No. 1:
No. 2:
No. 2:
Connected load:
x2 =a
25 x 0.4s2 x 10 = 0.0575 ohm
1000
An equivalent circuit with values indicated is illustrated in Fig. 6.25.
From Eq. (6.3)
3 (480/d%)
I'
0.00803 + 0.0063 + 0.00705
830 = 39,000 amp
*-
0.0214
N0.I N0.2 TRANSF CONN. LO40
3%
:022I .0111
FIG. 6.25 Connection of positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence impedance networks for
calculating ground-fault currents for system shown in Fig. 6.24.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 385
I,, = 0'00705 l o =
~ 0.147 X 39,000 = 5900
0.0479
No. 2:
0.007051 -
I,, = ~~ o - 0.294 X 39,000 = 11,500
0.024
To complete the picture, the ground-fault current a t the transformer
will be
0.00705
IDT = ~ ~ = 0.555I X 39,000
o = 21,600
0.0127
The reactor for generator No. 1 must be rated for a t least 5900 amp, and
for No. 2 a t least 11,500 amp.
This serves to indicate the method of determining the reactor current
rating and proves that this rating is determined by system characteristics.
The rating may be considerably greater than the three-phase short-circuit
current of the related generator, as shown shove.
GROUNDING TRANSFORMERS
% 50
4
I
30
a
W
a 20-lf
10
\
5
.5
,110 31 00
MAXIMUM SYSTEM SHORT CIRCUIT MVA CALCULATED USING
SUBTRANSIENT REACTANCES OF ROTATING MACHINES
FIG.6.26 Maximum allowable reactances of grounding transformers lo limit ground-fault
current to 25 per cent of three-phase fault current.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 387
90, = _ X
_ 3000 _ kv?
_ _~ (li.10)
system initial symmetrical three-phase short-rircuit k v s
When grounding transformers are solidly grounded, care should lie
taketi that the reactanre is selerted at a value 1011- enough to provide
sufficient fault current for tripping relays, Tuses, and circnit tjreakers.
Grounding Transformer Resistance Grounded. I u this CBSP it is not
necessary t o provide less groiiiiditig-tratisformer reactanre than t,hc values
giveu in Fig. 6.26 siiice groiuidcd-tteotral-type lightning arrrsters are not
applicable in resistailre-grounded systems. The values of reactatire
given in Fig. (j.Z(i are equal t o ten times the system reavtatm t o three-
phase initial symmetrical rnis short-circuit current. This is cqnivalent
to the ratio Xo/XI equal t o 10.
Where the ratio of Ro/Xo is equal to or greater than 2 , the ratio of
X , / X , may be greater than 10 without the dsirger of severe transient
overvoltages. However, I?, must be low enough to permit sufficient
current for good relaying.
On systems of 600 volts or lo\\-er it is usually desirable to permit cur-
rents of magnitude considerahly greater than 25 per rent of initial sym-
metriral rms three-phase short-circnit current in order to assure positive
tripping of protertive devices. 111 such systems the grouuding trans-
former is connected solidly t,o ground. The minimum current required
for tripping is determitied by esamination of the system aud the ground-
388 SYSTEM GROUNDING
For application of
For limiting transient
grounded-neutral
OVerYOltoge
lightning arresterr
LINE GROUNDING
I n lorn-voltage systems (600 volts and below) which in the past have
almost universally been connected in delta, it was sometimes advocated
that one line be grounded, as illustrated in Fig. 6.27. This was done i i r
order t o obtain some of the advantages of grounding at minimum expense.
Because of its limitations and disadvantages it is strictly a compromise
method and is rarcly encountered in modern industrial systems. Staud-
ard load-center unit substations are now readily availahle with Y-con-
nected secondaries at 480 and 600 volts i n all standard kva ratings. For
( A ) N E U T R A L GROUNDING
--
( 8 ) CORNER- OF- THE- DELTA
GROUNDING
FIG. 6.27 Two melhodr of grounding a low-voltage power system.
SYSTEM GROUNDHG 389
MID-PHASE GROUNDING
Where existing systems at 600 volts and below are supplied by three
single-phase transformers with midtap available, it is possible to gain
some of the advantages of neutral grounding by grounding the midtap
of one phase. This method is illustratrd in Fig. 6.28.
a L.
44
FIG, 6.29 Control circuit on ungrounded system without control power transformer.
-
-
-
A L 6
-
-
.
0.L .
A L B C
SYSTEM GROUNDING 391
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
AUTOTRANSFORMERS
1
8:dc= Ed, = -dE,2
4 3
+ E,2 + h,,E* (6.11)
0.58 m+
34.4' + (13.8)(34.4) = 25 kv
Obviously, this is an undesirable situation and cannot be tolerated.
Solid grounding of the autotransformer neutral eliminates this type of
overvoltage.
Another type of overvoltage called transient inversion can occur in a n
autotransformer, as illustrated in Fig. 6.33.
Steep wave-front transient overvoltages produced by lightning or
slyitching surges coming in over lined and arriving a t point, .J are impressed
across a portion of the aut,otransformer winding .IK, point K remaining
a t it,s normal frequency value until C , can he rharged. The result is that
the port,ion of the ivinding J K has impressed upon it practically the entire
voltage disturhance. Since the port,ion of the winding K N is closely
coupled t o J K , the voltage ivill be stepped up in K N by t,he turn rat,io of
K.V t,o K J . Since the initial disturbance may he several times normal
voltage, and since this may be stepped up tivo t o twenty times or more by
inversion (depending upon the winding ratios), it, is evident that a serious
overvoltage may be experienced. The hazard due t o transient inversion
is greatest for autotransformers in which the high- t o lowvoltage ratio
approaches unity. This type of overvoltage can be eliminated by solidly
grounding the neutral. I n cases where this is not feasible, a lightning
arrester or Thyrite* resistor connected between the neutral and ground
can he used t o minimize this voltage. The presence of a tertiary delta on
the autotransformer also tends t o minimize transient overvoltages of this
hature.
Another system autotransformer connection which is subject to both
normal frequency inversion and transient inversion is operation with the
supply system neutral grounded and the autotransformer neutral isolated,
as shown in Fig. 6.34.
A line-to-ground fault on the high-voltage line 2onnected t o terminal h
forces the voltage of point h t o that of N , . This inverts the phase of
winding hd by impressing voltage N , , from point h t o d . The hd portion
of the winding induces in the d N , portion of the winding a voltage of
corresponding phase and of a magnitude depending upon the turn ratio
* Registwed trademark of General Electric Company.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 393
T O HIGH
VC LTAG E
UNGROUNDED
SYSTEM
a
-
FIG. 6.32 Ground fault on ryrtem with autotransformer connecting ungrounded systems.
(1
;ca
TO UNGROUNDED
HIGH VOLTAGE
I SYSTEM
-
FIG. 6.34 Autotransformer neutral isolated, supply-system neutral grounded.
of the two parts of the winding. This results in a shift of point Nz,as
shown in Fig. 6.35.
Note that phase voltages N P jand N 2 k are far above normal for the case
394 SYSTEM GROUNDING
illustrated, where the step-up ratio was 2 : l . If the step-up ratio had
heen 1 . 1 : 1, that is, the autotransformer normally boosting the low voltage
hy 10 per rent, the faulted phase would be overexcited by ten times nor-
mal, resulting in a much more severe shift of N 2 and overexcitation of the
other phases. That is, the closer the autotransformer ratio is t o unity,
the more severe is the overvoltage from this type of fault.
Overvoltages from this cause can be prevented by solidly grounding
the neutral of the autotransformer.
The resultiirg voltage magriitudes are given by the following relations:
S o t e also in this rase that only the high-voltage lines and connected
apparatus are subject t o overvoltage. The lorn-voltage lines are not
subjected to any ahnormal voltages in this case.
The foregoiiig examples illustrate the nature of the overvoltages which
ran be obt,ained with autotransformers. I n general, solidly grounding
the neutral of t,he autotransformer is a satisfactory means of eliminating
t
EZ
b
t
El 1
-
Y
-I-
FIG. 6.36 Grounding the neutral of (I generator-tr~nrformerunit with resistance-loaded
distribution transformer.
396 SYSTEM GROUNDING
0.0832
(1040)(1.5) = 18,750 amp asymmetrical
Interrupting duty:
I,,, = $ (Id(1.0) = ~
0.0985
(1040)(1.0) = 10,570 amp symmetrical
Interrupting duty:
lint =
X; +3XEI, + Xu (zB)(l'o) = 0.0985 + 0.0832
3
+ 0.06 (1040)(1.O)
= 12,900 amp symmetrical
Ratio of line-to-ground t o three-phase fault duty:
Momentary:
Interrupting :
The key t o this problem is the fact that three-phase fault current is cou-
trolled by the factor l / Z 1 while line-to-ground fault is controlled hy thc
factor 3/(Z, + +
Z, Zo). If Z,, Z?, and ZU\yere all equal, the two fault
currents would be equal. Any system condition uhich acts to reduce
7 5 0 0 UVA
A X = 6 PERCENT
FIG. 6.37 Typical system where ground-fault current may be greater than three-phore
fault current.
398 SYSTEM GROUNDING
X"
I /O.Il 9.09
110.75 1.33
N if 1 / 0 . 6 2 5 = ~
12.02
0.625 1/12.02= 0 . 0 8 3 2
X" EQUIVALENT
N *
0.0832
IF
.eF
x ' ( FOR INTERRUPTING DUTY )
1/0.9375=
I/O.lI '9.09
10.16
0.9375 I/I0.16=0.0985
X ' EQUIVALENT
El
N - 0 F
NEGATIVE SEQUENCE
X, EQUIVALENT
N 2NLh/L. IF
0.0832
ZERO SEQUENCE
XO
N -2AN\r IF
0.06
FIG. 6.38 Sequence impedoncer expressed in per-unit on 7500-kva 4160-volt three-
phase bare, for circuit shown in Fig. 6.37.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 399
EXAMPLES OF PRACTICE
Example 1. Consider the syst,em of Fig. 6.39. ;\pplirat,ion proredure
is as follows:
I . All necessary data are giacit oii the diagram.
2. Select groundiug method. From Table (i.5, voiiditioti d , resist,anre
grounding is suggested.
3. Select all three generator urutrals as grounding point,s, to assurr
that the system \\-ill alij-ays he grounded.
4. Review system rclayiiig.
a. Ground-fault curretit required for relaying is as follo\vs, from Table
6.9:
Generators.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 amp
Feeder irsiug (iOO;5 current tmisformers.. . . . . . . GOO amp
Smaller freders.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.ess than (i00 amp
h. Ground-fault protection is available 011 every circuit esvcpt the bus,
which can be protected by neutral back-up rdays.
5 . Select neutral circuit arrangement. Resistors should be rated at
least GO0 amp. Three iudividual rcsistors would provide a maximum
total ground-fault curretit of only 1800 amp. Therefore, individual
resistors are selei.ted, as suggested uuder Seiitral (:iri,uit Arrangements.
6. Select neutral grnuilditlg equipment. Since gtwerator breakers may
be used for back-up protwtion, a IO-sei. timc interval rating may hc used.
Resistors for iudoor mounting are suggested.
7. The oiily additional devices needed arc three iirwtral current trans-
formers and three neutral overr.urrent relays.
SYSTEM GROUNDING
former secondary faults. For such faults the ground-return path will be
so short that its resistance will be negligible, if the transformer case is
properly bonded to the system neutral. From Table 6.4,a ground-fault
current of about 17,300 amp may flow to a terminal fault. This is over
ten times the circuit rating and
hence is sufficient for operating
phase overcurrent relays in the
primary circuit.
21. T r a n s f o r m e r secondary
breaker. This breaker is pri-
marily for bus faults. Since the
maximum ground-fault current is
only about ten times the circuit
rating, fast tripping may not be 1600 AMP .)
provided by the breaker, but the I 480 V
primary breaker will give satisfac-
tory protection, as discussed for
transformer faults.
G. Feeder breakers. Since the
maximum . mound-fault current FIG. 6.40 Circuit diagram for Example 2.
,
(17,300 amp) is a t least twenty times the rating of the largest feeder
breaker, these provide adequate ground-fault protection.
6. No neutral grounding equipment is required. The transformer
neutral must, of course, be available for grounding.
OPERATING EXPERIENCE
Case 1. The following is quoted from theexperience of an engineer of a
large glass-manufacturing company as related to an AIEE group recently.
“ A few years ago in one of our large plate glass plants two feeder
grounds occurred on two different phases about 2000 feet apart in two
departments. When the fireworks and excitement had subsided the two
departments involved were shut down for several hours until repairs
could be made. Within a few hours after this trouble happened a num-
ber of motors, seven altogether, were brought into the electric shop with
burnt out or grounded windings. This, we believe, is an important effect
of the system surges that occur during very bad fault conditions such as
this., The loss of production and damage on that occasion amounted to
several thousand dollars.
“With continuous process operations the hunting of ground faults is
very difficult, and two grounds on the same phase but on two different
feeders are exceedingly difficult to trace. This is because all the feeders
must be opened a t once and closed one at a time to find the trouble. Our
402 SYSTEM GROUNDING
experience is that the first ground remains on the system because we can-
not open the feeder breakers to hunt it. The result is that the system
operates with two phases a t line-to-line voltage to ground, and the operat-
ing electrician hopes that no other grounds occur before he has an oppor-
tunity t o find the first one.
“It was because of our experiences, such as I have mentioned, and the
need in our operations for the highest possible service continuity, that we
began to seriously consider the use of grounded neutral low voltage dis-
tribution systems.
“The cost of a grounded neutral low voltage system is slightly higher
than an ungrounded system. The additional transformer neutral bush-
ing and connections, the neutral bus and wiring are items that add t o the
cost. These are first costs that do not add more than one per cent t o the
total cost of a unit substation.
“Two of our plate glass plants are now operating 100 per cent with
600 volt grounded neutral systems, and t.wo other works are about 50 per
cent cut over. Two window glass plants, operating a t 460 volts, are
completely changed over t o grounded neutral and a third is in the process
of being changed. Several new plants, one paint plant and two fabri-
cating plants were built with 460 volt grounded neutral systems. Our
total transformer capacity operating a t 600 volts or 460 volts grounded
neutral is now 40,000 kva, consisting of 30 units.
“Our experience with these systems has been very satisfactory. There
is no question that the service reliability has greatly improved. A
majority of the faults occur on branch feeders and are cleared by the
local branch protection devices such as fuses. Troubles are localized and
promptly repaired. As the electricians become used t o the new systems
they are more enthusiastic and quickly learn, for instance, that a single
blown fuse probably indicates a ground. None of them has expressed any
desire t o return to nongrounded systems.”
Case 2. An engineer from a large steel company reported as follows
on experiences with a grounded-neutral 6900-volt system which was
placed in operation in 1947:
“The operating record of the system since the grounded neutral was
installed is most gratifying. The ground faults experienced show a
marked reduction in number and severity. For instance, during the year
1944, the number of ground indications recorded totaled 34. Of these
34 indications, 19 resulted in equipment failures such as grounded motor
coils or flashed-over bushings. During the year 1951, there were two
ground relay operations resulting in one equipment failure, and the first
fifty weeks of 1952 show a similar record. Particular attention has been
paid t o the severity of the damage caused by these ground faults. I n
each instance i t appears that the relaying has been fast enough t o clear
the fault before any destructive burning resulted.”
SYSTEM GROUNDING 403
REFERENCES
1. Concordia., C.., and H. A. Peterson. Arcine Faults in Power Svstems. Trans. A I E E .
I
Equipment Grounding
Iniuries
Year Rdio
Total Fatal
I I I ;;:;
1949 693 42 16.5
1950 690 33 20.9
:;:: :;
Of the 909 recorded injuries, 153 could be related directly to contact
with frame case or non-current-carrying metal parts. It was found that
in these 153 recorded injuries either no grounding or inadequate ground-
ing could have been responsible for the injury. Typical injury descrip-
tions are as follows.
“Refrigerator Repairman. Electric drill shorted out-severe shock;
employee knocked out for about fifteen minutes.”
“Carpenter. Operating portable electric hand-saw on wet ground-
received shock and dropped saw. Laceration, severe, dorsal surface a t
base of distal phalanx, third finger left hand.”
“Cabinetmaker. Ground wire broken off in drill. Hot wire grounded
to frame, took hold of another grounded drill-unconscious about one
minute.”
406 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
FIG. 7.2 pical grounding system for a building and heavy electric opparatvr in the
building.
GROUNDING ELECTRODES
CONNECTlON TO
WATER PlPiNG
CONNECTIONS TO
JOINT BUlLDlNG STEEL
E A C H SlDE OF
EXPANSlON .IOlNT
1 0 VOLTS
FIG. 7.6 Illustrating the importance of a continuous metallic ground-return path of low
imc-edance.
412 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
The lead sheaths, shields, and armor of power cables should he grounded
a t both ends, with the exception of single-conductor cables as noted helow.
I n long cables it is sometimes desirable that sheaths also be grounded a t
several intermediate points. The lead sheath, shield, and armor of large
single-condurtor cables (500 MCM and above) should he grounded a t one
end only to prevent rirculating currents. The sheath, shield, and armor
of such a cable should he insulated from ground throughout the remainder
of its length unless the cable is too long, in which case insulating joints
must he provided to permit grounding a t a sufficient number of points to
keep sheath voltagrs down t o desirable limits. For examplc, the mutual
reactance bo neut,ral X , for a 500-MCM standard-strand cable, varnished
cambric insulated, lead sheathed (approximate outside diameter, 1.5 in,),
wit,h equivalent, spacing between cables of 3 in., is approximately 0.0525
ohm per 1000 ft. Assuming a current I , of 400 amp in t,he conductor,
the induced vokage to neutral per 1000 ft can be calculated from the
formula
P, = I , X , (7.3)
= 400 X 0.0525 = 21 volts
LIGHTING FIXTURES
LIGHTING FIXTURES
A U X I L I A R Y NO.1 A U X I L I A R Y N0.2
RI = R x t R y
Rp = R x + R z
Ra = R y t R Z
Ry i R 3 - RZ
RX = RI - Ry = RI - Rg t R Z
RX i Rp - RZ = Rp -RZ
2Rx i RI + Rp - R 3
RX = RI + R p - A 3
7
FIG. 7.16 Three-point method of mearuring rerirlonce of earth connoction.
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING 425
potential across the resistance. The connections for this method using
alternating current for test are illustrated in Fig. 7.17. A current of known
magnitude is passed through the electrode under test and one of the
auxiliary electrodes. The drop in potential betweeu the electrode under
test and a second auxiliary electrode is then measured, and the ratio of
this voltage drop to the known current will indicate the resistance to
earth. By using a voltage-measuring device which has a high impedance,
the resistance of the auxiliary potential electrode will have no appreciable
effect on the accuracy of the measurements.
L
-
IS DETERMINED
RAtRB
a voltage difference between the frame and ground due to the contact
resistance between the two. In the case of a portable machine, the elec-
tric connection between the frame and the surrounding earth is a poor
one, and, hence, a dangerous voltage can he developed when ground cur-
rent is flowing. This voltage, approximately equal to the product of the
ground current and the frame-to-ground resistance, produces a definite
shock hazard to personnel.
Personnel in the vicinity of portable machines may come in contact
with this frame-to-ground voltage in various ways. Workmen during
idle moments frequently sit on the ground in the shade of the machine
with their backs against the “cats.” In making adjustments or repairs
to the dipper, the workmen usually will be standing on the ground a t some
distance from the base of the machine and will be touching the metal
parts of the dipper as shown in Fig. 7.20. The frame-to-ground voltage
will be transmitted along metal, such as compressed-air, fuel, or water
lines, drag chains, tow cables, or other metal parts connected to the
frame.
limit the ground-fault current to 50 amp and (2) to avoid the relatively
high switching and arcing ground transitory overvoltages which would be
permitted by such high-reactance grounding.
The portable-machine frame-to-ground resistance is very indefinite.
Even under favorable circumstances, the ground resistance will not be
low, and it may be 100 ohms or more on rock formations. Even a gr0u.p
of driven ground rods at the line end of a trailing cable may have a ground
resistance of 10 ohms or more unless the installation is carefully made and
maintained. (Kote that a 10-ohm ground and a ground-fault current of
100 amp would produce a shock hazard potential of 1000 volts between
the machine and ground.)
Available shock-hazard information and data indicate that the possible
voltage from frame to ground should not be allowed to exceed 100 volts
and that adequate relaying should be provided to deenergize the circuit
immediately upon the occurrence of a ground fault. A ground-fault
current of 50 amp and a portable-machine ground-return-path resistance
of 2 ohms have proved successful as a satisfactory compromise. A
reliable ground-circuit resistance of 2 ohms requires a ground-return con-
ductor from the frame of the portable machine back to the electric-supply
substation, as represented by impedances Z, and Z, in Fig. 7.20B. This
ground-return circuit alone is designed t o come within the 2-ohm limit
since other ground paths are so variable. This practice assures adequate
safety even if the ground resistance of these other ground paths is very
high. For example, even if the resistance of the other path is infinite and
the ground-fault current is limited to 50 amp, the maximum voltage
which can occur between the frame and ground is 100 volts. In most
cases it will be found that the ground-return-conductor resistance is
appreciably under 2 ohms, thereby limiting the maximum frame-to-
ground voltage to a value under 100 volts.
CIRCUIT PROTECTION
I 1
L . A : S b \ V - 1 STEP
TRANSFORMER
DOWN BANK
MAIN -
SUB. ?
GROUND 1
PROTECTIVE --
CIRCUIT -
GROUND A. PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF CIRCUIT
-
z2
- - -
SHOVEL FRAME IS
AT T n E POTENTIAL
O F rnis POINT
- 25
R2
8. EQUIVALENT ELECTRIC CIRCUIT-
ARROWS INOICATE CONTINUITY
OF CIRCUIT ONLY
-
- - - - -
T
=
$2
0
B -z
0
FIG. 7.20 Simplified circuit showing the factors involved in the shock hazard of portable machines.
- 23A
- ZPA
-
I
t -
, L I N E TO
h GROUNO FAULT
GROUND FAULT
SHOVEL # I
SHOVEL U 2
t TRANSFORMER
- m
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING 433
I 1 1
FEEDER TO PORTABLE MACHINES
FIG. 7.22 Ground-detector system for an ungrounded power supply.
434 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
RELAYING
LIGHTNING PROTECTION
GROUNDS AT SUBSTATION
RSC
HT
EC POTENl'IAL
R,
2.
FIG. 7.23 Fault diagram for high-tension system.
ER FEEDERS
NEUTRAL)
I
I
I
i C T TO
:H nousE
SWITCH
@Y+!+2L SURGECbP
PROTECTIVE TRAILING CbBLt
SURGE PROTECTIVE
CbP
FIG. 7.24 Typical distribution system for supplying power to portable machines.
430 EQUIPMWT GROUNDING
REFERENCES
Is'
6. MeCall, M. C., and I,. R. Harrison, Some Characteristics the Earth as a Con-
ductor of Electric Current, U.S. Bur. Mines Repl. Inuesl. 903,September, 1952.
7. Electrical Work Injuries in California Industries Year Ended December 31, 1952.
Depsrtment of Industrial Relations, State of Califomin.
8. Code for Protection Against Lightning, National Bureau of Standards Handbook
46.
9. Accident Facts, National Safety Council, 1952 edition.
10. Kaufmsnn, R. H., Some Fundamentals of Equipment, Grounding Circuit Design,
AIEE Paper 54-244, 1954.
Ch-apter 8 by W. C. Bloornquist
Power-factor Improziement *
Why are power engineers interested in plant power factor, what causes
low power factor, and how can it be improved? The objectives of this
chapter are to answer these questions briefly and to include handy appli-
cation information for power-factor problems. More complete informa-
tion on this subject can be found in the book from which parts of this
chapter were reproduced. *
In summary, the effects of low plant operating power factor may be
any or all of the following: overloaded cables, transformers, etc.; increased
copper losses; reduced voltage level, resulting in sluggish motor operation;
reduced illumination from lighting, especially where incandescent lamps
are used; and increased power costs where a power-factor clause, or its
equivalent, is part of the rate structure and is enforced.
Generally, low power factor is due to partially loaded induction motors.
Frequently drives are “overmotored,” i.e., the motor is selected to handle
the largest load but usually operated at less than full load.
There are also other factors contributing t o lower power factor, such as
replacement of incandescent lamps with fluorescent lamps; use of rectifiers
instead of synchronous motor-generator sets for d-c power supply; and
increased installation of various induction devices, electronic eqrripments,
air-conditioning units, etc. Most of these changes or replacements are
in the interest of worker comfort and efficiency, lower manufacturing
cost, and technological advances; the fact that they contribute to lower
plant power factor is of secondary importance.
As plants become motorized it can be expected that the plant power
factor will become poorer unless some corrective measures are taken.
Improvement of power factor can reduce power costs, release electrical
capacity of the power-distribution system, raise the voltage level, and
* P a t s or this chapter are reproduced, with permission. from “Capacitors f o r
Industry,” hy W. C. Bloomquist and R. C . Wilson, copyright General Electric Com-
pany, John Wilcy & Sons, h e . , XPWYork, 1950.
439
440 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
reduce the system losses. However, the two main reasons for improving
the power factor are (1) to reduce the power bill when there is a power-
factor incentive in the rate clause and (2) to increase or release electrical
capacity of the power-distribution system. Although the first is still of
primary importance, the second is becoming more important as engineers
recognize the economics. This is especially true when capacitors are used
for power-factor improvement because the electrical capacity released is
valued at several times the cost of capacitors.
The two most common methods for improving power factor are shunt
capdcitors or synchronous motors. Each has its own application; usually
the capacitor method is most economical and practical for existing plants,
while the synchronous motor finds its main application when a new and
large motor drive is added.
POWER-FACTOR FUNDAMENTALS
The usual definition of power factor in terms of the phase relationship
of voltage and current in a sine wave is intentionally avoided because it is
abstract and difficult to translate into a simple physical concept. The
concept used here-hased on the fact that there are two types of current in
an a-c circuit--is particularly helpful in understanding the effect of power
factor on system operation and understanding capacitor applications.
Although the following discussion on fundamentals is written around
the use of capacitors because they generally are the most practical and
economical means for improving the power factor, these fundamentals
also apply to other met,hods, such as synchronous motors and condensers.
The current required by induction motors, transformers, fluorescent
lights, induction heating furnaces, resistance welders, etc., may be con-
sidered to be made up of two separate kinds of current: magnetizing cur-
rent and power-producing current. Some loads, such as incandescent
lights, require only power-producing current.
Power-producing current (or working current) is that current which is
converted by the equipment into useful work such as turning a lathe,
making a weld, or pumping water. The unit of measurement of the power
produced is t,he kilowatt (kw).
Magnetizing current (also known as wattless, reactive, or nonworking
current) is that current which is required to produce the flux necessary to
the operation of induction devices. Without magnetizing current, energy
could not flow through the core of a transformer or across the air gap of an
induction motor. The unit of measurement of magrietizing volt-amperes
is the IMovar (kvar).
Total current is the current that is read on an ammeter in the circuit.
It is generally made up of both magnetizing current and power-producing
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 441
KVAR
CURRENT
TOTAL
CURRENT
2 AMP.
FIG. 8.1 Diagrom showing cornpo-
nent currents in a-c circuits. 2.83 AMPS.
kw
Power factor = - (8.4)
kva
kw = kva X pf (8.5)
kw
kva = -
Pf
Stated another may, the power factor is that factor by which the apparent
power must be multiplied in order to obtain the working power.
For the case illustrated in Fig. 8.2 the power factor is SO/lOO, or 0.8, or,
as it is commonly expressed, 80 per cent. The angle included between the
kva and the kilowatt components is called the power-factor angle and is
designated by the symbol 8. The cosine of this angle (cox e) is the power
factor.
\
100 K V A 6 0 KVAR
\ FIG. 8.2
ongle
Right-tri-
relationship
for power-factorcol-
dotions in a-c cir-
cuits.
The terms leading and lagging power factor are apt to be confusing, and
they are meaningless unless the direction of both kilowatt and kilovar flow
is knoivn. Generally, however, in industrial plants only the load power
factor is considered, in which case the following rule may be helpful in
differentiating between leading and lagging power factor: " The power
factor is lagging if the load requires kilovars and leading if the load fur-
nishes kilovars." Thus, an induction motor has a lagging power fartor
TABLE 8.1 Power Factor of Load and Source
Direction of flow
I
A t load
I
-
Kw I I
Kwr Power factor' Kw
-___
Kvar Power factorl
z
gAG)
LOAD
INO. MOTOR
FIG. 8.3
LOAD
SYN. MOTOR
(UNDER
EXCITED 1
(C)
[ (LAG1
444 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
2. Find the kilowatts and kilovars that the substation must supply,
SUBSTATION
-
SO KVAzKW
180 KW /t
1 5 KVA
60 K W
45 KVAR
135 KVAR
(b)
290 K W
90 KVAR
a. Kilowatts:
Lights = 50
Induction motor load = 180
Synchronous motor = - 60
Total = 290 kw
b. Kilovars:
Lights = o
Induction motor load = 135
-
Subtotal = 135 kvar
This is shown pictorially for another example in Fig. 8.5a and b. The
working load requires 80 amp, but because oE the motor magnetizing
requirements of GO amp, the supply circuit must carry 100 amp. After a
capacitor is installed to supply the motor magnetizing requirements, the
supply circuit needs to deliver only 80 amp to do exactly the same work.
The supply circuit is now carrying only kilowatts; so no system capacity
is wasted in carrying nonworking current.
From the right-triangle relationship the following important fact can
be drawn: the simple subtraction of kilowatts from total kua never equals the
kilovars ezcept at unity power factor.
In actual practice, it is generally not necessary or economical to improve
the power factor to 100 per cent; capacitors or synchronous motors are
used to supply part of the load kilovar requirements and the supply sys-
tem the remainder.
INDUCTION
MOTOR LOADS
(0) (b)
FIG. 8.5 Schematic arrangement showing how capacitors reduce total line current by
supplying magnetizing requirements locally.
Example 3. In the example of Fig. 8.2, suppose that the power factor
is to be improved from 80 to 90 per cent with capacitors. How much of
the load magnetizing requirements is furnished by capacitors? (See
Fig. 8.6 for diagram construction.)
Without capacitors a t 0.8 power factor
km = 80
kvar = 60
448 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
Line kvar = ~ ‘ / ( 8 8 . 9 )-
~ (SO)z (8.3)
= 47903 - 6 4 5
= 38.7
Since the line supplies 38.7 k m r hiid the load requirement is 80 kvar,
the capacitor supplies tho difference, or 80 - 38.7 = 21.3 kvar.
kvar components change with power factor), Eq. (8.8) involving the kilo-
watt component is the most convenient to use. This expression may be
rewritten as
kvar = kw X tan e (8.10)
For example, assume that it is necessary to determine the capacitor
rating to improve the load power factor.
kvar a t original pf = kw X tan 8 ,
kvar a t improved pf = km X tan O2
Therefore, the capacitor rating required to improve the power factor is
ckvar* = kw X (tan 8 , - tan 02) (8.11)
For simplification (tan O1 - tan Sz) is often written asA tan. Therefore,
ckvar = kw X A tan (8.12)
All tables, charts, and curves which have a “kw mu1tiplier”for determining
the capacitor on synchronous motor kilovars are based on the above expression.
Table 8.2 lists the “kw-multiplier” values for a wide range of operating
conditions; various trigonometric functions useful in power-factor applica-
tions are included in the Appendix.
Example 4. Determine the capacitor rating for Example 3 by using
Table 8.2.
The “kw multiplier” or A tan as read from the table is 0.266. Sub-
stituting in Eq. (8.12),
ekvar = 80(0.266) = 21.3
KllOVAR GENERATORS
factor cos 8 ,
0.80 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.0
0.50 0.982 1.0081.034 1.0601.0861.112 1.1391.165 1.192 1.220 1.248 1.2761.3061.3371.3691.403 1.440 1.481 1.529 I 589 1.732
I'
0.51 0.9370.9620.989 1.015 1.041 1.0671.0941.120 l.1471.1751.2031.231 1.261 1.2921.3241.358 1.395 1.4361.484 1.5441.687
0.52 0.8930.9190.9450.971 0.9971.023 1.050 1.0761.1031.131 1.1591.1871.217 1.2481.280 1.314 1.351 1.392 1.4401.5001.643
0.53 0.8500.8760.9020.9280.9540.9801.0071.033 1.0601.0881.116 1.1441.1741.2051.237 1.271 1.308 1.3491.3971.4571.600
0.54 0.8090.8350.861 0.8870.9130.9390.9660.992 1.019 1.0471.075 1.1031.133 1.164 1.196 1.230 1.2671.308 1.3561.4161.559 5
0.55 0.7690.7950.821 0.8470.8730.8990.9260.9520.979 1.007 1.035 1.063 1.093 1.124 1.156 1.190 1.227 1.268 1.3161.3761.519 <
0.56
F
0.7300.7560.7820.8080.8340.8600.8870.9130.9400.9680.9961.024 1.054 1,085 1.1171.151 1.188 1.229 1.2771.337 1.480 j:
0.57 0.6920.7180.7440.7700.7960.8220.8490.8750.9020.9300.9580.9861.0161.0471.0791.1131.1501.191 1.2391.2991.442 2
0.58 0.6550.6810.7070.7330.7590.7850.8120.8380.8650.8930.921 0.9490.979 1.0101.042 1.0761.1131.lS41.202 1.262 1.405 0
0.59 0.6190.6450.671 0.6970.723 0.749 0.7760.802 0.8290.8570.8850.913 0.943 0.974 1.006 1.040 1.077 1.118 1.166 1.226 1.369 ?
0.60 0.583 0.609 0.635 0.661 0.687 0.713 0.740 0.766 0.793 0.821 0.849 0.877 0.907 0.938 0.970 1.004 1.041 1.082 I. I30 I. I90 1.333 5
3
0.61 0.5490.575 0.601 0.6270.653 0.6790.70610.732 0.7590.7870.8l50.8430.8730.9040.9360.970 1.007 1.048 1.096 1.156 1.299 2
0.62 0.5160.5420.5680.5940.6200.6460.6730.6990.7260.7540.7820.8100.8400.8710.9030.9370.974 1.015 1.063 1.123 1.266 2
0.63 0.483 0.5090.535 0.561 0.5870.6130.6400.6660.6930.721 0.749 0.7770.8070.838 0.8700.904 0.941 0.982 1.030 1.090 1.233 f
0.64 0.451 0.4740.5030.5290.5550.581 0.6080.6340.6610.6890.7170.7450.7750.8060.8380.8720.9090.9500.998 1.058 1.201
0.65 0.4190.4450.4710.4970.5230.5490.5760.6020.6290.6570.6850.7130.7430.7740.8060.8400.8770.9180.9661.0261.169
0.66 0.388 0.414 0.440 0.466 0.492 0.518 0.545 0.571 0.598 0.626 0.654 0.682 0.712 0.743 0.775 0.809 0.846 0.8870.935 0.995 1.138
0.67 0.358 0.384 0.410 0.436 0.462 0.488 0.515 0.541 0,568 0.596 0.624 0.652 0,682 0.713 0.745 0.779 0.816 0.8570.905 0.965 1. 108
0.68 0.3280.3540.3800.4060.4320.4580.4850.511 0.5380.5660.5940.6220.6520.6830.7150.7490.7860.8270.8750.935 1.078
0.69 0.299 0.325 0.351 0.377 0.403 0.429 0.456 0.482 0.509 0.537 0,565 0.593 0.623 0.654 0.686 0.720 0.7570.798 0.846 0.906 1.049
0.70 0.270 0.296 0.322 0.348 0.374 0.400 0.427 0.453 0.480 0,508 0.536 0.564 0.594 0.625 0.6570.691 0.728 0.769 0.817 0.877 1.020
I ' I ' I
0.71 0.242 0.268 0.294 0.320 0.346 0.372 0.399 0.425 0.452 0.480 0,5080.536 0.566 0.597 0.629 0.663 0.700 0.74 I 0.789 0.849 0.992
0.72 0.21 4 0.240 0.266 0.292 0.3 I8 0.344 0.37 I 0.397 0.424 0.452 0.480 0,508 0,5380.569 0.60 I 0.635 0.672 0.71 3 0.761 0.82 I 0.964
0.73 0,186 0.21 2 0.238 0.264 0.290 0.31 6 0.343 0.369 0.396 0.424 0.452 0.480 0,510 0.541 0.S73 0.607 0.644 0.685 0.733 0.793 0.936
0.74 0.159 0.185 0.211 0.2370.263 0.289 0.316 0.342 0.369 0.397 0.425 0.453 0.483 0.514 0.546 0.580 0.617 0.658 0.706/0.7660.909
0.75 0.1320.1580.1840.2100.2360.2620.2890.3150.3420.3700.3980.4260.4560.4870.5190.5530.5900.6310.6790.7390.882
0.76 0.1050.1310.1570.1830.2090.2350.2620.2880.3150.3430.3710.3990.4290.4600.4920.5260.5630.6040.6520.7120.855
0.77 0.0790.1050.131 0.1570.1830.2090.2360.2620.2890.3170.3450.3730.4030.4340.4660.5000.5370.5780.6260.6860.829
0.78 0.052,0.0780.1040.1300.1560.1820.2090.2350.2620.2900.3180.3460.3760.4070.4390.4730.5100.5510.5990.6590.802
0.79 0.0260.0520.0780.1040.1300.1560.1830.2090.2360.2640.2920.3200.3500.381 0.4130.4470.4840.5250.5730.6330.776
0.80 0.0000.0260.0520.0780.1040.1300.1570.1830.2100.2380.2660.2940.3240.3550.3870.421 0.4580.4990.5470.6090 750
0.81 ..... 0.000 0.026 0.052 0.078 0.104 0.131 0.1570.184 0.212 0.240 0.268 0.298 0.329 0.361 0.395 0.432 0.473 0.521 0.58110:724
0.82 ..... .....0.0000.0260.0520.0780.1050.1310.1580.1860.2140.2420.2720.3030.3350.3690.4060.4470.4950.5550.698
0.83 ..... ..... .....0.0000.0260.0520.0790.1050.1320.1600.1~~0.2160.2460.2770.3090.3430.3800.421 0.4690.5290.672
0.84 ..... ..... ..... ..... 0.0000.0260.0530.0790.1060.1340.1620.1900.2200.251 0.2830.3170.3540.3950.4430.5030.646
..... . .... ..... ..... ..... 0.000 0.027 0.053 0.080 0,108 0.136 0.164 0.194 0.225 0.257 0.291 0.328 0.369 0.417 0.477 0.620 05
~
0.85
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 0,000 0.026 0.053 0.081 0. I09 0. I37 0. I67 0.I98 0.230 0.264 0.301 0.342 0.390 0.450 0.593
m
0.86
0.87 ..... ..... ..... ..... .......... ..... 0.0000.0270.0550.0830.1110.I4l0.1720.2040.2380.2750.3160.3640.4240.567 &
0.88 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....0.0000.0280.0560.0840.1140.1450.1770.2110.2480.2890.3370.3970.540 5
0.89
0.90
0.91
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....0.0000.0280.0560.0860.1170.1490.1830.2200.261 0.3090.3690.512 m
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....0.0000.0280.0580.0890.121 0.1550.1920.2330.281 0.341 0.484 5
..... ..... , ..., ..... ..... , .... ..... , .... ..... ..... ..... 0,0000.030 0.061 0.093 0.127/0.1640.205 0.253 0.313 0.456 0
-
io
0.92 ..... ..... ...., . .... , .... ..... ..... . .... ..... ..... ..... ..... 0.000 0.031 0.063 0.097 0.I34 0.I75 0.223 0.283 0.426 3
0.93 ..... ..... ..... ............... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 0.0000.0320.0660.103,0.1440.I920.2520.395 9
0.94 ..... _......... _......... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 0.0000.0340.0710.1120.1600.2200.363 +
0.95 ..... ..... ...., ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... _......... .._....... ..... 0.0000.0370.0790.1260.1860.329
0.96 ..... ..... ...., ..... ., ... , ., .. ..... ..... ..... .., .. ..... ..... ..... ..... ..., , ..... 0,0000.041 0.089 0.149 0.292
0.97 _......... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 0.000~0.048~0.1080251
..... ..... ..... ............... ............... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....,.......... ..... 0.0000.06~0:203
1 1
0.98
0.99 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .......... ..... .....0.0000.143
10.000
ckvar = kw X multiplicr
= 5on x 0.691
= 345.5
IS? POWER-FACTOR IMFROVEMENT
FIG. 8.7 Curves showing approximate kilovan supplied by synchronous motors with rated
excitation.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 453
R VALUES
R,V'
W,
-
FIG. 8.8 Curve for obtaining power factor from ratio o f wattmeter readings (applicable
only for balonced loodl.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
456 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
c3
&( I
c2
DISTRIBUTED LOADS
.
0
c2
FIG. 8.10 Electrical location of shunt capacitors on indurtriol power systems. Locate
copacilori 01 load, such (IS CI or C2, for maximum over-all benefits.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 457
FIG. 8.1 1 Installation showing capacitor locoted near the motor ond connected (15 shown
in C1 of Fig. 8.10,
device usually cost more than 460- or 575-volt equipments for prartically
all industrial applirations because of the higher cost of siritrhing devires
for 2400-volt service.
POWER-BILLING SAVINGS
Practically every size of plant having the usual type of power-fartor rate
structure cau justify capacitors. I t is the rafe of retzcrn 011 the capacitor
investment which is the important factor. Actually, the rate of return
will usually be greater for small plauts herause of the higher demand and
energy charges for small loads.
tor and engine-generator sets have a kilowatt limit of the prime mover as
well as a kva limit of the generator. Usually the kilowatt limit corre-
sponds to the generator kva rating, and the set is rated a t that kilowatt
value a t unity power-factor operation. Intermediate kilowatt values,
such as those between 0.8 and 1.0 power-factor operation, are determined
by the power factor and kva rating a t the generator, so neither the kilo-
watt nor kva load exceeds the generator kva rating. Improvement of
the power factor can release both kilowatt and kva capacity.
Example 6. A 1000-kw turbine-generator set (turbine capability of
1250 kw) is already operating a t rated load, 1250 kva and 0.8 power fac-
tor. An additional load of 170 kw a t 0.85 power factor is to be added.
What value of capacitors is required so that neither the turbine nor the
generator will be overloaded?
Original load :
kw = 1000
kvar = 1000 X 0.75 = 750 (8.10)
kva = 1250
Additional load:
kw = 170
kvar = 170 X 0.620 = 105 (8.10)
170
kva = - = 200 (8.6)
0.85
Total load:
kw = 1000 + 170 = 1170
kvar = 750+ 105 = 855
The minimum operating power factor for a load of 1170 km and not
exceeding the kva rating of the generator is
1170
cos e = -= 0.935
1250
The maximum load kvar for this condition is
The foregoing showed how plant kva load could be reduced by power-
factor improvement. This will show how additional load can be added
to a fully loaded circuit, transformer, distribution system, etc., by improv-
ing the power factor of the existing load, and also the magnitude of the
additional load for a given improvement in power factor. Among power
engineers this is termed release of capacity-thermal, electrical, or system
capacity-and is usually abbreviated as T c or S,.
The determination of the amount of system capacity released by porver-
factor improvement is a somewhat arduous procedure; so several useful
curves have been included to eliminate the need for calculations.
Since any additional load added because of release of capacity by
power-factor improvement may be at any power factor and different, from
the original load power factor, there is 110 single convenient curve which
will give the permissible load that can be added, although there is a rather
involved equation which expresses this relationship. One approach, and
a conservative one which also permits rather easy form of expression, is to
assume that any additional load is at the same power factor as the original
load.
Figure 8.11 shows the basic diagram which applies to all the following
expressions for T,
where T , = capacity released, in terms of kva or per cent. load
cos 0, = original power factor
cos e2 = improved power factor of original load
cos O3 = final power factor of combined load
Since the total kva must not exceed the original load OR, the circle BB'
will establish the limits. To satisfy this requirement, OE must equal OB
OC + Tc = OE = OB
where OC = origirial load O B + capacitors OF or BC.
Although the follo\ving data and figurrs ha1.e bren prepared specifically
for caparitors, they a,lso apply t o synchronous motors for the same output
of leading kilovars. These data are prcseiited in various forms, Figs. 8.15
to 8.17, for convenience.
Figure 8.15, which includes an example for its use, shows the electrical
capacity released for a specific value of capacitors.
For estimating purposes and when there is not a large charige in power-
factor improvemerit, i.e., cos 0, to cos &, the followirig equation may be
used:
T C (in kva) = ckvar X sin 0, (8.13)
Figure 8.15 is also valuable in that it may be used to shew the incremen-
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 463
tal gain in capacity released per kilovar of capacitors added. If, in the
example in Fig. 8.13, t,he value of capacitors is doubled, the capacity
released will increase from 28.5 t o 42.5 per cent, or a gain of 50 per cent.
However, this 50 per cent gain in capacity requires a 100 per cent increase
in capacitors. Even t,hough there is a gain in the total capacity released,
the incremental gain may not necessarily be economically attractive.
T, in Terms of Power-factor Improvement (cos 8 , to cos &). Often it
is more convenient t o work in terms of the original and improved power
factor rather than actual values of ckvar. In such cases Fig. 8.l(i, which
also contains additional useful information, should be used
F
A 8 : LOAD KVAR
BC: OFzCKVAR \
FIG. 8.14 Basic load diogrorn for determining r e l e ~ r eof system electrical capacity by
power-factor improvement.
0 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 SO 90 100 I10 120 130 140
CAPACITOR W A R I N PERCENTAGE OF INITIAL KVA
EXAMPLE
IF A PLANT HAS A LOAD OF 1000 KVA 4 T 70 PERCENT POWER FACTOR AND 480 KVAR OF CAPACITORS ARE
ADDED. THE SYSTEM ELECTRlC CAPACITY RELEASED 15 APPROXIMATELY 28.5 PERCENT: T H A T IS. THE SYSTEM
CAN CARRY 2 8 . 5 PERCENT MORE LOAD (AT 10 PERCENT POWER FACTOR1 WITHOUT EXEEDING THE KVA BEFORE THE POWER
FACTOR WAS IMPROVED T H E F I N A L POWER FACTOR ICOS 831 OF THE ORIGINAL LOAD P L U S THE ADDITIONAL LOAD
I S APPROXIMATELY 90 PERCENT
FIG. 8.15 Per cent electrical capacity released by capacitors and the approximate Rnol power factor (COI 081
of the combined load.
POWER.FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 465
=E
IF THE LOAD POWER FACTOR (GO5 e,1 OF A SUBSTATION IS IMPROVE0 FROM 70 TO
95 PERCENT, THE SVSTEM ELECTRICAL CAP&CITY RELEASED IS 28.5 PERCENT; THAT IS,
THE SYSTEM CAN CARRY 28.5 PERCENT MORE LOAD IAT 70 PERCENT POWER FACTOR)
WITHOUT EXCEEDING THE KVA BEFORE THE POWER FACTOR WAS IMPROVED.
THESE CURVES ALSO SnOW THAT IT IS MORE ECONOMICAL TO OBTAIN THIS AMOUNT
DF SVSTEM CAPACITV 81 POWER-FACTOR WPROVEMENT WITH CAP4CITORS THAN BY
~ D D I T I O N A LSUBSTATION AND DISTRIBUTION FACILITIES FOR A L L SIC VALUES
GREATER THqN 1.7 IOBTAINED BV INTEPPOLATION.
THE FINAL POWER FACTOR (GOSe,I OF THE ORIGINAL LOAO PLUS THE ADDITIONAI.
LOAD IS 90 PERCENT.
FIG. 8.16 Per cent electrical capaciv released by improvement of load power factor
(COI81 to COI BJ and the relative economics of capacitors for increasing the electrical
capacity.
EXI\*PLL
IF THE ORIGIN#.L LOAD POWER F4CTOR ICOS S,I 15 70 PERCENT b,ND THE FIN4L POWER
FACTOR lCOS 93) OF THE COMBINED LOAD (ORIGINbL LOLID PLUS THE ADDITIONAL LOAD ALSO
4 1 70 PERCENT POWER FACTOR1 15 90 PERCENT, THE SYSTEM ELECTRICAL CAPACITY RELEbSED
IS 2 8 5 PERCENT, THAT 15,TWF SYSTEM GAN CARRY 2 8 5 PERCENT MORE LOAD (AT 70 PERCENT
POVER FACTOR1 WlTHOUT EXCEEDING THE K W BEFORE THE POWER FACTOR WAS IMPROVED
THESE CURVES ALSO SHOW TH41 IT 15 MORE ECONOMICAL TO OBT4IN THIS AMOUNT OF
SYSTEM CAPACITY BV POWER-F4CTOR IMPROVEMENT WITH CAPaCITORS TH4N BY 4DDITION4L
SUBSTATION by0 OlSTRlBUTlON F4CILITIES FOR ALL S/C WLUES GREATER THAN.17 (OBTAINED
BV INTERPOL4TlONL
FIG. 8.17 Per cent electrical capacity released by improvement of load power fador
lcos 8 , to COIBJ and the relative economics of capacitors for increasing the electrical
capacity.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 467
.oo
j
.:: .!:: ! ...... :: : : : -:..:
AS..
~ , .. .. .. .. .. .. --
-.=I
D E T E R M I N A T I O N OF CKVAR
TO G I V E D E S I R E D I M P R O V E M E N T
" S" OF W O V E R A L L POWER
SAPACITOR K V A R I N T E R M S OF O R I G I N A L KW L O A D
FIG. 8.18 Graph for determining the value of capacitors required for improvement in
load power factor (COI 61to cos 6a). There doto are for use only with Fig. 8.17.
460 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
From Fig. 8.16 it will also be noted that. the resultant power factor
(cos &), i.e., the over-all power factor of the original load and capacitors,
plus the additional load, is 90 per cent. Thus, this curve gives both the
per cent load that can be added (or capacity released) and the final or
over-all operating power factor.
Tc in Terms of Final Power Factor (cos 8 , to cos OS). I n those cases
where it is desirable to know the capacity released for a specific final
ouer-all power factor cos R3, use Fig. 8.17.
The value of capacitors required to release T c for this condition must be
obtained from Fig. 8.18: the required ckvar value cannot,be obtained from
any of the expressions, tables, or curves given elsewhere in this chapter.
Use of Figs. 8.16 and 8.17. The difference between Figs. 8.16 and 8.17
should be clearly understood for a proper interpretation of T c . For
example, Fig. 8.16 is used when the power factor of the original load is
improved to a definite value, cos 82. The resultant power factor cos B3 is
of secondary importance. On the other hand, Fig. 8.17 is used when the
final power factor of the combined load, i.e., original load plus the addi-
tional load, is required to be a definite value, cos 03,as is often true in con-
nection with power-factor rate studies.
The examples in Figs. 8.16 and 8.17 show that the per cent capacity
released is the same; the reason is that in both cases the original and final
power factors (cos 03)are also the same. These charts can be used inter-
changeably only when the original and final power factors are the same
for each case.
IS1
Substation and (Cl
System
distribution Capacitors, SIC
"oltoge
facililie,. dollars per k v m t
dollars per kvo*
These data are also applicable to synchronous motors; for thc C value
use the cost of the leading kilovars output in dollars per kilovar.
Once the ratio S / C has been obtained, it is a simple matter t o det,crmirle
the relative economics since, in Figs. 8.16 and 8.17, lines of various S / C
ratios have been plotted. The cost relationship applies t o anu case,
whether it is for an entirely new substation or for addit,ional feeder cir-
cuits, etc., for an existing substation or plant. In all cases, the appropri-
ate S costs should be used.
I t should be specifically noted that the values to use for S arid Care
their unit costs, i.e., dollars per kva and dollars per kvar, respectively, and
not the total dollar cost; to use total dollars in Figs. 8.16 and 8.17 irill give
erroneous answers.
For all points under an S/C curve (or for all S/C values greater than
that established by the power-factor points) it is more economical to
release system capacity by power-factor improvement, with rapacitors
than by expanding substation and distribution facilities.
Example 8. Are capacitors economical for releasing the amount of
system capacity stated in Example 71
Assume that new substation and distribution facilities cost $30 per kva
installed and capacitors cost $10 per kvar installed. The S/C ratio is
30/10, or 3.
From Fig. 8.16 i t will be found that t,he intersection of the power-factor
points (cos = 0.70 and cos .Q2 = 0.95) lies undcr an S,'C value of 3.
Therefore, the capacitor method is more economical than expanding sub-
station and distribution facilities for handling this amount of load.
This can be checked in actual dollars as follows:
470 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
POWER-SYSTEM LOSSES
The capacitors have losses, but they are relatively small-only one-
third of 1 per rent of the kvar rating.
Example 9. Determine the savings in losses due t o improved power
factor for the following conditions:
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 471
1,oss reduction = 1 - -
(E)* (8.15)
= 1 - 0.623
= 0.377 or 37.7 per cent
ltedurtioii i n losses = 0.377 X 7500 = 2828 kwhr
Assuming a net realization of GO per rent, then the actual reduction in
losses = 2828 X 0.60 = 1697 kwhr.
VOLTAGE IMPROVEMENT*
The disadvantages of low voltage are so well known that they will not
be rcit,cratcd here exrept to state t h a t they are economic and operational
liabilities. Akhough caparitors raise voltagelevels, it is rarely economical
t o apply them in industrial plants for voltage improvement alone. Volt-
age improvement may therefore be regarded as an additional benefit of
capacitors.
reartanre, and sinre raparitors reduce t,he kilovar current they reduce t,he
voltage drop and by an amount equal t o the rapacitor rurrent times the
reartance. Therefore, it is neressary only t o know the capacitor rating
and system reartanre t,o predirt the voltage change due to caparitors.
There is some misunderstanding regarding voltage replalion when
shunt rapacitors are used. Capacitors do not redure the voltage regula-
tion uiiless they are automatirally switched. The voltage regulation
wit,h unswitched rapacitors is prartirally the same as without capacitors,
hut the voltage leuel is raised.
From Eq. (8.19) above it is seen that voltage drop is made up of two
parts, one part due t o the kilowatt current and resistanre, which is usually
called the resistance component, and the other part due t o the kilovar
current and reactance, which is usually called the reactance component.
I n industrial power systems the reactance is usually much larger than
the resistance and in the order of two t o four times for distribution circuits
and five t o ten times for power transformers. It is evident, then, that a
change in the kilovar current has a larger effect than the kilowatt current
in reduring the total voltage drop. Also, since the resistance component
is tixed for a given kilowatt load, and the rircuit reactance is fixed, the
practical way t o reduce the voltage drop is by reducing the kilovar cur-
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 473
rent. The kilovar current is reduced when the power factor is improved.
For example, if a circuit has a resistance of 1 per rent, a rcartatire of
j per cent,, and au operating power factor of 0.70, t,he voltagc drop is
4.3 per cent. The major part of t,he drop is due to reactanre mid is 3.(i per
cent. If the power factor is improved to 0.90, the voltage drop is 2.4 pcr
cent; if improved to unity (no kilot-.ar current): the drop is niiiy 0.7 of
1 per cent.
There are many calrulating methods for determining the voltage rise
due to capacitors (or voltage change due to stvitchiirg blocks of capacitors
in and out of service), but the per cent method is perhaps the most prac-
tical and simple; occasionally data in terms of actual values of volts,
amperes, and ohms are used.
The following few expressions are gcnerally sufficiently accurate, for
practical purposes, to determine the voltage change due to capacitors or
the leading kilovars from a synchronous motor or condenser. ,i few
formulas from other sections are repeated here for convenience.
Formulas for Voltage Change
v, = ICX (8.20)
ckvar X (% X,)
% vc = (8.21)
base kva
ckvar X yo transformer reactance
% vc = (8.22)
transformer kva rating
Other Useful Formulas
X X base kva
% ohms = (8.23)
10 X (kv)z
base kva X ( % X,)
% x*= kva,
(8.24)
(8.22)
INDUCTION-MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS
;~~
FIG. 8.19 Installation of a dkvar 4W-volt three-phase capacitor Iacated on the motor
5k starier. Capacitor is switched with the motor and el&ically connected as shown in
(A) in Fig. 8.21.
&
476 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
net kvar is low and varies only a little with load. For example, the net
kvar at no load is zero and at full load only 2.0: kvar, which compares with
j and 7.6 kvar, respectively, for operation without capacitors. Therefore,
since the kvar load with qapacitors is so small in respect to the kw load,
the kiv and kva are almost eyual, which means that the operating power
factor is almost unity.
The addition of capacitors for power-factor improvement does not
change the motor performance characteristics, as the operating speed and
shaft output depend upon the motor load and applied voltage.
100
90 KW
KVAR
KVA
80 16
70 14
0:
60 12
0
a
LL
10
: 5 0
:
P
40 8
I-
z
Y
0
0: 30 6
w
n
20 4
10 2
0 -
0
0 -I -I -
3 -
4
4 2 4- 4
MOTOR LOAD
FIG. 8.20 Motor characteristics for a typical medium-rile and speed induction motor.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 477
generated voltage will depend upon the value of the capacitor current,
motor speed, and type of motor. However, as a bench mark, the result-
ing overvoltage with capacitor values to improve the full-load motor
power factor to unity will range from 35 to 75 per cent. Self-excitation
can he measured by connecting a voltmeter across the motor terminals
and reading the voltage after the motor-starter switch is disconnected
from the power source.
In the usual motor application, the motor slows down rapidly after the
switch is opened; so the voltage rapidly decreases. A 15 to 20 per cent
reduction in speed eliminates self-excitation sufficientlyto cause the volt-
age to collapse in a few seconds. However, in a few cases with high-
inertia loads the voltage of self-excitation has been sustained for several
minutes.
Transient Torques. Transient electrical torques of twenty times fnll-
load motor torque have been obtained in tests when too large a capacitor
w&s switched with a motor. These transient torques may occur when a
motor is transferred to the line from the reduced-voltage tap of an auto-
transformer-type starter or when a running motor is temporarily discon-
nected from its line and the starting switch is reclosed while the motor is
still running and maintaining voltage a t its terminals by self-excitation
due t o capacitors.
To produce transient electrical torques, the motor voltage developed
POWER SOURCE
CONTACTOR
RELAY
CAPACITOR
MOTOR
Tables 8.4 and 8.5 list the suggested capacitor ratings for the two most
popular types of polyphase induction motors when the capacitors and
motor are switched as a unit and connected as shown in Fig. 8.21A or R.
The capacitor values are based on actual tests for transient torques and
overvoltages by one large motor manufacturer. In addition, electrical
characteristics of motors of other manufacturers as obtained from puh-
lished data have heen correlated and a representative average used. The
capacitor ratings are conservative and prevent overvoltages due to self-
excitation and limit transient torques to normal values.
The data are also applicable to wound-rotor-type motors.
The operating power factor of motors with the suggested capacitor
ratings mill generally range from 95 to 98 per cent a t full load and 95 to
100 per cent a t partial loads. There will be exceptions, of course, because
of the variation in motor electrical characteristics and the fact that
capacitors are built in only certain ratings. The greatest effect will be a
partial-load operation, especially if the size of capacitor available is less
than the value listed in Tables 8.4 and 8.5; even so, the power-factor
characteristic with load is relatively flat from 25 to 100 per cent load.
For example, a 20-hp 1200-rpm motor with a capacitor rated 25 per cent
less than listed in the table will have a power factor of 92 per cent a t half
load.
For motor ratings not listed in these tables the following conservative
rule may he used. The capacitor current should not exceed the motor no-load
magnetizing current. This is approximately the motor no-load current,
which can usually be conveniently measured with a hook-on ammeter.
The tabular data may he extrapolated for estimating purposes, provided
that allowance is made for the fact that the per cent magnetizing current
and therefore the capacitor current, decreases as the motor horsepower
rating increases.
All the capacitor values listed in these tables do not necessarily corre-
spond to standard S E M A ratings. However, the trend is toward addi-
tional ratings beloy 10 kvar, and some manufacturers have a line of these
ratings to match closely the requirements of motors in the 5- to 25-hp
range. When capacitors are not available for the values listed, it is sug-
gested that the closest lower capacitor rating he used.
480 POWER-PACTOR IMPROVEMEN1
"0
'b K"W r, :"or
% K"W
% thr
% K"a,
%
,R% IR 1R AR 4R 4R
- - - - ~ - ~ - - - - -
25 6 9 6 0 7.5 I1 9 I5 11 20 14 23
30 7 8 7 9 9 I1 10 14 12 18 16 22
40 9 8 9 9 II 10 12 13 15 16 20 20
50 I2 8 11 9 13 10 15 12 19 15 24 I9
60 I4 8 14 8 I5 10 18 11 22 15 27 I9
75 17 8 16 8 18 10 21 10 26 14 32.5 18
100 22 8 21 8 25 9 27 10 32.5 13 40 17
125 27 8 26 8 30 9 31.5 10 40 13 47.5 16
150 32, 8 30 8 35 9 37.5 10 47.5 12 52.5 15
200 10 8 37.5 8 12.5 9 47.5 10 60 12 65 14
Induction-
I Nominol motor speed in rpm and number of poles
mOlOI
~ 1800 1200 720 ~ 600
horsepower
4 6 10 12
- ~ - -
%
W
K"0,
%
AR
K"or
%
AR
K"0, ,"k ~ Kvor
%
AR
- - - ~- ~ -
3 .... .. 2 26 3 31 4 40 4.5 51
5 2 15 2.5 21 4 29 5 36 6.5 46
7% 2.5 13 3.5 16
18 5 27 6.5 34 8 41
10 3.5 13 4 6 25 8 32 9.5 39
15 5 12 5 5 13
I4 8 21 10 28 13 36
20 6 12 6.5 9.5 19 12 25 17 35
25
30
40
50
7.5
13
I2
12
11
11
8
9
I2
16
12
12
I1
11
I1
13
16
20
17
17
16
16
14
16
20
25
,':
22
;:
30
1 33
32
30
29
60 11 19 11 23 15 27.5 27
75 11 24 11 27.5 14 35 25
and that is where they mill give the maximum benefit, then the induction-
motor arrangement becomes attractive. In that case the motor ratings
will he approximately the same as listed in Tables 8.6 and 8.7.
There are many cases where the induction motor-capacitor method is
economical for much higher motor-horsepower ratings than those indi-
cated in Tables 8.6 and 8.7. Often it is necessary only to improve the
power factor of the motor to around 95 per cent, as that is generally
accepted as a high operating power factor. In such cases the capacitor
kilovars required are considerably less than those required to equal the
full-load kilovar output of a unity-polver-factor synchronous motor.
The kilovars required to improve a load whose power factor is already
high increase much faster than the improvement in power factor. For
example, it requires just as many ckvar to improve a load power factor
from 95 to 100 per cent as it does to improve a load power factor from 80
to 92 per cent or 85 to 96 per cent.
The full-load operating power factor of induction motors for the capac-
itor values suggested in Tables 8.4 and 8.5 ranges from 95 to 98 per cent,
and these values can be switched directly with the motors. Therefore,
where an operating power factor in the order of 95 per cent is all that is
required, the induction motor with capacitors will he au economical
selection for motor horsepower ratings much higher than those listed in
Tables 8.6 and 8.7.
TABLE 8.6 Horsepower Ratings Where an Induction Motor and Capacitors
Cost Less Than a 0.80-power-factor Synchronous Motor
440- and 550-volt 60-cycle Equipment
(Full-voltage motor starter1
Motor Speed, Rpm Motor Rating, Hp
1800 250 and less
1200 I 5 0 and less
900 150 m d less
M)O 200 and loss
TABLE 8.7 Horsepower Ratings Where an Induction Motor and Capacitors
Cost Less Than a Unity-power-factor Synchronous Motor
440- and 550-volt 60-cycle Equipment
Motor rating, hp
Motor speed.
rpm Wilh full- Wilh reduced-
voltage ,toner dtage .tarter
I I
I800 750 and less 400 and lers
t 200 350 and leu 350 and INS
900 300 and less 300 and leu
600 300 ond less 300 and leis
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 485
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
AMPERE RATING
15 50 100 100 70
30 100 150 200 150
45 150 300 200 225
60 200 300 400 300
90 300 600 400 450
180 600 900 800
270 I000 1350
450 I600 2500
630 3000 2500
30 50 100 100 70
60 I00 150 200 150
90 150 300 200 225
120 200 300 400 300
180 300 600 400 450
360 600 900 800
540 I000 1350
900 1600 2500
1260 3000 2500
~
800
I
540 900
. ..
900 I200 2500
1260 2000 2500
Table 8.9 lists the appropriate capacitor kilovar multiplier for selecting
the sivitrhing device for nonstandard hank ratings or various comhina-
tions of capacitor units.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 487
copocimr "oltoge
Switching device
INTERRUPTING RATING
The switching device should also he selected for the short-circuit duty
of the system on which it is to operate. Since a circuit breaker has a
relatively high interrupting ability, it is well suited for such service.
Most contactors have a limited interrupting ability; so short-circuit pro-
tection should be provided externally.
Sinre most capacitors for industrial service are designed for use in an
ambient of 40 C (104 F) maximum, the cables should also be selected for
that ambient operation unless it is definitely known that the ambient
temperatures are less. More care should be given in selecting the cable
size for capacitors than for usual distribution feeder circuits because the
load factor of a capacitor when energized is 100 per cent.
Although many types of automatic controls are available, the ones most
suitable for industrial spplications are
Time clock
Current, single-step
Voltage, generally single-step
Kilovar, generally multistep
I n general, the master element should be responsive to the quantity to
be controlled or regulated. For example, if capacitors are to be switched
off a t light load, then a load-responsive master element would normally he
selected.
One exception to the above rule is the power-factor control, which is not
recommended even though capacitors are used for power-factor improve-
ment. The reason is that for constant power factor the load kilovars
vary directly with the kilowatts, and such a control would have to be
made inoperative when the load kilovars are equal t o capacitor kilovars
of the largest step to avoid pumping action of the control equipment.
490 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
. " y
SUPPLY
ulu
. : r
POINT OF SIGNAL
va (BUS)
FEEDER
CIRCUIT
T Va BUS
n LOAO
CAPACITOR
(0) ib)
FIG. 8.22 Electrical location of capaciton ond point of signo1 meaiurement.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
uuu U U
3 3 3 3 3
L ,.
$ 2 5 O U O U
" U " U 3 uu3 uu3 uu
.: .: u= U .. .. ..
.. .. ; u .. . .
... ...
3
..
. .uu3 u;: : U
492 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
fluctuations: also, the capacitors are switched off in accordance with the
plant load, so a t light load the capacitors are off, which is desirable in
reducing the voltage.
A current-responsive control is also better than a voltage control when
capacitors are located on adjacent feeders. In that rase, switching capac-
itors on one feeder affects the voltage level on the other feeder, thus
requiring the O N and OFF settings of a voltage-responsive master element
to he much wider than desirable.
If a voltage-responsive control is used, the O N and O FF settings must be
wide enough to avoid unnecessary operation due to voltage fluctuations in
the supply source. Also, a voltage-responsive control may switch the
capacitors independently of the actual load requirements and thus switch
them off when they are needed most. Furthermore, in some plants, most
of the voltage variation is in the incoming supply source and is not due to
variation or regulation xvithin the plant. If there is any question regard-
ing the magnitude of voltage rise due to capacitors, that can be easily
checked by direct measurement or by the calculations.
Single-step current and kilovar-responsive controls have the same gen-
eral application. However, the current control is generally used because
it costs less and requires only a current transformer for signal indication.
SERIES CAPACITORS
It is the purpose of this section t o familiarize the reader briefly with
the series capacitor and its functions. Complete information on its
applications, limitations, and operating benefits is available elsewhere. *
The main applications of series capacitors have been to individual
resistance welders, the main power supply for welder services, graphitizing
furnaces, high-frequency generators, and to the main power system to
reduce voltage variation for fluctuating or flicker-producing loads.
U'OAD
I Ec
However, the effect of the series capacitor on the circuit voltage depends
upon the power factor of the load current and is
ec = I X , sin 0 (8.27)
\
\
ES
\
1 I 9
ESI
Esz
III
I,
ES XsONLY
r;, X C ' X S
ESp xc ) xs
FIG. 8.24 Diagram showing now o series copocitor reducer voltoge regulation.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 497
FIG. 8.25 Voltage charts on (I system with a highly fluctuating rowmill motor lood. Chart
B shows the effectiveness of the series capacitor for improving the voltage.
SERIES-CAPACITOR LIMITATIONS
VOLTAGE
7% 15 15 25 15 25
~ ~ ~
15 30
45'
30 60
45 90 90' .... PO*
60 120
135.
90 180 180. .... 180'
180 360 .... 600
270 540 .... 900 .... 900
450 900 .... 1,200 .... 1,800
630 1.260 .... 1.800
2,700 .... 2,700
3,600 .... 3,600
4,500
5,400
KlLOVAR MARGIN
TIME OF DISCHARGE
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
Nomenclature
C = capacity in microfarads
Xc = reactance in ohms
f = frequency in cycles per second
kvar = kilovars, reactive kilovolt-amperes
E = line-to-line voltage
kv = line-to-line voltage in kilovolts
I = amperes
kva = kilovolt-amperes
Formulas
c = c1+ c2 + C3 +
502 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
x, = 2653
- at 60 cycles
C
(1 ,if = 2653 ohms)
1000(kv)2
xc = kvar
c=- 106
(2d)xc
C' = 1000 kvar
2rf( kv) *
2lrfC(kv) *
kvar =
1000
1000 (kv)*
kvar =
X,
G E X I
kvar = (three phase)
1000
= 4X (kv) X I
13I
kvar = -(single phase)
1000
= (kv) I
Capacitor Constants
Single-phase capacitors:
Capacitor Microfarads
volts per k v d
RELAYS
Relays are devices installed on the system to detect trouble and com-
plete a circuit to electrically trip their associated circuit breakers, or eon-
tactors, when necessary to isolate the trouble spot. Relays may be simple
nvercurrent devices responsive to current magnitude only, or they may
have a combination of current and voltage, or current and current coils,
to detect the direction of current flow, current balance, differences in the
current a t two ends of a circuit, distance, etr. The majority of relays in
modern power systems operate from the secondaries of current and poten-
tial transformers rather than from series current coils or line voltage.
Relays provide the best protection. They can he built to a much
higher degree of accuracy than fuses and direct-acting trips, and they are
adjustable both as to time and current. Also they can be designed to
operate on only one direction of power flow to the point of fault or t o
locate the fault by measuring the line impedance (distance) from the
relay to the trouble spot.
Direct-acting trips are mounted directly on the circuit breaker they are
associated with and trip it by direct mechanical action in response to
current magnitude in the circuit. The direct-acting trips on low-voltage
(600 volts and below) air circuit breakers are almost always actuated by
the current in the circuit, but direct-acting trips on high-voltage (2300
volts and above) circuit breakers are usually energized from the second-
aries of current transformers.
Most time-delay direct-acting trips on low-voltage air circuit breakers
are adjustable in the field, but some of them and many of the instantane-
ous trips are preset a t the. factory to operate a t a given multiple of the
trip-coil rating of the breaker.
Although direct-acting trip coils are much less accurate than relays,
they are good enough for most low-voltage power system applications
and for the small medium-voltage systems where t.hey are occasionally
used. The justification of their use is strictly economic.
FUSES
ELECTROMAGNETIC-INDUCTION RELAYS
relay t o open its own coil circuit without having any risk of a “race”
between the breaker-tripping contacts and the self-deenergization opera-
tion of the auxiliary relay.
Sometimes auxiliary relays are used simply as a means of increasing
the number of trip circuits without including the lockout (hand-reset)
feature.
At first glanre, one might think that the extremely inverse-time relay
was partirularly well suited for coordination with fuses, since the shape
of its time-current curve is nearer that of fuse melting-time curves than
420
360
300
60
0
MULTIPLES OF MINIMUM CLOSING CURRENT (TAPVALUE)
FIG. 9.2 Time-current curyes of inverse-time induction overcurrent relay.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 513
are the other relay curves. Practically, however, this relay is undesirable
immediately ahead of a large fuse operating 011 the same magnitude of
fault current, because it is so fast on high values of current that it is quite
likely to tripits breaker unnecessarily when the fusealoneshould bloivfora
fault on its load side. The behavior of this relay when installed on the
FIG. 9.3 Curves of time-current characteristics of inverse-time (A), very inverse-time (El,
extremely inverse-time (C) induction relays, and instantaneous element ( D ) .
514 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
PHASE
J
1
I_
FIG. 9.4 Schematic diagram of residual connection for a ground reloy.
The reset time of induction overcurrent relays, i.e., the time for their
contacts t o returii t o their completely open position when the relay is
deenergized, varies with the time-dia1 setting and the type of relay. On
the 10 time-dia1 setting, the approximate reset time is O sec for the
inverse-time and GO sec for the very inverse-time and extremely inverse-
time relays. For loiver time-dia1 settings, the reset time is reduced
approximately in proportion t o the setting. The relay contacts will also
reset eventually, if t,hey are not sealed closed, mhen the current decreases
t o less than 90 per cent of t h e pickup setting.
Although the complete reset time of a relay for a given time-dia1 posi-
tion may he quite long, the contacts wili have separated in six cycles
(0.1 sec) with normal adjustment or “ivipe.” This permits using the
relay in instantaneous reclosing schemes; i.e., a circuit breaker can be
automatically reclosed following an outage without having t o mait for the
disk t o reset completely. The relay contacts will not be in their normal
position, however, and therefore, if the circuit is still short-circuited, the
relay will operate t o trip its hreaker in much less than the normal time
for the time-current setting of t h a t particular relay.
Basically, different manufacturers’ versions of a given type of relay will
conform t o the general patterns discussed. Nevertheless, there are suffi-
cient variations in time-current curves t o necessitate procurement of the
manufacturers’ d a t a for the particular device involved, if reasonably
accurate settings and performanee are t o be ohtained.
Generator Overcurrent Relay with Voltage Restraint. An overcur-
rent relay with voltage restraint is an induction-disk unit with a voltage-
516 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
10
8
6
5
4
v)
0
z
0w 0 '
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
---I1
0. I
pI
-1
RELAY
0. I 0.2 I
FIG. 9.5 Time-current characteristic curves of generator overcurrent relay with voltage
restraint.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 517
cuit. Both the directional and overcurrent-element current coils are con-
nected t o current transformers in the line, and the potential coils are
usually connected to t,wo open-delta or three Y-Y potential transformers
in a quadrature or 90" arrangement (i.e., the current at unity power factor
leads the potential 90').
Directional-overcurrent ground relays are similar in construction t o the
directional phase-fault protection relays. I n order t o simplify the appli-
cation and also reduce the number of varieties to be carried in stock, some
of the designs of direcbional-overcurrent ground relays have provision for
dual polarization, i.e., they have both current and potential polarizing
coils. The use of both coils is often advantageous in that it assures
polarization of the relay whether or not the grounded-neutral generator
or transformer at a given location is in service.
The operating-current coil of a directional-overcurrent ground relay is
connected in the neutral of the line-current transformers (Fig. 9.4). Nor-
mal load currents in t,he current-transformer secondaries even though
unbalanced and phase-to-phase or three-phase short-circuit currents do
not cause current to flow in the neutral. Therefore, only ground-fault
current flows in the neutral connection except for error currents which will
be discussed later under the general subject of coordination.
The polarizing-current coil is connected to a current transformer in the
neutral ground connection of a power transformer or generator, where the
current flow will always he in the same direction (Fig. 9.6.4). The poten-
tial polarizing coil of t,hese relays is connected across the open corner of
the broken-delta secondary of Y-delta-connected potential transformers,
as shown in Fig. 9.6B. Under normal operating conditions the three
voltages are equal and no voltage appears across the relay coil, but as soon
as a ground fault occurs the relay potential coil sees a voltage, whose
phase angle corresponds to that of the grounded primary phase and whose
magnitude is three times the zero-phase-sequence voltage. On high-
voltage systems, polarizing voltage can also be obtained from hushing
potential devices and coupling capacitor potential devices. The latter
are seldom required on industrial plant power systems because the power
system voltages are relatively low.
The potential coils of the phase-fault directional relays can be con-
nected to the same potential transformers by using a 60" connection, i.e.,
the current at 1.0 power factor leads the voltage 60'. An alternative
arrangement would consist of Y-Y-connected potential transformers for
the phase-fault relays with Y-broken-delta auxiliary transformers for the
polarizing coil. .
Product-type Directional Ground Relays. Product-type directional
ground relays indicate the direction, as well as the magnitude, of the
520 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
t m D
ETC
r.
t b
\/
-\ I F
GROUNDED Y-CONNECTED
.,
e
. TRANSFORMER OR GEN-
1 ERATOR
MAIN POLARIZING -
t
TIE LINE
(A)
/.+
PHASERELAYS
ETC
.\
4.d
.I
J-
t
TIE LINE (8)
FIG. 9.6 Schemotic diagrams of directional ground relay polarized with current ( A ) or
potential (8) for operation on ground-fault current flowing in direction of owow in tie line.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 521
since they work on simple current differential without the help of restrain-
ing windings, they must he set quite high in current t o avoid false opera-
tion due to current-transformer inaccuracies. Therefore, specially
designed differential relays have replaced them almost entirely.
Generator Differential Relays. As shown in the diagram of Fig. 9.7,
two current transformers of equal capacity and similar characteristics are
installed in opposite ends of each generator phase winding, and their
secondaries are connected in series with the restraining coils (RC) of the
differential relay. Under normal operating conditions the same current
flows through the two current-transformer primaries, and corresponding
secondary currents circulate through the restraining coils of the relay in
the direction of the arrows. When a short circuit develops inside the
generator, the current in the two current transformers is no longer the
same and the difference in current will circulate through the operating coil
(OC) of the relay. When this difference-current flowing through the
operating coil exceeds the current in the restraining coil by a certain per-
centage, the relay operates instantly to trip the generator line and field
circuit breakers through an auxiliary relay.
These differential relays are of two types. One works on a constant
percentage difference in current in the two current transformers (Fig. 9.7)
and the other works on a percentage difference that increases rapidly as
the short-circuit current increases (Fig. 9.8). They are commonly referred
to as constant-slope and increasing-slope relays, because of the shape of
their operating characteristic curves. Both types work on the same basic
principle of checking the balance of current in the ingoing and outgoing
current transformers. The important difference between them is the
fact that the increasing-slope type, while costing slightly more, requires
less arcuracy in the performance of its current transformers than the con-
stant-slope type does. This means that less time need be spent in calcu-
lating the performance of the current transformers, less accurate and
consequently less expensive current transformers might possibly be used,
or other relays or meters, etc., could be connected in the same circuit with
the differential relays, without running the risk of false relay operation
due to unequal current-transformer behavior.
The purpose of the slope in the two relays is t o prevent false operation
due to current-transformer-error currents that might flow in the differ-
ential-relay circuit during a severe short circuit outside the differentially
protected zone. Error currents ocrur because no two current trans-
formers will perform exactly alike even though made to the same
specifications and from the same lot of material. Because the current
transformers are not absolutely alike, they saturate unequally when high
currents flow through them during external short circuits and t,heir ratio
breaks down unequally. If this happens, the unbalanced current flows
in the differential-relay circuit, and the relay has no way of knowing
SYSTEM OVERCURPENT PROTECTION 523
l l / V X A A / I / ~ / W l I I I I 1 1 I 1 I I 1 I 1 ~ ! I
6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
12 AMPERES 12 AMPERES
CURRENT FLOWING FROM BUS T O GEN CURRENT FLOWING FROM GEN TO BUS
high that this time delay is not sufficient t o prevent false operation, and
i t becomes necessary t o supply supplementary desensitizing equipment,
or the suppressor just mentioned. The desensitizing equipment auto-
matically makes the relay less sensitive until the magnetizing current
inrush has disappeared.
Transformer differential relays require more slope, i.e., a greater per
cent difference in the output of t.heir current transformers than generator
differential relays do, to allow for the unbalances in current caused by
transformer-tap changing in addition t o the differences due to current-
transformer saturation. Without the extra slope it would be necessary
to readjust the relay taps whenever the tap ratio of the transformer was
changed, e.g., a 5 per cent change in transformer taps causes a correspond-
ing change in the current in that winding, whereas the c.nrrent in the ot.her
winding remains essentially t,he same for a given kva load. Some trans-
former differential relays have a single per cent slope characteristic, while
others are adjustable for different slopes. The higher percentage slopes
are for use with transformers having a wide tap range, as in load-ratio-
control equipment.
The currents in the different connections to transformers differ depend-
ing on the voltage ratio, and consequently different current-transformer
ratios are required. I t is necessary for economical reasons to use stand-
ard current transformers, however; so it is seldom possible to obtain a
cornhination of current transformers that will produce exactly equal cur-
rent in their secondaries. Therefore, some transformer differential relays
are provided with several taps in their windings to permit balancing the
ampere-turns in the relay elements connected to the different main-trans-
former circuits. Other designs of relays depend on external tapped auto-
transformers to do this. The tap range is sufficiently broad to take care
of the requirement that the current-transformer secondaries must be con-
nected in the reverse order of the main-transformer windings, e.g., the
current transformers for a Y-delta-connected transformer would he con-
nected delta on the Y-connected side of the transformer and Y on the
delta side. This means that the relay coil connected to the delta-con-
nected current transformers would see 1.73 times the current in its indi-
vidual current-transformer sesondaries, i.e., there would he 8.7 amp in
the relay coil when a 5-amp secondary current transformer had full load
in its primary.
Differential relays are available for hoth two- and three-winding trans-
formers. Those designed for use with three-winding transformers work
on the same principle as the others.
Bus Differential Relays. There are three types of relays available for
differential protection of buses:
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 527
mission line, which these relays are rommonly used to protect, it seemed
quite appropriate to call them “distance” relays.
They are a very versatile and useful family of relays operating on the
hasis of the location of the fault without regard t o the magnitude of the
short-circuit current. Consequently, they can give much faster tripping
than relays depending on current magnitude and time settings for
selectivity.
They are seldom used on industrial power systems, however, because
the latter are too compact and the distances too short in most cases to
permit proper application of these relays. Consequently, it seemed best
not to attempt t o discuss them in detail in this book.
The two basic types of fuses are the current-limiting and non-current-
lirnking or what might he termed standard fuses.
Practically all fuses will melt in considerably less than one-half cycle
on a 60-cycle basis when subjected t o high values of fault current. How-
ever, the arc is a conductor and enables the current to reach its mavimum
crest value unless provision is made to put the arc out before the current
can reach its crest. When such provision is made, the fuses are classified
as current-limiting.
Most fuses are self-protecting, that is, they are capable of extinguishing
the arc for any value of current within their interrupting-capacity rating
limit. Current-limiting fuses for motor-starting service are purposely
designed t o carry low values of current for considerable periods of time t o
permit repeated starting or jogging of motors. Such fuses must he used
in conjunction with a thermally controlled contactor, or other circuit-
interrupting device, capable of interrupting currents that would require
more than 10 sec to melt the fuse link. Otherwise the entire fuse unit
might he overheated to such an extent that. it would not be able to success-
fully interrupt the current when the link finally melted.
Some current-limiting fuses used in the primary of load-center trans-
formers, where it is desired to have selective operation between the fuse
and a transformer secondary breaker, are designed to give somewhat
longer melting time than standard fuses on high values of fault current in
order t o clear the instantaneous trip in the rircuit breaker.
Most fuses have a “smooth,” that is, a continuous melting-time curve,
but certain types are purposely designed to give more time on moderate
I
overloads of two or three times fuse rating. Such fuses have a jog in
their melting-time curves a t the point of transition from slow t o st,andard
melting-time characteristic.
Fuse time-current operating characteristics are given in terms of the
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 531
532 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
DIRECT-ACTING-TRIP DEVICES-GENERAL
short time-delay, (4) instantaneous and both long and short time-delay.
A “family” of long- and short-time-delay tripping-device time-current
characteristic curves for 15-, 25-, and 50,000-amp interrupting-
capacity low-voltage air circuit breakers is shown in Fig. 9.10. The
shape of different manufacturers’ direct-acting-trip curves differs some-
what, but the curves have the same basic characteristics as those shown
here.
I n the design of a tripping device whose curves are shown in Fig. 9.10,
the current pickup is adjustable, but the operating time for different cur-
rent values is not adjustable. I n other designs, both the current trip
and the time delay may be adjustable.
Tripping-device operation coils are available in a wide range of current
ratings up to and including the maximum continuous-current-carrying
capacity of the circuit breakers. This is 225 amp for the 15,000-, 600
amp for the 25,000-, and 1600 amp for the 50,000-amp interrupting-
capacity (IC) breakers, respectively. The current rating of a circuit
breaker is determined by its trip-coil rating rather than its maximum con-
tinuous-current-carrying capacity, or so-called ‘‘ frame size.”
The current setting of long-time-delay trip devices is adjustable in the
field, and pickup-setting calibration markings are a t 80, 100, 120, 140, and
160 per cent of the trip-coil rating. They can also be set a t any inter-
mediate value between these calibration points.
Some short-time-delay trip devices are also adjustable, in which case
they usually have three current pickup settings marked on the calibration
scale. The NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers’ Association)
standard calibration markings of 5, 756, 10 times the trip-coil rating are
supplied unless another combination is requested. They can he had with
ealihrations anywhere in the range of 2 to 10 times the trip-coil rating, as
long as the desired maximum setting is not more than 255 times the mini-
mum setting. Short-time-delay trips are sometimes supplied without
provision for adjustment of the setting, because only one of a possible
choice of pickup settings will coordinate properly with the characteristics
of the tripping devices on the other hreakers in series with it in a factory-
designed selective-tripping system.
The curves in Fig. 9.10 are plotted in “multiples-of-the-pickup setting”
of the trip coil, e.g., if a 400-amp trip is set a t 80 per cent pickup, 1
multiple of pickup would be 320 amp, 2 multiples would he 640 amp, etc.
Present NEMA Standards refer only to upper and lower boundaries
of air-circuit-breaker tripping-device curves, and some published curves
are plotted in that manner. The area hetween these NEXA limits is
shown divided into it,s two components in the curves of Fig. 9.10, so that
their significance could be explained in order to give the reader a better
understanding of the operation of the device.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 535
FIG. 9.10 Typical time-current choracterirtic curves of long clnd short time-delay trips
on6W-volt aircircuit b r e o k e n ( l 6 0 0 a m p and below).
536 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
w/
COIL ON ARMATURE POSITION cuit exceeds the pickup setting of
BREAKER AT RESET TIME
either a long- or short-time-delay
AIR f trip device, the armature starts to
ARMATURE move at a rate proportional to the
PoSITIoN
NORMAL series-connected
electromagnetic force
trip exerted
coil. At
by the
FIG. 9.12 Time-current curve of long time-delay and instantaneous trips on MX)-volt air
circuit breakerr (1600 amp and below).
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 539
FIG. 9.13 Time-current curves of long and short time-delay and instantaneous trips on
600-volt air circuit breakers (1603 amp and below).
540 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 541
FIG. 9.15 Schematic diagram of typical industrid power system showing possible
choice of fault proteclive devices.
WHAT IS COORDINATION?
On all but the simplest systems there will be two or more circuit
breakers, or other circuit interrupting devices, hetween a fault and the
source of power. In order to localize the disturbance as much as possible,
these devices should be selective in operation, so that the one nearest the
fault on its power-source side nil1 have the first chance to operate. If
for any reason this protective device fails t o function on schedule, the next
device in the chain must be ready to take over the task of opening the
circuit, and so, in successive steps t o the power-source circuit breaker
544 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
The basic data and procedure required for making short-circuit calcu-
lations as a preliminary t o a relay study are the same as for a circuit-
breaker-duty study, but the combinations studied will be somewhat
different. In a relay study the problem is t o determine the characteristics
of devices that will (1) be sure to operate on the minimum values of fault
current expected at certain fixed times following the instant of short
circuit, and (2) be selective in their sequence of operation over the range
between minimum and maximum values of short-circuit current, so that
the relay or other device nearest t o the fault will be the first to operate.
The magnitude of the short-circuit currents, which will determine the
settings of the overcurrent protective devices, should be calculated on the
basis of the fault current from any power-company ties, plus that con-
tributed by all rotating machines directly connected to the local power
system, that is, the user’s own power generation and distribution system.
It is, of course, unlikely that every one of the local machines will he in
operation simultaneously under normal conditions, but it could be the
case during transfer periods when load is being switched from one machine
to another; hence the relays, and so forth, must be capable of giving the
desired sequential operation on the maximum possible magnitude of
current.
Usually the fault-current contribution from the power company can be
calculated on the Basis of a single reactance value because the relatively
high reactance of the tie circuit supplying the industrial plant is sufficient
to limit the fault current so much that the effect of differences between
maximum and minimum generating capacity and subtransient X y and
transient X : reactances are unimportant. Also the decrement effect will
546 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
he eliminated for all practical purposes, see curve 4, Fig. 9.16. If, how-
ever, the tie circuit hetween the power company and industrial plant is of
large kilovolt-ampere capacity and relatively low reactance, variations
in power-rompany system reactance will affect the magnitude of fault
current on the industrial system sufficiently to require taking them into
account. I t would be advisable in all cases t o check the effect of any
variations in power-company reactance until enough experience has been
accumulated t o warrant deciding by inspection whether or not their
effert would be significant.
selecting the devices, as well as their settings, for a system supplied from
one or two engine-driven or geared-turbine-driven salient-pole generators,
because even their initial fault current is quite low herause of their high
inherent reactance.
It will he noted from the curves in Figs. 9.16 and 9.19 that the presence
of a voltage regulator and the addition of evternal circuit impedance have
40
30 KV BUS AT POWERHOUSE
25 NO 2 FAULT AT SUB 3- LINES I 8 2 IN PARALLE
20 NO 3 FAULT AT S U E 6 - 2 LINES PARALLELED
NO 4 FAULT AT SUE 9 - I L I N E ONLY IN USE
15
10
9
E
7
6
5
4
m
0
0 20
0.5
40
1.0
60 60
1.5
T I M E AFTER SHORT CIRCUIT
00
2.0 SECONDS
120
!
140 CYCLES
FIG. 9.16 Short-circuit decrement curves on 33-kv system supplied by two 10.000- and
four Moo-kw hrrbine-generator-h~nrformerunits.
548 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
When the short-circuit currents are all calculated, the next step is to
start at the load end of each circuit and work back toward the power
source.
The minimum current setting of the relays must be high enough to
carry normal load swings and yet low enough t o be sure that they will
operate positively on the minimum expected short-circuit current. The
latter is the magnitude of current ralculated with minimum power supply
available and assuming a solid short circuit with no allowance for any cur-
rent limitation due to impedance in the fault itself.
Normally, there will be plenty of margin between the minimum short-
circuit-current level and the relay setting dictated by the maximum per-
missible load. Occasionally, however, that will not be true, such as in
the case of high-reactance generators whose total output is transmitted
over a single line. Such possibilities must be recognized and provided
for initially when designing the protective system by specifying devices
that do not depend on current magnitude alone for operation and
selectivity.
The following general rules will serve as guides in determining the
minimum relay current settings that will not trip on permissible load
currents.
Relays on Transformer Feeders. The National Electrical Code states
that time-delay overcurrent relays on a feeder for a single transformer
should he set not more than 2.5 times the full-load rating of the trans-
former for units without secondary circuit breakers and up to six times
transformer full-load current if there is a secondary circuit breaker and
the transformer reactance is around 0.06 per unit. The fact that the Code
permits it, however, does not mean that the relays always should be set at
these upper limits. If the load on the transformer is diversified with no
relatively large motor units whose starting current might be the limiting
item, a relay current setting of 1.5 times transformer rating is often suffi-
cient to enable time-delay relays t o carry normal load-current swings.
Ordinary time-delay overcurrent relays are too slow t o be operated by the
transformer magnetizing current inrush.
If there are several transformers on the feeder without individual
primary-side fault protection, a relay current setting corresponding t o
1.5 times the total full-load rating of the several transformers should be
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 55 I
30 60 90 120 CYCLES
FIG. 9.19 Short-circuit decrement wrvei of 9375-kw 13,800-volt 3600-rpm generator
for faults on o m bur and on 4160-roll bur fed through 2Mx) h a 0.055 per-unit reactance
transformer.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECllON 563
CURRENT IN AMPERES
ON 4160 VOLT BASE
N
FIG. 9.20 Coordinated time-current C U W ~ Sof feeder and generotor overcurrent relays.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 565
to estimate how many more cycles are needed for it to close, when oper-
ating a t the slower rate of speed which the lower magnitude of fault cur-
rent available during an additional period will produce. Since the
decrement curve has flattened out considerably by this time, it is rela-
tively easy to pick an average, convert it to multiple@-of-relaypickup,
and find the rate of travel from the relay curves. I n t,his case, 11 more
cycles with an average current of 3.51 times generator rating (5.70 times
the relay pickup setting) gives a rate of travel that would close the con-
tacts in 0.90 see. The disk will, therefore, travel 11/(60 X 0.90) = 0.204
of its total distance in t,he estimated 11 cycles. Adding this to the 0.8 of
the distance already traveled makes a total of 1.004, which is close
enough. The total time therefore is 36 + 11 cycles, or 0.783 see.
This procedure gives the same results as the so-called step-by-step
method. The latter involves determination of the percentage of its
total travel that the disk would move when subjected to the arithmetical
averege for each portion (increment) of the decrement curve that follows
a straight line, then summing up the total distance traveled for the suc-
cessive increments. Either method applies only when a relay is working
on the saturated portion of its curve, which condition prevails in less than
twice pickup current in the case of inverse-time relays and only a little
later in the case of the generator and very inverse-time relays.
The next step is to select a time-dial setting for generator relay A that
will make it selective (0.4 see slower than relay B ) a t point E . This set-
ting should be selected on the basis of zero-volts restraint corresponding
to a solid three-phase fault close t o the bus, which would be the worst
condition in the average industrial plant. The generator-relay curves
(Fig. 9.5) show that a 4.5 time-dial setting would meet the requirement
of 1.2 sec. If A is selective with B for a maximum fault with zero-volts
restraint (curves A and B ) , it will be selective a t any lesser fault condi-
tion, when the system voltage is higher, because any voltage restraint
slows down the generator relay. Curve A" shows how the 115-volt
restraint imposed under normal load conditions pulls relay A ' s operating
curve out of the way of any permissible short-time overloads.
It appears from an inspection of the curves of Fig. 9.20 that neglecting
the effect of generator fault-current decay would slow down the generator
relay about 0.5 sec. While this may seem too short a space of time to be
conrerned about, it is a relatively long time electrically, and could be the
major factor in the amount of damage done by the short circuit.
On low-voltage systems (600 volts and below) the circuit and fault
impedance have a very pronounced effect on both the magnitude of fault
current and the voltage a t the generator. These factors should be taken
into account when selecting coordination settings for either the generator
SYSTEM OVERCURRB(1 PROTECTION 567
CURRENT IN AMPERES I
0
I
FIG. 9.22 Coordination of time-current curves of relays and fuses (Core 2).
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 573
the 300-hp motor. The rest of the operating-time band of this fuse and
the associated Ghermal relay characteristics were not shown, because the
behavior of the fuses and t,hermal relays of the 600-hp motor was the con-
trolling factor in securing coordination with the incoming-line relays.
The original intention was to use 300/5-amp current transformers on
the incoming feeder in accordance with the usual practice of having the
full-load current of a circuit half t o two-thirds of full-scale reading on the
ammeter. However, the subsequent coordination study of the circuit
revealed that it would be better t o use 600/5-amp current transformers.
With the original 300/5-amp current transformers the inverse-time
relays, when set on their highest tap (I 6 amp), would have provided good
short-circuit protection on high fault-current levels, as shown by curve 2.
When so set, however, the time-current curve of the relay cuts across
both the upper portion of the fuse curve and the lower portion of the
thermal-relay curve. Theoretically, that is not good practice because
the relay would not be selective with the other devices, but practically
such a setting might be acceptable when viewed from the standpoint of
the probabilities that a fault in the motor would persist a t that rela-
tively low value of rurrent for just the right time to blow the fuse or
operate the thermal relay, as well as the line relay. The operating time
of the inverse-time relay could have been increased sufficiently to make it
clear the fuse and thermal relay by setting i t on the 10 time dial (curve
5), but such a setting would have made the relay too slow, even on high
fault currents, with consequent poor protection t o the system.
Substitution of 600/5-amp current transformers proved a satisfactory
solution to the problem. They permitted setting the relay as shown by
curve 4 t o afford fast short-circuit protection and still be selective with
the fuses and thermal relays of the 600-hp motor. To be sure, the change
in current-transformer ratio resulted in a full-load-current reading rather
low down on the ammeter scale, but that was of minor importance rom-
pared with the improvement in fault protection. I n general, if one or
the other has t o be sacrificed, i t is much better to accept a poor ammeter-
scale reading than poor short-circuit protection.
As indicated by the vertical portions of curves 2 and 4, the instan-
taneous elements on the line relays could not he used, even when set at
their maximum current of 80 amp, because they would not be selective
with the fuses, which are essentially instantaneous devices a t high levels
of fault current. This is in accordance with the rule that instantaneous
devices in series cabnot be coordinated when both are subjected to the
same fault current.
Curve 6 shows the safe heating limit for the incoming-circuit cable,
i.e., how long fault current of a given magnitude can be left on without
damaging the cable insulation.
chapter 10 by Donald Beeman
SAFETY
Code for safety reasons requires that voltages on some lighting circuits
and portahle-appliance units he limited to 150 volts to ground.
Where there is great, possibility of contact with energized parts such as
in ungrounded frame portable tools, some portable lamps, etc., voltages
of the order of 32 volts are seleckd because it has been shown that volt-
ages above 50 volts t o ground can he lethal.
On circuits above 120 volts there seems to be little concrete evidence
that voltage selection from a safety standpoint is a major consideration.
While the chances of electrocution do, to a certain extent, increase with
an increase in voltage, any higher voltage can electrocute a person if h e
contacts a live part under proper conditions. For a highest order of
safety on circuits 50 volts and higher, work on current-carrying part,s
should be done only with the circuit deenergizcd.
1 240volb 1 480volh
........
:
Avmilobilily of equipment. Same
cost.. ........................ 135% 100%
Lolei.......................... High Lox
Voltage drop.. ................. High Low
Safely.. ...................... No proved difference.
Bolh should b e worked on
only when deenergized
* While 600-volt systems are less expensive, 550-volt motors, control, &c., m e not
80 readily available as 440-volt equipmcnt.
equipment for use on 480-volt systems is much more readily availahle than
550-volt equipment for use on 600-volt systems. These reasons are dis-
cussed in the following text.
While 600-volt load-center systems cost ahout 2 to 7 per cent less than
480-volt load-center systems (Fig. l O . l ) , they have derreased in popu-
larity primarily because of the lack of availahility of standard 550- and
575-volt utilization equipment from manufacturers' and distributors'
FIG. 10.1 Chort showing the approximate comparative costs of 208Y/120-, 240.. 480..
and 600-volt redid lood-center-systems.
9 s SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES
stocks. This was brought out forcibly during World War 11, during
which time the percentage of standard 550-volt induction motors decreased
from 11 to 4 per cent of the total standard induction motors made.
When ordering machine tools or other utilization equipment with a
considerable number of electric control circuits, it is often difficult t o
obtain 550-volt equipment, particularly on short shipment. Pumps and
other equipment which are stocked by the manufacturers with motors
already mounted are generally stocked with 220- or 440-volt ratings and
not with 550-volt ratings.
Availability of utilization equipment is the major problem when choosing
between 600-volt and 480-volt systems. Today, 600-volt systems are
limited pimarily to expansion of those plants which already operate a t
600 volts or t o some textile plants where most motors are of special design,
thus are not widely available from manufacturer’s stocks.
There are certain areas where 208Y/120-volt systems are more economi-
cal than 480-volt systems because the type of utilization equipment
involved should or must be operated a t 120 volts. When such utilization
equipment and incandescent lamps constitute a major portion of the load
(more than about 50 t o 65 per cent of the total load), 208Y/120-volt sys-
tems may he more economical than 480-volt systems. Typical of such a
load is that of a clothing-manufacturing establishment where practically
a11 the power is utilized by motor-operated hand shears. Other areas in
which 208Y/120 volts may be desirable are on assembly benches where
small components are assembled and where small portable tools such as
soldering irons, electric hand drills, electric nut tighteners, etc., are used.
A typical case would he a small electronic-equipment assembly line.
Again the choice of the lower voltages is primarily based on the desire to
limit the voltage on the hand tools to 120 volts. In these assembly areas,
most of the power is utilized at this low voltage.
The following discussion shows, for lights and power in most plants
where integral horsepower motors are the major load, that combined
light and power substation systems are more economical than separate
light and power substation systems.
Later there is a discussion that shows how power loads, such as electric
furnaces, electric kitchens in cafeterias, and other electric heating equip-
ment requiring 240 volts or 208 volts, can he served from a480-volt system.
FIG. 10.2 Two combinations of substation voltage ratings and Irva ratings to supply loodl
which must operate at different voltages in the d m s 6CQ volts and less.
SELECTION OF SYSlEh4 VOLTAGES 58 t
Besides the economic consideration given later, there are other impor-
tant factors of the combined power system with all substations stepping
down t o one voltage such as 480 volts.
The single-voltage systems are simpler in their concept and often
enable a substantially lower cost primary system. For example, as
shown in A , Fig. 10.2, a single primary feeder will care for four 1000-kva
load-center substations requiring only one primary-feeder breaker and no
protection a t each individual load-center unit substation. If, instead of
stepping all power down to 480 volts, half were stepped down to 480 volts
and half t o some lower voltage such as 210 volts, then two primary feeders
may be required as shown in B , Fig. 10.2, if no individual primary proter-
tion is used a t each load center. This method doubles the primary feeder
system cost. An alternative method would be t o use fuses ahead of each
individual load-center unit substation; this also increases the cost of the
primary system compared with the arrangement shown in A , Fig. 10.2.
In other cases where there may be large power units and smaller lighting
units, fusing of the smaller units may be required, which is still an addi-
tional cost to the primary system compared with that shown in A ,
Fig. 10.2.
Arrangement B , Fig. 10.2, requires more installation expense because
there are more substations t o put in, it requires more space for the sub-
stations, and there is extra maintenance because of the greater number of
units. It costs very little more t o maintain a 1000-kva transformer than
it does t o maintain a 300-kva transformer. The elimination of fuses is
also an advantage from the standpoint of selectivity of overcurrent
devices.
Greater service continuity can often be obtained by stepping all power
down t o one voltage instead of two different voltages. For euample,
a plant office building may require 400 kva of power a t 480 volts and 200
kva of lights, etc., a t 120 volts. A nominal arrangement might be a 500-
kva power substation and a 200-kva lighting substation, Fig. 10.3A.
Should either substation be out the building may be useless. However,
if two 300-kva 480-volt substations were put in and the 120-volt load
served off the 480-volt system, as shown in Fig. 10.3R, then the loss of one
substation or primary feeder would leave some lights and some power in
the building to permit a t least essential operations t o be carried on.
Even a t greater over-all system cost i t may be desirable t o make all
substations 480 volts, for example, to get increased flexibility and to save
money when future changes are made. By having all substations with
the same secondary voltage, then the same voltage is available everywhere
in the plant. Therefore, the availability of proper voltage will not be an
expensive bottleneck for flexibility in shifting loads.
582 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES
The most general plant load other than that for motors is generally the
lighting load. At the present time, illumination levels of 50 foot-candles
are considered good practice, and levels as high as 100 foob-candles are
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 583
--- ll--------- ?,
\A*&.
'"1.'' UNIT SUBSTATION
UNIT SUESTATION T I~
,t_ FOR
FOR LIGHTING 7' I, 4 8 0 V POWER
(AND 120 VOLT POWER) 1'
i(:
I
_ r _ -7
i-- -
.,'
.I
I' I'
.il Y!
%' T
300 MCM 3-CONDUCTOR
SECONDARY FEEDER
100 KVA LOAD
&--7
FIG. 10.4 One-line diagram of system With reporate substations for power and light service-
system A.
FIG. 10.5 One-line diagram of system with one substation for power and light service and 4 8 s
120-volt step-down transformers to provide.120-volt power for lights-system B.
Ad.., BASIC SU0STAlION COMMON TO
aT } LI6HTlNG AN) 480 V POWER LOAD
>
I ~ L C I R U I T BREAKER
+FORMER
-PbNEL BOAR0
(SIZE I COMBINATION
MOTOR STARTER1 MISCELLANEOUS
!swlEn WWER AT 120 VOLTS v)
1T !T !T 'i '''' <
Y
F
FIG. 10.6 One-line diagram of system with one substation for power and light service with general.
area fluorercenf lighting a t 277 volts-system C.
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES
i d ti
588 SELECTION OF SYSTCM VOLTAGES
system A being 100 per cent, system R costs only 75 per cent as much and
system C only 57 per cent as much. The savings of the combined light
and power system will justify the selection of this system where the total
120-volt load is as high as 50 t o 65 per cent of the total load a t 480 or 6M)
volts.
Although cost comparisons of fluorescent,-lighting systems are beyond
the scope of this book, it is well to point out that the aforementioned
figures must be considered in relation to the specific fluorescent-lamp
layout. The first cost of the distribution system is small compared with
the first cost of the lighting fixtures. The carrying charges on capital
investment of the power system are small compared with the operating
cost of the lighting system. Even taking these factors into account, how-
ever, will still show that combined light and power systems are less expen-
sive than the separate substations of system A.
Selection of Voltage for Combinations of Different lamps. Many
plants may have high bays and low bays. The low hays are generally
lighted by fluorescent lamps, and the foregoing discussion applies specifi-
cally to such areas. I n high-hay areas, mercury and incandescent lamps
are often used in combination. The mercury lamps have ballasts like the
fluorescent lamps and are, therefore, suitable t o higher voltage. As
shown in Fig. 10.7, the combined light and power system C can be used to
supply these combinations. At A , Fig. 10.7, is a combination incan-
descent and small mercury unit. The small mercury unit can he operated
off 277 volts and the incandescent lamps a t 120 volts through a small
step-down transformer connected to the 480-volt system. The large
3-kw units may he operated a t 277 or 480 volts and the companion incan-
descent lamps a t 120 volts off the small transformer connected to the 480-
volt system, as shown in B , Fig. 10.7. The fluorescent lamps are con-
nected line-to-neutral as shown in C, Fig. 10.7.
While the following discussion does not hear upon the problem of
selection of voltage, i t is, however, included a t this point to consolidate
the various engineering items that must be considered in designing com-
bined light and power systems.
Short-circuit Currents. The short-circuit currents on the lighting sys-
tem are actually quite low when the fused combination motor starter is
used for controlling the lights. The starters are equipped with silver-
sand current-limiting fuses which very definitely limit short-circuit cur-
rents to low values. Not more than about 5000 amp short-circuit current
can flow to a fault in the lighting system even though the available short,
circuit current on the 480-volt system may be as high as 50,000 amp.
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 589
1
POWER LOADS
v A
Y v L
Y
.,
-Y
$
hL
x
Ali
T' T T
+-3&
2 2
Y Y
NO
42.1
2 J
TO WELOING
L O A O ONLY
AT 7 + 7 NORMALLY
2 2 d-0PEN-d
A
f
1
7
' 7'
d
WELOERS
ANO
'OWER
POWER
LIGHTS
Y Y Y
WELOERS
ANO
POWER
Y4L V I
POWER
LIGHTS
FIG. 10.8 Secondary relective orrcingemenl of load-center power dirtribulion ryrtern wilh
reiiitonçe welderr on m e 480-volt bur and lighti on the companion 480-volt bur. Motor
load may be on both burer.
been no difficulty with comhined light and power systems where the
principles mentioned have been followed.
Reliability. With either system B or C , separate feeders should be
used for serving lighting load only. There are many more outages on
power feeders than on lighting feeders because of the greater numher of
changes made in power feeders. Furthermore, the power feeders may
have more voltage drop because of fluctuating loads. Hence separate
lighting feeders should he used for greater reliability and t o reduce voltage
drop.
With any of the systems discussed in t,his hook, consideration should be
given t o overlapping the area fed by one substation, so that an outage 011
that substation mill not cause complete outage of lamps in any one area.
One method of accomplishing increased reliability economically is wit,h
the secondary selective load-center power svstem shown in Fig. 10.9.
Small plants with demands of 500 t o 1500 kva usually require only oiie
substation. It has been common practice t o install a power transformer
hank and a lighting transformer bank. The welders and power load are
connected t o the larger bank, and the lights t o the smaller one. By usiiig
the arrangement shown in Fig. 10.9, with two transformers equivalent in
total kva t o the lighting plus the power demand, considerable increase in
service reliability can he ohtained without incurring objectionable flicker
from the welders. With two transformers of equal size, both stepping
down t o 480 volts, the plant may he kept in at least partial operation
with lights and major power apparatus in service with one transformer
FIG. 10.9 Secondary selective arrangement of load-center power distribution system with
overlapping oreor of lights supplied from differenl substation burer to prevent complete
lois of light should one bur b e deenergized.
592 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES
deenergized. Where separate lighting and power banks are used, this
cannot he done. Increased service reliability for the same reason can he
obtained in larger plants by using the secondary selective system with
substations in pairs, both stepping down to 480 volts, instead of individual
light and power substations scattered through the working area.
Other Than General-are0 Lighting. In systems A (Fig. 10.4) and R
(Fig. 10.5), 120 volts are available for general-area lighting, as well as
miscellaneous 120-volt power and lighting. Therefore, all load other than
480-volt load can be taken off the same circuit in those two systems.
With system C (Fig. 10.6), 265-volt ballasts should he used only in
fixtures for general-area lighting. These fixtures must he more than 8 f t
from the floor and must not have switches mounted in them. The
National Electrical Code requires that all lighting for individual benches,
machines, and so forth should he operated a t 120 volts. Since there is
always some load of this nature around any plant, it is necessary to
obtain the power for that load from the 480-volt feeders of system C .
Factory-office Power Supply. Frequently, industrial plants are
designed with a sizable office area a t one end of the factory area. Here
again system C (Fig. 10.6) can he used for general-area fluorescent light-
ing within the office area. In such a building, system C as described
above would he used for the factory area. One or more feeders would
also be run into the office area for general lighting, Fig. 10.10,
For further discussion of officepower and lighting systems, see Chap. 14.
OFFICE FOR
FACTOR"
FIG. 10.10 One-line diagram showing how combined light and power iubrtotion using
system C supplies some factory power, some factory lights, and factory-office general-
area fluorescent lamps.
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 593
'
The single-phase units are connected line-to-line ori the 480-volt systém
and arraiiged for 120/240, three wire, one phase, on the seaondary (Fig.
480 VOLTS 3-PHAÇE 3WIRE
1201240 VOLTS
n- 20ôVOLTS I-PHASE 3 - W I R E
3 PHASE SINGLE PHASE LOADS
ONLY
ia)
120 VOLTS
n- IPHASE
2 0 ô Y I 120 VOLTS
3-PHASE 4 - W I R E
3-PHASE ANO SINGLE PHASE LOAOS
(bl
FIG. 10.11 Variour lighting tranrforrner connections for stepping power down from 480
to 120 "Olt..
SPA SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES
10.11a). Three-phase units are connected delta on the 480-volt side and
208Y/120volts, threephase, four wire, on the secondary side (Fig. 10.11b).
Most economical sizes of step-down transformers depend upon the load
t o he served. In general, single-phase units are limited to 25 kva maxi-
mum and three-phase units t o 50 kva maximum. These sizes limit the
short-circuit current on the 120-volt system to about 5030 amp maximum,
thus the short-circuit current available is within the rating of most of the
better grade of lighting panel-hoard protective devices.
Many dry-type transformers available for lighting service have even
ratios, i.e., 480-120 (4:1), 240-120 (2:1), etc. Where no taps are pro-
vided in the primary windings, these units do not in most cases have the
correct ratio to supply proper voltage for a lighting system from the usual
480-volt power system. The difficulty arises because the ratio between
motor and lamp name-plate ratings is not even multiples. Motors are
rated 440 volts, while lights are rated 120 volts. It is obvious that, if the
voltage is correct for the motors it will he too low for the lamps using a
standard 4: 1 ratio lighting transformer. With 440 volts applied t o such a
transformer, there would he only 110 volts less voltage drop for the lights.
T o remedy this condition, lighting transformers with two full-rated 5 per
cent taps or four full-rated 255 per cent taps below normal in the primary
winding should be used. This 480-120-volt normal rating will have a tap
5 per cent below (456 volts) and 10 per cent below (432 volts). Thus, i t
really has three ratios:
If, for example, the power system voltage is correct for the motors, i.e.,
440 volts, theii by using the 10 per cent below tap on the lighting trans-
former the voltage will he more nearly correct for the lights. The lamp
voltage will he (440 X 1)/3.6 = 122 volts. Therefore, by having proper
taps in the lighting transformers, i t is feasible to have the correct voltage
for 440-volt power equipment and for 120-volt lights all supplied from the
same power system.
I n actual practice, voltages are seldom exactly equal t o the name-plate
rating of power-consuming apparatus because of voltage drop and pri-
mary circuit regulation. A report by the AIEE Industrial Power Sys-
tems Committee (see Chap. 4) established a maximum desirable range of
480 volts maximum t o 420 volts minimum for 440-volt systems and 125
volts maximum t o 114 volts minimum for lamps. I n t h e case where
the voltage varies from 440 t o 475 on the 480-volt power system, the
voltage would vary on a lighting system supplied from this power system
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 595
in this way. If the 5 per cent below normal tap is used in the lighting
transformer, the maximum voltage on the lighting system would be
475/3.8 = 125 volts. The minimum voltage would be 440/3.8 = 116
volts less the voltage drop in the lighting wiring system. These are
within the limits set above. With 4: 1 ratio lighting transformers with-
out taps, the voltage on the lighting circuit would have been 475/4 =
118.5 volts maximum and 440/4 = 110 volts minimum. The minimum
value is too low for best illumination level from the lamps. The taps
below normal in the primary of the lighting transformers permit raising
the lighting voltage t o more nearly the lamp voltage rating while main-
taining proper voltage on the 480-volt system for power apparatus.
Similar transformers are available for supplying lights from 600-volt
power systems.
in all substations with 480-volt secondaries and then supply the 240-volt
furnace load through 480-240-volt transformers. These smaller furnaces
are more readily movable and may be used t o form a part of the produc-
tion line. Hence, power supply, because of voltage, will be no problem
when the smell furnaces plus their auxiliary 480-240-volt transformers are
moved from one location to another. Likewise, 480 volts will be avai!able
-om
FIG. 10.12 Schematic one-line diagram rhowing 480-volt substations for general-purpose
power and lights and 240-volt substations for large spot loads consisting of electric ovens
and furnaces which must operate a t not higher than 240 volts.
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 597
- - I<, -7
~.-. _-__--
~Ti.
~\
\
, -----------1 r-------
I
h
T,
240V
FIG. 10.13 One-line diagram showing one substation to serve 080-volts general power
load ond 230-volt furnoce through 480-240-volt transformers.
Voltages in this class are used mainly for primary power distribution in
industrial plants. All plants using a primary voltage employ voltages of
this class except some of the very large chemical plants, steel mills, etc.
The latter may employ subtransmission voltages above 15,000 volts.
When the utility voltage is below 15,000 volts, there is no problem of
selecting the primary voltage.
Since the National Electriral Code does allow 15,000 volts in the build-
ings, there is generally no reason for transforming voltages of the order
of 13,800 volts to, say, 2400 or 4160 volts for transmission through the
building. The higher voltage ran be carried in cable and conduit or in
interlocked-armor cable t o the load-center substations and there trans-
formed to utilization voltage.
When the utility-voltage supply is above 15,000 volts, then in all evcept
a few very Iarge steelmills, chemical plants, etc., transformation to some
voltage less than 15,000 volts is desirable, both economically and techni-
cally, for transmitting the power through the plant to the load-center sub-
598 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES
13200
1 13800 V
$1
6900
1
4160p
{ 4160 V
24001
1000
5000 10,000
KVA
15,000 20,000 25,000
One of the problems that arises quite often is, why select 4160 volts
instead of 2400 volts? There are two major reasons for doing this. The
first is that 4160-volt systems have lower cost, and second, they have
greater allowance for expansion.
I n so f a r as cost is concerned, 4160-volt switchgear for a given inter-
rupting rating costs less than 2400-volt switchgear. Another advantage
costmise in switchgear is that often a 1200-amp circuit breaker will oarry
the full-load current a t 4180 volts whereas a 2000-amp circuit breaker
would be required at 2400 volts. There is a marked difference in the
selling price of 2000-amp and 1200-amp circuit breakers. Often more
kva per circuit can be carried at 4160 volts than a t 2400 volts, resulting
in fewer circuits, thereby further reducing the cost of the switchgear.
Cable costs are generally less at 4160 volts than at 2100 volts because
less copper is involved.
The largest metal-clad circuit breakers made for 2400-volt service have
150-mva maximum interrupting rating. The maximum rating circuit
breaker of similar construction for 4160 volts is 250 mva. This allows a
much larger system t o be built a t 4160 volts than at 2400 volts without
going t o complicated synchronizing buses, etc.
Influence of Motors on Choice of 2400 vs. 4160 Volts. Tho use of
motors at primary voltage does not, in general, alter the selection of
2400 vs. 4160 volts for generation and distribution of power in industrial
plants. This condition arises in certain industries, typical of which are
petroleum refineries and paper mills, where a sizable percentage of the
total electric power is consumed in motors rated above 40 hp. Since
these motors are readily available from most motor manufacturers with a
voltage rating of 2300 volts, motors rated above 40 hp may be operated
directly connected t o 2400-volt power distribution systems without inter-
vening transformers. Hence, i t is often thought that the lowest over-all
electric-system cost, including power generation, distribution, motors,
and control, can be obtained by generating power or transforming i t from
the electric utility system and distributing i t through the plant a t 2400
volts primary voltage.
A review of the factors which influence system costs indicate that such
is not the case. Studies of specific systems show that i t is nearly always
less expensive, so far as over-all electric system costs are concerned, to use
a primary or generation voltage higher than 2400 volts and t o operate
motors, 200 hp and less, on 480- or 600-volt circuits. I n studying the
effect of primary motors on the selection of 2400 vs. 4160 volts in more
detail, certain basic equipment and system elements were considered.
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 601
60
a
$
50
w
(0
LL
0
I 40
a
0
k
0
2" 30
ul
20
_I
A
x 10 4000 VOLTS - MOTORS AN0
CONTROL ONLY
Table 10.3), the choice between these two primary voltages is based on
primary-system costs and the cost of 4000-volt motors and control for
those motors rated above 250 hp, Fig. 10.18. As pointed out previously
and as shown in curves D and C , Fig.
4000 VOLT M O T O R S 10.15, the selection of a 4160-volt system
480
2400
4160
I I440
2300
4000
Smallest to 250 hp
200 hp up
250 hp up
these cases it is preferable to step down from the higher voltage t o 2400
volts rather than to 4160 volts, if the capacity per 2400-volt bus is limited
to less than about 7500 kva and nearly all this load is utilized a t this hus
directly by motors rated above 200 hp. For single loads larger than
7500 kva per bus with motors above about 250 hp, it is often necessary to
go t o 4160 volts to enable the switchgear to handle the short-circuit cur-
rents available from such large systems. A typical application where 2400
volts would be most economical is a pumping station, Fig. 10.19, in which
the control may be of the fused combination type to give fast short-
circuit protection or of the vertical-lift power circuit-breaker type where
H I G H VOLTAGE SYSTEM
1
I 2400VOLTS
&
7" :zz :o'tTS FOR M l S C
POWER A N 0 L I G H T S
B A T T E R Y O F S E V E R A L 2 0 0 H P OR L A R G E R M O T O R S
FIG. 10.19 One-line diagram of 2&O-voh power-supply system for large spot load ar
in (I pumping station.
606 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES
FIG. 10.20 Std-mill motor room *lowing large a-c-motor-driven d-c generators at the
left. D-c motam are shown in the center.
ratings, under about 1000 hp, a 6.6-kv motor and starter costs as murh as
or more than 6.9-2.4-kv transformer capacity arid 2.3-kvmotors and motor
starters. I n either the 6.9-kv or 13.8-kv systems this intermediat,e volt,-
age provides grcater flexibility of system design, and motors more suitable
13.8 K V
LARGE MOTORS
2000 HP
AN0 LARGER
5 0 0 0 K V A MAX.
MOTORS
200 HP
O R LESS
MOTORS
200 T O 2 0 0 0 H P
FIG. 10.21 One-line diagram.rhowing selection of voltage for motors 01 a function of
horsepower. Primary distribution voltage 13.8 kv.
Generator transmission Medium-sire motor* Small-sire motor
and large-motor utilization voltage utilization voltmge
".allage (200-2000 hpl up lo about 200 hp
Where the capacity per bus exceeds about 6000 t o 7500 kva and motors are 250 hp
or larger, it may be desirable to use 4160 volts for these intermediate-voltsge motors
t o permit more economical use of standard interrupting-rating switch gear and motor
control.
* 2400-volt systems are referred to here rather than 4160-volt systems because this
is really a voltage for supplying only local motors and not for extensive distribution of
power. Hence there are not generally sufficient distribution systems savings a t 4160
volts t o pay for the extra cost of 4000-volt motors. See preceding text for 4160- vs.
2400-volt system comparison, However, far very large installatione of intermediate
voltages motors, 4.16 kv may he used instead of 2.4 kv. See footnote on Table 10.4.
enough saving i n the 13.8-kv system compared with the 6.9-kv system to
pay for the extra cost of the larger, more expensive 13.2-kv motors. As
a fundamental principlc of selecting power-system voltage, i t is gcnerally
true that the higher the voltage i n a given class, such as 13.8 kv vs. 6.9 kv
in the 15-kv class, the lower the system cost. This will be borne out in
the following discussion. First, a general comparison of the basic system
components of the power system, i.e., transformers, switchgear, unit sub-
stations, cable, and hus must be ronsidered. These comparative costs
were outlined prcviously and are summarized in Fig. 10.23. An euami-
nation of this figure indicates that one would not expect a wide difference
13.8 K V
MOTORS MOTOR 2 5 0 H P
2 5 0 H P AND L A R G E R OR
LESS
FIG. 10.22 One-line diagram showing selection of voltage for motors CIS CI function of
horsepower where large concentration of motors may require 4160 volts instead of 2400
volts to enable we of available metal-clad rwitchgear and motor starters.
612 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES
in cost per kva of 13.8-kv and G.9-kv systems because there are maiiy
items whirh are suhstantially thc same regardless of system voltage, and
the items which are more expensive at one voltage than for t h e othcr volt-
age more or less balance earh other. There are, however, factors in addi-
tion t o those shown in Fig. 10.23 whirh make the larger 6.9-kv systems
increasiiigly more expensive thaii 13.8-kv systems. These factors wili
be studied hy first rniisideriiig small systems, ttieii medium-size systems,
and then very large systems.
-METALCLAO SWITCHGEAR
COSTS SLIGHTLY MORE AT
6 . 9 KV
v $ I $ TO $ 2 PER H P MORE AT
13.8 KV
J
-.* UNIT SUES COST ABOUT
4 0 CENTS TO $ i PER KVA
MORE AT KV
FlG. 10.23 Chort rhowing comparotive coiti of ryrtem eqvipment a t 6.9 m d 13.8 kv.
SELECTION O F SYSTEM VOLTAGES 613
9
Y Y
$A $A
1
A &\
-&&'A M I L L BUS
CANNOT
PARALLEL
FEEDERS
FIG. 10.24 One-line diogrom of power system wring synchronizing-bur arrangement and
a distribution voltage leis than 15 kv. Synchronizing-bur system reducer short-circuit
duty to less tho" 500 mva.
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 615
65 cents per kva per 1000 ft. This item is another factor for making
large G.9-kv systems disproportionally more expensive than large 13.8-kv
systems. For an average length of cable circuit of 2500 ft in Fig. 10.24,
the extra cable cost would add about another $1.25 per kva t o the system
rost at 6.9 kv. The saving of $1.00 per kva in powerhouse switchgear and
synchrouizing hus reactors plus the extra $1.25 per kva saved in cable
circuits at 13.8 kv more than pay the extra cost of the 13.8-kv load-center
unit substation arid 13.2-kv motors in medium-size plants up t o about
40,000-kva demand. There would he some additional saving in the 13.8-
kv snzitchgear and cable circuits in the mill area.
Higher Momentary Duties Adversely Affect 6.9-kv Systems. Since
the momentary currents are usually the most l i m i h g factor in applying
power circuit hreakers in power systems, the use of the steel-mill-type
60,000-amp momentary 500-mva 13.8-kv metal-clad switchgear enables
slightly larger systems t o be built without synchronizing buses than does
the 70,000-amp 7.2-kv 500-mva breakers on 6.9-kv systems. The maxi-
mum ampere interrupting rating of the 500-mva 7.2-kv circuit breaker is
44,000 amp, arid the maximum momentary rating is 70,000 amp or about
1.6 times the maximum interrupting-rating amperes. This ratio is only
euough t o care for the d-c component in 6.9-kv systems. The maximum
ampere iriterruptiiig ratiug of the 13.8-kv 500-mva steel-mill magne-blast
cirruit breaker is 25,000 amp, hut its momentary rating is 60,000 amp, or
2.4 times the maximum interrupting rating. I n this circuit breaker, as in
the 7.2-kv circuit breaker, only 1.6 times the maximum interrupting rating
is required t o care for d-c component. Therefore, the difference between
1.6 and 2.4 is available t o care for motor contribution. I n systems in
which the short-circuit duties are helow the momentary ratings associated
with 500-mva magne-blast circuit breakers, there is no significant differ-
ence in the circuit arrarigement or number of circuit components required
t o care for short-circuit current whether the system voltage is 6.9 or 13.8
kv. There is a factor in favor of the 13.8-kv system because of the higher
momentary rating of the 13.8-kv breakers.
Where the mill systems become so large that the short-circuit duties
increase t o above the momentary rating of the 500-mva metal-clad
magne-blast rircuit breakers, synchronizing bus arrangements are
required. While these are workahle and often used for keeping short
circuits within hounds, synchronizing bus arrangements do have certain
limitations. Among these :imitations are that any transfer of kilowatts
through the reactors represents a small Z2Rloss, and it is difficult t o trans-
fer large amounts of kvar between bus sect,ions without creating wide
differences in voltages between the bus sections. When one source unit
is out of service, all load from that bus section must he fed through a
reactor with the attendant voltage drop. The synchronizing bus arrange-
616 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES
meiit imposes rirruit desigii aiid operat,iiig restrictioiis too. For example,
feeders from diffcrciit hus sectioiis caiiiiot he paralleled because this will
short out thc syiir,hroiiiziiig bus reartors, Fig. 10.24, aiid iiicrcase the
short-circuit duties of the system. Therc are aiso drtiiiite limits in the
relatioiiship hetweeii the size of t h r soiirre uiiit aiid the iiiterriiptiiig rating
of rirruit breakers whirh raii he iised i i i syiichroiiiziiig bus arraiigemeiits.
For example, ivheii usiiig 500-mva switrhgear, the largest source uiiit per
bus sertion is limited t o ahout 25,000 kva. ‘I’his is ofteii too severe a
limit for larger systems. Whilc syiichroiiiziiig hiis arraiigemerits are
expedieiits t h a t solve maiiy system short-rircuit prohlems, it is, however,
desirahle iii larger mills to operatc with as many souice units as possihle
oii one hus t o allom more freedom of system operatioii and desigii. When
more source uiiits are operated oii one hus, it requires higher iiiterruptiiig-
raparity stat,ioii-type switchgcar. This statiori-type switchgear is avail-
ahle x i t h circuit breakers for iiiterruptiiig dut,ies as high as 2500 mva a t
13.8 kv. Thcse circuit breakers can he used u p t o nearly their full inter-
rupting rating on 13.8-kv syst,ems. They i a n , hoivever, be used t o orily
part of their mva int,errupt,ing ratirig on 6.9-kv systems because of
inoment,ary and maximum interrupting-ratiiig limitations. This can he
seen hy referring t o Tahle 10.6.
At 15.8 kv At 6.9 kv
iO00
1500
2500
. 77,000
l i 5.000
190,000
1 O00
1500
2500
1 575
860
1440
these larger circuit breakers at 6.9 kv. This can be noted from Table
10.7, which shows that this larger switchgear costs almost twice as much
per mva of interrupting duty at 6.9 kv as it does at 13.8 kv.
Approximate price
cirruit- per my.*
breaker rating,
m*a
&t 13.8 kv
I At 6 9 kv
$16 $16
16 28
16 28
2500 22 38
* Interrupting rating.
Summary of System Cost Differences. T o combine the factors that
have been discussed in the foregoing, Fig. 10.25 has been chosen to illus-
40 MVA
0 0 0
~
25MVA
~
25MVA
~ -$-
&
7A TRANSFORMERS
25 MVA EACH
Hd!H
1 1250 MVA
IS00 FT
EACH
$1 LOOFT';-.
2100 F T
'3 2300 F T
3 $ 3 3 3 3 3 3 P P
J~
30 MVA
MILL 'A"
18 MVA
MILL"B"
'r 12 MVA
MILL"C"
F A
22 MVA
C
MI LL"D"
T O X
8 MVA
MILL"E"
FIG. 10.25 Large power system with distribution v o l t a g e less t h a n 15 kv using rtotion-
type switchgear.
61 8 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES
compared with those rated 6.6 kv. The suggested voltages for mills of
this type are outlined in Table 10.9.
Lo,ge-,ize motor
utili.otion Medium-size motor Smoll-size motor
G e n ~ r o t o r *.nd
YtiliZOtion "tiliZ.ti0"
trO".miSSiO" voltage
"Oltage "oltage "p to
"OltDge 2000 hp ond
(200-2000 hp) about 200 hp
1.rger
There are, in general, four classes of voltages which have been used for
this service. These are 23 kv, 34.5 kv, 46 kv, and 69 kv. These voltages
can be subdivided into two classes, i.e., 34.5 and 69 kv, for the sake of dis-
cussion. The 34.5-kv distribution for very large systems enables the use
of compact indoor metal-enclosed 34.5-kv station-type cubicle switchgear
similar to that shown in Chap. 13. This occupies less space than open-
type outdoor switching structures and, since it is all metal enclosed, the
problems associated with cleaning the many exposed insulators that are
found in outdoor stations normally employed at this voltage are eliminated.
Where space for locating substations is no serious limitation and the
insulator cleaning problem is not considered a major obstacle, larger,
simpler systems can he built for lower cost a t 69 kv than a t 34.5 kv. The
higher voltage systems require fewer circuits where there is bulk trans-
mission of large amounts of power from one point to another. The
general criterion for the selection between 34.5 kv and 69 kv would hinge
on whether or not metal-enclosed indoor station-type cubicle switchgear
for this higher voltage is to be used. If it is, then 34.5 kv solidly grounded
Y is the upper limit because that is the maximum voltage for which such
switchgear is now available. There are, of course, other factors which will
enter into the selection of voltage in this class, such as utility supply volt-
ages, voltage already available in the mill, kva demand, etc.
FIG. 10.26 One-line diagram of (I large system using high-voltoge transmission (above
15 kv) and a high-voltage load center arrangement to step down to voltages below 15 kv.
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 621
When higher primary voltages such as 34.5 or 69 kv are used, the load-
center principle may be employed t o reduce the cost of these systems.
This principle involves primarily t,aking power at the higher voltage t o
the load areas and there stepping i t down t o utilization voltage. I n this
case the step-down substations supplying iudividual load centers for mill
areas should have a maximum rating of about 30,000 t o 40,000 kva for the
6.9- or 13.8-kv utilization bus arid a maximum kva rating per single three-
phase transformer of ahout 15,000 t o 20,000 kva each t o limit the short-
circuit duty t o within the ability of 500-mva metal-clad switchgear.
These substations will be located at t.he various mill areas. For loads
larger thau 30,000 or 40,000 kva conrent,rated in one area, more than our
suhstation may he required at that load area. Figure 10.26 is a one-line
schematic diagram of such a load-center system. I t is well t o point out
that when the higher primary voltages are used the system voltages can
he either 13.8 or 6.9 kv for distribution in mill areas. See Chap. 13 f o r
more details on primary distributiou systems.
Chapter 11 by Donald Beeman
are used rather than a single large suhstation a t the point of incoming
SUPPIY.
The advantages of the load-center power distribution system are
manifold. First, it costs less. For example, in a 250,000-sq f t single-
PRIMARY
SYSTEM
I
LOAD CENTER
POWER DlST
SYSTEM
BUS TIE
SECONDARY
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
E-----
BUSWAY
LOAD LIGHTS
MOTOR 120 VOLT
PANEL BOARD
FIG. 11.1 One-lme diagram showing primary system, load-center power dirtributiun
system, and recondory distribution system in on industrial plant.
614 LOAD.CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
floor factory the old method of power supply would have a large piecemeal
substation located outside the building and long lo\\~-voltagefeeders to
serve the load. This power system from the 13.2-kv incoming line to the
plug-in husway would cost installed about $143,000. A modern load-
center system for the same plant would cost about $121,300, a saving of
$21,700, or 15 per cent. The breakdowri of the costs is shown in Fig.
11.2. The load-center system has 3000 kva of substations to allow for
diversity; yet these substations cost about the same as the single 2500-
kva piecemeal substation. The significant factor in Fig. 11.2 is that the
major saving is made iu the cable. This stresses the importance of
150
FIG. 11.2 Comparative cost of complete old-style system and load-center power dir-
tribution system ond major components.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 625
always looking a t the over-all system, as a change in one part may have
a significant bearing on some other part.
While transformer costs are higher in the load-center system, the sec-
ondary switchgear cost is materially reduced because only 15,000-amp
interrupting-rating feeder circuit breakers (in cascade) are needed for the
small 750-kva load-center substations whereas 50,000-amp interrupting-
rating feeder circuit breakers (in cascade) are needed for the large 2500-
kva substation. Figure 11.3shows how the short-circuit current increases
with transformer-bank kva rating a t 480 volts.
The cable costs are reduced because the power is carried most of the
I-
z
w
LL
K
a
0
6
I-
0
t
FIG. 11.3 Chart showing how short-circuit current increaser 01 a function of transformer
size.
As the plant grows, extra savings are made because the load-center
power distribution system offers great flexibility in providing for new
loads in existing buildings or for evpansiou into new buildings.
Load-center power systems are less costly t o evpand than old-style sys-
tems where large substations are put in in anticipation of load growt,h. I n
the load-center systems the system capacity is built up in small units as
7
I I !
I
I
I
80"
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I 1 UUOLIIT. I ' LOAOARL. 1
L-
L.a*D.RC&
~ - --I L-----J L-----J
FIG. 11.4 Chart showing the cornparotive cost for circuiti to transmit power a t different
voltoger.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 627
the load grows. Growth of the power system is closely coordinated with
actual plant growth.
As shown by the upper part of Fig. 11.5, when the old-style system is
used a large initial investment is made iri a large substation. Secondary
feeders are added as required until the capacity of the substation is
reached. Then another substation is built a t great expense. If the load
MORE FEEDERS
>
k SYSTEM COSTS
0
2a
0
2
w
+
m
%
DITIONAL UNIT SUBSTATIONS
\
SEVERAL SMALL INSTAL LED
UNIT SUBSTATIONS
INSTlfLLED
I I
I YEARS*
LH-kk
LOAD-CENTER UNIT SUBSTATION
FIG. 11.5 The shaded part shows the accumulated rovingi for load-center power dir-
hibution as the plant expands, using a load-center system instead of Iorge substation
systems.
628 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
for the new substation does not materialize, a large investment is wasted.
As shown by the lower part of Fig. 11.5, the initial investment in the
load-center system is lower because onlv sufficientcapacity for the present
load plus a small reserve is installed. If load growth stops, there is no
large idle investment to carry during the years ahead. The shaded area
between the curves shows the over-all saving.
Lower voltage drop means less voltage spread. Proper voltage a t all
parts of the plant means better performance of the production equipment,
hence more production and less spoilage. This improves production
efficiency. Because secondary feeders are short in a modern load-center
system, normal load voltage drop from each load-center substation to the
end of the secondary feeder is held to around 2 per cent maximum, Fig.
11.6. In contrast in old-style systems with long low-voltage feeders, a
voltage drop along the length of the feeder of 10 to 20 per cent is not
uncommon. Indeed, it may be necessary to raise the voltage cousider-
ably above normal a t the substation bus to maintain enough voltage a t
the end of the long feeders to operate the utilization devices. See Chap. 4
for more data on the effect of voltage spread and how t o reduce it.
The load-center system provides greater flexibility. With small units
they may be added when and where needed to care for increased load as it
develops. Then, too, there are many types of systems or circuit arrange-
ments with varying degrees of service continuity and flexibility, as out-
lined later, which permit adoption of the type of system best suited to
various production processes.
Continuity of service can be greater because of a small number of
scattered substations instead of one concentrated large substation. A
substation failure affects a much smaller part of the total production area.
Duplicate circuits down to the load area can he employed with a minimum
LOAD CENTER
A
SYSTEM
tL
T T FEEDER
DROP
FEEDER
FIG. 11.6 Load-center pow;; distribution systems with short secondary feeders have far
less secondary-feeder voltage drop than old large substation systems with long secondary
feeders.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 629
of extra cost as, for example, in the secondary selective system descrihed
later.
The factory-assemhled and coordinated load-center unit substation is
the heart of the load-center power system. These substations are avail-
able in standard arrangements with catalogue numbers assigned. Hence,
it is easy to purchase them as only a catalogue number or, a t the very
most, a simple functional specification is necessary.
Engineering and planning are reduced as the substations are factory
designed; so the plant planner has only to provide a flat surface to mount
these on and t o bring the leads to and from the substation after installing
the two or three sections of the suhstation. Since the substations can be
located indoors almost anywhere or outdoors also, planning of the power
system can be simplified. This flexibility permits ordering Substations
before final production layouts are crystallized.
The substation components are coordinated by the manufacturer;
hence that burden is removed from the system planner.
Since the equipment is factory assembled and coordinated, it is only
necessary to bolt together the two or three sections of the substat,ion in the
field. It is shipped in sections for convenience in handling and shipping.
Should processes change and radically different power-system layouts
be required, the snhstations have high salvage value in that they may he
readily moved in a few sections from one location to another.
Factory-assembled equipment has established selling prices and also
requires a minimum of labor for installation in the field. These two fac-
tors permit far greater accuracy in estimating power-system costs than
with piecemeal assembled substations with many separate parts to order,
coordinate, and assemble in the field. The large design engineering and
purchasing work content and the large amount of field assemhly make
estimating of the cost of field-assembled piecemeal Substations far less
accurate.
These may be compared on many bases, but some of the more impor-
tant characteristics are:
1. cost
2. Safety
3. Flexibility
4. Service reliability
5. Ease of expansion
6. Simplicity
7. Diversity
8. Voltage regulatioii
9. Short-circuit-current level
Comparisons of these arrangements do not require detailed discussion
of the primary-feeder system. In most cases the load-center unit sub-
stat,ions are supplied by radial primary feeders. Since looped primary
feeders are sometimes considered for serving load-center systems, a dis-
cussion of the looped primary feeder as it, specifically applies to load-center
systems will he given in this chapter.
This discussion is concerned mainly with the part of the power system
from the primary-feeder bus to and including the substation secondary
bus. Although radial secondary feeders are used in the majority of the
load-center power systems to feed the load supplied from the secondary
hus of the unit substation, certain variations are sometimes employed, and
these variations have a bearing on the over-all characteristics of the par-
ticular circuit arrangement that may be employed.
Transformer and Primary-cable Failure Rates. As a background to
the circuit-arrangement, discussion, the operating record of askarel trans-
formers is about one failure per 2500 transformer years and primary-cable
failures average about one failure per mile per 100 years. The trend
toward the use of rubberlike insulation on primary cables, which elimi-
nates the necessity of potheads, mill improve the service reliability of
primary-cable circuits even more. Service reliability depends as much
on using adequate modern equipment and itist,alling it properly and care-
fully as it does depend upon circuit arrangement. I t is misleading to try
to represent the variations in t,he characteristics of these circuit arrange-
ments by any numerical or alphabetical index because the difference
between these systems on many points is so very small.
Effect of Interrupter Switches on Safety and Overcurrent Protection.
While the application of interrupter switches on the primaries of load-
eent,er unit suhst,ations does not affect the hasic one-line diagram of the
circuit arrangement, it does have a serious bearing on the safety of the
over-all system and on the overcurrent protection requirements.
Many system engineers consider the use of interrupter switches in unit
substations as a partial compromise hetmeen an ideal solution from the
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 631
I 1 I I
8
T P
T y T
9 T
&&&A
J J J 2
Y Y Y Y
J J J J
Y Y Y Y
1 3 2 2
Y Y Y Y
*)J 1 J
Y Y Y Y
FIG. 11.7 Ideal load-center power distribution system wilh individual protection for each
bod-center substation provided by an adequate power circuit breaker.
t
750 KVA 300 KVA
480V
8
FIG. 11.8 Radial load-center dirtribulion system with interrupter switches ot primary of
each load-center unit substation. Short-circuit protection provided by primary-feeder
circuit breaker
setting is equal t o the sum of the transformer kva connected to the feeder.
There may be sufficient diversity of loading of the substations that the
total load on the feeder would never reach 1800 kva, thus the 1800-kva
setting of the main primary-feeder circuit breaker would not result in a
trip-out on normal load conditions.
The maximum setting of the primary-feeder circuit breaker of six times
the transformer rating for 6 per cent impedance transformers without
individual transformer overcurrent protection has been selected to give
reasonable assurance that the primary circuit breaker will trip for auy
fault on the secondary of the transformers, poifits 1 to 4, Fig. 11.9.
Where individual transformer primary overcurrent protection is omitted,
the main secondary circuit breaker is required t o provide some degree of
overcurrent protection for the transformer in so far as overloads are con-
THIS BRElKER
MUST TRIP FOR
F4ULTS A T 1,2,3 OR 4
MUST
4ND
COST COMPARISON
FIG. 11.10 Load-center power system primary feeder serving both large and small load-
center unit substations. Small load-center unit substations fused on primary.
636 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
the equipment being maintained. Many engineers feel that the deener-
gieation during maintenance is far more of a handicap than forced outages.
Because forced outages would be so rare, they feel that temporary connec-
tions could be made to keep essential load going.
If sufficient substation capacity is used in the radial arrangement to
provide about 10 to 15 va per square foot of floor area, experience has
shown that it mill adequately care for almost any diversity that will be
encountered hecause of shifting of loads in most metal-fabricating plants
where machine tools are frequently moved to rearrange production lines.
This system appeals to plant engineers and maintenance men hecause
---- --- 2 5 0 FT
UNIT SUB
I I I I
! I
1
TWO
SINGLE TIE
2i"
3-
101
250 F T 250 FT
00 FT
L
600 F
tem designer arrive at a sound decision on this problem, certain hasic facts
should be considered. Pirst, examine the need for reserve transformer
caparity over and above that needed for normal load growth.
Referring to operating records of the major components that may fail
and cause a forced outage, it is evident that a forced outage would be so
rare (one transformer outage for 2500 transformer years and one primary
cable outage per 100 circuit miles per year) as t o warrant little if any extra
investment just t o provide substantial reserve subsbation transformer
capacity. In most plants there is some vitally essential load like life
tests, lights, continuous processes, ovens, etc., which it is desirable to keep
going even though a primary feeder or a transformer serving this load may
be out of service because of a forced outage or for service and maintenance.
I n all except a very few cases, such as main water-supply pump motors or
boilerhouse auxiliary motors, the percentage of vitally essential load to
total load is small, of the order of 25 to 50 per cent of the total load. If
such load is even as much as 50 per cent of the total load, then one trans-
former can carry, in an emergency, the vitally essential load on two sub-
station buses without overloading the transformer remaining in service.
This of course requires dropping the nonessential load on both buses of the
pair of secondary selective load-center suhstat.ions. Even though this
vitally essential load should he as high as 60 to 75 per cent of the total
load, the one remaining transformer might still be able to carry all the
vitally essential load on two buses for short periods of time. This would
represent a n overload of 20 to 50 per cent on the remaining transformer
for the short duration of the emergency. I n such a n emergency, supple-
mental cooling may be applied to the transformers and secondary switch-
gear by means of portable fans, etc., to keep temperature rises from reach-
ing damaging levels. While it is true that large overloads do tend to
reduce the life of insulation at an accelerated rate, in general, the total
time in the life of the average suhstation during which it will he subjected
to such overloads in secondary selective load-center systems is so small as
t o he negligible. Therefore, it would seem that there can be little eco-
nomic justification when considering the problem of reserve transformer
capacity from a purely insurance viewpoint for spending much if any
money for reserve transformer capacity in a secondary selective load-
center system to take care of all load in the case of forced outages. In
the few cases where it is felt that some reserve transformer capacity is
necessary in a secondary selective load-center substation, it can be
obtained at low cost if it can be obtained on an incremental basis, i.e., by
using two 1000-kva substations instead of two 750-kva suhstations. I n
Fig. 11.136 it is shown that providing nearly 50 per cent reserve trans-
former capacity increased the cost from $45 t o $51 per kva, or about 13
per cent.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 641
A
t-I
L
4.0.
UORMALLY OPEN TIE1
LOAD CENTER
UNIT SUBSTATIONS
RADIAL SYSTEM
NO. I L
FIG. 11.14 Secondary selective load-center system made by placing normally open tie
between series of radial load-center unit substation secondary buses.
642 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
TIE CIRCUIT
LT cli
T'p
CJ-
I +>+ ; + .
-
TRANSFORMER MANUALLY TRIPPEO
XY
A B C H R
+H H
SELECTOR
SWITCH
CONTACTS
EREAKER
T R I P COILS
600 F T
500FT
(b)
APPROXIMATE INSTALLED SYSTEM
COST $ 7 8 00 PER K V A ( 2 0 0 X ) (LESS
PRIMARY SWITCH GEAR) 1951
-- -CABLE
NO.OO
.-
I
ult
__ __ _ _ _ _ _
L
350MCM CABLE
- - - - L _ __ _ - - - $ J 1500KVA SPOTI
FIG. 11.19 Typical spot sccondary network arrangement lood-centsr powcr dirhibutim
ryrtem: (top), one-linc diagram; (bottom), IayOut in plant.
650 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
Spot Network (Fig. 11.19). The spot network, if limited to two 750-
kva 480-volt transformers per bus, keeps short-circuit currents within
50,000 amp and provides high service continuity for station auxiliaries,
etc. Larger trarisformers in t,he spot, network require 75,000-amp inter-
rupting-rating feeder circuit breakers, thus make this syst,em cost pro-
hibitive. A secondary bus failure drops all load, whereas in a secondary
sclect,ive arrangement it drops only half the load. The cost of the spot
network using two 750-kva t,ransformers per bus is 122 per cent compared
with 110 per cent for the spot secondary selective system. No reserve
transformer capacity is considered i n either case, and directional tripping
and manual reclosing are considered only in the spot network.
The primary selective arrangement differs from the radial and the
secondary selective arrangements in that two primary feeders are brought
to each substation (Fig. 11.21). Since two primary feeders are available,
a switching means is necessary to select the desired feeder t o connect to
the substation. The switching function is different also in that there is a
transfer furictivn to be performed arid not the mere disconnecting of a
primary feeder as in the other arrangements which have only one primary
feeder coming to each substation.
In discussing any engineering problem such as this, there are always
two things that are important: (1) what are the inherent engineering
aspects of the system as dictated by the one-line diagram, and (2) what
kind of equipment is necessary to enable these characteristics to be
obtained with safety? Safety, particularly in SO far as human life is con-
cerned, is of first importance. Reliability is important but is secondary
to safety t o human life.
The safe way to make the transfer is with adequate power circuit
breakers, as shown in Fig. 11.21. However, the cost of such an arrange-
ment may not be justified; particularly if used on a high-capacity 13.8-kv
system or if very small unit substations are used. Should the cost of
such a primary selective load-center system with power circuit breakers
for the transfer means he unreasonable, it is suggested that the secondary
selective arrangement be used which has many advantages over, and on
an average rosts less t,han, the primary selective arrangement with pri-
mary power circuit breakers (sce Fig. 11.22 for comparison).
In an attempt to reduce the cost of primary selective load-center sys-
tems, interrupter switches are often proposed as a substitute for power
circiiit breakers, Fig. 11.23.
T T
+, c
A
o , r . I p o
) I
+ + + + ) )
A
+ + , r e >
&
1 )
+
)
J +
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
FIG. 11.21 Primary selective circuit arrangement load-center power distribution system
with power circuit breakers for tronrferring from one p r i m ~ r yfeeder to the other.
656 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
A
s $:
A
f* ?*f +
' F *, ** , h* , *T ?+
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
SECONDARY SELECTIVE
SEC PR I
SYSTEM C O M P A R I S O N -
SEL SEL
FIG.1 1.22 Comporiron of primary selective and secondary selective circuit arrongemenlr.
POTHEADS
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 657
the radial arrangement is in the duplicate primary feeder cable (at a cost
of $5 to $15 per ft) required for the primary selective arrangement. The
operation and safety characteristics of the primary selective arrangement
with double-throw switches and a straight radial arrangement are sum-
marized in Fig. 11.24.
Based on the foregoing, it is felt that either the radial or the secondary
selective arrangement should be used instead of the primary selective
arrangement with double-throw interrupter switches. The secondary
selective arrangement has better service reliability, and the radial arrange-
ment has,essentially as good service reliability. Neither arrangement has
the safety hazard of the primary selective arrangement with a double-
throw interrupter switch.
The sole reason for using a primary selective instead of a radial load-
center system is to provide service to the load-center substation primary
in the event of a primary-cable failure. As pointed out in the beginning
of this chapter, primary-cable failure rates are about one per 100 miles of
cable per year. This failure rate is low enough to question the extra
investment of the added primary cable of a primary selective load-center
system compared with a radial load-center system. The trend toward
__._._..-.---SLIGHTLY MORE
COMPLICATED
which permits, with proper precautions, the servicing of either feeder pot-
head with the other feeder energized.
T o be the more certain of getting this higher quality equipment, the
FIG. 11.26 Primary selective loed-center system with two single-throw interlocked pri-
mary switches of the type shown in Fig. 11.25.
PRIMARY
SELECTIVE
ARRANGEMENT
FIG. 11.27 Comporiron of primary selective load-center systems using two single-throw
interrupter switches VI. one double-throw interrupter switch.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 661
The systems so far considered all have radial primary feeders. l n some
cases, looped primary feeders are proposed for load-center power systems
such as that illustrated in Fig. 11.28. See Chap. 13 for a more complete
discussion of looped primary systems. Sectionalieation of the loop
requires switching means a t the points indicated numerically. The only
really safe way t o sectionalize a n energized looped primary is with prop-
erly applied power circuit hreakers at these points as shown in Fig. 11.29.
As in the primary select,ive load-center system, the cost of power circuit
breakers for the switching furiction where small substations are used may
he prohibitive, and thus there is often the tendeucy t o cheapen the looped
primary system by using interrupter switches, as shown in Fig. 11.28,
instead of power circuit. breakers.
When this is done, practically all the advantages of the loop that seem
apparent in the one-line diagram are lost, so far as service reliability is
concerned, and safety is brought t o a very low order for the following
reasons:
I . A fault anywhere drops all load until the fault is found and isolated.
This may require several hours.
2. There is no practical way of interlocking the interrupter switches
to assure that they will not he operated under short-circuit conditions.
3. If certairi types of separately mounted oil-filled switches are used,
there is no visual means of being sure the circuits are cleared when it is
desired t o work on one piece of cable with the rest of the system energized.
Oil may darken and make sight glasses useless.
662 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
Most operators will not permit working on a cable isolated only by con-
tacts under oil because of the possibility of leakage through old carbonized
or wet oil.
The most serious disadvantage of this system is the hazard of operating
the interrupter switches under high overload or fault conditions. While
i t is easy t o consider academically what, an operator will do when a fault
occurs, the result is too apt t o work out differently in actual practice. I n
the first place, faults do not occur every day; so, no matter how good the
operating instruct,ions, t,here is little if any occasion t o practice operating
the systcm properly. Hence, in the rush t o restore service after a fault
has occurred, the operator can too easily make many possible mistakes.
First of all, when a one-line diagram is visible, the entire system is before
one's eyes arid it is easy t o scc what t o do. But when the oprrat,or leaves
the main substation t o operate a switch, he may have only a mental pic-
FIG. 11.28 Looped primary circuit bod-center system with rectionalizing switches for
supplying load-cenfer unit substations.
FIG. 1 1.29 Looped primary circuit bod-center ryrtem with rectionalizing power circuit
breakers for supplying load-center unit rubstotionr.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 663
ture of the system and may have t o rely eutirely on memory. Because
i t is easy t o become ronfused when under pressure, he may go t o the wrong
switch, or he may dose instead of open the switch.
For example, fallow through the case of isolating a cable fault, say a t X
in Fig. 11.28, assuming of course that the operator does uot know where
the fault is but only knows that hoth rircuit breakers tripped out. This
is 110 help i n lorating t,hc fault. It merely indicates the occurrence of a
fault somewhere. The first opcration may be t o open switches 1 and 6
and reclose both circuit breakers. Since the circuit breakers stay in, the
fault has not been found. So. the operator will start through the system
throwing switches and closing circuit breakers, hoping that the sequence
is correct: for, if it is not, the results may be a switch blowup and a
iseverely injured man. l f the operator is lucky and starts at the left side,
the fault will he isolated a t the third try because the second operatiori of
closing switch 1 and opening switch 2 will show that the fault is not in the
transformer. The third operatiori is t o close switch 2 and open switch 1.
This mill show where the fault is. 4 little study of Fig. 11.28 reveals how
many more times this process would have t o he repeated before the fault
is located, if the s\vitching operations had started at the right.
Essentially the power circuit breakers at the source should be opened
every time a w i t c h is thrown. If the circuit hreaker were not opened,
because of an error or misunderstood dircetions, and the S o . 2 switch in
this example was rlosed, then it would he closed on a fault. The opera-
tion is so romplicated that the probability of making a mistake is very
high and is fared over and over again.
Tho suggested alternative t o any kind of a loop primary feeder load-
center system is always either a straight, radial or a secondary selective
load-cent,er system. In some layouts where there are scattered small
huildings (such as nurses' or attendants' quarters a t a hospital) the
straight radial systcmshould serve well enough, because service continuity
in these is no more essential t,han in ordinary di~ellings,most of which are
fed by radial systcms. Howcvcr, some engineers may feel that, since the
feeders to these isolated huildings are underground, some primary-feeder
duplication is necessary.
If so, and the secondary selective arrangement does not tit, then the
primary selective arrangement (Fig. 11.26) may he employed, i n place of
the loop feeders ivith interrupter switches for scctionalization. The
primary s e l w t i v c tcm, ivhen using interrupt,er switches, has one haz-
ard, as pointed out earlier: hut that, hazard is far less than the hazard of
tem lvith int,errupter switches. \!'hen au outage occurs in the
primary selectirr arrangcmcnt, the operat,or knows on which feeder it is,
and orily one-half the load is dropped. I t is desirable t o drop both fceiiers
to make the transfer safely. If the fault is riot in a transformer, all service
664 LOAD-CENTER VOWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
For the sake of this discussion it is assumed that the substation voltage
ratings have heen determined as outlined in Chap. 10 and that t,he system
circuit arrangemcnt has heen agreed upon. The kva size of the load-
cent,er unit suhstat,ion is then largely a matter of economics in plants
where several small substations are w e d , the desire being t o select the
suhstation k v a rat,ing that \ d l effect the lowest over-all system cost.
,.
1hree major system romponents affecting the over-all system cost are the
primary cahle, unit substations, and secondary cable. These factors
~ v o r kconbrary t o one another; so t,hc most eronomical system as affected
I)y substation kva rat,ing ran be obtained only hy considering all three at
once.
A s the number of substations increascs in a given area, the length of
primaryfceder cahle required t o serve these substations increases. Con-
versely, as the nnmhcr of load-center unit substations in a given area
increases, the amount of secondary-feeder cable rcqiiired decreases. The
load-center unit substation cost per kva varies depending upon the size of
the substation.
If the= fact,ors are combined in their proper proportions for a typical
indnstrial plant, the result is shown i n Fig. 10.1. This curve shows very
definite minimiim system cost as a function of substation size for 208Y/
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 665
I I
FIG. 11.30 Typicol arrangements of load-center unit rubrtotianr.
INCOMING-LINE SECTION
/ >
I he primary incomiirg-line section may consist nf a metal-clad srvitch-
gear section with one or t n o readily removable rircuit hreakers as the cir-
cuit arrangement demands, Fig. 11.31A and 8. This gives the uliimate
668 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
in protection and safety for the incoming-line section. I n other cases the
incoming-line sivitchgear may be remote, in which rase thcre would be a
cable connection between the feeder circuit breaker and the load-center
unit suhstation because of the desire to get the load-center substation
closer to the load center. In this case only a pothead may he reyuircd,
Fig. 11.31C. The pothead is often mounted on a junction box.
I t is often desirable to place more than one small load-center unit sub-
station on a primary feeder. I n that rase many operators feel that there
should be a disconnecting means het,ween the feeder and the transformer
t o permit isolation of the transformer for maintenance or other reasons
without completely deenergizing the feeder. This, as pointed out previ-
ously, is done for the sake of economy at some slight sacrifice in safety.
There are numerous types of interrupter switches and interrupter switch
and fuse combinations.
.Classes of Interrupter Switches. The t,erm interrupter switch is defined
iu the Power Switching Equipment Standards of NEMA, Paragraph
SG50-658, as follows:
“An interrupter switch is a switch combining the functions of a discon-
nect.ing switch and a circuit interrupter for interrupting at rated voltage
currents not exceeding the continuous current rating of the switch.”
By t,his broad definition both the so-called “mag-i” and “load-break”
switches are classified as interrupter switches, but in applying such
switches the current-interrupting Capabilities of each class must be
factored.
There are three general classes of interrupter switches available for use
FIG. 11.31 One-line diagram illurtroting application of the more commonly used lood-
center unit rubitotion incoming-line sections.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 671
whioh alloivs the use of ilcse cutouts without being i ~ ~ s t a l l eirid a fireproof
vault.
For unit-sulist,ation applications t,hrre does not, x'rm i n lie any prartiml
requirmwnt for makiiig i t i t interrupter su-itclr ai:trially operate under any
more severe duty tliaii tire miigrietiziiig r i i r r w t of ilir trarisformcr. :is i i
matter of fact, thiart: aro vcry good ~CRYOIIS for interloi'king svitche.;
regardless of their ititrrmptiiig aliility. so tliat oidy triliisi'ormcr niag-
ri(:tizing ci1rri:iit is ii~t(;rrupteil. I t is vrry simplit t o s:ifoly koy-itlrc~rlor~k
the iiiterrupter sn-itvh ivith the main lon.-voltnge srcoii(lary circuit
breaker so that, this circuit I>reaker must lie oprn (and t,hcrefore all load
dropped) before the npcning or closing of tlir ititi>rrttptersnitrli. .is meii-
tioned earlier, tile u s e of thi. i i i i upiiLr sn-itch oii unit srtl~stationsis a t
liest a cornpromisc, aiid r v c i i w h coiistriii.trd as \vi:Il as ~iossil)lt~. it docs
riot h a w h i l t - i n iivrrlo:td or short-circuit protecti erefore, it is still
the weakest, part of the unit srihstntioii. Thrse f a der-elop tiro hasic
iiitf:rliii~kiiigintt~rriiptcrswitches: ety t o personuel
arid (2) protectioli to service corrtiiluit,y.
'
I
..
I a
r
\-
FIG, 11.34 Typical bod-center unit substation tronrformer sections and arkarel-filled
transformer, left; conventional dry-type transformer, center; and sealed dry-type trom-
former, right.
672 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
I Liquid filled
~ ___
Type of Ironsformer
Open Sealed Sealed
Oil Atkars
ventiloted Clor, B Clas H
Type of
tronsformer
recommended
I Open
dry
'Inaca ensed guide such as this, it is possible to cover only the more u81 types
of installa .- T I LL"-"c,.-" -L....I,l ".I -""""":-"A &L"& &I."-" "-~ 1"".. "..-"."I
674 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
cuit breaker may be taken out and another one put in its place and the
replaced circuit breaker taken to a clean dry location for maintenance
under favorable conditions. This switchgear offers a high degree of
safety hecause all parts are metal enclosed and interlocking is provided t,o
prevent drawing out or inserting a properly adjusted large air circuit
breaker with contacts in the closed position.
The molded-case circuit breakers are limited in interrupting rating to
25,000 amp a t 480 volts and 40,000 amp a t 240 volts and are therefore
limited as to the sizc of substations on which t,hey may bc employed.
Thcse circuit breakers, while adequate \Tithin their interrupting rating,
are not so sturdily constructed as the large circuit breakers and are
not drawout in construction; therefore they lack the flexibility and ease
of maintenance associated with the drawout switchgear. The molded-
case circuit breakers, however, being small in size, can be mounted as a
complete unit on the end of the transformer section of the light-duty load-
center unit substation. They are not employed on larger substations
used in industrial areas as it is very desirable from the maintenance and
operation standpoint t o have circuit breakers drawout, a feature not
incorporat,ed in the molded-case circuit-breaker switchgear. In sub-
stations for commercial buildings where light-duty unit substations with
molded-case circuit breakers find their widest application, the drawout
feature, while highly desirable, may not be so essential as in an industrial
plant where there are many more circuit changes and circuit-breaker
operations than there are in commercial buildings.
The third form of secondary switching is the centralized motor control
as shown in Fig. 11.35.
In many cases it is desirable to have a drawout switchgear section and a
centralized motor-control section both in the same secondary line-up to
provide feeders to other switching centers as well as to the centralized
motor-control units associated with the unit substation. In such cases
where there is more than one secondary feeder from the secondary of the
load-center unit substation, a centralized motor control section should be
connected to the switchgear bus section through a circuit breaker as
shown in Fig. 11.36.
The centralized control section on unit substations may be employed
where it is desired to centralize motor control in one location such as
might be the case in oil refineries where the substation and control are
placed in a ventilated room, free from explosive or corrosive atmosphere.
Always Use a Main Secondary Circuit Breaker. It is always pref-
erable to include a main secondary circuit breaker in every secondary
switchgear section regardless of t,he type of secondary switching equip-
ment, used whether it is drawout switchgear, centralized motor control, or
molded-case circuit breakers. The main secondary circuit breaker is
LOAD.CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 675
FIG. 11.35 Typic01 centralized motor-control section for secondary of load-center unit
substotion.
FEEDERS CENTRALIZED
MOTOR
CONTROL
USE B R E A K E R HERE
FIG. 11.36 One-line diogrom of application of circuit breoker to feed centralized motor-
control section to permit deenergiring of the control section for maintenance without
deenergizing feeders lo lights and other load.
67 6 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
FIG. 11.37 Double-ended load-center unit rubrtotion installed on the factory floor.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 677
FIG. 11.38 Single-ended lood-center unit substation instolled on grating in roof trusser.
FIG. 11.40 D-C load-centei unit substations instolled on plotform inounted on colurnnr
a b o v e factory floor.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 679
A LOAD CENTER
r - q n b SUBSTATION
INDIVIDUAL
TRANSFORMER
FOR ONE
LARGE MOTOR
6"
SMALLER
MOTORS
FIG. 11.41 One-line dicigram rhowing large motorr fed through individual tronrformen
and rmaller motor$fed from load-center unit rubrtationr.
680 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
LOAD CENTER
SYSTEM
MOTOR A 1
' PRIMARY
VOLTAGE
L
&
FIG. 11.42 Typicol one-lhe diagrrim showing Iarger motom operated directly a t primary
voltage and maller motorr fed from load-center unit rubrtotionr.
LOAO-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 68I
FIG. 11.43 Morter load-center vnit wbrtotion rtepping power down from 13.8 to 2.4 kv
for wpplying rl bonk of lorge 2300-volt motorr.
13.8 K V
SOURCE
MASTER LOAD
CENTER UNIT
d~, KVA
LOAD
SUBSTATION CENTER
UNIT
?j WBSTATION
*
fBBBf
2.4 K V
J.
Y
66A6A
RATEO 350
MOTORS
SMALLER
MOTORS
FIG. 11.44 Typical one-line diogram of a mil1 rhowing groups of larger motorr fed from a
m a t e r load-center uni1 rubrtaiion ond rmoller motori fed from a lood-center unit rub-
rtotion.
682 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
1 I
13.8 KV BUS
Y
,d
1500 HP
MOTOR
RATED
13.2 KV 2,4,K:
MOTORS UP TO MOTORS 2 5 0
250 HP TO 2000 H P
SUBSTATION
I
I I I <;n;> , I, ;3.; KV
BUS
FIG. 11.45 Typical one-line diagram of a large mill showing large load orem fed by
load-center ryrtemr through packaged substations. The large motors are supplied
directly ot primary voltage, i.e., 13.8-kv ond medium-sized motors from o 2.4-lrv master
unit substation ond smaller motors from a 480-volt load-center unit substation.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 603
FACTORS TO CONSIDER
SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTION
5,000 50 112.5
10.000 100 225
15.000 150 300
25,000 300 750
50,000 750 1500
FIG. 12.1 Enclosed monuolly operoted large FIG. 12.2 Molded-care air circuit
air circuit breaker for individual mounting. breaker.
SOURCE SOURCE
n n
Y Y
T11 I =I00PERCENT
T
FEEDERS TO LOADS FEEOERS TO LOADS
figure. In some cases the load is of a static nature and does not contribute
to the short-cireuit current. In these cases the same procedure can be
used, neglecting the load contribution.
The effect of the reactor on the system voltage regulation should not he
considered lightly. The effect of the voltage drop due to the reactor on
the system voltage conditions is, of course, a function of the power factor
of the load current (see Chap. 4). Therefore, in applying reactors, con-
sideration should be given to the circuit power factor and the resulting
effect of the steady-state voltage drop on the system voltage conditions.
In addition to steady-state voltage drop, reactors can have a very
serious effect ou the system voltage dip which occurs during the starting
of motors. A typical motor will draw about six times normal current a t
a power factor perhaps as low as 20 to 30 per cent. If this current is
drawn through reactors in the system, the resulting voltage may be so
low as to he intolerable. The low voltage might result in an ohjectionable
flicker or outage of lights and/or the undesirable drop-out of contaetors.
I t might even be so severe that motors requiring a high starting torque
would fail to start, since the motor torque developed is proportional to the
square of the voltage. For additional information on the effect of motor
starting on voltage conditions, refer to Chap. 4.
The discussion thus far ou short-circuit protection has been based
SAMPLE CALCULATDN
SYMMETRICAL FAULT IMPERES AT eus
=- loo'ooo i80,000 AMP
A AS:~~È?%?CAL
1.25
EOUIV 1MPEDANCE'- 480 X
q
- 0.00350HMS
I
80.0W
AMPERES
AVAILABLE IMPEDANCE PLUS REACTOR
+
'0.00354 0 . 0 2 ~ 5= 0.0320 OHMS
G 480 SYMMETRICAL FAULT CURRENT THROUGH REACTOR
+ =* x1 = e670 AMP
I
0.032
CONTRIBUTION FROM SOOAMP MOTOR LOAD
[ASSUME 4 TIMES NORMAL)=4X600;2400AMP
REACTOR TOTAL SYMMETRICAL FAULT CURRENT
0.02850HMS i2 4 0 0 A M P f 8 6 7 0 AMP : I 1 0 7 0 A M P
600 AMP
TOTAL ASYMMETRICAL FAULT CURRENT
OVERLOAD PROTECTION
where compliance with the NEC is not required, its requirements ran be
used as a good hasis for providing adequate overload protection.
VOLTAGE DROP
SAFETY
metal enclosures and t o make circuit elements such that they can be
easily isolated or completely removed from the electrical system for main-
tenance operations. For example, low-voltage switchgear equipment is
equipped with readily removable breakers which can be completely
removed from the housing and taken to a remote location for mainte-
nance and repair work. Alternate power paths should be provided by the
design engineer for essential loads that cannot be deenergized so that
necessary parts of the circuit can be deenergized for maintenance work.
The most important part of safety in any system and particularly in
the secondary distribution system is that of properly grounding the equip-
ment. I n a secondary distribution system there are apt to be portable
equipments, motors, and various other types of utilization equipment
which are readily accessible to all personnel. It is extremely important
that all theseutilization devices have their metallic frames solidly grounded
to a good ground system in the plant in order to prevent any voltage
elevation of the equipment under any conditions. Chapter 7 discusses in
detail the methods of providing adequate equipment grounds, and there-
fore these methods need not be repeated here. Small portable tools,
which are moved from place t o place periodically, and which often have
no automatic means of grounding the tool frame when the tool is con-
nected t o an energized circuit, are probably the most difficult t o keep
properly grounded. Particular attention should be paid to this type of
load t o assure proper equipment grounding.
I n the secondary distribution system it is very common for machine
tools to be connected to a plug-in type of bus run, and it is essential that
proper grounding facilities be included to assure that the machine tool is
grounded whenever it is energized. Chapter 7 discusses this particular
point in some detail. However, it should be mentioned that both the
design engineer and the operating and maintenance personnel should
exercise extreme care to be sure that when plug-in devices and portable
devices are used they are adequately grounded.
any third (or multiple of the third) harmonic currents drawn by the load.
I n a modern plant, practically all loads are either three phase or single
phase connected line-to-line. Such loads do not cause any current to
flow in the fourth wire. I n the case of line-to-neutral loads, attempts are
generally made t o saitch the loads in balanced three-phase banks. When
such switching is not possible, however, an adequate fourth wire must he
provided t o carry any unbalanced neutral current.
The use of fluorescent lights on either the 208Y/120-volt system or the
480Y/277-volt system results in third-harmonic currents, which must add
u p and return to the source through the neutral conductor. A study of
this problem indicates that the third-harmonic current in any one phase
might amount t o as much as 30 to 35 per cent of the fundamental fre-
quency current, resulting in a neutral harmonic current in the order of 90
to 100 per cent of the phase fundamental current. Therefore, all branch
feeders and secondary feeders which supply only fluorescent lighting loads
should be provided with a 100 per cent capacity neutral conductor.
Practically, this means that any branch circuit with more than 50 per cent
of its connected load being fluorescent lighting should have a neutral wire
with 100 per cent capacity. For those circuits supplying only three-phase
power loads, no neutral conductor need be included with the phase con-
ductors since there mill not be any neutral current.
As the load is viewed from points closer and closer to the source of
power (load-center unit substation transformer), the line-to-neutral unbal-
anced load and the third-harmonic producing loads become smaller and
smaller percentagewise. As a result, the capacity of the neutral conduc-
tor can be smaller in comparison to the phase conduct,ors. For example,
consider a Y-connected .three-phase four-wire system. A feeder supply-
ing only fluorescent lighting load must have a 100 per cent rated neutral
conductor in order to carry the harmonic currents drawn. Another
feeder might be a single-phase feeder connected from line-to-neutral,
requiring a 100 per cent neutral conductor also. The remainder of the
feeders supply balanced three-phase loads and do not require any neutral
conductors. When this total load is viewed from the substation bus, the
total neutral currents become a smaller percentage of the total phase cur-
rents, thus permitting a smaller neutral conductor, perhaps 25 to 50 per
cent of full-load rating of the substation itself. This point should always
be checked to ensure an adequate neutral conductor all thc way hack to
the supply transformer.
SERVING PORTABLE T O O L S
There are two principal problems which arise in connection with serving
portable tools. The first is to make sure of an adequate ground connec-
696 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
tion. This was mentioned earlier in this section and is discussed in detail
in Chap. 7.
The second problem in connection with portable equipment is that of
providing adequate short-circuit protection and making the plngging and
unplugging of such equipment safe.
For small 110-volt circuits, 30 amp
and below, the fuse in the branch cir-
SAFETY SWITCH cuit should provide adequate. short-
AND FUSE OR
CIRCUIT BREAKER circuit protection. The plugging of
such circuits, without deenergizing
the plug, is conventional practice.
Qh
However, where larger machine
tools are involved with their larger
RECEPTACLE heavy-duty plugs, it is desirable from
a safety standpoint to provide a dis-
connect means with individual short-
~ ~ ~ ~circuit
A ~ protection
f E for the particu-
LOAD lar circuit similar t o that shown in
FIG. 12.7 Disconnect means with rhort-
Fig. 12.7. This arrangement permits
Circuit for heavy-duty plug. insertion of the plug while the circuit
is deenergized. If the circuit were
not deenergizcd and a fault were t o exist in the portable load ivhcn the
plug was inserted, the fault would he removed in a minimum of time with
the least chance of damage to the equipment if high-capacity current-
limiting silver-sand fuses werc used ahead. of the plug. For other types
of fuses and circuit breakers, however, a
OLUMN serious personnel hazard might exist.
Therefore, the safer way of making surh
480 VOLT CIRCUIT a connection is t o deenergize the circuit
SAFETY SWITCH hy opeuing the safety snitch before in-
AND FUSE OR serting the plug and reclosirig the safety
CIRCUIT BREAKER
switch after the portable load bas been
. connected.
480-120 VOLT
TRANSFORMER
In a modern industrial plant withprac-
tically all loads at 480 volts and higher,
one of the prohlems is to provide suffi-
-FUSE BLOCK
cicnt 120-volt power around the plant for
.,20 o,TLETS miscellaneous loads, such as portable
tools, inspection lights, etc. Onemethod
of providing this power is to place a small
480-120-volt transformer on each column
13asicaIly, there are four t,ypes of secondary feeder circuit,s which should
he mentioned. They arc (1) open wire, ( 2 ) mPta~-ericlosetibus, (3) CatJle
in conduit, and (4) intcrloaked-armor cable.
The open-wire type of feeder which has commonly been used in past
years i s rarely used in modern plants. First, such an open-wire installa-
tiou creates a safety hazard since the energized conductors are not
enalosed and are siitijcct to contact by opcrat,ing personnel. I3rcause of
the exposure of the open-wire installat,ion it,s relialrility i s c:oiisiderat>ly
reduced as it is much more subject t,o failure because of forrign objects
coming in contact with the conductors. Because of the lack of such
inst,allatioris in present-day plants, no further reference will he made t o
this type of circuit.
The metal-enclosed bus is gaining wide favor in industrial plant instal-
lations because of its safety arid reliability as contrasted t o that offered
by the open-wire system. There are two principal types of bus which are
used. These are the plug-in type and the feeder type. The feeder h u s
is often called a low-reactance hus hecause of the interleaved phasc-cori-
duct,or arrangement (see Fig. 12.9). This type of bus is gerierally used
for major circuits carrying large currents to specific pieces of equipment.
For example, this bus is often used t o feed large welding equipment.
Also, i t is sometimes used to supply power to the plug-in type oE bus.
FIG. 12.9 Cross-sectional view of low-reactance feeder bur rhowing interleoved bur-bar
arrangement.
698 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
FIG. 12.10 Typicol installation of plug-in-type bur with flexible bur drop cables.
700 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
of this type of plant would be steel-mill motor rooms, paper mills, oil
refineries, etc.
There are many industrial plants which cannot be classified either as
the metal-fabricating type or the process type but are sonic conihiiiation
of the two. The power distribution syst,cm for any plant, consisting of
such a combination can easily be designed if the fundamentals for t,he two
extreme types are understood.
Metal-fabricating Type of Plant. The plug-in h u m a y type of instal-
lation offers the most flexible system possible for distributing power in the
areas where the machine tools are Iocated. As production models and
designs change, these machine tools are often relocated, and it is essential
that the power system supplying them be sufficiently flexible t o permit
these changes with minimum disturbance. The plug-in busway is gener-
ally installed overhead, running completcly across the area at not more
than 40- t o 50-ft intervals. This means that the maximum horizontal
run t o reach a position over any machine tool will not exceed 25 ft.
The power feed dropping down t o the machine tool from' the bus can he
either by means of a flexible bus drop cable or by means of wire in rigid
conduit. The flexible types of bus drop ofkr a material advaritage in
flexibility in utilization-equipment movements.
The most economical may t o supply power to the plug-in bus in most
plaqts is hy means of interlocked-armor cahlc run overhead in racks or
trays. This cable begins a t the secondary-feeder breaker at the load-
center unit substation and terminates in the cable entrance box on the
run of plug-in busway.
Oftentimes cranes prohibit the use of an overhead bus system because
the busway and the bus drops would he in the may of the crane hook.
The flexibility of a plug-in bus installation can still he ohtaiiicd in these
cases by installing the bus in a different manner. The bus can he run
horizontally along each line of columns with the drop cables running down
the columns and, if necessary, under the floor t o the machines. Another
method would be t o run the cable feeder along the row of columns with
short lengths of plug-in busnay mounted vertirally on certain columns,
as shown in Fig. 12.14.
When deciding on a plug-in bus arrangement, it should be rcmemhered
that there is a very definite advantage to having the cable drop from over-
head. I n this manner the cables are free from the oil and grease on the
floor, and it is not necessary t o dig up the floor t o install or move any of
the machine tools.
Process Type of Plant. The other extreme in plant t,ype is that where
the utilization equipment consists of machinery which will be permanent,ly
located. For loads such as this, the type of syst,cmsmentioned under t,he
metal-fabricating plant can also be used even though the machines never
702 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
R U G IN BUSWP;
FIG. 12.14 Suggested arrangement of plug-in burway where overhead crones ore
prerent.
I
a L
1-r480y’277
3 \1
CAELE
LARGE OVEN
DR MACHINE
TO WAD
FIG. 12.15 Severai methodr of supplying powei to loodr in the recondory dirtribution
ryrtem.
704 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
tion system but the over-all poirer dist,ributioIi arrangement from the
source of power down t,o the load. Chapters 11 and 13 discuss various
circuit arrangements for the load-center system and the primary system
in order to assure higher degrees of reliability for such essential processes.
When an adequate primary and load-center system have been designed
t o ensure addkional reliability, then steps can be t,aken in t,he secondary
distribution system to carry this extra reliability down t o the utilization
equipment.
Chapter 13 by Norman L. Hadley
PURCHASED-POWER ARRANGEMENTS
PRIMARY-SYSTEM BREAKERS
..
FIG. 13.1 Main substation rhowing 115-kv outdoor circuit breaker a t the right and power
tronrformerr throot-connected lo 13.8-kv metol-clod witchsear in the center.
FIG, 13.2 Indoor metol-clod rwitchgeor with one circuit-breaker unit removed.
710 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS*
system a t two or three different voltages. These unit,s have the windings
on a single core mounted in a single tank. They are t,echnically sound
and will permit, a saving for an occasional applicat,ion, but they are not
used so oft,en as might be expected. The reactances hetweeo each pair
of windings and the loading relations are fixed by design, and t,here will
consequently be less opportunity for later system modifications than if
separate transformers are used.
MAIN SUBSTATIONS
Xot all plants will o m and operate a main substation for supplying the
primary dist,ribution system. A plant main bus serves the Same purpose
if the purrhased-power voltage is suitable vit,hout transformation for the
plant primary system.
The principal functions of a main substation are indicated in Fig. 13.4A,
which is a simple arrangement answering the requirements of a great
many Emaller plant,s. More complivated substation arrangements result
when there arc two or more incoming lines, two or more power trans-
formers, or one of a number of other bus arrangements: Also in plants
with power generation, the snbstation output may not supply a plant
main bus but may be connected t o a synchronizing bus, as described later
in this chapter. The substations in a few vary large plants with heavy
loads in widely separat,ed areas may require transmission-voltage feeders
connected t o the incoming-line bus, as mentioned in Chap. 10.
Figure 13.4B differs from Fig. 13.4A in using power fuses instead of a
circuit breaker in the incoming line. Circuit breakers are generally pref-
erable, but fnses will be useful in satisfying over-all objectives in some of
the smaller and simpler substations. When substat,iori primary fuses aTe
used, it is better t o employ solid neutral grounding of the transformer
secondary than t o limit the ground-fault current in the primary distribu-
tion system.
The remaining substation examples all show two supply lines. I n
these stations it will often be necessary t o accept some functional com-
promises in the high-voltage switching equipment for cost reasons. Inas-
much as smaller plants must sometimes be served from higher voltage
systems, the main substation high-voltage circuit-breaker equipment can
be disproportionately expensive among the other substation components.
Stated in another way, a given high-voltage breaker arrangement for a
given supply system will cost just about the same regardless of the sub-
station size. The discussion is intended simply t o indicate what the
several arrangements offer.
Figure 13.4C shows a two-line single-transformer substation using two
high-voltage circuit breakers. This arrangement might be used whether
PRIMARY DlSTRlWTlON SYSTEMS 713
the two lines are alternate, paralleled, or part of a loop. For a loop sup-
ply, the substitution of a circuit breaker for the transformer horn-gap
switch would avoid opening thc loop hy the transformer protection
scheme. T h e use of either two or three circuit breakers might he hard t o
justify in particular cases. For alternate-line or preferred-emergmry
IBI
I I
(El
FIG. 13.4 Some typical main substation orrangementr used by industrial plants.
714 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
supply, the single circuit breaker of Fig. 13.40 with interlocked incoming-
line switches has a minor deficiency in not permitting an aut,omatictrans-
fer between lines.
Either Fig. 13.4C or Fig. 13.40 permits expansion by adding one or
more transformers t,o the high-voltage bus. Figure 13.4E is simply an
extension of Fig. 13.4C for a two-transformer substation where the two
incoming lines are alternate, paralleled, or part of a loop. As illustrated
with four high-voltage breakers, this substation arrangement can provide
a n unusually high degree of service reliability except for a high-voltage
bus fault.
For the special case of two incoming lines that may be operated in
parallel hut are not a loop supply, the arrangement of Fig. 13.4F is often
a good solution. By omitting the high-voltage bus, and paralleling on the
low-voltage side of the transformers, a saving in high-voltage breakers and
structure is accomplished. The arrangement reduces the availability of
the total transformer capacity because each unit has a transmission line in
series. However, the station-cost reduction may be so significant for
smaller substations that load curtailment during an outage becomes an
acceptable risk. I t is moreover possible t o reinvest part of the circuit-
breaker saving in additional size of transformer units to achieve service
cont,innity for all t.he load or to reduce the amount of load curtailment
during half-capacity operation.
Referring again to Fig. 13.4E in connection with loop supplies only, the
high-voltage part of the substation employs almost all the circuit breakers
that can be fitted into a single-bus arrangement. However, a fifth circuit
breaker could be added in the bus. With appropriate relaying, it would
ensure continuity of service through one transformer under the condition
of a high-voltage bus fault. I t is perhaps more profitable t o observe how
reliability and flexibility are modified by removing circuit breakers one
a t a time, as illustrated in Figs. 13.W t o 13.45.
I n the three-breaker echeme of Fig. 13.4G the main functional com-
promise is that transformer protection requires opening the loop supply.
A utility would not ordinarily consider this as a serious shortcoming, but
it could Ee avoided in the alternative three-breaker scheme of Fig. 13.4H.
Either of these arrangements provides service continuity through one
transformer for any single fault, including a high-voltage hus fault.
I n the two-breaker scheme of Fig. 13.41, operation of the protective
relaying of either transformer not only opens the loop but drops the whole
subst,ation load. The loop can be reclosed and plant service can be
reestablished t,hrough the unfaulted transformer circuit by manual switch-
ing. A permanent high-voltage bus fault must, of course, be repaired
before either circuit breaker can be reclosed.
I n attempting to use a single breaker as shown in Fig. 13.4J, a problem
PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 715
BUS ARRANGEMENTS
A bus is a junction of three or more incoming and outgoing circuits.
The most common plant bus arrangement consists of one source or supply
circuit and two or more feeder circuits. The numerous other arrange-
ments and variations are mainly intended to improve the service relia-
bility through the bus t o all or part of the load during expected mainte-
nance, or in the event of equipment failure or source outage.
Some very complicated bus arrangements have been used in trying to
improve service reliability or continuity. Some of these arrangements
are technically unsound and will not provide actual benefits. Other
arrangements that do qualify from an engineering viewpoint are useful
in meeting the rather typical requirements in the heavy industries that
handle large amounts of power through main and subdistribution buses.
These same bus arrangements will seldom prove acceptable for cost rea-
sons in medium-size and small systems even when service continuity is
considered to he unusually important. The highest quality of service
reliability can often be obtained more economically for smaller plants,
particularly for those with load-center systems, by over-all system arrange-
ments that employ simpler and less costly bus arrangements.
The double-bus arrangement shown in Fig. 13.5A is an example of the
more complicated arrangements that is technically sound if good-quality
equipment is used, but it is very costly for the usual sizes of feeder circuits.
The arrangement is suitable for outdoor circuit breakers, station-type
cubicles, or metal-clad construction. I n metal-clad equipments, some
requirements can be met a t lower cost by employing two positions and one
circuit breaker per circuit plus one spare removable circuit-breaker ele-
ment, as illustrated for one of the several circuits. This variation still
allows transferring any circuit or maintaining any circuit breaker without
a feeder interruption.
Figure 13.5.4 was intended t o indicate a preferred physical arrangement
with companion circuit-breaker compartments in separate standard
equipments facing each other across an operating aisle. A cable canner-
tion would usually join the circuit breakers. Occasionally a special
716 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
metal-clad equipment has been built with both buses running the lemgth
of the equipment, placing companion circuit breakers in adjacent compart-
ments. This is an inferior construrtiori because i t provides a possibility
of involving both buses if there should he a serious switchgear failure.
Most of the more complicated arrangements have in common the gen-
A
9
I
7
5-e
T
$Y $Y 8Y
ICI
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FEEDER ARRANGEMENTS
Radial feeders are the most widely used because they are simple, easy
t o protect, and low in cost. They are simple because there is only one
path for current to any given load point. They are easily protected by
simple overcurrent relays a t the supply circuit breaker. The cost is low
because there is no duplication of equipment. These comments apply to
“single” radial feeders and not to “parallel” feeders which have charac-
teristics resembling those of loop feeders.
Parallel feeders consist of two or more feeders bused together both at
the sending aud receiving ends. I t is sometimes more economical to
design a heavy ctlhle circuit with two or more cables in parallel, but these
cables cannot he considered as parallel feeders when single-circuit switch-
ing equipment is used.
Parallel feeders as illustrated by Fig. 13.6 provide a high degree of
service reliability, or continuity, if one of several methods of protecting
parallel lines is employed. This protectiou is more complicated and
expensive than the simple overcurrent protection ordinarily installed in
single radial feeders. Separated circuits are desirable, and each will
typically have the ability to handle the normal load with the other circuit
out of service. Additional circuit breakers are needed; in general, four
circuit breakers are required for parallel feeders supplying one load point,
while only one circuit breaker is needed for a single radial feeder. There
are obviously some heavy cost penalties against the parallel-feeder
arrangement; so its excellent characterist,ias can he justified only for
serving large loads such as suhdistribution buses or smaller loads with
unusual service requirements.
Several variations intended to improve upon the performance of single
radial feeders have costs below those for parallel feeders. They all
sacrifice service continuity as a characteristic. For particular require-
ments, one or another of these variations may be a preferred solution; hut
t,hey teud in general to have questionable value.
One rariatiou is t,o m e a conventional parallel-feeder scheme, but to use
overcurrent protection only. This does not represent an important
saving, arid a short, circuit in either line interrupts service. Moreover,
the fault location is not indicated, and corisiderable time may be spent in
finding which lioe is in trouble unless it is considered acceptable to take
the chalice of closing again on t,he same fault.
.I second variation is like the one above, except that one of the two
circuits is operated normally open and is held as an alternate or reserve
feeder. The equipment is the same, and the only advantage is that the
fault location is indieated when service is interrupted.
A third variation makes a further saving by using a total of four metal-
clad circuit-breaker positions but only two circuit breakers. The per-
formance is similar to that of the second variation evcept that the outage
720 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
FIG. 13.7 Feeder-equipment compclriron for three alternative arrangements each rupply-
ing the same three loads.
......, .
Number of Circuit breakers.. 4N 2N +2
. . .........
Cable current rating.. . .
Cable footage.. .... ......, .....
.
Loop feeders perform much the same as parallel feeders, and the oper-
ating features can usually he ohtairied a t less cost for the two or more load
points. But this is still a high-cost feeder system that will prove eco-
nomically sound in about the same k i d s of situations where parallel
feeders can be justified.
Loop feeders look so attractive to many engineers that variations with
lower costs are often considered and sometimes adopted. Most of these
arrangements only resemble good loop systems and can he aualyzed into
positions of lower value than radial arrangements of still lower costs.
PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 72 1
(A1 IEI
YY-Y (CI
722 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
a short circuit, service t o all the load can be reestablished by isolating the
faulted section. The arrangement can serve the same complement of
substations that can be served by a single radial feeder without needing
individual protection of the substation transformers. Without further
analysis this arrangement appears t o have attained fair service reliability
with a moderate cost increase. However, most operating engineers will
reject this system for cable circuits using metal-enclosed disconnects at
the sectionalizing points because there are serious hazards involved in the
switchingoperationslikely t o bc followed after a short circuit has occurred.
Whether t,he loop was open or closed when the fault occurred, the problem
remains t o find the section in trouble so that service can be restored to all
loadpoints. While it is not the best procedure, a common routine involves
energizing thc feeder from one end by repeated trial, after adding a section
at a time, until the faulty section is located by immediate tripping of the
source circuit breaker. These operations present repeated opportuuities
t o make swit,ching mistakes. Even if the operator appreciates the hazard,
there is still the temptation t o energize the sections one at a time by
means of the manual disconnects. These switches are also hazardous to
operate under normal conditions because every section of a closed loop
usually carries current.
A loop feeder carried on open overhead lines with structure or pole-
mounted disconnects for sectionalizing is much safer. One difference is
t h a t short circuits on overhead lines are more often temporary than
permanent. h more importaut difference is that any switch failure is
considerably less likely t o injure a n operator because of the remote
operation.
Several precautions should he observed in loop and parallel feeder lay-.
outs. It is well t o avoid compound loops-those with more than two
source circuit breakers or with more than one path from one of two source
circuit breakers back t o the other. Loop systems such as these may
develop in an attempt t o relieve overloaded circuit conductors. This is
seldom an efficient solution compared t o starting a new single loop. The
load division is difficult t o calculate, requiring close estimates of circuit
impedance and assumed iixed loads at each load point. Normal load
variations and load growth can cause unexpectedly wide changes in the
load division, and compound loops therefore tend t o give only temporary
relief at best. Other compound-loop systems simply grow without sound
planning. They tend t o be associated with poor load division, poor pro-
tection, and compromised service. Particularly where disconnects are
used instead of circuit breakers, operation is more complicated and there-
fore more hazardous.
It was implied earlier that tie feeders do not supply load points between
the two sources. This arrangement, combining the usual functions of
PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 723
tie and loop feeders, is sometimes advantageous. At the same time, ccr-
tain complications and compromises of such a dual-purpose circuit should
be recognized and weighed before finally deciding in favor of it. Listed
beloiv are several possible shortcomings:
1. The metering of load transferred between sources is more complicated.
2. Additional protection at the load points may he needed to avoid
opening the tie circuit on load-tap fault.
3. If synchronism is maintairied by t,he tie circuit, suitable precautious
must he taken to prevent closing the tie by any sectionalizing circuit
breaker because it will not he feasible to install synchronizing provisions
at the several sectionalizing points.
Another precaution applies equally to parallel and loop feeders. These
arrangements may complete a closed circuit around a bus-tie circuit
breaker or a current-limiting reactor when the source circuit breakers are
connected t o different buses. Such connections are oftcu overlooked in
system design work. I t is obviously a mistake to short-circuit current-
limiting reactors by a feeder arrangement, and it is at least questionable
to have a bus-tie circuit breaker short-circuited by independent primary
switching operations a t one or more remote points in the system. A
review of the several reasons for using bus-tie circuit hreakers, as covered
in another part of this chapter, will indicate how seriously the over-all
system characteristics may be altered by au oversight of this kind.
FEEDER INSTALLATION
6or
The proper valuc of synchronizing reactance is sometimes a perplexing
question. The least reactance that will meet short-circuit objectives is
desirable. The value of 10 per cent mentioned several times is actually
z
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2 50
W
z
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40
0
-
I 3 4
of a single generator. It is evident that the first few per cent of syn-
chronizing reactance are the most eRective in reducing short-circuit levels
and that relatively little further henefit results from increasing the react-
ance from, say, 5 t o 10 per cent or higher.
There are some minor objections t o larger reactors, such as higher costs,
higher losses, and finally system instahilit,y. However, the most practical
objection is the voltage drop accompanying load transfer, and this drop
varies directly with the amount of reactance. For example, a 10 per cent
reactor on a given base rauses twice the amount of voltage change caused
by a 5 per cent reactor on the same base when transferring the same load.
Figure 13.13 illustrates this point for three reactor values.
Figure 13.13 illustrates another matter of interest. Reactors typically
have relatively small values of resistance so that voltage drop a t a load
power factor of unity is very low, but it increases sharply as the power
factor departs from unity in the lagging direction. (The curves of Fig.
13.13 assume a reactor X / R of 50.) It is therefore important t o recognize
probable operating power factor in contemplating the use of larger values
of synchronizing reactance. Even where load power factor will be high,
it should he remembered that low-power-factor demands such as those
caused by starting motors may produce objectionably high temporary
voltage drops.
The curves of Fig. 13.13 show voltage drops from a point of constant
voltage in the system. This point will he at active generator buses for
LOAD P F ( L A G G I N G )
FIG, 13.13 Voltage drop ot load bur when CI load equal to generator rated h a is
transferred through synchronizing reactors.
730 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
.~
medium voltage b y the utility. large
I ---
r-----------
UTILITY
1
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS
-__ - I
I
733
FIG. 14.3 Typical one-line diagrom of o commercial building when power is supplied
by its own substation.
FIG. 14.4 Typical one-line diagram of a commercial building when power i s supplied
by the utility network.
734 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS
$UTILITY SERVICE
7TH
FLOOR
FIG. 14.5 A typical one-line diagram of (I large commercial building receiving medium-
voltoge power from the utility and tranrforming to various utilization voltages.
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 735
descent lamps. Higher voltage incandescent lamps are fragile and gener-
ally not satisfactory.
Modern lighting practices, however, include more arid more the use of
fluorescent lamps either alone or in combination with other types. Since
the fluorescent lamp has a ballast in series with it, the 120-volt limitation
no longer applies. The required voltage at instant starting is always
above 120 volts and is supplied by a transformer built into the ballast.
Thus the use of fluoresccnt lamps has opened new possibilities for the use
of higher voltage circuits to reduce the cost of the power system.
Combined light and power systems have been used for a number of
years in industrial p l a n k Combined light and power systems using
480Y/277 volts have been in service over 10 years (see references 2 and 3).
The fluorescent-lamp ballasts are connected line-to-neutral and the motors
connected line-to-line in the 4XOY/277-volt system. This system has
resulted in a substantial reduction in cost of the power system for supply-
ing these plants compared with separate power and lighting distribution
systems. I n the industrial plants the control of these lamps has been
accomplished by the use of fused combination motor starters to serve
large blocks (up to 15 kva each) of fluorescent lamps, but this type of con-
trol is not suitable for office buildings. Examples of new large modern
commercial huildiugs using the 480-volt system for both air-conditioning
and lighting loads have been described in the tcchnical press (see refer-
ences 10 t.o 16). Examples of large arid small huildirigs are given in A I E E
papers (see references 4 to 9).
The economies of a 4x0-volt system for supplying fluorescent ceiling
lights and integral horsepower motors can be obtained in office buildings.
This is brought about by the development of a small control relay which
can be mounted in the higher voltage fluorescent lighting circuits for
controlling the 277-volt distribution circuit in the lighting fixture. This
relay is operated by coils whose nominal voltage rating is 24 volts. Since
only 24 volts has to be brought t o the wall switches, this obviates the
necessity for using 277 volts on standard 250-volt wall switches. Special
277-volt wall switches are available.
the husway to the panel boards (3). The panel boards supply 277 volts
line-to-neutral for the lights (4). The 24-volt remote-control switches
(5) control the lights through relays (6) and a transformer (7). A dry-
type transformer (8) rated 480:120 volts, single phase, supplies the panel
hoard (9) for the floor circuits (10). Elevator, fire-pump, and air-condi-
tioning motors (11) operate on 480 volts, line-to-line.
The application of these componcnts is also shown in the one-line dia-
gram, Fig. 14.8.
INTERLOCKED
ARMOR CABLE
MOTOR FEEDER STbNDARD BUSWAY
3 CONDUCTOR CIRCUITS CONDUIT a CABLE
~
''<
T480-1zov
,...
^ _R
^^..r^
PANELBOARD
RELf
BRANCH
CIRCUIT
Lm - ~
LIGHTING FIXTURE
1 I
It is quite customary to supply motors and control a t 480 volts. This has
been done in industrial plants for years to take advantage of the savings
inherent with a higher voltage system. By extending the neutral circuit
in the lighting feeders only, the fluorescent lighting load can be dis-
tributed between the threk phases and connected from one line to neutral
a t 277 volts. The power load is fed from three-conductor three-phase
circuits. It is not necessary to extend the neutral circuit in the feeders
supplying only power load.
A typical office building consisting of five floors and a basement is used
as an example in comparing 208Y/120- vs. 480Y/277-volt, systems. Each
floor, as shown in Fig. 14.9, has three wings each 75 by 160 ft divided into
24 areas, 20 by 25 ft. An illumination level of approximately 55 foot-
candles is assumed, representing a load of about 4 va per sq ft. In actual
practice the load depends on the type of light source used and the utiliza-
tion of the lighting equipment. With these figures as a basis, the total
installed cost of the lighting distribution system for the two voltages can
be compared. To get the over-all comparative costs, the necessary power
distribution system including motors and control for air conditioning,
elevators, and fire pumps must be included also.
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 739
The comparisons are made on the hasis of installed cost for specific
equipments selected on the basis of sound system engineering. It should
be noted, however, that loral codes, type of building construction, and
other factors may alter either the engineering choice of equipment or the
total installed cost. Therefore the figures shown below should be recon-
sidered in the light of local codes, maintenance problems, construction
details, etc., for any specific building.
One floor of a single wing (75 by 160 ft) is considered as a unit area.
The entire building will include 15 such unit areas. The lighting load of
4 va per sq f t is equal to 48 kva per 75- by 160-ft area. I n addition,
approximately 1 va per sq ft (12 kva per floor) is assumed a t 120 volts t o
supply office machines, fans, etc. Higher 120-volt loads may result in
office areas using many electric typewriters, calculators, tabulating
machines, etc. Thus a total of 60 kva is required for each 75- by 160-ft
unit area. The cost-comparison figures for the lighting equipment shown
on the following pages are for a unit area. Total figures for the entire
building will be fifteen times as great.
The power load for such a building includes a large air-conditioning
compressor motor (300 hp), several small air-conditioning motors, four
50-hp elevator motors, and a 100-hp fire-pump motor.
With these assumptions as a basis, the two distribution systems, one
operating a t 480Y/277 volts and one a t 208Y/120 volts, are compared as
shown below. I t should he noted that it is difficult to divide the lighting
circuits on the two systems so that comparable circuits will carry the same
current. Therefore, multiplying factors have been applied to each sys-
tem so that comparable current-carrying capacities are represented by
each system.
75 z 75 I_'
FIG. 14.9 Floor plan of building-five floors and basement.
740 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS
480Y/277-VOLT SYSTEM
D A S ~ DLINES INDICATE
120 VOLT FLOOR CIRCUITS
8 CIRCUITS - TOTAL OF
I6Oo FT mou’T AND 3500
-
FT NO.12 WIRE
l - LIGHTING CIRCUITS- I2 CIRCUITS
TOTAL.1700
FT NO.12 WIRE
CONDUIT AND 3550
FIG. 14.10 480Y/277-volt system-bronch circuits for lights and 120-volt floor circuits
for one unit area.
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 741
FIG, 14.1 1 Typical fused panel board designed for use with silver-rand cvrrent-limiting
fuses.
board for the 120-volt floor circuits has eight circuits and costs $25
installed and has approximately 2 Ib of copper. The total cost of the two
pane1 boards is $301 installed, and they include 17 Ib of copper.
Power Source. The power for commercial buildings, hospitals, depart-
ment stores, and other buildings of the type t o a h i c h this discussion is
applicable may be served in a number of ways.
I n nonnetwork areas, separate transformers may be used for each build-
ing. I n other arcas, 480Y/277-volt network power may be available.
I n still others, only 208Y/120-volt network power is available. I n the
basic cost comparison, the building has been assumed t o be supplied by a
double-ended load-center uriit substation. This nill provide more accu-
rate comparisons, ivhich is the objective to be attained here. Other power
sources are discussed more fully later. For the building under consider-
ation, a capacity of 750 kva a t each end of the unit substatiou is required,
see Fig. 14.12. The installed cost of such a substation is approximately
$36,000, and it includes approximately 6500 Ib of copper.
SECONOARY FEEOERS
l13.8KV
750 KVA
750KvA
L
7”
h
9
1200 AMP
Y
200- 3:iOMCM
CAELE IN C(INDUIT A 3 LIGHTING CIRCUITS
BUSWAY SEE FIG.4
E LFVATOR
MOTORS
/ c,,
CENTER
FIG. 14.12 480Y/277-volt ryrtem-unit wbrtation. (lhe tronrformer recondory and tie
breokerr ore roted 50,000 omp. l h e feederr ore roted either 25,000 or 15,WO omp.)
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 743
P FUSIBLE PLUG
I
I I 5 T_T
FIG. 14.13 480Y/277-volt system-burway to each floor.
total installed cost of motors, control, conduit, and cable (200 ft) is esti-
mated at $5900. The estimated weight of copper in these components is
945 lh. The total air-conditioning equipment costs $17,450 installed and
has 3470 Ib of copper.
In addition to the :tir-ronditioning load, this building will include
motors for the elevators and fire pumps. A total of four 50-hp elevator
motors and one 100-hp fire-pump motor is assumed. Comhiiiation mag-
netic starters fdr these motors arid cable and conduit lengths of 200 f t aie
used. The total estimated installed cost is $6470 for all this equipment
with an estimated 1145 Ih of copper.
208Y/120-VOLT SYSTEM
Lighting. Since the area chosen for the study does not change, the
remote-control system for the 208Y/120-volt system is the same as for
the 480Y/277-volt system. Although the remote-control system is not
essential on 120-volt circuits, it has many advantages over the conven-
tional wiring system, and the additional cost is insignificant in the over-all
cost.
The branch-circuit miring, however, is different because the 20SY/lZO-
volt system requires more circuits t o serve the same area. Again conduit-
and-wire type of branch-circuit distrihution is used, as shown in Fig.
14.14. Since more circuits are involved, the installed cost increases from
$1985 to $2830, and the weight of copper increases from 73 to 102 Ib.
The 120-volt circuits for office fans, business machines, and desk lights
75'
FIG. 14.14 208Y/12O-voll system-branch circuits for lights in one unit area.
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 745
I 13.8KV I
150H
4D0 MCM
CABLE IN 7 5 0 KVA 75OKVA L
L
T
4
T
$3000 AMP
v
3000 AMP 'E)
200 fl
2-400 M C M CABLE
IN CONDUIT
ELEV MOTOR5
4-50HP
-
200 f l - 2 7 5 0 7 S M L L AlR W N D
MOTOR5
MCM CABLES IN
CONDUIT
FIG. 14.15 208Y/120-volt ryrtem-unit rub9tation. (The trandormer recondary and
lie breokerr ore roted 75,000 omp. The feederr ore rated 25,000 omp.)
are not shown in Fig. 14.14. Although the same number of circuits are
used for this load as ivhen the 480Y/277-volt system is used, the cost
decreases from $2111 t o $1875 and t,he rneighJ-of copmr fiamSi61 t o 72 lh
since the 480-120-volt transformer is no longer required.
A11 the circuits for the lights and for the floor plugs can he fed from.one
panel hoard. There are 24 circuits for lights and eight floor circuits. A
42-circuit panel board with spare circuits is selected ivith an installed cost
of 5330 and a total weight of copper of 10 lh.
Power Source. Again for cost-comparison purposes, a double-erided
unit substation is selected t o distribute power for all lighting and a11
motors. The substation shown in Fig. 14.15 has a n installed cost of
555,300 and includes 6700 lb of copper. This compares with $36,000 and
6500 lb of copper for the 480Y/277-volt system.
SECONDARY FEEDERS
The feeders t o carry the lighting load t o each wing are shown in Fig.
14.16. Again, one busway is used for each wing with t a p boxes a t each
floor t o carry the circuit t o each panel board. The panel board includes
the necessary feeder circuit breaker. The total installed cost of this sys-
tem for the entire biiiiding is $12,400 and includes roughly 5200 lh of cop-
per, compared with $6200 and 2200 lb of copper for the 480Y/277-volt
system.
746 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS
Equipment
lnrtolled Weight of Instolled Noight of
COIt opper, Ib cost opper, Ib
-1
1. Remote control. ................... $6,750 240 $6.750 240
2. Bronch-circuit wiring for lights........ 29.800 1.100 42,450 1.530
3. Floor cirwits I120 volt). ............. 31,650 2,460 28,125 1.080
4. Panel boordr ...................... 4,515 255 4.950 I50
...................
~~
The above study, of course, deals entirely with new construction and
quite definitely shows the advantages of the 480Y/277-voIt system for
new office buildings. The same type of cost study can he made for a
modification or expansion of an existing building. I n planning an expan-
sion of an old huilding, the 480Y/277-volt lighting system is worth con-
sideling, for the existing cables will be capable of carrying a good deal
more load a t 480 volts than they can a t 208 volts. The savings in cable
can he appreciable, and a better system results.
-
7”
I NTER RUPTING SWlTC H
TRANSFORMER
I
ULU
T
FIG. 14.17 Combined light and power system illustrating one unit substation inside a
building.
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 749
NETWORK
FIG. 14.1 8 Two typical types of 48OY/277-volt spot network distribution ryrtemr.
volts, a saving in the lighting system alone can be shown by choosing t,he
480Y/277-volt system.
Figures 14.17 t o 14.20 indicate four systems used t o supply power t,o
office buildings. Figure 14.17 is the system used in this study, that is,
with power supplied t o the building at a high voltage such as 13.8 kv.
This would be typical of nonnetwork areas, and the transformers may be
owned by the building ovner or the utility.
Figure 14.18 shows the 480Yj277-volt network system for distribiitirig
power t o buildings. With such a system, distinct sa\Tiiigs can still be
shown for the 277-volt lighting system since a 120-volt lighting scheme
would mean the addition of step-down transformers (at about $12 t o $15
per kva installed) for the entire lighting load. The savings represented
by the 480Y/277-volt system in such a rase would be about $15 per kva.
Figure 14.19 is a 208Y/120-volt network system v i t h autotransformers
used within the building t o produce the 480Yj277 volts. Even with such
a system, subst,antial savings can still be shown for the higher voltage
system. Since autotransformers are relatively inexpensive (ahout, $5 t o
$8 per kva inst,alled), the total savings shown by using such a 480Yj277-
volt system instead of the usual 208Yj120-volt system \r.ould he about
$22 t o $25 per kva instead of the $30 per kva shown in Table 14.1.
The possible savings of $30 per kva might be decreased by another sys-
tem problem. If the utility supplying power t o the commercial building
can provide only a 480-volt delta system, a means for establishing the
system neutral must be provided. An example of how this problem
750 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS
7 - -
I
---I-----
I
aJ-1,
\AlAs ( h 1 I. k ;
-1 UTILITY
I W”Y\
TO STREET I
INCOMING BREAKER
FIG. 14.19 Transforming from the 208Y/l2O-volt to the 480Y/277-volt system of the
utility by use of autotransformers.
is solved is given in reference 11. Jn this particular case the supply trans-
former mas connected Y-delta, and on the 480-volt delta secondary three
single-phase transformers were connected Y-delta t o obtain the neutral
of the 480-volt system. It must be remembered that the secondary of
such a grounding bank must be connected delta to result in a low zero-
phase-sequence reactance for the grounding bank and that the single-
phase transformers, when operating in this manner, are only a t 57.7 per
cent of their rated voltage. Anot,her method t o ohtaiuthissystemneutral
would be a grounding transformer. i n either case the fact that a system
neutral is not available subtracts from the possible savings of the 480-volt
lighting system. Of course, this problem is eliminated when a delta-Y
transformer is used.
One additiorial problem of the system that is grounded by a grounding
or a Y-delta t,ransformer is the resultiug zero-phase-sequence reactance.
Care must be taken to choose either an especially low reactance or a large
transformer for grounding, to maintain an X , / X , ratio of about 1. This
is done to prevent extreme overvoltages on the fluorescent lights during a
ground fault 011 the system. This problem is also eliminated when the
delta-Y transformer is used.
When power is supplied a t high voltage, there is an additional advan-
tage in using a romhioed light and power system. By using a douhle-
ended unit substat,ion, a certain amount of reserve capacity can be
realized quite simply; however, if a power substation at 480 volts is used
v i t h a lighting suhstation a t 120 volts, Fig. 14.20, the secondary selective
752 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS
shall not exceed 300 volts to ground for branch circuits supplying lighting
fixtures only that are equipped either with mogul-base screwshell lamp-
holders or with lampholders of other types approved for the application,
mounted not less than 8 feet from the floor, which do not have switch
control as an integral part of the fixture . . . .”
This section of the Code first appeared in the Yational Fire Protection
Association report on the proposed Amendments to the 1951 Xational
Electrical Code, NFPA No. 70 PR1, in August, 1952. It contained a
“comment” concerning the revision of Section 2113 to permit higher
voltage lighting for commercial buildings and is also quoted.
“The proposed new wording extends the use of 277 volt to neutral sup-
ply, to additional occupancies only where the higher voltage circuits sup-
ply the ballasts of fluorescent lighting fixtures. Since power a t 480Y/277
volts is not generally available except from unit substations or transfor-
mation equipment installed a t the particular occupancy, the limitation to
‘office buildings’ and ‘large schools and stores’ seems to supply the
necessary assurance that this system will not be encountered in small
detached store buildings or in the ordinary primary school buildings.”
TO PANELBOARD
OFF ON
COlL COlL
TO LIGHTING
FIXTURE
m IPO”
FIG. 14.22 Multirelector remote-control switches providing individual and grouped con.
trol of lighting and other facilities.
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 755
REFERENCES
1. Lang, R. R., High-voltage Fluorcseent-lighting Power Systems for Office Build-
ings, General Electric Company Publication GET-2307A.
2. Krtufmann, R. I%.,and N. A. Kieh, Modern Electric Powrr Distribution Ideas
As Applied in a Large War Plant, AIEE Technical Paper 45-78.
3. Beeman, D. L., Combined Light and Power Systems for Industrial Plants, AIEE
Technical Paper 46-52.
4. Halberg, M. N., and D. L. Beeman, Power Supply for Air Conditioning Com-
pressor Motors in Commercial Buildings, AIEE Conference Paper, November,
1947.
5. Brereton, D. S., Distribution a t 480Y/277 Volts for Power and Lights in Indus-
trial Plants and Office Buildings, AIEE District Paper, April, 1852.
6. Saunders, C. C., The Philosophy of Electrical Design for the Office Building of
Tomorrow, AIEE Conference Paper, June, 1952.
7. Brereton. D. S.. Recent Pronress in 480Y/277 Volt Systems in Office Buildings,
AIEE District Paper April, 1953.
8. Kurt, H. D.. and D. L. Bceman. Pronrcss in Power System Engineering for Com-
mercial Buildings, AIEE Technical Paper, A Z E E Speczal Publicalion 3-66, Sep-
tember, 1954.
9. Brereton, I). S., and H. J. Donnelly, 480 Wye/277-voIt Power System in Tele-
phone Building a t Menands, N. Y., AIEE Technical Paper, A I E E Special Publi-
cation S-66, September, 1954.
10. Lang, R. R., Lighting for Modern Office Buildings, Load, December, 1951.
11. Sawyer, A. I., Voltage Up-Wiring Cost Down. Electrical West, December, 1952.
12. Beeman, D. L., and H. D. Kurt, Higher Network Voltages in Large Buildings,
Elec. Wodd, Mar. 8, 1954.
13. Beeman, D. L., and H. D. Kurt, 480-volt System Makes Strong Bid for Office
Buildings, Power, March, 1954.
7.56 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS
4. Plant D (nine paper mills) originally had mills that were either 480
or 600 volts. However, the later mills have been 2400 volts, and a new
mill to be built will be 4160 volts. A study is now being made with
respect to raising the voltages in the older mills.
5. Plant E’s original plant distribution system was at 600 volts. Later
distribution was a t 11,OOO volts.
6. Plant F’s original installation was a t 2400 volts. Recently 13,800
volts was installed.
7. Plant G’s original installation was a t 480 volts. Later 2400 volts
was installed. Now 13,800 volts is being used.
8. Plant H’s original installation was a t 600 volts. Later it was a t
13,800 volts.
9. Plant 1’s initial generators were 2400 volts. Generators now are
installed a t 13,800 volts.
amp. The addition of the new souice either from the utility or a new
plant generator and new motor load associated with it will increase the
short-circuit current hy about 60,000 amp, or t o a total of 135,000 amp.
The latter value is 35,000 amp ahove the interrupting rating of the Iargest
availahle lom-voltage air circuit breaker. Therefore, when the new source
is added, some expensive step must be taken to remove the short-circuit
hottleneck by limiting the short-circuit current t o 100,000 amp or less.
This can he done by installing reactors, splitting up the system, etc.
After taking these steps ali new switchgear may he required hecause of the
increased short-circuit duty on the existing circuit breakers.
With a 4160-volt system of this size having 100 mva or higher inter-
rupting-rating circuit hreakers, the new source can he added without
exceeding the circuit-hreaker interrupting rating. Therefore, there are
no short-circuit-current hottleneeks in a system of this size a t 4160 volts.
-1s
-
:IRCUIl BRELKER
-4160
--
'OLTS
100.000 AMP t
A I.C. A 150 Y V I
CIRCUIT BREAKER
5- 3-CONOUCTOI
500 Y C M
pBLEs
E
1 FEET
-- TR4NSFORYER
1500 K V A
CIRCUIT
BREAKERS c
50.000 AHP. I.C.
'400 AMP FEEDERB
J
4 0 0 AMP FEEOERS
A E
LOW-VOLTAGE SYSTEM ~810-CENTER
SVSTEH
FIG. 15.1 Comparison of cost of tronrmitting power o? 600 volts or lerr VI. tronrmitting i t
o1 higher voltage 01 i i done in the lood-center power dirtribution ryrtem.
MODERNIZATION A N D EXPANSION OF EXISTING P O W E R SYSTEMS 761
-
NEW SWG-
FIG. 15.3 Diagram showing how new metal-clod switchgear con be installed on a
balcony above old switchgear to make transfer of circuits from old to new switchgear easy
and fast.
764 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS
1 5 0 - K W MOTOR-GENERATOR
75 - K W MOTOR- G E N ER ATOR
o 66
FIG. 15.4
5 0 - K W MOTOR-GENERATOR E X C i T E R
leve1 and all other components of the system are adequate for the plant.
I n this case, the modern, safe, compact metal-clad switchgear should be
used instead of open-type switchgear. There are many problems of a
detailed nature in replacing existing switchgear. One method, which
permits an orderly installation and change-over procedure with a mini-
mum of service outage, is t o place the new switchgear on a balcony above
the existing switchgear (Fig. 15.3). The new metal-clad switchgear may
be installed and then the feeder cables transferred from the old to the new
switchgear one a t a time.
When replacing switchgear, be sure t o check the system voltage and
layout. Perhaps you cab get a complete new system for the price of a
new switchboard. For example, a sawmill generated power a t 600 volts
(Fig. 15.4). The plant engineers were aware of the inadequacy of the
existing oil circuit breakers used on the 600-volt system. One alternative
was t o install new 600-volt switchgear, the cost of which was about
585,000. By rewinding one generator for 2400 volts and adopting a load-
center distribution system, a complete new power system (Fig. 15.5),
including new unit substations plus new windings in one generator, was
obtained for approximately 820,000 more than the cost of a new 600-volt
switchhoard.
Replacing Old Substations. Many old power systems already have
the most desirable primary and secondary voltages and may have rela-
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 765
50- KW
7-EXClTE%
r 1
666 9
:&: 7 5 - K W MOTOR-
GENERATOR
1 5 0 - K W MOTOR'
GENERATOR
L--J
FROM U T I L I T V
TO OTHER
SUBSTATIONS
KVA KVA
CIRCUIT
SUBSTATION
66666666
2300 VOLT MOTORS AND STARTERS
FOUR SIMILAR LDhD CENTER
UNIT S U B S T A T I O N S A T
LOAO C E N T E R S IN P L A N T
FIG. 15.6 One-line diogrom of modernired load-center power distribulion ryrtern where
480-volt load-centei unit rubstotionr and 2400-volt moster uni1 rubrtationr replace old
Iarge low-voltage rubriotioni.
MODERNlZAllON AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 767
EXISTING SUBSTATION
3000 KVA
I NEW
I ADDITION
ADDiT1oN
REQUIRING
I 1500 KVA
FIG. 15.8 Layout of plant requiring 1500 kvo additional substation capacity.
770 MOOERNIZATION A N D EXPANSION OF EXISTIdG POWER SYSTEMS
THREE
I
II
I
4 13.2
Kv' h<OlL
I
I INCOMING LINE
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
I000 KVA 1
SINGLE U
PHASE I
TRANS-
FORMERS I
NSFORMEAS
I
I
I
I
L --_---___
EX IS T IN G
SUBSTATION
NEW BUlLOlNG
FIG. 15.9 One-line diagram for expanding electrical system for plant shown in Fig. 15.8,
using low-voltage distribution to supply power in new oddition.
MODERNIZATION A N D EXPANSION OF EXISTING P O W E R SYSTEMS 771
1
I
I
I l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ v A
SINGLE PHASE
I TRANSFORMERS
I
1 2 0 0 F E E T OF
13.2 KV
CIRCUIT LEAD-COVERED
BREAKERS1 CABLE
L- -___--- A
E X I S T I N G SUBSTATION
1- - - - 1
I .
L-
I TRANS-
FORMER ' S
I
I
I :! CIRCUIT
\
BREAKER
I
-LI=.f I -
L _ _ _ _ _ L- _ _ _ J
I
I
=-' I/ I
NEW 0 U l L D l N G
FIG. 15.10 One-line diogram of expclnded electrical system for plmt shown in Fig. 15.8,
using load-center distribution to supply power in new addition.
class voltage (utility supply voltage) to the 2.4 kv and from 2.4 kv to 480
volts (Fig. 15.12). When expanding such a system, the double trans-
formation can be eliminated and power taken to the load centers a t utility
supply voltage and stepped down directly to 480 volts (Fig. 15.13). The
National Electrical Code permits voltages up to 15 kv in buildings.
Eliminating this double transformation will save about $4 to $15 per kva
772 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS
13.2
4L
6 I500 KVA
I
I
&
I
I
80 VOLTS [-OLD BUILDING
535 555
+ & & +++ I
Y Y Y Y Y Y
CONNECT TO
EXISTING 4 8 0 VOLT
FEEDER CABLES
i I IOOOKVA 1946
FIG. 15.11 One-line diagram of expanded and modernized electrical system for the
plant shown in Fig. 15.8, using load-center distribution system installed on the step-by-step
baris.
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 773
There are many large plants in which considerable process steam is used
and which, therefore, generate much of their own pomer. Many such
plants have large low-voltage (600 volts) systems or very Iarge 2400-volt
systems. Expansion of such systems presents a real opportimity to
ehange to a load-center system and to higher voltage generation and thus
I 12.5 KV INCOMING
L I N E FROM U T I L I T Y
METERING
LI,
,T--
~ IA 1500 KVA E A C H
2 4 0 0 VOLTS
T 8 0 V O L T POWER
FIG. 15.12 An exirting power dirtribution ryrtem with unnecerrriry double trmrformation
of aII power from 12.5 to 2.4 k.
774 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS
I 12.5 K V INCOMING
! LINE FROM UTILITY
i ~ f 4 7 VOLT8 ,
I
I
I
3 9
+ . L
I Y - -Y_ - -Y_ I
L ___ _J
FIG. 15.13 b B d lines show expansion of Ihe system shown in Fig. 15.12, wing the k a d -
ceder power distribution ryrtem in which power i s stepped down directly from 12.5 kv to
480 volts.
EXISTING -
NEW
O00 -NEW M E T A L C L A D
SWITCHGEAR
OR
2 4 0 0 VOLTS
-/
$
1
I
BUS TIE T R A N S F O ~ M E R
4160 VOLTS
OR
13.8 KV
I
/
--
UNIT
SUBSTATION
CIRCUIT
'-0RE AKERS
I
6 0 0 OR 2 4 0 0 VOLTS
EXISTING
EXISTING
SWITCHGEAR
REACTORS +
-NEW METAL CLAD
SWITCHGEAR
13.0 K V
BUS T I E TRANSFORMER
1,
"
0 T O LOAD
FIG. 15.14 One-line diagrom rhowing how <i power iystern con be exlended by adding
new power sources a t higher voltage and connecting in lhe higher voltage bur to the
exirting lower voltage bur through o tranrformer.
776 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS
FIG. 15.15 One-line diagrem of (I ryrtem in which the exirting 2400-volt bur ir rection-
alired and connected throuqh transformeri to a new 13.8-kv ryrtem. The 13.8-kv rystern
acts 01 a rynchroniring bur ior the 2.4-kr ryrtem.
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 777
niaing bus on the existing lov-voltage system, and permits circuit breakers
to be employed on both the high- and lorn-voltage sides of the bus-tie
transformers. Hoivever, it might not be feasible to connect transformers
to the synchronizing buses through circuit breakers in surh large high-
voltage systems because the duty on the synchronizing buses may be
beyond the rating of available circuit breakers.
I n some cases it is desirable to establish a new higher voltage bus for
supplying new load before a new higher voltage generator is added. The
arrangement shown in Fig. 15.16 will enable this t o be done at minimum
cost. The new higher voltage feeders are fed through a step-up bus-tie
transformer from the existing low-voltage bus. A t a future date a new
generator may be added to the higher voltage bus. The load-center sys-
tem is employed for serving the new load.
OLD OIL
CIRCUIT
BREAKERS TRANSFORMER NEW BUS
4160 VOLTS
600 VOLTS
OLD BUS NEW
METAL CLAD
SWITCHGEAR
‘.-,,
GENERATORS
FEEDERS TO I
NEW LOAO
CENTER UNIT
SUBSTATIONS :“,‘,“,“6,,,
FIG. 15.16 Existing 600-volt bur extended a t higher voltage through bur-tie transformer
lo supply new load through load-center unit substations before new higher voltage
generator i s added.
Y
2 0 FEEDERS
FIG. 15.17 A large existing low-voltage power system with excessive short-circuit
currents to which is to be added the new generator shown to the left.
4 3 7 5 KVA
r\
F E E T , 6000 AMP
BUS
DUPLEX
O L D OIL
[]+CIRCUIT d[]
BREAKERS
\ I i
I Y I
I NEW i
I I
I I
I I
I I 2 0 E X I S T I N G F E E D E R S AND SWITCHGEAR
-
FIG. 15.18 The lorge existing low-voltage system shown in Fig. ing a duplex reactor necessary to keep the short-circuit and load
15.17 with the new generator and the required rwitchgeor inciud- currents within the ratings of available air circuit breakers.
780 MODERNIZATION A N D EXPANSION OF EXISTING P O W E R SYSTEMS
L-.
MODERNIUTION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 78 I
in Fig. 15.18. The cost of the new 4160-volt generator circuit breaker,
the connections between this circuit breaker and the generator, the two
1 W k v a transformers, and the 4160-volt breaker serving the two 1500-
kva transformers is about $43,000. 1nst.allation costs of this equipment
are assumed to be about the same.as for the equipment in Fig. 15.18.
However, the arrangement of Fig. 15.19 will probably require less space
in the powerhouse.
To care for the new 2000-kva load will necessitate two 4160-volt feeders
and a double-ended 2000-kva unit substation, shown by the dashed lines
in Fig. 15.19. The cost of this portion of the distribution system is about
$21 per kva (Fig. 15.1B). Therefore, this represents an investment in
a distribution system of approximately $42,000. The total cost of the
switchgear for the generator and connections to the 480-volt existing bus,
+
plus the new distribution system, is $85,000 ($43,000 $42,000), com-
pared with $121,000 for adding the new generator and serving the new
load directly a t 480 volts. This saving is approximately 28 per cent on
switchgear and distribution equipment cost.
If the new generator is added a t 480 volts, modernizing the rest of the
system a t 480 volts (Fig. 15.20) mould cost an additional $84,000 for
switchgear and reactors for the 2500-kva and 1875-kva generators and
twenty feeders. There would he no new distribution-system expense in
this case. This system would still have high voltage drop and high
feeder losses because of the long 480-volt feeders.
Modernizing this system a t 4160 volts could be done on a step-by-step
basis, as shown in Fig. 15.21. The first step would be to install new suh-
station capacity t o care for 2500 kva of load from the 4160-volt bus.
Load-center unit substations, up to 1500 kva each, could he used eeo-
nomieally. After these substations are installed, the second step (dashed
lines, Fig. 15.21) would be t o rewind the 2500-kva generator for 4160 volts
and connect it to the 4160-volt bus. The third step would be to install
new 480-volt sivitehgear for the 1875-kva generator, as shown to the right
in Fig. 15.21. Credit is given for one 1500-kva transformer which mas
formerly used for the bus tie between the low-voltage and high-voltage
buses. The cost of modernizing the existing 480-volt system a t 4160
volts would be about $100,000. Of this, $31,000 would be for new paver-
house switchgear and reminding the 2500-kva generator and $52,500 for
2500 kva of distribution system capacity a t $21 per kva (Fig. 15.1B).
This figure of $100,000 for modernization of the existing system at, 4160
volts compares with $84,000 for modernization of the existing system at
480 volts.
The total cost of the modernized and expanded 450-volt system (Fig.
15.20) would be $205,000 (5121,000 for the system associated with new
generator and $84,000 for modernization of the switchgear associated
with existing generators).
701 MODERNIZATION A N D EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS
-G
(L
w
0
0
a
0
v)
N
a
>
Y
n
I-
n
*
W 0-I
;5
2:
'5I-
3-
784 MODERNIZ4TION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS
The complete cost for additions and modernization at 4160 volts (Fig.
15.21) would be $185,000 ($85,000 for the system associated with the
new generator and $100,000 for modernization of the evisting 480-volt
system a t 4160 volts). There is a saving of about $20,000 by using the
high-voltage method. The other advantages are less voltage drop,
therefore better performance of equipment, lower losses, and at the same
time a completely new system is obtained.
A big advantage of the 4160-volt system is that the next turbine-
generator may be added for an expenditure of about $12,500 for a circuit
breaker to connect the generator to the 4160-volt bus. The future addi-
tion of a turbine-generator to the arrangement shown in Fig. 15.20 would
require switchgear as shown for the 4375-kva turbine-generator (Fig:
15.20), which would cost approximately $49,000. This represents a
saving of $36,500 ($49,000 - $12,500) for 4160 volts, and, in addition,
there would be approximately $5.50 per kva saved in the distribution
system using the load-center system and 4160 volts generation.
limits of Sizes of 600-volt Sources. The limits of generator size for the
system shown in Fig. 15.20 are 3,125 kva when the synchronizing bus
reactor, as shown t o the right, is used and 6250 kva when the duplex
reactor is used for systems rated 600 volts. For systems rated 480 volts,
these figures are 2500 and 5000 kva, respectively.
I n many cases transformers as well as generators may be used to supply
a large part of the 600-volt system. The transformers may be treated
just like generators, and the circuit arrangements shown in Figs. 15.18 to
15.21 may be employed.
The limits given above for the system using one synchronizing bus
reactor and generator per bus section enable keeping the load current
helow 4000 amp per circuit breaker and the short-circuit currents below
100,000 amp. This will permit the use of 50,000-amp interrupting-rating
feeder circuit breakers in cascade. These limits are chosen because
4000-amp circuit breakers are generally the largest size available in draw-
out construction. They will also satisfactorily cascade with 50,000-amp
interrupting-capacity feeder circuit breakers. It is necessary t o limit the
total short-circuit current t o 100,000 amp, as 100,000 amp is the largest
air circuit breaker made. This also permits the use of the smaller and
lower cost 50,000-amp interrupting-capacity feeder circuit breakers in
cascade with 100,000-amp main circuit breakers.
The limit chosen for the duplex reactor arrangement enables keeping
the load current below 4000 amp per circuit breaker. Also, it will keep
the short-circuit currents within 100,000 amp and not use excessively high
reactance in the synchronizing bus reactors.
Balancing Reactors to Eliminate Unbalanced Currents in l a r g e 600-
volt Generators. There are other serious problems involved where large
low-voltage generators are used. Observations show that the three
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 705
9
1
COPPER BUS
REACTOR ON
CENTER BUS 1
tY=Y
4 LlJ
PHASE C
FIG. 15.22 Phase currents are balanced in large lowvoltage generator leads b y adding
sheet silicon-steel punchingr to increore reactance of center leg of generator leads.
MOTOR FEEDERS
FIG. 15.23 Instollation of large low-voltage generator in which a bur layout caused
unbalanced phase currents in the generator and system which increased the generator
heating. Load unbalance corrected by oddition of silicon-steel punchingr to increase
reactance of center lag of generator leads.
Currents in the three legs of the generator bus were checked and found to
be 2400, 2600, and 2500 amp, respectively. The middle leg was carrying
the highest current. A series reactor was added to the middle leg of the
generator-bus assembly. The reactance was adjusted by changing the
length of punching stack until currents in the three bus legs were equalized,
and the generator could then be operated a t full load without overheating.
Conductor spacing can be arranged during installation or design of low-
788 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS
(c)
I TRIANGLE SPACING
i ily reconnectiblefrom 2400 volts
delta to4160 volts Y. All cables
and lines should he insulated for
5 kv. The major portion of the
loadshould he fed through trans-
former banks consistingof either
single-phase transformers or re-
connectihle three-phase trans-
formers which can have the
primaries readily reconnected
from 2400 volts delta to 4160
a
a I
4
I
0
U
w
Y
s
9 3 7 5 KVA 7 5 0 0 KVA 7500 KVA
3
0
M A I N GENERATOR zII
CiRCUiT BREAKERS 2 5 0 0 KVA -z
P
b
CIRCUIT z
0
m
I.C.
-REACTORS TRANSFORMER H
2500 KVA P
m
?!
N E W 4160 V O L T N E W 5 0 MVA 1.C.-
SECTION SWITCHGEAR 0
B
s
m
m
R E M A I NS IENCGT I 2
O4N0 0 VOLT
Y)
<
FIG. 15.27 One-line diagram of the system shown in Fig. 15.25 modernized and expanded a t 4160 Y
m
Volb with one generator remaining a t 2400 volts. Buses tied together through bur-tietronrforrner. z
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 793
volts would cost about $88,000 (same circuit as for 9375-kva generator,
Fig. 15.26).
There is also a saving in the distribution system because it costs less to
transmit power a t 4160 volts than a t 2400 volts.
Limits of Size of Sources in 2400-volt Systems. The limits of the size
of generators that can be used in the system shown in Fig. 15.26 are 7500
kva when the single synchronizing bus reactor is used and 15,000 kva
when the duplex reactor is used.
The limits of generator sizes are based upon two factors: (1) not requir-
ing circuit breakers larger than 2000 amp (the largest metal-clad circuit
breaker available) and (2) not exceeding the interrupting rating of
150-mva circuit breakers (the largest metal-clad circuit breakers for
2400-volt service).
In many cases, transformers as well as generators may be used to supply
power to a large 2400-volt system. The transformers may be treated just
like generators. The circuit arrangements of Figs. 15.26 and 15.27 may
he used, substituting the supply transformers for the generators. The
limits of transformer kva, in some cases, may be lower, because of lower
reactance than generators; therefore, they may produce more short-circuit
current per kva of rating.
While the addition of reactance in a system lowers the interrupting
duty on circuit breakers, it does not lower load currents. Therefore, the
kva limits of sizes of generators or transformers per bus given in the fore-
going are maximums primarily because of the load currents approaching
the largest ampere ratings of the circuit breakers available. However, if
more reactance is added to reduce the interrupting ratings, the cost of the
circuit breakers required is less. While additional reactance does have
a beneficial effect in reducing short-circuit currents, it also has a detrimen-
tal effect. It causes greater steady-state voltage drop, particularly under
operating conditions where one generator or transformer is out of service.
It causes greater voltage drop when starting large motors and may inter-
fere with the transfer of kvar from one generator bus to another. Particu-
larly where low power-factor loads (0.9 or lower) are encountered, careful
study should be made before adding reactance in a system in excess of the
following:
1 . Generator series reactance to increase generator circuit reactance
above about 12 per cent for generators having 10 per cent subtransient
reactance X y or less
2. Synchronizing bus reactance which limits the short-circuit current
contribution to a given bus to be less than about 75 per cent of the short-
circuit-current contribution of the largest generator on a given bus
It is beyond the scope of this book to outline in detail the reasons for
these general limits. They are based on experience as to stability, trans-
fer of kvar, and voltage drop during normalandemergency conditions, etc.
794 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS
7
2 AT 4 8 0 VOLTS
FIG. 15.28 A large existing 2400-volt system in an industrial p l m t to which D new 9375-kvo
source unit i s to be added.
NEW
1875 KVA 5 0 0 0 KVA 6 2 5 0 KVA 7 5 0 0 KVA 9 3 7 5 UVA
OLD OIL
+CIRCUIT-
BREAKERS
Q 500,000KVA.1 C
0
I 3 8 KV
U
METAL CLAD
SWITCHGEAR
I I
OLD NEW
FIG. 15.30 Addition lo existing primary substation made by sectionaliring 4.16-kv bur.
Short-circuit duty on bur A is 145 mva.
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 797
Many systems now use the highest practical primary voltage and the
load-center system. Expansion is generally easy, i.e., more primary
feeders and more load-center substations are added t o care for the new
load in the plant. A problem may arise, however, in expanding the main
substation or generating station.
69 K V
I
I
!
EACH
NEW I
I
I
FIG. 15.31 One-line diagram showing the system of Fig. 15.30 expanded with all trons-
formerr in pclrdlel and using synchronizing-bur arrangement to keep short-circuit currents
within the ratings of the existing and new rwitchgeor.
798 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS
9 9 10,000 K W
0.8 PF EACH
9 9 I38 KV
500 MVA
DUTY SWITCHGEAR
"I
415 MVA \
\ I
'N
õõTa fb
2 . 4 KV 2.4 KV
FIG. 15.32 Ona-line diogmm of rin exirting power ryrtam to which (I new 12,SW-lna
penerator ii to bc added at 13.8 kv.
Take, for example, the case of an airplane factory where power was
purchased a t 69 kv and stepped down in two 5000-kva transformer banks
to 4.16 kv. The 4.16-kv switchgear installed had an interrupting rating
of 150 mva. I t was desired to add 7500 kva t o the capacity of the pn-
mary substation supplying this plant. I t was a simple problem, all except
staying within the interrupting rating of the existing switchgear. New
250-mva switchgear was selected for the new substation capacity. Two
choices were possible. The first was to not parallel the new transformer
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 799
.
'
*---i-
TO FUTURE
UNITS
-- SYN EUS f
TRANSFERREO
FROM
BUS N0.I BUS N 0 . 2 TO U
BALANCE ÇYSTEM
FlG. 15.33 One-line diagrom of the ryrtem rhown in Fig. 15.32 with the new 12.500-kva
gwierator added on m e new 13.8-kv bur (No. 21. Only one rynchronizing-bur ieoctor
(No. 11 is added now. Provirion for rynchroniring-bur reactor (No. 21 i. made to allow for
fuhire expanrion. When reoctor (No. 2) is added, D breaker will replaice durnrny
breoker at A.
800 MODERNIUTION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS
UL 3- 5000 KVA
TTRA“B,NK,”MER
2.4 KV I/ T
s, MILL AREA
‘I 8”
I
MILL AREA
I‘ D
MILL AREA
“c
BUS
I_
1 1
MILL AREA
0
‘I
Iarge mill.
802 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS
$ 4 f
Y Y NEW 13.8 KV
METAL CLAD
sw ITCHGEAR
RATED SOOMVA
$ 2 . 4 KV
2 MILL AREA
"B"
I MILL AREtS
" 8 " a "c
2.4 KV CLOSE TOGETHER
MILL~EZT
12T;EKv
STATION v
$Y4
T T
MILL AREA"D" ILL AREA"E"
SUBSTATION SUBSTATION
FIG. 15.35 One-line diagram showing the power system of Fig. 15.34 with 13.8-kv
(backbone) distribution system used to feed existing 2.4-kv mill areas through local 13.8-
2.4-kv molter substations.
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 803
FIG. 15.36 Chemical plant power system with widely segregated lood areas. New lood
area to be added 136 miles from existing load area.
804 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS
33 K V FROM UTILITY
kvk l
4 4
EXISTING AREA
NEW AREA
FIG. 15.37 Power system of Fig. 15.36 exponded using 33 kv (IS Ibackbonel primary
voltage for carrying power to load areas.
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 805
substation a t the new area, as shown in Fig. 15.37. Future plans con-
template similar expansion using 33 kv as the primary or “backhone”
system voltage. This technique applies to strip mines or any area where
distances are great and sizable loads are used a t each location. Primary
or “baokbone” voltages as high as 220 kv have been used in this manner
for plants in this country.
A third case is typical of many of the large steel mills. Here primary
voltages are often 6.9 kv. As plants have grown and the areas expanded,
a point is reached where 6.9 kv becomes too low a voltage for economical
UTILITY
COLD M I L L
MERCHANT
MILL AREA
FIG. 15.38 Schematic one-line diagram of a large steel mill (IS originally operated wifh
6.9-kv generation and dirlribution.
006 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS
and good practice in distributing such large blocks of power over such
wide areas. A typical case is that shown in Fig. 15.38. Here expansion
added considerably more power. Several voltages were studied, i.e.,
NEW69KVBUS
p1 I"yI
p 4, I
REGULATING
AUTO
TRANSFORMER
/ \
0
NEW BLAST
FURNACE AREA
SUBSTATIONS
expansion a t 6.9, 13.8, 33, and 69 kv. The latter three did not show a
wide divergence in over-all cost, but all three, i.e., 13.8,33, or 69 kv, were
materially less expensive than expanding the 6.9-kv system. Local
preferences and the fact that the utility line was 69 kv dictated 69 kv as
the main transmission voltage. At the main mill areas the power was
stepped down to 6.9 kv. The essentials of the new system with increased
generation and load are shown in Fig. 15.39. Theexistinggenerators Nos.
1 and 2 and the powerhouse switchgear were left as is to serve existing
6.9-kv local load near the powerhouse. The existing 69-6.9-kv trans-
former was left as is except that it was connected to the new 69-kv bus
instead of directly to the utility line. Existing generator No. 3 was
removed from the existing 6.9-kv bus to reduce short-circuit duty on the
6.9-kv switchgear. Number 3 and the new No. 4 generators were con-
nected directly to the new 69-kv bus through transformers. A 69-kv loop
was used t o transmit power from the new 69-kv powerhouse bus to the
new mill substations as shown in Fig. 15.39.
Chapter 16 by William B. Wilson
Turbine
capability Steom conditions Steam conditions
roling, h
3. Some plants such as mines and mine products processing plants are
often located in undeveloped isolated areas of the country. I n such areas
electric utility systems may not be developed t o care for such remote
loads, and it may be less expensive to install generating facilities a t the
mine or processing site than t o develop and extend for such long distances
the electric utility system t o care for such a load. Often there is a specu-
lative nature about such ventures or only limited quantities of raw mate-
rial are available which may not justify a large expenditure on the part of
the utility because such an investment may be lost should conditions
change or the venture not develop as planned.
4. I n some cases where loads are very large (50,000 k w or more), load
factors are high, and low-cost fuel of the proper type is available, power
generation has been employed by the industrial plants when power was
not readily available a t low cost from the electric utility. Typical of such
cases are the aluminum-reduction plants, chemical plants, steel mills, and
others requiring large quantities of electric power.
I n some industrial plants where the consequences of a power outage are
very serious and where electric power lines from an outside source are
subject to frequent disturbance by lightning or other causes, the indus-
trial customer may sometimes consider the generation of a part of the
electric power required. This might be done to minimize the possibility
of an interruption of power t o essential circuits even though the cost of
generating poxx-er was greater than would he the cost of purchased power.
In most areas, the reliability of power supplied by the utility company is
adequate for Any industrial requirement.
Where any of the above conditions exist, it is well t o study the cost of
generating a part or all of the power requirements within the industrial
plant. The most economical arrangement is often t o generate only such
power as can be made as by-product power from the process heat or as
can be generated from by-product fuel and to purchase the remainder.
Electric power utilitieshave been very progressive in their planning of
new generating facilities. They have installed large generating units of
modern design, keeping step with metallurgical developments which per-
mit higher steam temperatures and pressures resulting in improved cycle
efficiency. Many large steam-turbine generating units are designed for
steam reheat t o further improve cycle efficiency.
Some industrial plants are or can be located adjacent t o a utility power
station. I n such instances, it may be found that the requirements of the
industrial plant for both electric energy and steam can be supplied from
the utility plant most economically. If by-product or waste fuel is avail-
able from the industrial process, that fuel may be sold by the industrial t o
the utility for use in the nearby utility power and steam generating
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 813
facilities. There are a few cases where electric utilities are supplying
both process steam and electric energy t o industrial plants, and there will
undoubtedly be more. These combinations have been very successful
from the standpoint of both the industrial and the utility. I n effect, such
an arrangement makes it possible for the utility t o make some by-product
power to further improve its plant-cycle efficiency.
Because of the efficient operation of the electric utility systems, their
rates are usually very attractive. Small industrial plants having little
or no requirement for process steam usually find that the electric utility
can generate, transmit, and sell electric power for less than the cost of
generation in the industrial plant using steam turbines, gas turbines,
diesels, or similar types of prime movers generating electric power only.
Among the points to be considered with the utility are the amount of
power available or that can be made available. Is there enough available
power in the area to support the plant which is intended to be built?
Where only a few hundred or a few thousand kilowatts are required,
power supply is generally no problem in picking the plant site as such
quantities of power are readily available almost everywhere that indus-
trial plants of these small sizes are generally located. However, when
electrical demands are large, i.e., several thousands or tens of thousands
of kilowatts, the exact plant location may be influenced by availability of
electric power.
When plants have large electrical demands, extra facilities may often
have to be added to the electric utility system, and therefore there are
many problems of mutual interest between the industrial planner and the
local utility.
Particularly if the plant load is sizable, give the electric utility the full
story early in the consideration of a plant site. The primary objective of
814 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION
the electric utility is to serve their customers and serve them well. They
all strive to do this, but they can do this only if given the fullest coopera-
tion, particularly in the early planning stages of selecting a plant location.
The local utility, t o serve the plant best and on time, should know what
the expected demands are, what the load swings are apt to be, and what
kind of load factor and what type of load the plant is going to impose upon
their system.
Modern electric utility power systems are so adequate and so flexible
and so thoroughly cover the country that they can meet most of the
demands of even the larger new plants. However, it is always well to
check with the electric utility first t o be sure that your plant loc&tion is
proper from an electric-power-supply standpoint.
VOLTAGE REGULATION
MASTER-UNIT SUBSTATIONS
Check t o see what voltages are available from the utility. If the volt-
age at mhirh the plant will be served is above 15 kv, a master-unit suh-
station may be required. If the voltage availahle from the utility is 15 kv
or below, that voltage may be used directly for distribution of power
within the plant (see Chap. 10). The voltage at which a given plant will
be served in the average case depends upon the local practices of the elec-
tric utility and upon the size of the plant contemplated.
If power is served to the plant at volbages above 15 kv and a master-
unit substation is required, there is the problem of who should own the
mast,er-unit substation. I n some areas the utility policies are t o supply
such substations, or at least the transformer section of the substations.
In ot,her areas the supplying of the snhstations is optional, and in still
other areas it is required that the industrial plant supply the master sub-
station complete. If a master substation is to be installed for serving the
plant and no other circuits on the utility system, then it is generally
advantageous, from the standpoint of flexibility of operation of the indus-
trial plant, for the industrial plant t o own that master substation. The
plant operators then have control over its rating, design, and its operation
and can integrate it into the plant power distribution system more easily
than where substations may be owned by someone else.
UTILITY SUPPLY
LINES ONE OR
MORE 1 1. OR FUSES
Y Y
x
$Y $Y
I
J
I
PLANT FEEDERS PLANTFEEDERS
,-$ 4
*
(0)
I UTlLiTY
SUPPLY
LINES 6 4 (b)
I UTILITY
SUPPLY
LINES
BREAKERS
OR FUSES
, ,
PLANT FEEDERS PLANT FEEDERS
(C ) (d 1
FIG. 16.1 Typical utility-indurtriol interconnections.
When the industrial plant generates part of its own electric power and
purchases the rest from the utility system, it is always highly desirable to
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 817
RELAY COORDINATION
TURBINE-GENERATOR EFFICIENCIES
L W i th o u t e W i t h 4
Pro'iiss steam Process Steam
Requirements Requirements
100
"m
FIG. 16.4 Relative power-plont thermal efficiencies for various steam-turbine power-
plant cycler.
mately 60 per cent for a 500-kw unit, 75 per cent for a 7500-kw unit, up to
80 per cent or more for units 15,000 kw and above. Steam conditions,
type of turbines (condensing, noncondensing, automatic-extraction), and
various other items also have minor effects on the efficiencies. For the
small units (up to 1500 kW) an efficiency of 65 per cent may be used for
preliminary estimating purposes. Except in isolated cases, the perform-
ance of turbine-generators in ratings 2500 to 15,000 km should have an
error of not more than 10 per cent if an over-all turbine-generator effi-
ciency of 75 per cent is assumed for preliminary estimating purposes.
This does not mean that the turbine can take steam having a heat
energy of, say, 1420.8 Btu per Ib (the enthalpy, beat energy, of steam a t
600 psig-825 F) and convert 60 to 80 per rent of this heat energy into
electric energy. Because of the limitations of the steam cycle, if the
above steam is expanded to 2 in. Hg abs (28 in. of mercury vacuum
referred to a 30-in. barometer), through a condensing-steam turbine or
any other steam-using prime mover, the energy available for use is only
1420.8 minus 916.5 (see points A and B , Fig. 16.3), or 504.3 Btu per Ib.
The theoretical expansion line of a prime mover having 100 per cent
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 823
efficiency and this available energy is shown as line .4B on the Mollier
chart, Fig. 16.3. This 504.3 Btu per Ib is only ahout 35.5 per cent of the
total energy in the steam supply. More will be said about the Mollier
chart later.
Actual relative power-plant-cycle efficiencies for different operating
requirements and various types of steam-turhine plants are shown in
Fig. 16.4.
TURBINE
600 PSIG-825F 100 %
EFFICIENT
1420.8 BTU PER L
100 % *
AVAILABLE
I
O!" rC"
35.5 % *LO
I2 IN HG ABS 101F
OJC , LI> I B
F -7,I DCO
_I.v._.
BOILER
100 7.
i 64.5 O/. X
I
!I
I
LtItNU:
-STEAM
-_-- WATER
NOTE:
1420.8-316.5
I - THEORETICAL CYCLE EFFICIENCY = 1420,8.69 = 37.2%
2 - THEORETICAL STEAM RATE R)R TUREINE GENERATOR =
3413 BTu PER KW HR = 6 . 7 6 LB STEAM PER KW HR
1420.8 - 916.5
X FIGURES ARE PERCENT OF ENERGY IN STEAM SUPPLIEO TO TURBINE
FIG. 16.5 A rchernatic diograrn rhowing theoretical cycle of stroight condensing steclrn-
turbine plant operoting with steorn conditionr Mx) prig, 825 F, 2 in. Hg abr.
824 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION
the heat errergyin t,he steam supplied to the turbine is lost in the condenser
circulating vater.
Assuming that a theoretical steam plant with steam conditions of 600
psig-825 F-2 in. Hg could be built which had no auxiliary losses and
wit,h hoilers, turbines, and generators having 100 per cent efficiency to
convert all this available energy into useful output, the cycle efficiency
would be
Total available and useful output
Total a d u a l input
or, for this theoretical case (see Figs. 16.3 and 16.5),
The heat energy available in the cycle
The heat added in the boiler
which is
1420.8 - 916.5
- 504.3
1C20.8 - 69.0
_ _1331.8
_ or 37.2 per cent
nis s'ozw
TABLE 16.4 Condensed Table of Theoretical Steam Rates*
- -
1niti.l preuure. psig
150 1 200 1 250 1 250 1 400 1 400 1 500 I 600 1 600 1 600 I 850 1 850 1 850 1 1200 I 1200 I 2400
EX. Ex-
houd haw
pro,. Initial temperature, deg F
p,*,-
*we I",*
Initial superheal
~
____ - - ~
In. Hg In. Hg
a br 84.2 1112.2/ 94 I 194 115t.91 301.9 I 280 111.2 261.2 336.2 297.7 372.7 1422.7 331.2 1381.2 1 287
- ~~ - - ~
obs
0.5 6.872
1 6.254 5.98< 5.862 5.611 5.454 5.519 5.350 5.286 0.5
I .o 7.31 6.633 6.341 6.190 5.917 5.747 5.807 5.633 5.535 1.0
1.5 7.60 6.888 6.571 6.410 6.122 5.944 5.999 5.017 5.70C 1.5
2.0 9.98 9.32 9.07 8.52 8.09 7.37 7.20 7.83 7.09 6.7& 6.582 6.284 6.097 6.148 5.958 5.828 2.0
2.5 10.32 9.61 9.35 8.76 8.31 7.55 7.38 8.02 7.26 6.92: 6.728 6.419 6.223 6.274 6.078 5.933 2.5
3.0 10.62 9.87 9.59 8.98 8.50 7.71 7.53 8.19 7.40 7.05 6.849 6.532 6.332 6.380 6.179 6.023 3.0
!
3.5 10.8910.10 9.80 9.18 8.67 7.06 7.67 8.34 7.53 7.17 6.961 6.636 6.431 6.474 6.269 6.10i 3.5
4.0 11.14 10.31 10.00 9.36 8.82 7.99 7.79 8.48 7.65 7.28 7.06 6.726 6.520 6.560 6.350 6.17: 4.0
4.5 11.37 10.51 10.18 9.52 8.96 8.11 7.91 0.60 7.76 7.39 7.15 6.811 6.600 6.638 6.425 6.24C 4.5
5 11.59 10.70 10.35 9.68 9.10 8.23 8.01 8.72 7.86 7.48 7.24 6.981 6.676 6.709 6.493 6.30C 5
10 13.37 12.19 11.72 10.91 10.13 9.11 8.83 9.62 8.63 8.20 7.88 7.49 7.24 7.26 7.01 6.75C 10
I5 14.76 13.34 12.74 11.84 10.88 9.76 9.43 10.28 9.19 8.71 8.34 7.91 7.64 7.63 7.37 7.06 I5
20 15.99 14.33 13.63 12.63 11.53 10.30 9.92 9.13 8.71 8.25 1 7.97 7.95 1 1 7.67 7.31 20
25 17.13 15.24 14.42 13.35 12.09 10.77 10.35 11.29 I 10.04
9,64 9.49 9.03 8.55 0.25 8.21 7.92 7.52 25
~
- -
Pdg -
/-
I- Pig
~
- - ______ -
0 11.71 10.40 9.82 9.31 8.81 8.50 8.44 8.14 7.70 0
5 12.49 11.05 10.42 9.83 9.28 I 8.94 8.86 0.53 8.02 5
10 13.20 11.64 10.96' 0.29 9.71 9.34 9.23 8.87 8.30 10
- -
I5 !4.55 !0.81 9.18 7.56 15.24 13.38 12.68 13.85 10.71 10.08 9.69 9.56 9.18 8.55 I5
20 !6.69 !2.32 !0.45 8.65 16.02 14.02 13.24 14.46 11.10 10.43 10.02 9.86 9.46 8.77 20
25 !8.94 !3.86 !I .71 9.74 16.78 14.64 13.78 15.04 11.46 10.76 10.33 10.14 9.73 8.98 25
30 11.3 !5.42 !2.94 !0.81 17.52 15.23 14.29 15.60 13.62 12.75 11.80 11.07 10.62 10.40 9.98 9.18 30
35 13.8 !7.03 !4.20 !1 .PI 18.25 15.82 14.79 16.16 14.07 13.15 12.13 11.37 10.90 10.66 10.22 9.36 35
40 16.4 !8.70 !5.48 !3.03 18.96 16.41 15.29 16.70 14.51 13.54 12.45 11.66 11.17 10.90 10.44 9.54 40
45 19.3 10.5 !6.82 !4.17 19.69 16.98 15.78 17.23 14.94 13.93 12.77 11.94 11.43 11.14 10.66 9.71 45
50 12.4 12.3 !8.20 !5.35 20.42 17.57 16.26 17.76 15.36 14.31 13.07 12.21 11.69 11.37 10.88 9.87 50
60 19.4 16.2 11.1 !7.76 21.88 18.75 17.20 18.78 16.19 15.05 13.66 12.74 12.19 1 I .80 11.29 0.17 60
70 i7.9 10.5 14.1 10.4 23.35 19.96 18.15 19.80 17.00 15.79 14.22 13.25 12.68 12.22 11.68 0.45 70
80 i8.6 15.5 17.5 13.3 24.86 21.21 19.12 20.81 17.81 16.54 14.77 13.76 13.17 12.63 12.05 0.73 80
90 ,.... il . 3 II .2 16.5 26.44 22.51 20.11 21.84 18.62 17.29 15.32 14.27 13.65 13.02 12.41 0.99 90
I00 ,.... i8.1 15.3 10.0 28.08 23.86 21.12 22.88 19.44 18.05 15.87 14.77 14.13 13.40 12.78 1.24 00
125 ,.... ...... 25.51 21.56 20.02 17.22 16.03 15.34 14.33 13.66 1.83 125
18.60 17.31 16.57 15.24 14.53 2.39 150
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 26.75 28.31 23.83 22.12
I50 ..... ,.... ..... 17.9 37.5 31.9
175 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... 31.4 26.27 24.42 20.02 18.64 17.84 16.16 15.41 12.93 175
200 ..... ..... ..... ..... 51.1 43.5 33.9 34.7 28.99 26.94 21.52 20.03 19.17 17.09 16.30 13.45 100
250 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 62.3 43.5 42.4 35.3 32.9 24.77 23.04 22.06 19.03 18.13 14.44 250
300 ..... ..... ..... ..... 57.7 52.4 43.6 40.6 28.49 26.52 25.38 21.08 20.10 15.41 100
350 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... 66.1 55.0 51.2 32.8 30.5 29.23 23.32 22.21 16.36 150
400 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... I ::::: ...... ..... ...... 67.0 38.0 35.4 33.9 25.74 24.52 17.32 100
450 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ...... ..... 44.4 41.4 39.6 28.42 27.09 18.31 150
550 ..... ...., ..... ...., ..... ..... ...... ...., ...... .... 63.4 59.0 56.5 35.0 33.3 10.34 150
600 ...., ...., ...., ...., ..... ..... ,
...... . ... ...... ..... ..... ..... 70.1 39.0 37.1 21.42 100
650 ...., ...., ...., ...., ..... ..... ,
.... . . .... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... 43.6 41.6 22.55 150
---- L- - - -
rom :enan and E yes, :heoretical S &rn Rate Tat
828 S T E M AND POWER GENERATION
sure can also be easily estimated. All that is needed is a Mollier chart,
which is reproduced in engineering handbooks available in most engi-
neering offices and schools. The use of theoretical steam rate tables as
published by the ASME makes it even easier to estimate turbine steam
rates. A condensed table of theoretical steam rates is included as Table
16.4. These theoretical steam rate tables are not normally so universally
available as the Mollier chart, and therefore a brief explanation of the use
of each will be given.
A part of a Mollier chart is included as Fig. 16.3. Mollier charts range
in size from a small sheet of paper to those used by designers, which may
be as long as your automobile, 15 to 20 ft. I n spite of the many lines on
such a chart, you will find it very simple to use.
T h e Mollier chart is divided into two sections by what is called the
saluration line. The saturation line is a point at which the water has all
been evaporated into a vapor and is a t a temperature corresponding t o
the boiling point of water a t the selected pressure. Along this saturation
line, the vapor is often referred to as “dry and saturated” steam. At all
points on the Mollier chart below this saturation line, the steam is mixed
with water, more often called moisture and is sometimes referred to as
“ n e t steam.” Lines parallel to, and below the saturation line, labeled
2, 4, 6, 8, etc., are lines of constant moisture in per cent. Above the
saturation line, no moisture exists in the steam, and it is normally referred
to as “superheated steam.” Lines parallel to and above the saturation
line, labeled 20, 40, 60, 80, etc., are lines of constant superheat in degrees
Fahrenheit.
I n addition to the lines of constant moisture and constant superheat,
there are also lines of constant pressure in pounds per square inch absolute
(not pounds per square inch gauge), which extend upward to the right
diagonally across the Mollier chart. Other lines starting a t the saturation
line, labeled 200, 240, 280, 320, etc., and curving upward to the right are
lines of constant temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.
Horizontal lines on the chart show energy, normally called enthalpy,
in Btu per pound for steam at various conditions. Enthalpy is of interest
to the application engineer and the user, as well as t o the designer.
Vertical lines on the chart are lines of constant entropy. Except to
remember that steam would expand along a constant entropy line in a
perfect turbine, the term entropy has little practical use in the application
of steam turbines.
By use of the Mollier chart, i t is easy t o find the energy available for
power for any range of initial and exhaust steam conditions selected.
Furthermore, it is possible t o determine the conditions (degrees superheat,
temperature, enthalpy, per cent moisture, etc.) of steam exhausted or
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 829
Reference t o theoretical steam rate tables was made earlier in this sec-
tion, and in Table 16.4 theoretical steam rates are calculated with data
from the Mollier chart, Fig. 16.3. By drawing the theoretical (100 per
cent efficient) expansion line, the energy available between any selected
initial steam conditions and final exhaust pressure can be determined.
This is 504.3 Btu per Ib for the example shown on Fig. 16.3. Since there
are 3413 Btu per kwhr, then the theoretical steam rate (pounds steam per
kwhr) for a steam turbine-generator is simply 3413/theoretical energy
available. For the example shown on Fig. 16.3, the theoretical steam rate
was 6.766 Ib per kwhr.
For a quick check on the “by-product power” which can be generated
with a given total quantity of steam required for process, the actual steam
rate (pounds steam per kwhr) can be quickly estimated. It is only neces-
sary t o divide the theoretical steam rate by an assumed over-all turbine-
generator efficiency to get the actual steam rate.
I n the example of Fig. 16.3 for a straight condensing turbine, and an
assumed turbine-generator efficiency of 75 per cent (refer t o Turbine-
generator Efficiencies, page 820),the actual steam rate was 9.02 Ib steam
per kwhr. For a turbine steam flow of 100,000 lb per hr, the approximate
turbine-generator output would be 100,000 Ib per hr/9.02 Ib per kwhr, or
11,000 kw. The output of a noncondensing turbine generating “by-prod-
uct” power would be determined in the same way. The above methods
are based on the use of the Mollier chart or the theoretical steam rate
tables and an assumed efficiency. More accurate performance of straight
noncondensing and straight condensing turbine-generators can be readily
determined from Figs. 16.18 and 16.19 referred to under Performance of
Steam Turbines, page 857.
STEAM BOILERS
Modern fuel-fired power boilers are normally designed for efficiencies
ranging from 80 t o 88 per cent, depending to some extent on the type of
fuels used and the unit cost of fuel. As an estimating figure, for modern
power boilers, a value of 80 t o 85 per cent for boiler efficiency should be
satisfactory for most conditions.
AUXILIARIES
of fuel, boiler pressure, and boiler flow. Induced-draft fans, boiler feed
pumps, and coal pulverizers (when used) are the large users of auxiliary
power. An average value of 6 per cent should be sufficiently accurate for
estimating purposes. Figure 16.7 gives estimating data on boiler
auxiliaries.
Steam turbines in the utility stations today are being designed for
initial pressures up t o 2400 psig and initial temperatures up to 1100 F.
Operating steam conditions of 4500 psig and 1150 F should be a reality
by 1956. The levels of pressure and temperature in industrial plants are
increasing, as they are in utility plants. The average steam conditions of
industrial turbines designed today are approximately 600 psig-750 F.
I n 1930, this average was approximately 250 psig--500 F. There are
several industrial plants today utilizing initial pressures higher than 1000
psig. See the partial list of industrial generating units in Table 16.3 on
page 810.
As discussed under Theoretical Steam Cycle, page 823, the theoretical
cycle efficiency of a straight condensing steam turbine plant increases
from 37 per cent to 45 per cent when the initial steam conditions are
increased from 400 psig-750 F to 2400 psig-1000 F. If all heat in the
exhaust steam can be utilized in process, the theoretical cycle efficiency
would of course be 100 per cent for either case.
Those factors indicate three ways of increasing the cycle efficiency of
the steam-turbine cycle: (1) increased initial steam conditions, (2)
decreased steam flow t o the condenser, and (3) maximum utilization of
heat in the turbine exhaust steam.
* AE = automatic extraction.
For this particular ease, either 800- or 850-psig initial pressure should
be satisfactory from the standpoint of temperature of extraction steam.
From the above trial-and-error solution, you will note that initial steam
conditions can be estimated quite accurately by simply extending the
expansion line of the existing turbine upward to the left. Any initial
steam condition selected along the extension of this line will give the
desired extraction conditions. For turbines having the same efficiency,
linci drawn parallel t o expansion line for the existing turbine can he used
in selecting initial steam conditions required t o supply different extraction
or exhaust steam requirements.
Example 2. Based on the information in Example 1 and neglecting
mechanical and electrical efficiency of the turbine-generator (which is
about 95 per cent), what by-product power will be generated with the new
10,000-kw units for each 100,000 Ib per hr steam extracted from
a. The 140-psig opening?
b. The 70-psig opening?
Neglecting mechanical and electrical efficiency,the kwhr of " by-prod-
uct" power are equal to
840 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION
or
4430 + 5630 = 10,060 kwhr total
For the assumed efficiencies for double automatic-extraction condensing
turbine units and with assumed extraction flows of 100,000 Ib per hr from
each opening (140 psig and 70 psig), note the small variation in tempera-
ture of the extracted steam for all the assumed initial steam conditions.
Also note the great difference in by-product power as shown in Table 16.6.
TABLE 16.6 Variation in Temperature of Process Steam and By-product
Power from Steam Turbines with Different Initial Steam Conditions
(Based on 100,000 Ib per hr of steam Row to each process pressure)
Temporawre of
extracted rteom
lnitiai deem By-product
conditions
N ~ l ~ - F l ~ On
u * Curr.1
l Denom Exhaust Prsssurc ,PSIG
400PSIG-650F 400PSIG-ll)OF 800PSIG-650F 600 PSIG-750F
SO0
400
300
200
100
600
Exhaust 600
Tamp -
F 400
200
25
TYPES OF TURBINES
try. They account for perhaps less than 5 per cent of the units sold to
industry for power generation.
SPEED GOVERNING
LOAD REGULATORS
If instead of having other turbines which can take the swingsin kilowatt
load, it is desired t o take all load swings on one turbine, special turbine-
governing mechanisms can be furnished or the proper setting of standard
governors may provide the necessary control for many applications.
As one simple example of what can be done with the standard turbine-
governing mechanism, consider a typical plant, utilizing a “ topping”
turbine, with steam-power diagram as shown in Fig. 16.13.
The total electric load is 45,000 kw, with a 250-psig process steam load
of 580,000 Ib per hr.
Note that steam exhausted from the new topping turbine (unit No. 3)
amounts t o 550,000 lb per hr. This is the entire steam flow required by
the two existing condensing steam turbines plus 210,000 Ib per hr u,hich
passes through the pressure-reducing valve (PRV) into the 250-psig
header to help supply the steam required for general plant uses.
Turbine-governing mechanisms are so arranged that, during periods
of reduced plant electric load, the load on the existing condensing turbine
generators will be reduced before the load on the topping unit is reduced.
The curves of Fig. 16.14 show a division of steady-state plant load
between the existing turbine-generators and the new topping tnrbine-
9 5 0 PSlG -900 F 550,000 250PSIG-550F
LB/HR
PR V
ir
+c7 OLD
I
2 NEW --A LOW PRESS
80 ILE RS BOILERS
- 0 LB/HR
If
370,000
LB/HR
y
lf
i-1 PRV
I 50
280 PSlG 210.000 - 2 5 0 PSlG
r
LB/HR B
170,000
LB/HR 170,000 580,000 5m
LB/HR LWHR
ez
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 851
INITIAL-PRESSURE GOVERNING
EXHAUST-PRESSURE GOVERNING
EXTRACTION-PRESSURE GOVERNING
i
854 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION
The charts which are reproduced in Fig. 16.15 indicate how the turbine-
governing mechanism can control extraction pressures when the demand
(flow) for process steam supplied by the turbine varies widely.
The charts, Fig. 16.16, show how the turbinegoverning mechanism
controls frequency with varying kilowatt load. These charts are typical
for General Electric Company double automatic-extraction steam turbines.
FIG. 16.16 Typicol turbine kw load VI. time and plant system frequency VS. time On
10,000-kw double automatic-extraction General Electric Company turbine with extraction-
pressure governors and speed corrector in service.
TURBINE SIZE
NONEXTRACTION TURBINES
TURBINE-GENERATOR RATINGS
Manufacturers have standard turbine-generator ratings ranging from
200 km to more than 200,000 kw. The manufacturers are thus able t o
meet the needs of industry.
Turbine-generators rat,ed 500 t o 15,000 kw account for the greatest,
percentage of turbine-gcncrators applied in industry. I n 1940, the avcr-
age rating of turbine-generators used in industry was about 4000 kw. I n
1954, that average rat,ing approached 10,000 kw.
Some of the automobile steel, aluminum, and chemical plants have
units rated up t o 100,000 k w or more.
856 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION
g3
t2 100 PERCENT LOAD WITH NO EXTRACTION
INLET FLOW
1300 1100)
:b 200 SECTION
(01
FIG. 16.17 Section flow output curves rhowing division of load between high-pressure
and low-pressure sections of the same single wtomotic-extroclion turbine operating
under different conditions.
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 857
NONEXTRACTION TURBINES
The data plotted on Fig. 16.18 show the steam consumed by noncon-
densing steam turbines rated 2000 to 15,000 km a t various load conditions.
Figure 16.19 gives similar data for condensing steam turbines.
Approximate data on the condition of steam exhausted from steam
turbines a t different pressures are shown in Figs. 16.9 and 16.10.
Average figures, for estimating purposes, on the efficiency of different
turbine-generators are given under Turbine-generator Efficiencies on
page 820.
These average values of efficiency (65 per cent for ratings to 1500 kw
and 75 per cent for units rated 2000 to 15,000 kw) are very useful for
estimating performance of different types of steam turbines operating
with different steam conditions. I t is only necessary t o divide the
theoretical steam rate, normally ralled TSR, by the efficiency. Theo-
retical steam rate tables are published in booklet form by the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers. A condensed table is shown in Table
16.4.
The combustion gas turbine has now taken its place as EL prime mover,
like the steam turbine and other prime movers, to generate electric power
and supply heat energy simultaneously at high cycle efficiency.
858 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION
0
z
.
EXHAUST PRESSURE
IN.HG A B S
11.52 3 4
THROTTLE PRESSURE, I N P S l G
D4SH-LINE ILLUSTRPTION
FOR THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS
4000KW
310 P S l G ~ 7 5 O P F T T - 2 " H G4 B S
3 / 4 LOAD
2 0 0 0 K W RlTlNG
*Ii
I
I
I
4
I
I
I
I
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 861
Air goes
U and exhaust
L.)to the stack
FIG. 16.21 Schematic diagram of a simple-cycle gar-turbine unit.
0b2 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION
ered. When heat in the exhaust gases can be utilized in process, either
directly or to generate steam in exhaust-heat recovery boilers, actual gas-
turbine power-plant-cycle efficiency can run as high as 70 per cent-com-
parable to the high efficiency obtainable in other types of industrial power
plants.
One interesting characteristic of the gas turbine is the effect of ambient
temperature on its output; the lower the temperature, the greater the
output. For a decrease in ambient temperature of 40 to 50 F, the turbine
output is increased approximately 25 per cent. On the other hand,
temperatures above 80 F decrease the output. Much can be gained by
surface or evaporative cooling t o 80 F or below.
Heat in the exhaust gases, such as heat in the exhaust from a steam
turbine, represents a great loss unless it can be recovered and used in the
plant cycle. Efficiency of the simple-cycle turbine-generator unit alone,
operating without heat-recovery equipment, is approximately 17 per cent.
The gas-turhine power-plant-cycle efficiency ranges as high as 60 to 80
per cent when heat is recovered from the turbine exhaust gases for various
process or power uses.
The basic cycle efficiency was improved t o about 65 per cent plane
cycle efficiency in one installation, where heat recovered from the exhaust
gases was utilized to heat feed water for an existing steam plant.
To illustrate use of the term plant-cycle thermal efiiency, the actual gas-
turbine plant-cycle thermal efficiency for this installation will he calcu-
lated, based on the following information:
Fuel fired: 80,400,000 Btu per hr (higher heating value)
Generator output: 3500 kw
Feedwater heater flow: 350,000 Ib water per hr
Feedwater in: 185 F (154 Btu per lb)
Feedwater out: 295 F (264.5 Btu per Ib)
Available and useful output
a. Electric energy: 3500 kw X 3413 Btu per kwhr = 11,940,000 Btu
per br
b. Heat added to feedwater: 350,000 Ib per hr X (264.5 - 153) Btu
per Ib = 39,025,000 Btu per hr
Total available and useful output = a +
b, or 50,965,000 Btu per hr
Input
Fuel: 80,400,000 Btu per hr
Air: Considered free and hence no charge for Btu
Total actual input: 80,400,000 Btu per hr
Thermal efficiency of gas turbine and its heat-recovery equipment =
50,965,000/80,400,000 = 63.4 per cent
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 863
u
4
0
J
n
c
864 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION
Average actual operat,ing experience for the first four years has been
better than original calculat,ions on which the instalhtion was based.
Heat recovery from the exhaust gases of a 5000-kw unit of this type, in
reasonably sized feedwater heaters or exhaust-heat recovery boilers, is
approximately 45 million Btu per hr. When using an exhaust-heat
recovery boiler, this is equivalent to 35,000 to 45,000 Ib of steam per hour
a t pressures u p to 200 psig.
Gas-turbine Cycles. Many different cycle arrangements have been
considered for the gas turbine. There is the open cycle, in which atmos-
pheric air is used once in its passage through the compressor and turbine,
the closed cycle where the same atmospheric air is used over and over and
is heated from an external source, and combinations of the two in varying
degrees. The efficiency of any of these cycles will depend upon the extent
t o which intercooling, regeneration, and other refinements are employed.
When all factors are considered, the open-cycle arrangement has many
very desirable features.
The Simple Cycle. Figure 16.22 is a cross section of the simple open-
cycle unit indicated schematically in Fig. 16.21.
The simple-cycle gas turbine is suitable for applications where a unit
is reouired for stand-by service, such as to supplement a hydro system or
to take peak loads, There fuel costs are low, or where there is a use for
heat energy which can he recovered from the exhaust gases.
The Regenerative Cycle. As can be seen in Fig. 16.23, a regenerator is
an int,egral part of this gas-turbine cycle, recovering a portion of the heat
in the exhaust gases and resulting in a gas turbinogenerator efficiency of
approximately 22.5 per cent compared to 17 per cent without the regener-
ator. A cross section of this unit is shown in Fig. 16.24.
When used xvith a regenerator, temperature of the exhaust stack gases
is 566 F. The heat which can be recovered for feedwater heating or pro-
during steam in exhaust-heat recovery boilers is somewhat lower than for
the simplocycle unit. On the other hand, if an application requires
_.
...
CHAMBER
I. r
COMPRESSOR
TURBINE
3500 K Y
APPLICATIONS
lurbim
o d m l
FUEL
3500 K W
STACK
t
STEAM TO PROCESS
t
I
I
r
~ BOILER
SUPPLEMENTARY
FUEL NOZZLE
t 80 F
FIG. 16.26 Gas turbine and exhouit-heat recovery boiler with supplementary fuel firing.
WbSTE
AIR I N _ LXHAUST &45.,880E 3620 KW HEAT STEAM
60 F BOILER 410
550' F
COMPRESSOR
TURBINE GENERATOR
AIR IN
8OF EXHAUST G A S W E 3610 KW
FEEDWATER.
STEAM TURBINE
GENERATOR
Ill
7260 KW
1
-
FIG. 16.27 Schematic diagram showing gas turbine with exhaust-heat recovery boiler
to "top" steam-turbine plant.
$TEAM AND POWER GENERATION 869
FIG. 16.28 Schematic diagram showing (I g a r turbine supplying combustion air for
fuel-fired steom boilers.
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 87 I
FIG. 16.29 Two 4000-kw gas-tvrbine units installed for power generation, with heat in
exhourt being utilized for feedwoter heating.
FUELS
At the present time, the steam-turbine plarit can utilize a much wider
variety of fuels. This is a handicap for the gas turbine i n areas where the
cost of suitable fuel is higher thaii that of fuels for other power plants,
This handicap is partially overcome by the expected greater simplicity
and lower installed cost for the gas-turbine plant or the low requirements
of the gas-turbine plant for cooling water and high-quality boiler feed
water.
Let us make a few comparisons between the gas-turbine and the steam-
turbine plant.
Initial Cost. From available data, it, is estimated t,hat the cost of a
nev gas-turbine plant compares favorably with steam-turbine plants
utilizing units of comparable kiv rating.
STEAM AN0 POWER GENERATION 073
The cycle efficiency for diesel-engine plants varies with such things as
the compression ratio, the weight of air used per pound of fuel, etc.
Quoted full-load efficienciesfor power plants designed for the generation
of electric power only range from perhaps 25 up to 35 or 40 per cent. An
efficiency of 35 or 40 per cent is very good for small power-plant units and
is higher than realized in small steam power plants used for the generation
of electric power only.
Even though the diesel plant may have higher efficiency, the cost (per
million Rtu) of fuel suitable for the diesel plant may be two or more times
the cost of fuels suitable for the steam plant. This is one of several fac-
tors which minimizes the use of diesel plants. However, the diesel plant
is often selected for very small generating stations.
Heat recoverable, for normal process use, is relatively low in the diesel
power plant. This is true because, in addition to the exhaust loss, the
loss to jacket water is high, percentagewise, in diesel engines. The tem-
074 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION
perature of jacket water is so low that this heat energy cannot often be
utilized and hence is lost as was the case of condenser losses with a con-
densing steam turbine.
Because of the jacket-water loss, maximum practical cycle efficiency
for a diesel plant with exhaust-heat recovery will usually be lower than
for steam- or gas-turbine power plants used to supply both electric power
and process heat. This, coupled with the high cost of diesel fuels, usually
means high over-all fuel costs for the diesel plant.
Internal-combustion engines generate only about 5 per cent of the total
industrial power generation. For that reason their application will not
be discussed in detail here.
20 40 60 80
CENTS PER MILLION BTU
FIG. 16.30 Comparative costs per million Bhr for various fuels.
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 075
plant. The cost chargeable to power generatipn would then be the added
cost of pon-er boilers over low-pressure process steam boilers plus the cost
of installing the turbine-generator equipment. Labor charged to power
gennration would likewise he the additional boiler-room labor (if any) and
the turbine-room labor required to operate the turbine generator. Fuel
costs charged to power generation are based on the generating unit being
credited with all heat in the turbine exhaust steam.
“Condensing” power costs shown in Fig. 16.31 are based on straight
condensing steam-turhine plants such as would he used to generate electric
power in plank where process steam is not required. I n these costs, fixed
charges are based on t,he total initial cost of the power plant, including full
cost of the boiler plant. Other costs, likewise, are total power-plant
operating rosts.
E ~ e though
n t,he cost of “condensing” kilowatts is appreciably higher
than by-product kilowatts, an industrial plant which supplements power
purchased from the utility with by-product gencration within the plant
sometimes finds it economical to install automatic-extraction condensing
turbines. With this type of t,nrhine, normal operation can be to generate
by-product power only with minimum steam flow t o the exhaust (steam
FIG. 16.32 Ertirnated total cost of generating electric power. Curves show the effect
of rating, plant factor, and labor on over-all costs.
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 879
GENERATOR RAT1NG - K W
I ASSUMED SAME AS PLANT RATING)
FIG. 16.33 Estimated component costs of power generation in plonh operating a t 50 per
cent plant fac1or.
of costs taken from Fig. 16.31 for steam-turbine units rated 1000 to
10,000 kw.
The bar charts on Fig. 16.33 are based on operation at 50 par cent plant
factor and show the various elements of generating costs. This ix also a
summary from Fig. 16.31 for steam-turbine units rated 1000 to 10,000 kw.
Typical values for labor, heat rates, maintenance and investment costs
for steam-turbine plants as assumed for plotting the curves of Fig. 16.31
are given in Tables 16.7 to 16.9.
The following labor costs are chargeable to power generation:
At full load:
Plant heat rote.. ................. 5500 5200 4700 4500
Plant sffirlency.. ................. 62% 65.6% 72.6% 76%
At three-quarter load:
Plant heat mte.. ................. 5560 5260 4750 4550
Plont efficiency.. ................. 61.4% 65% 71.9% 75 %
At holf lood:
Plant heat rote.. ................. 5850 5600 5000 4800
Plant efficiency.. ................. 58.5% 61% 68.2% 71 %
I
* Btu per net kwhr.
S T E M AND POWER GENERAllON 881
1
TABLE 16.8 Total Investment Chargeable to Power Generation
I
!
Condeluing Dollan per yeor $20,000 $30,000 $45,000 $55,000
Per cent of inilia1 in"~lm.nt 5.5% 4.7% 3.2% 2.1%
Mils per kwhr 01 100% plont 2.3 mils 1.7 mils 1 .o mils 0.6 mils
focmr
Noncon- Dollon per yeor $8.000 $1 2,000 $1 8.000 $22,000
denring* Per cent of initial invntmant 3.6% 3% 2.1% 1.4%
Mils per kwhr at 100% p l m l 0.P mill 0.7 mils 0.4 mils 0.25 mils
focmr
Assumed 40 per cent of the total for B condensing plant would be chargeable to
the power-generation portion of a noncondensing plant.
Boiler fans, steam piping, and other apparatus vary widely as well as
the boilers, water treatment, feed-water pumps, etc., included in Table
16.10. The boiler plant is a large item in power-plant costs. With the
wide variation in steam flows and other industrial power-plant require-
ments, the difficulty of using a value of “dollars per kilowatt installed”
in estimating or even comparing the costs of industrial power plants is
apparent unless the plant is described in detail.
Now for the actual cost of power plants-utility plants range in cost
from perhaps as low as $150 per kw t o well over $200 per kw installed.
Industrial plants, keeping in mind the above warning on the use of dollars
per kw, range in cost from something less than $200 per kw t o more than
$300 per kw installed.
Pouer-plant costs vary widely, not only because of different industrial
power-plant requirements hut also because of the power-plant facilities,
buildings, etc., that may already be available in the case of plant eupan-
sion, and foundation and building requirements, etc., in the case of new
plants. Because of these many variables, it is difficult t o estimate costs
without carefully analyzing each plant requirement and then adding
various component costs t o arrive a t total cost. This total cost can be
converted to dollars per kilowatt of course.
As thp rate of return on initial investment (per cent. fixed charges) is
increased, initial cost becomes of increasing importance. For instance,
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 883
with gross fixed charges of 15 per cent, $50 per kw installed cost represents
1 mil per kwhr in power cost if the turbinegenerator is operated 85 per
cent of the time (7500 hr per year) a t full load. Other rates of fixed
charges mould of course change the cost per kwhr proportionally. Cost
per kwhr would likewise go up as plant factor goes down. For a plant
having an average annual load of 10,000 kw, 1 mil per kwhr reduction in
power costs means almost $100,000 per year.
Chapto- 17 by Donald S. Brereton
data and the other with cost-estimating data. These two sections are
coupled together to assist the power-system engineer to determine more
easily the power requirements of new or additional facilities in his plant
and then determine the most economical arrangement and selection of the
apparatus in accordance with the sound and safe principles of power-
system design as given in the preceding chapters.
It is realized that some risk is taken when information concerning the
cost of electrical apparatus is published. It is hoped that when these
data are used it will always be recognized that they are for estimating
purposes and not for firm pricing. It is believed that the fluctuations in
the prices of the apparatus listed that will occur after the publication of
this handbook will not materially reduce the usefulness of this chapter.
Therefore, i t is not the intention here to give an exact price of a trans-
former or a motor with its control but to illustrate the relative costs of
the various components that make up the power system.
LOAD-ESTIMATING DATA*
A close estimate of the location and demands of the electric load in an
industrial plant is a major prerequisite for the proper design of the plant
electric power system, for the success or failure of the power system lies
in its ability t o meet the load requirements. Unfortunately, load esti-
mating is seldom easy, especially in new installations, since the power
system is usually being designed while the utilization equipment is also in
the planning stage. Certainly, in the initial stages of planning, the exact
machine ratings will seldom be known and very little can be predicted as
to their probable operating schedules. The problem is one of making an
* R. M. Wilson, General Electric Company, formerly of the Industrial Engmeering
Section, made a substantial contribution to the material on pagee 884 to 892.
884
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMTING DATA 885
estimate of the loads from what little information is available on the pro-
posed plant and of supplementing these general data with load data on
similar existing plants. Discussions with the plant engineers and
operating personnel of the proposed plant are essential to obtain as much
information as possible. General data on similar plants can be obtained
from discussions with plant engineers and operating personnel of those
plants. In addition to discussions with the industrial engineers, it may
be helpful to consult the utility power engineers for their estimates of the
load of similar industrial plants on their system.
In estimating the load demand it is usually best to consider lighting
and power loads separately and to combine these later to determine the
demand in any one area, for in present practice light and power loads are
most often taken from the same load-center substation. The load in a
manufacturing plant is commonly expressed in terms of load density
(volt-amperes per square foot). Different sections of the plant must
nearly always he considered a t different load densities, for there will be
separate areas for offices, machine shops, storage, etc.
LIGHTING-LOAD ESTIMATES
Lighting loads are easier to estimate than power loads, but will repre-
sent only a small portion of the total power requirements. The load
density for lighting may be estimated by considering three factors: inten-
sity of illumination, type of lighting (mercury, fluorescent, or incan-
descent), and height of fixtures. Table 17.1 shows the effect of these fac-
tors on power requirements for factory lighting. For office lighting the
factors should be increased by about 30 per cent. The intensity of
illumination multiplied by the lighting-demand factor given in the table
gives the power demand in volt-amperes per square foot of floor area.
TABLE 17.1 Power Requirements for lighting*
Lighting-demand fmh-rt
fixture height, f l
Incondorcent Fluorexent
POWER ESTIMATES
Estimating the power load is considerably more difficult than esti-
mating the lighting load. One way of starting on this is first to consider
the major components of the power load, such as large synchronous motors
and furnaces. Such loads exert the maximum influence on the power
demand and are often decided early in preliminary planning since their
rating and schedule of operation can be more closely predicted than can
that of the smaller loads. Many of these loads will be applied a t the
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 887
plant primary voltage (above 600 volts), although some may be applied
a t lower voltages.
For large induction and 0.8-power factor synchronous motors the kva
demand may be assumed t o equal the motor horsepower rating, but for
1.0-power factor synchronous motors the kva demand should he taken as
0.8 times the horsepower rating. Often the larger machines will operate
alternately, and it is important to consider a diversity factor t o prevent
overdesigning the system. The use of these factors is discussed in later
paragraphs.
A thorough knowledge of the type of manufacturing activity will aid
considerably in estimating the demand of the smaller machines on a load-
density basis since existing plants may be surveyed to obtain a suitable
estimate of the load of those manufacturing operations which are similar
to those planned in the new plant. These load-density estimates are
especially useful for equipment operated a t 600 volts or below. In any
one plant the density may vary from zero in storage areas to 35 or more
va per sq ft in some machine-tool areas, spinning rooms, etc., or similar
areas of concentrated loads. Table 17.3 gives representative load densi-
ties for different types of industrial plants. The table should be used for
preliminary estimating only since the sine of the plant and its processes
will vary considerably within a given industry category.
When used with good judgment, Table 17.4 can also be used to estimate
the power requirements of a new industrial plant. This table shows the
number of kilowatthours required per unit of output and is a general
average of many industrial plants making the same type of product.
When applied to any particular plant, the information, therefore, may
not nearly represent artual conditions, for the degree of electrification in
the plant will have a considerable bearing on the number of kilowatthours
used. In order to translate these figures into terms of system capacity,
it mill be necessary to know the output of the plant and the number of
hours in which manufacturing processes are in operation.
888 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA
After the loads of the individual machines or areas of a plant have been
determined, it is necessary to combine these t o obtain a total demand.
This kva demand determines the system capacity which must be pro-
vided and is obtained by the use of demand and diversity factors. It is
not difficult to apply these factors in a load-center system of power dis-
tribution, for each load center serves a relatively small area. For exam-
ple, on a branch feeder the connected load is multiplied by a demand fac-
tor to obtain feeder demand, and the sum of feeder demands is divided
by a diversity factor to obtain the combined feeder or load-center sub-
station demand. The selection of demand and diversity factors, like
load density, is based on known conditions, experience, or similar opera-
tions in existing plants. Table 17.5 shows factors for the more commonly
encountered types of manufacturing loads. As the table shows, the
demand factor will vary considerably with different types of loads. For
example, the demand factor of a group of motors driving a conveyer belt
will approach 100 per cent, while the demand factor of a group of hand
tools in a small furniture factory or machine shop might he only 30 per
cent. A diversity factor of unity is often used t o provide ample system
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 889
capacity, since the margin provided in this way is soon used by load
growth; and, although the sum of the maximum demands of the individual
load centers and of the equipment applied a t the distribution voltage can
be divided by the diversity factor to obtain the maximum demand on the
distribution system, the usual practice is to provide a system adequate
for a maximum demand obtained with a diversity factor of unity or to
provide even more than 100 per cent capacity in the main system to take
care of load centers which would be added in the future.
TABLE 17.5 Demand Factors
btimoting Demand
Load Factor, Per Cent.
MOIOW
1. General pvrp~se; m d h s 1-1; crone elwoton; v a n t i l o t i ~ ~compreuona
j
..........................................
pYmp,, rolling mill., atc 30
........
2. Semicontinuous p m n s n ; popsr mill*i refineries; rubber mills; elc. 60
3. Continuous operationii textile mills.. ................................ 90
....................................
Electric ovenii h e d e n ond fvrnoces 80
lndudionfum.cn ................................................... 80
Arcfurn.c.. ........................................................ 100
Lighthg............................................................ 80
........................................................
Arc w e l d H I 30
Rerirl.ncewo1d.r ................................................... 20
* Multiply connected load by this factor to obtain total plant dernsnd, rtssuming
diveraity factor is unity.
Another term which is commonly used is load factor. Once in a while
i t may be possible to take advantage of a low load factor and select a
smaller transformer with smaller cables than could be applied based on
the peak load alone. However, the transformer and cables must be of
adequate size to provide a satisfactory voltage under the peak load condi-
tions. Selection of a safe load factor requires detailed knowledge of
operating characteristics of the load and of the thermal capacity of the
distribution equipment. Only in rare cases should a load factor be
applied.
For a further explanation of these factors refer to Fig. 17.1. The
feeders on load center A operate as shown in the accompanying table.
The actual demand measured on the load center is 800 kva, thus the
diversity factor is 1000 + 800 = 1.25. In practice the load-center rating
would usually be selected at lo00 kva, which provides for future load by
using a diversity factor of unity. Assuming that load centers B, C , and D
are the same as A, the demand on the main substation, also assuming no
diversity between load centers, is 4 X 800 = 3200 kva. The main sub-
station would likely he rated 3750 kva, or even larger if future plans seem
to dictate this, for the main substation is not so easily or economically
expanded as is the additional kva available in the load-center area which
can be obtained by adding a relatively small load-center substation.
890 LOAD- A N D COST-ESTIMTING DATA
MAIN
SUBSTATION DEMAND
METER
13.8 K V
I
CENTER
'gjJJ
CONNECTED LOAD
Feeder
NO.
1 125 100 a0
2 I25 100 80
3 500 300 60
4 600 500 84
SUMMARY
COST-ESTIMATING DATA
Economics is one of the most important factors in power-Bystem engi-
neering. There is often more than one way to satisfy a given set of
requirements from a technical standpoint. The choice of the method
used in such cases is largely determined by economics.
The following data are presented solely for the purpose of making com-
parative system economic studies. Such data, under no circumstances
should be used for the obtaining of appropriations, as market changes,
product changes, etc., all affect the exact pricing of any particular
equipment.
To make proper economic comparisons requires the consideration of
the installed cost of the power-system apparatus necessary to bring power
from the source to the load. Problems of selection of voltage require the
consideration of motors and control, particularly for the higher voltage
motors and control which can operate directly at plant primary voltage.
However, these approximate data are sufficiently accurate for nearly
all general system comparison economic studies.
INSTALLATION C O S T S
The data given in this section, except for the information on cable, do
not include installation costs. These may vary widely,, depending upon
working conditions, foundations required, whether the installation is new
or old, whether production must be kept going while the change is made,
upon labor rates, and many other factors. However, some installation
figure must be assumed to get a proper over-all economic comparison
between two systems. Where information known to be more accurate is
not available, the following procedures have been used to obtain a reason-
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 893
PIECEMEAL-EQUIPMENT COSTS
Piecemeal-equipment costs are not given here because it would take too
much space to list each item separately and would be too difficult to inter-
pret. Furthermore, the purpose of this chapter is to cover the more
general cases, i.e., those systems using modern factory-assembled equip-
ment. Factory-assembled equipment is now almost universally employed
in industrial plant power systems.
The complication of presenting a simple economic story on piecemeal
equipment is one of the major disadvantages of this type of equipment
compared with factory-assembled switchgear, substations, or motor con-
trol. The real disadvantage is evident when the installed costs of each
system are compared. The problem of piecemeal-equipment costs is
further complicated by the very involved engineering and ordering and
detailed expediting required, which are difficult to estimate accurately.
Prices of factory-assembled equipment are published by the manufac-
turers, and the engineering and ordering costs are only a small percentage
of the over-all cost and, therefore, are not nearly so significant as they are
with piecemeal equipment.
For roughly estimating the cost of a piecemeal substation or switchgear
station equipment, it is necessary to include not only the large items like
circuit breakers and transformers hut also all the dozens of miscellaneous
items such as disconnecting switches, steel structures, insulators, buses,
connectors, current transformers, potential transformers, fuses, fuse
holders, etc. To obtain an accurate cost would require, first of all, a
complete design for the substation. However, in estimating stages such
design work is generally not feasible. As a guide in estimating the cost
of a piecemeal switchgear equipment, take the cost of power circuit
breakers rated 500 mva and up and increase that by 50 per cent and take
the cost of power circuit breakers rated less than 500 mva and increase
that by 100 per cent. This will generally be enough to include the costs
of miscellaneous items mentioned previously. After taking the breaker
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 895
cost and increasing it 50 per cent, this total figure should be increased 50
to 100 per cent again t,o allow for installation. These substations vary
so much that rules of thumb can be very misleading. Therefore, the only
way to get an accurate cost is to determine each item required and its
cost. One of t.he major problems in doing this under the pressure of esti-
mating is to be sure that all items are included. With factory-assembled
equipment those items are automatically included in the price, and thus
the chances of error are reduced when using factory-assembled equipment
as well as the engineering time required to design and estimate the job.
Example 1 on page 896 is included t o elaborate some of these points for
background information only.
The following examples are principally based on using the data included
on pages 906 to 924. I t is significant to point out that, when comparing
piecemeal installations with factory-assembled equipment, all equipment
components must be included in the piecemeal equipment. This will be
home out in the first example where, if interconnect,ing buses, disconnect-
ing switches, insulators, etc., were omitted, an entirely erroneous couclu-
sion would be reached.
896 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA
EXAMPLE 1
4 - a -
4-W-
&*
*-ti-
-+
898 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA
2-13.2KV
INCOMING LINES
PLUG-IN
?$$ /’ 2 5 0
METAL CLAD SWITCHGEAR
MVA
7 5 0 KVA UNIT
BUS WAY f SUBSTATION
/ \
f
I
b-
L L
0
to the ceiling and that the cables are then run out t o the center of each row
of busway. This requires a total of 7300 ft with an installed cost of $3.70
per f t , or a total installed cable cost of $27,010.
Total Cost. Adding the above costs, the total installed cost of the old-
style piecemeal system shown in Fig. 17.2 is $143,000.
load-center System. The load-center system, Fig. 17.3, has the fol-
lowing approximate costs.
Primary Switchgear. Referring to Table 17.8, the approximate cost of
a 13.8-kv 250-mva interrupting capacity metal-clad feeder position at
1200-amp continuous rating is $7100 for either feeder or incoming line.
Since there are four breakers, the total cost of the switchgear equipment
is $28,400 t o which is added 25 per cent for installation, making the total
approximate installed cost $35,500.
Subslatiom. The four 750-kva substations have an estimated cost of
approximately $23 per kva, as determined from Fig. 17.13. This cost
includes six 25,000-amp interrupting-rating breakers per substation.
Only five breakers per substation are required, and they are to be 15,000-
amp breakers instead of 25,000-amp breakers.
F
A t $23 per kva the total cost of the 3000-kva substations would be
269,000, including six 25,000-amp feeder breakers. Deducting one feeder
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 899
breaker per substation a t $900 each will reduce the total estimated cost
t.o approximately $65,400. Changing the remaining five 25,000-amp t o
15,000-amp breakers will reduce the cost of the 20 feeder breakers approxi-
mately $300 each or will reduce the total cost of the substations t o approxi-
mately $59,400. Adding 25 per cent for installation brings the approxi-
mate total installed cost to $74,250.
Cable. The primary feeder cable total length, allowing 15 f t for
vertical runs in each cable, would be 1020 f t of type ACV, No. 1/0 Awg,
at $5 per foot installed (Table 17.12), or a total installed cost of $5100.
The secondary cable total length is 1740 ft of type ACT’, 250 MCM, with
an installed cost of $3.70 per f t (Table 17.13), making a total of $6438.
FIG. 17.4 Comparative cost of old-style and load-center systems and components.
900 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA
EXAMPLE 2
3 5 0 MCM
INTERLOCKED
ARMOR
5 KV CAELE
AX-1-25
FEEDER
\
z BREAKERS
PER SUB #
'
4
T LI
500 FT
FIG. 17.5 Radial recondory selective load-center system for cost comparison.
902 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA
350 MCM
INTERLOCKED
4160 V 4RMOR
5 KV CAELE
t'
4-300A $
AK-1- 25
FEEDER
BREAKERS
I
t.
500 FT
600 FT
Ib l
- FIG. 17.6 Secondary selective load-center system for cost comparison.
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 903
amp breaker for the tie circuit. These additional six breakers will
increase the cost of the Substations approximately $9600 (from Table
17.9) or will increase the installed cost from $107,410 to $119,440
+
(107,440 9600 X 1.25 = $119,440). In addition there will be approxi-
mately 1800 ft of 350 MCM interlocked-armor tie cable a t an installed
cost of $4.40 per ft (from Table 17.13). This is an additional $7920.
The total installed cost of the secondary selective system is $209,885,
or about $70 per kva. (Primary switchgear, primary cable, secondary
cable, and busway are the same as for radial system.)
Secondary Network System. The secondary network system, Fig.
17.7, has all transformers operating in parallel, and therefore diversity of
loading in the various load areas can be taken care of by transferring load
from one Substation to another. The example was chosen to use standard
sizes of Substations to get a comparison that would be most favorable
t o the network system. The network employs six 500-kva unit sub-
stations instead of six 750-kva unit substations as did the radial and
secondary selective system. The primary switchgear, primary cable,
secondary feeder, and plug-in bus costs are the same for all systems.
The unit substations for this system cost about $26 per kva (total
$78,000), in their basic form, from Fig. 17.13. To this must be added
approximately $1500 per Substation to cover electrical operation of the
main 50,000-amp circuit breaker and the relays (not covered in this
chapter) necessary to enable it to provide the functions of a network pro-
+
tector (total of $78,000 $9000 = $87,000). I n addition, since all
transformers are in parallel, the short-circuit current is over 25,000 amp,
requiring 50,000-amp interrupting-capacity feeder and circuit breakers.
Therefore, all feeder and tie breakers will have to be increased in cost
by the difference between the 15,000-amp electrically operated breaker
and the 50,000-amp manually operated breaker ($1600 - $800 = $800;
$800 X 36 = $28,800). The total cost with above additions is $115,800.
Furthermore, there are a total of eight breakers per substation, four
feeder breakers and four tie breakers. The two additional breakers per
substation (12 X $1600 = $19,200) in the larger interrupting ratings
increase the total cost of the substation up to $135,000. Addin? 25 per
cent for installation makes their approvimate installed cost $165,750,
The tie cable for this system to tie all units together requires 3200 ft of
No. 4/0-Awg cable. This allows a 25-ft vertical run for each cable plus
the horizontal runs, as indicated in the diagram. This has an installed
cost of $3.40 per f t (from Table 17.13), making a total cost of the tie
cables of $10,880.
The total installed cost of the secondary network system is $262,155 or
approximately $87.40 per kva. Primary switchgear, primary cable,
secondary cable, and busway are the same as for radial system.
904 LOAD- AND COSFESTIMATING DATA
350 MCM
4160 VOLTS
25OMVA $Y 6
Y
INTERLOCKED
ARMDR 5 K V CABLE
(0)
I I1
500FT
I----
_-___-
I - - - - L - A 400 AMP PLUG-IN EUS
600 F T
tb)
FIG. 17.7 Secondary neiwork load-center ryrtern for cost cornpariron.
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 905
REFERENCES
1. “Electric Power Distribution for Industrial Plants,” AIEE Committee on Indus-
trial Power Applications, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, New York,
1955.
2. Umanskv..,L. A,. Trends in Electrification of American Steel Industrv. “ , AIEE
Technical Paper 48141.
3. “How to Estimate Electrical U’ork,” Eleclrical Conslruction and Maintenance, 1950.
906 LOAD. AND cOST.ESTIMATING DATA
2 I I
MACHINE RATING K W
.13.8- 500
~. .
' I ' STANOARO UNIT SU~STATION R 1
!700 3750 5000 75 lQo00 12,000 I 15,000 20.+00 25,000
10 4000 6000 8000 lQo00 12000 14.000 16 10 2 O . m 22.000 24000 26
UNIT SUBSTATION KVA
FIG. 17.1 1 Master unit substations, 2500 to 25,000 h a , 13.8-kv secondary.
2:
2C
a
>
x
a
Y
P
ln I 5
a
a
2
2
0
0
Y
$ IC
z
X
0
a
0
P
a
I I
5
- AM-2.414.16- 150/250 *
NIT SUBSTATION RATINGS
I
5000 7500I 10000
C
1 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
UNIT SUBSTATION K V A
FIG. 17.12 Mar& unit substations, 1500 to 10,oOO kva. 4.16-ln secondary.
6C
5c
2
Y
4c
L
m
K
a
5 30
0
a
W
5
20
rg
a
n.
L
a
IC
FIG. 17.13 Load-center unit substations, 225 to 2000 h a . 480Y/277 or 208Y/120volts secondary.
TABLE 17.7 Primary Switching for Radial Substations Including
Steel Structure and Components
IApproximde Dato for Use in Comparative Syslom Studies)
I500 mva
I I I
Breaker ratings, omp Synchronow Synchronou:
Incoming line motor motor Induction
Type of Method of - transformer 'eodcr motor
A-C hrll-roltoge line reactor
breaker operotion 'ull-rolt.age
secondary bur tie unloaded unlooded
nterrvpting Continuow ,l.Tt
,t.rt start
--
Manual $600 $3300 $3400 $600
AK-1-15 15.000 25-225
Elechisol 800 1 3500 1 3600 I i;& 800
Manuol
~-
$2100 $2300 1600 5300 4600 ..... 1700
AK-1-50 50,000 200-1600
Electrical 2600 2800 2100 5800 5100 7500 2200
-
D
0
f E
8 0 >
u
2 5 L E
-“ * -
* -_
0 0
S
:--? -8 n -0a , -2 a=.8
” -2 2- a;
-
O
0
.-
+ E
$ 0
LI
- - - - E
- u --
8
6 60 3.2 $5.9 $9.1
4 79 3.6 6.3 8.C 88 2.4 15. I5.t 97 L2.8 14.1 $4.2
2 101 4.1 7.6 7.: I12 2.7 5. 4.f 126 3.1 4.i 3.5
1 115 4.3 7.8 6.1 I29 3.0 6. 5.c 149 3.3 4.7 3.1
0 129 4.6 8.2 6.3 I48 3.4 6. 4.7 I65 3.5 5.c 3.0
00 147 5.0 8.6 5.1 171 3.6 7. 4.: 192 3.8 5 . : 2.7
000 167 5.5 9.1 5.4 I97 4.0 8. 4.: 220 4.1 5.t 2.5
0000 190 6.1 10.3 5.4 227 4.4 8. 3.f 251 4.6 6.c 2.4
250 210 6.5 10.8 5.1 251 4.8 9. 3.t 277 4.9 6.1 2.3
350 252 7.6 11.9 4.7 304 5.8 11. 3.t 337 6.0 7.1 2.2
500 300 8.8 15.4 5.1 368 7.1 13. 3.7 414 7.6 9.: 2.2
... ...........
I 1
750 454 9.3 18. 4.c
1000
- - - - - - --
* Registered trade-mark of General lect Comoanv
Rated ammms: Three-conductor or Tree igle-eonductor cables in steel conduit
or interlocked armor cable a t 40 C am ent.
Cable c o d : Includes 10 per cent to .ow for shrinkage, waste, and for making u p
terminations.
.Znstalled
. . . . .cost: . . and
. Includes materials . direct
aaairion tor insurance, ovemeaa, ana prom.
”.
labor a t $2.50 per hr with 38 per cent
Znstalled cost, dollars per ampere: These estimated data show the economic aavan-
tage of interlocked-armor cable.
P18 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA
A w
or - - -g
MCM
: : -e -$
._
._
-
3
v n D
< - -
- 0 a 0
- n o
~
~~
c
8 , 8 -
L?:
- ~
P
2
-
0
;:
-
3.5
3.8
2.2
3 . 3 2.0
1.9
1.8
0000 3 199 3.1 5.9 3.0 3 2.9 244 2.9 4.2 1.7
250 3 218 3.: 6.3 2.9 3 249 3.8 6.5 2.6 270 3.2 4.6 1.7
350 316 264 4.c 7.6 2.9 3% 305 4.7 8.3 2.7 334 3.9 5.3 1.6
500 3); 361 5.t 9.3 417 4.8 6.3 1.5
750 . . . . . . ... .... 7.9 13.2 529 7.2 8.8 1.7
1000 . . . . . . ... .... .... 520 0.1 16.8
--- - I 1 - I I
*Ii General Elect Commnv.
M',! ampere [actor or threc ngle-conductor cables in stccl conduit
or ipterlocked-armor cable at 40 C ambient
Cabls~~osl: Includes 10 per e m t to allow for shrinkage, waste, and far making up
terminations.
Inslalled eosl: Includes materials and direct labor at $2.50 per hr with 38 per cent
addition far insurance, overhead, and profit.
Inslalled cost, dollars p e r ampere: These estimated data show thc economic advan-
tage of interlocked-armor cable.
Type RH Type VCL Type TW
Type ACV
Conduit Venatol* gwprene varnished-combric Flornenol*
interlocked armor
,ize (lhree single leaded lthrse (lhree single
lthreo conductor1
Coble Conductor1 conductor1
sire, .__
*w n n n n
-g x : E
E E = g
- u-B .z, .g. : -?i
or
MCM i
i f + + E = - E + E
b ;
c
9 9 0
-:" O4
0 O , g L . . - s o
O
-s 0, O : ? :
2 = O Bu p= p= z rns
2 0,
u = O a P O 8
2 2 -
-
0
: - L a 2 2 b L X 2 e t , a 2 i 2 a p - :
z 3 2 :: 5 5 - 2 :: ~
< z p_ : <2
" , " :_ ~Q S- :: ~+ +..a_
<
K
g
0
n
3 18
g
S
K
W
P
u) 14
K
9J
0
n
w 10
2
z
x
0
K
0
n 6
U
2
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5oGQ
MOTOR HORSEPOWER
FIG. 17.15 Synchronous motors, 500 to 5oM) hp.
922 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA
tt 0
0 M3MOd3SMOH
0
n
I I
::
M3d S M V l l O O 31VRIXOMddW
9
0
u
FIG. 17.17 Wound-rotor induction motors and control, 20 to 500 hp.
- -~
FIG. 17.18 Synchronous motors and conlrol, x ) to 500 hp
Appendix Compiled by D. B. Armstrong
CONVERSION FACTORS
Mulliply BY To Oblain
Acres 43,560 Square feet
Acres 1.562 X 10-5 Square miles
Acre-feet 43,560 Cuhic feet
Amperes per square centimeter 6.452 Amperes per square inch
Amperes per square inch 0.1550 Amperes per square centimetei
Ampere-turns 1.257 Gilberts
Ampere-turns per centimeter 2.540 Ampere-turns per inch
Ampere-turns per inch 0.3937 Ampere-turns per centimeter
Atmospheres 76.0 Centimeters of mercury
Atmospheres 29.92 Inches of mercury
Atmospheres 33.90 Feet of water
Atmospheres 14.70 Pounds per square inch
Multiply BY To Obtain
Gausses 6.452 Lines per square inch
Gilherts 0.7958 Ampere-turns
Variations
Equipment
Definition
Valve-type arrester
Three+onductor termina-
tion
power
Breaker with drawout fca-
ture
Variations
Equipment Basic symbol
Symbol Definition
Contact I L
T T Vormally open (NO)
Coil
operating
k.
T :ontact with blowout coil
lamc as above
*
Variations
Equipmeni Basic symbol
Symbol Definition
I
Generator (Cr
Ground I
-
Mechanical
connection
____
ihort dashes c
necting equipme
Meters and
instruments 0
(etteror letters shall he placed within the circle t o indicate the type
of instrument:
triations
Equipment Basic symbol
Symbol Definition
Motor Induction
Synchronous
+
Reactor (non-
magnetic core
ac
pawer
Q
Relay 0
'be relay device
function number
ihould be placed
within the circle
APPENDIX P37
Variations
Equipment Basic symbol
Symbol Definition
Relay protective
functions
The following symbols arm
used to indicate protective func
tions and r be placed adja
cent to th, .sic relay symbol
Over
Under
Directional (directional
over)
Balance
Differential
- cc
Pilot wire
Carrier current
Actuating quantity:
The actuating quantity is indicated by the following letters, placed either on
or above the relay protective function symbol shown above:
C Current' + Phase
Z Distance T Temperature
V Voltage GP Gas pressure
W Power S Synchronism
F Frequency
*Generally accepted practice ia to omit any designation for currentactuated
devices.
938 APPENDIX
~
riations
Equipment Basic symbol
Definition
Relsy protectivi
Ivereurrent
functions
(Cont'd)
bvervoltage
Xreetional overcurrent
Jndervoltage
'ower directional
3slanee current
Differential current
Distance
Directional distance
Over frequency
Under frequency
Ovcr temperature
Phase balance
Phase rotation
APPENDIX P39
Variations
Equipment Basic symbol
Definition
Relay proteeti,
functions Pilot wire, differential cur-
(Cont'd) ent
Carrier pilot
Gas-pressure relay
-
o u t of step
Resistor Grounded
Switch 2-
air break Double throw
-
Switch with horn gap
Thermal elemen
940 APPEHDLX
Variations
Equipment Basic symbol
Definition
Threewinding trans-
former
Autotransformer
Potential transformer
Current transformer
Bushing-type current
transformer
step-voltage regulator or
load-ratio-control auto-
transformer
Load-ratio-contml trans-
former with taps
APPNDIX 941
Variations
Equipment Basic symbol
Symbol Definition
Trsnsformer (Cont’d)
@ Single-phase induction
voltage regulator
Three-phase induction
voltage regulator
Transformer
winding
connections
rhe following symbols are used to indicate
transformer winding connections and may
symbol:
Three-phw three-wire
A delta
P
- Three-phase three-wire
delta grounded
f
- Three-phase four-wire
delta grounded
A Three-phase Y
$ Three-phase Y grounded
neutral
942 APPENDIX
riatibns
Equipment Basic symbol
Definition
Transformer
winding rhree-phase zigzag
connections
(Cont’d)
rhree-phase zigzag
grounded
I N CONDUIT
Three single-oonductor cables or one three-conduotor cable per
Conduit, 104 F (40 C) ambient air temperature
Siie. Awa 01
MCM Butyi synthetic
rubber or varnished Synthetic rubber. Synthetic
I) ::& Synthetic rubber.
Rubber 01 Synthetic cambric. tsmp 85 c.
thermoplasti rubber, rubger or "81- temp 80 c.
nished-cambrio rubber. 0-8000 volt.
temp 60 C. temp 75 c. &
::$
:$
; tamp 75 c. 8.W15,WO
0-6wvolts' 0-600volta* temp 77 C. )-Bw "Oilof Volts
15.0W volts - ahieldedt
Shielded?
shzgdt shielded3 ihialded
~
8 33 40 46 52 46 46 49 51 ... 52
6 45 57 58 68 60 60 64 67 66 68 %
4 57 75 76 87 79 77 83 86 83 81
2 78 101 114 101 99 108 111 107 121
1 90 114 118 130 115 111 119 125 121 138 3P
161
x
0 103 125 I34 141 136
00 119 141 151 159 154 I85
000 135 161 172 180 174 213
0000 160 181 194 203 185 244
250 176 224 218 241 210 199 213 221 213
350 213 252 236 253 261 251
500 262 i
! % % 300 281 301 313 297
418 408 355
750 328
I 1 I .440 371 a42 367 378
1OW 373 480 , __
Correction Factor8 foi Varioua Am1 t Temperature
meea tune.
tion 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
__ ~
~ ~
800L".
0.2849
rpyright
1936, ho U
APPENDIX 945
0.8004
38 OM 0.8090 0.8080 0.8070 0.8059 0.8049 0.8039 1.8028 1.8018 ,.8007 0.7997
tan 0.7265 0.7292 0,7319 0.7346 0.7373 0.7400 1.7427 1.7454 8,7481 0.7508
iin 0.6018 0.6032 0,6046 0.606@ 0.6074 0.6083 1.6101 1.6115 8,6129 0.6143
37 om 0.7986 0.7976 0.7985 0.7950 0.1944 0.7934 1.7923 1.7912 1 . l W 2 0.7881
tan 0.7536 0.7563 0.7590 0.7618 0.7646 0.7673 1.7701 1.7729 1.7757 0.7785
ain 0.6157 0.6170 0.6184 0,6198 0.6211 0.6225 1.6239 1.6252 1.6266 0.6280
38 coa 0.7880 0.7869 0.7859 0.7848 0.7837 0.7826 1.7815 1.7804 1.7793 0.7782
tan 0.7813 0.7841 0.7869 0.7898 0.7926 0.7954 1.7983 1.8012 1.8040 0.80B9
sin 0.6283 0.63W 0.6320 0,6334 0.6347 0.6361 1.6374 1.6388 1.6401 0.6414
39 COQ 0.7771 0.7760 0.7749 0,7738 0.7727 0.7716 1.7705 1.7894 1.7683 0.7672
tan 0.8098 0.8127 0.8156 0,8185 0.8214 0.8243 I. 8373 I.8302 1.8332 0.8361
aio 0.6428 0.6441 0.6455 0,6468 0.6481 0.6494 1.6508 1.6521 1.6534 0.6547
40 DOS 0.1660 0.7648 0.7638 0.7627 0.7615 0.7604 1.7593 1.7581 1.7570 0.7559
tan 0.8391 0.8421 0.8451 0.8481 0.8511 0.8541 ).8571 j.8601 1.8832 0.8862
sin 0.6561 0,6574 0,6587 0.6600 0.6613 0.6626 1.6638 j.6653 1.6665 0.8678
41 008 0,7574 0.7536 0,7524 0.7513 0.7501 0.7490 1.7478 ).7466 1.7455 0.7443
tan 0.8893 0.8724 0.8754 0.8785 0.8816 0.8847 1.8878 1.8910 1.8911 0.8972
sin 0.6681 0.6704 0.6717 0.6730 0.6741 0.6756 1.6769 1.6782 l.6794 0.6807
42 om 0.7431 0.7420 0.7408 0.7398 0.7385 0.7373 1.7361 1.7349 1.7337 0.7325
tan 0.9W4 0.8036 0.9067 0.9089 0.9131 0.9163 1.9195 ).9228 ).9260 0.9293
sin 0.6820 0.6833 0.6845 0,6858 0.6871 0.6884 3.6896 ).6909 1.6921 0.6934
43 cm 0.7314 0.7302 0.7290 0.7278 0.7266 0.7254 3.1242 ).7230 1.7218 0.7206
tan 0.9325 0.9358 0.9391 0.9424 0.9457 0.9490 3.9523 1.9556 1.9590 0.9623
ain 0.6947 0.6958 0.6912 0.6984 0,6897 0.7008 1.7022 1.7034 1.7046 0.7059
44 cm 0.1193 0.7181 0.7169 0.7151 0.7145 0.7133 1.7120 1.7108 1.7086 0.7083
tan 0.9657 0.9691 0.9725 0.9759 0.9793 0.9827 D.9881 3.9896 ).8930 0.8865
ain 0.7071 0.7083 0.7096 0.7108 0.7120 0.7133 0.7145 0.7157 1.7169 0.7181
45 om 0.7071 0.7059 0.7046 0.7034 0.7022 0.7008 0.6997 0.6984 1.6972 0.6959
tam 1.wOO 1 . m 5 1.0070 1,0105 1.0141 1.0176 1.0212 1.0247 1.0283 1.0319
ain 0.7193 0.7206 0.7218 0.7230 0.7242 0.7254 0.7266 0.7278 1.7290 0.7302
46 em 0.6947 0.6934 0.6921 0.6908 0,6896 0.6884 0.6871 D.6858 1.6845 0.6833
tan 1.0355 1.0392 1.0428 1,0464 1.0501 1.0538 1.0575 1.0612 1.0649 1.0686
sin 0.7314 0.7325 0.7337 0.7349 0.7361 0.7373 0.7385 0.7396 0.7408 0.7420
47 OM 0.6820 0.6861 0.6794 0.6782 0.6769 0.6756 0.6743 0.6730 0.6717 0.6704
tan 1.0724 1.0761 1.0799 1.0837 1.0875 1.0813 1.0851 1.0890 1.1028 1.1067
sin 0.7431 0.7443 0.7455 0.7466 0.7478 0.7464 0.7501 0.7513 0.7524 0.7536
48 cm 0.6691 0.6678 0.6685 0.6652 0.6639 0.6626 0.6613 0.66W 0.6587 0.6574
tan 1.1106 1.1145 1.1184-1.1224 1.1263 1.1303 1.1343 1.1383 1.1423 1.1463
ain 0.7547 0.7559 0.1570 0.7581 0.7593 0.7604 0.7615 0.7627 0.7638 0.7649
49 cm 0.6581 0.6547 0.6534 0.6521 0.6508 0.- 0.6481 0.6468 0.6455 0.6441
tan 1.1504 1.1544 1.1585 1.1626 1.1667 1.1708 1.1750 1.1792 1.1833 1.1875
sin 0.7660 0.7672 0.7683 0.7694 0.7705 0.7716 0.7727 0.7738 0.7749 0.7760
50 em 0.6428 0.6414 0.6401 0.6388 0.6374 0.6361 0.6347 0,6334 0.6320 0.63G7
tan 1.1918 1.1960 1.2002 1.2045 1.2088 1.2131 1.2174 1.2218 1.2261 1.2305
ain 0.7771 0,7782 0.7783 0.7804 0,7815 0.7826 0.7837 0.784s 0.7858 0.7869
51 CM 0.6283 0.6280 0.6266 0.6252 0.6239 0.6225 0.6211 0.6198 (1.6184 0.6170
tan 1.2348 1.2393 1.2437 1.2482 1.2527 1.2572 1.2617 1.2662 1.2708 1.2753
ah 0.7880 0.7891 0.1902 0.7912 0.7923 0.7934 0,7944 0.7955 0.7965 0.7976
52 cm 0.6157 0.6143 0.6129 0.6115 0.6101 0.6088 0.6074 0.6OBo 0.6046 0.6032
tan 1.2799 1.2846 1.2892 1.2938 1.2985 1.3032 1.3079 1.3127 1.3175 1.3222
ain 0.7986 0.7991 0.8001 0.8018 0.8028 0.8039 0.8049 0.8059 0,8010 0.8080
53 ooe 0.6018 0,6004 0.5980 0.5976 0.5962 0.5948 0.5934 05920 0.5646 0.6892
tan 1.3270 1.3319 1.3367 1.3416 1.3465 113514 1.3564 1.3613 1.3663 1.3713
aia 0.8080 0.81W 0.8111 0.8121 0.8131 0.8141 0.8151 0.8161 0.8171 0.8181
54 00s 0.5878 0.5884 0.5850 0.5835 0.5821 0.5801 0.5793 0.5779 0.5764 0.5750
tan 1.3764 1.3814 1.3885 1.3916 1.3968 1.4019 1.4071 1.4124 1.4176 1.4229
sin 0.8192 0,8202 0.8211 0.8321 0.8231 0.8241 0.8251 0.8261 0.8271 0.8281
0.5736 0.5721 0.5707 0.5693 0.5678 0.5664 0.5650 0.5635 0,5621 0.5606
-
55 00s
tan 1.4281 1.4335 1.4388 1.4442 1.4496 1.4550 --
1.4605 1.4659 1.4715 1.4770
APPENDIX 947
66
?in
10s
0.9135 0.8143 0.9150 0.9157 0.9164
0.4067 0.4051 0.4035 0.4018 0 . 4 w 3
0.9171
0.3887
).8178
1.3971
1.9184
1.3955
l.0181
!.3939
,8.3923
8188
tan 2.2460 2.2566 2.2673 2.2781 2.2889 2.2998 1.3109 1.3220 ,.3332 .3445
sin 0.9205 0.9212 0.9219 0.8225 0.9232 0.9239 1.8245 1.8252 1.8259 8.8255
67 108 0.3907 0.3891 0.3875 0.3859 0.3843 0.3827 1.3811 1.3795 '.3778 8.3162
;an 2.3559 2.3673 2.3788 2.3906 2.4023 2.4142 1.4262 '.4383 4504 -4627
/in 0.9272 0.0278 0.9285 0.'9291 0 . 0 2 8 8 0.0304 1.8311 1.9317 8.9323 .8330
88 :OQ 0.3746 0.3730 0.3714 0.3697 0.3681 0.3665 1.3648 1.3633 '.3615 .3600
.an 2.4751 2.4876 2.5002 2.5129 2.5257 2.5386 !.5517 ,5548 5782 ,5916
,in 0.9336 0.9342 0.8348 0.8354 0.9361 0.9367 18373 8.9379 ,8385 8391
69 :DB 0.3584 0.3567 0.3551 0.3535 0.3518 0.3502 !.3496 '.3469 ,3453 ,3437
,an 2.6051 2.6187 2.6325 2.6464 2.6605 2.6746 6888 7034 ,7179 ,7326
in 0.9397 0.9403 0.0409 0.9415 0.9421 0.8426 8.8432 ,9438 8444 ,9449
70 8- 0.3420 0.3404 0.3387 0.3371 0.3355 0.3338 '.3322 '.3305 3289 3272
an 2.7475 2.7625 2.7776 2.7829 2.8083 2.8238 .a397 .a55 ,8718 8878
in 0.9455 0.8461 0.9266 0.9172 0.9178 0.92s.3 ,8159 .Ql81 .9500 ,9505
71 08 0.3256 0.3239 0.3223 0.3206 0.3180 0.3173 ,3156 ,3140 ,3123 ,3107
an 2.9042 2.9208 2.9375 2.8544 2.9714 2.9387 .0061 ,0237 ,0415 .0585
in 0.9511 0.9516 0.8521 0.9527 0.9532 0.9537 ,9542 9548 ,9553 .9558
72 w 0.3090 0.3074 0.3057 0.3040 0.3024 0.3W .2890 ,2974 2957 .2940
Bn 3.0777 3.0861 3.1146 3.1334 3.1524 3.1716 1910 ,2106 2305 2506
in 0.9563 0.9568 0.8573 0.9578 0.9583 0.8588 9593 .8598 ,9603 ,9608
73 OQ 0.2924 0.2907 0.W80 0.2874 0.2557 0.2840 2823 2807 .2790 2773
m 3.2709 3.2914 3.3122 3.3332 3.3544 3.3759 ,3977 ,4197 .4420 ,4646
74
'n
8
0
0.9613 0.9617 0.9622 0.8827 0.9632 0.9636
0.2756 0.2740 0.2723 0.2706 0.2689 0.2672
3.4874 3.5105 3.5339 3.5576 3.5816 3.6058 1 0541
2556
6305
I 9646
2638
5554
I 6806
9655
2605
7062
75
-
PU APPWDIX
- -
Nan Value of function for each tenth of B degree
And
de of
Kre tune
tion 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
- - ~ ~ ~ ~
sin 0.9703 0.9707 0.9711 0.9715 0.9720 0.9724 0.9728 0.9732 0.9736 0.9740
76 em 0.2419 0.2402 0.2385 0.2368 0.2351 0.2334 0.2317 0.2300 0.2284 0.2267
tan 4.0108 4.0408 4.0713 4.1022 4.1335 4.1653 4.1976 4.2303 4.2615 4.2972
sin 0.9744 0.9748 0.9751 0.9755 0.9759 0.9763 0.9767 0.9770 0.9774 0.9718
77 om 0.2250 0.2232 0.2215 0.2198 0.2181 0.2164 0.2147 0.2130 0.2113 0.2096
tan 4.3315 4.3662 4.4015 4.4374 4.4737 4.5107 4.5483 4.5864 4.6252 4.6646
sin 0.9781 0.9785 0.9789 0.9792 0.9796 0.9799 0 . 9 W 0.9806 0.9810 0.9813
78 em 0.2079 0.2062 0,2045 0,2028 0.2011 0.1994 0.1977 0.1959 0.1942 0.1825
tan 4.7046 4.7453 4.7867 4.8288 4.8716 4.9152 4.9594 5.0045 5.0504 5.0970
sin 0.9816 0.9820 0.9823 0.9826 0.9828 0.9833 0.9836 0.9839 0.9842 0.9845
79 em 0.1908 0.1891 0,1874 0.1857 0.1840 O:l822 0.1805 0.1788 0.1771 0.1754
tan 5.1446 5.1929 5.2422 5.2924 5.3435 5.3955 5.4486 5.5026 5.5578 5.6140
sin 0.9848 0.9851 0.9854 0.9857 0.9860 0.9863 0.9866 0.9869 0.9871 0.9874
80 00s 0.1736 0.1719 0.1102 0.1685 0.1668 0.1650 0.1633 0.1616 0.1599 0.1582
tan 5.6713 5.7297 5.7894 5.8502 5.9124 5.9758 6.0405 6.1066 6.1742 6.2432
Sin 0.9877 0.9880 0,9882 0.9885 0.9888 0.9890 0.9893 0.9895 0.9898 0,9900
81 COB 0.1564 0.1547 0.1530 0.1513 0.1495 0.1478 0.1461 0.1444 0.1426 0.1409
tan 6.3138 6.3859 6.4596 6.5350 6.6122 6.6912 6.7720 6.8548 6.9395 7.0264
ain 0.9903 0.9905 0.9907 0.9910 0.9912 0.9914 0.9917 0.9919 0.9921 0.9923
82 eon 0.1392 0.1374 0.1357 0.1340 0.1323 0.1305 0.1288 0.1271 0.1253 0,1236
tan 7.1154 7.2066 7.3042 7.3962 7.4947 7.5958 7.6996 7.8062 7.9158 8.0285
sin 0.9925 0.9928 0.9930 0.9932 0.9934 0.9936 0.9938 0.9940 0.9942 0.9943
83 coa 0.1219 0.1201 0.1184 0.1167 0.1149 0.1132 0.1115 0.1097 0.1080 0,1063
tan 8.1443 8.2636 8.3863 8.5126 8.6427 8.7769 8.9152 9.0579 9.2052 9.3572
*in 0.9945 0.9947 0.9949 0.9951 0.9952 0.9954 0.9956 0.9957 0.9959 0.9960
84 em 0.1045 0.1028 0.1011 0.0993 0.0976 0.0958 0.0941 0.0924 0.0906 0.0889
tan 9.5144 9.6768 9.844810.02 10.20 10.39 10.58 10.78 10.99 11.20
sin 0.9962 0.9963 0.9965 0.9966 0.9968 0.9969 0.9971 0.9972 0.9973 0.9Q74
85 ces 0.0872 0.0854 0.0837 0.0819 0.0802 0.0785 0.0767 0.0750 0.0732 0.0715
tan 1.43 11.66 11.91 12.16 12.43 12.71 13.04 13.30 13.62 13.95
sin 0.9976 0.9977 0.9978 0.9979 0.9980 0.9981 0.9982 0.9983 0.9984 0.9985
86 co* 0.0698 0.0680 0.0663 0.0645 0.0628 0.0610 0.0593 0.0576 0.0558 0.0541
tan 4.30 14.67 15.06 15.46 15.89 16.35 16.83 17.34 17.89 18.46
sin 0.9986 0.9987 0,9988 0.91/89 0.9990 0.9990 0.9991 0.9992 0.9993 0.9993
87 DO8 0.0523 0.0506 0,0488 0.0471 0.0454 0.0436 0.0419 0.0401 0.0384 0.0366
tan 9.08 19.74 20.45 21.20 22.02 22.90 23.86 24.90 26.03 27.27
sin 0.9994 0.9995 0.9995 0.9996 0.9996 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998
88 om 0.0349 0.0332 0.0314 0.1297 0.0279 0.0262 0.0244 0.0227 0,0209 0.0192
tan 8.64 30.14 31.82 33.69 35.80 38.19 40.92 44.07 47.74 52.08
sin D.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 1.000 I.WO 1.040 1.000 1.OW
89 COB 0.0175 0.0157 0.0140 0,0122 0.0105 0.0487 0.0070 0.0052 0.0035 0.0017
- -
tan 7.29 63.66 71.62 81.85 95.49 114.6 143.2 191.0 286.5 573.0
Index
“a,” the operator, function of, 118-119 Bus, arrangements of, in primary systems
Ahbreviations of electrical terms, 930 sectionalized bus, 717-718
Aerial cable, in primary systems, 723- star bus, 717
724 straight hus, 717
protection of, against overvoltages synchronizing bus, 717, 725-730
from lightning, 326 busway, low-voltage, 697498
(See also Cable) for feeders, 702
Air circuit breakers (see Circuit plug-in type, 701
breakers) reactance of. 101
Arcing ground as intermittent line-to- short-circuit current estimating
ground short circuit, 286-289, 337- curve for, 76-77, 8W81
338, 340-341 medium-voltage, cost estimating
(See also Overvoltages) d a t a for (2.4-13.8 kv indoor),
Arresters, lightning (see Lightning 916
arresters) installation casts for, 894
Asymmetrical short-circuit current, d-c capacitors connected to, 482
component of, 15-18 ground, 406, 408-417
explanation of, 10-15 neutral, 373
rms value of, 20 reactance of, 101-104
Autotransformers, groundibg of, 391-395 synchronizing, for modernization and
in light and power systems for com- expansion of power systems, 776,
mercial-type buildings, 749 790, 794, 799
neutral inversion of, 391P394 in primary power systems, 615,
overvoltages caused by, 295-297, 391- 717, 725-730
395 voltage drop in, calculation of, 242-
in primary substations, 711 244
Auxiliaries, power-plant,, 831-832, 882 Bus-tie circuit breakers, 717-718
Available short-circuit current, explana- (See also Load-center power distribo-
tion of, 36-37 tion systems)
(See also Short-eircuit current) Busway (see Bus)
By-product fuel, 809, 811
Balancing reactors, 784-788 By-product power (see Generation of
BIL (basic impulse insulation level), electric power)
303-305
Cable, aerial, in primary systems, 723-
724
efficiency of, 831 protection of, against overvoltages
supplementary-fired, 820, 867 caused by lightning, 326
Branch circuit design (see Commercial- copper, fusing time of, 189-190
type buildings; Factories) cost-estimating data for, 917-919
Buildings, light and power systems far current-carrying capacities for, table
(see Commercial-type buildings; of, 943
Factories) failure rates of, 630
Bus, arrangements of, in primary sys- heating of, during short circuit, 18W
tems, 717-718 183
double bus, 715 impedance, reactance, resistance of,
ring bus, 717. 730 96-110
949
950 INDEX
Cable, interlocked armor, in primary sys- Capacitors, shunt, switching devices for,
tems, 724 ampere ratings of, 485-487
in secondary systems, 699-701 interrupting ratings of, 487
protection of, by current limiting repetitive duty of, 487
fuses, 186 system capacity released by, 462-
replacing old, 767 468
selection of, based on short-circuit economics of, 468-470
current, curves for, 185 voltage ratings of, 199, 499-500
examples of, 186-190 voltage rise due to, 4 7 1 4 7 4
tables of minimum conductor voltage spread on, effect of, 214
size for, 182 (See also Power factor, improve-
for capacitors, 487-488 ment of)
in short-circuit calculations, eonsidera- surge protective, for rotating ma-
tion of, 45 chines, 31&311
short-circuit current limited by, 76- application of, 32G333
77, 8&8l, 83-84, 87-90 Cascading low-voltage circuit breakers,
synthetic-rubber-insulated, 698-699 rules far, 155-161
temperature limits of, during short selection table for, 162-163
circuit, IX(t181 vs. selective tripping, 155-161
voltage drop in, calculation of, 237- Case histories, of expanding power sys-
241 tems at higher voltage, 758-759
caused by motor starting, calcula- of overvoltages, on ungrounded-
tion of, 261-263 neutral systems, 337-338, 401-
Capacitively grounded system (see 402
Ungrounded system) unusual, 297-299
Capacitors, constants for, 502 of protective-device failures, 146, 147
formulas for, 501-502 Circuit arrangements (see Bus; Load-
series, far power service, definition of, center power distribution systems;
492494 Neutral circuit arrangements far
effect of, on voltage drop due to grounding; Power systems)
motor starting, 264 Circuit breakers, air, large (600 volts
limitations of, 498 and less), application of, 154-
principle of operation of, 494-495 161
use of, 495-498 application table for, 162-163
shunt, automatic switching of, 489- cascading of, 155-161
492 description of, 154
on buses, 456, 482 rating, basis of, 35
cable for, selection of, 4 8 7 4 8 8 ratings of, 154
discharge of, 500-501 selection of, 161-163
in equipments, kilovsr ratings of, selective tripping of, 15&156
498500 standards for, 164
harmonics and resonance dueto, v8. switches and fuses, 153, 169-
488489
~~ ~ 170
&L induction motor terminals, limi- basic characteristics of, 14&149
tations of, 477-479 direct-acting trips on (see Direet-
location of, 477 acting trips)
ratings of, 4 7 M 8 2 vs. fuses, 153
thermal-overlortd current reduced interrupting rating of, explanation of,
by, 482 27, 35
with induction motors v8. syn- low-voltage (600 volts and below),
chronous motor, 482-484 154-166
as kilovar generators, 449
kilovar ratings of, 49&500
location of, 4 5 6 4 5 8 interrupting duty on, calculation
operating characteristics of, 501 of, 32, 33, 35
power-hill savings with, 459-460 momentary duty on, calculation of,
poweraystem losses reduced by, 32, 33, 35
470-471 reactance of, 110
INDEX 951
Circuit breakers, low-voltage (GOO volts Codes and standards, for overcurrent pro-
and below), short-circuit-current tection of load-center systems, 632
rating basis for, 35 for power systems, secondary, 684
main, in load-center substations, 674- for switches, low-voltage, 170
676 on system voltage selection, effect of,
molded-case, 164-166 576
application of, 165 for transformer protection, 632
application table for, 162-163 Combined light and power systems (see
cascading of, 165 Commercial-type buildings; Fae-
direct-acting trips OD, 537, 54&541 tories)
ratings of, 164, 165 Commercial-type buildings, definition
selection of, 166 of, 731
stendards for, 166 light and power systems for, auto-
momentary rating of, explanation of, transformers in. 749
35 economic comparison of 480Y/277-
power (above 600 volts), application vs. 208Y/120-valt, 737-747
of, 172 feeder circuits used in, 742-743,
application limits for, on short-eir- 745
wit-current basis, 28-29 lighting loads used in, 738-739
interrupting duty on, checking of, power loads used in, 739
29,32 grounding transformer for, con-
momentary duty an, checking of, nections of, 750
29,32 reactance of, 750
BS motor starters, 172
higher voltage, types and applica-
rating structure for, 24-28 tions of, 732-735
ratings of, 171 incoming service for, types of, 731-
selection of, 173
on GW-volt systems, application of,
.__
73s
lighting-load estimates for, 885-886
35, 36
National Electrical Code require-
standards for, 174
ments for, 752-753
types of, 171
overcurrent protection for, 751-752
rating, basis of, 24-28
current-limiting fuses as, 751-
sectionslizing, in loop feeders, 72%
752
721
in primary buses, 717-718 remote-control wiring system for,
short-circuit-eurrent calculation for 74&742
application of, 29-31, 35-38 Rexibilitv of. 740. 7.53-7.55
~I ~~ ~~
Overcurrent relays (see Relays, over- Portable equipment, large, circuits for,
current) cable skids in, 429
Overhead lines, in primary systems, ground-dctector equipment on,
723-724 433
reactance of, 104-110 isolating transformcr in, 434
resistance of, 104-110 lightning protection for, 435
spacing of, 105, 108 protectivc devices in, 429-433
voltage drop in, due to motor start- relaying of, 484
ing, calculation of, 261-263 simultaneous ground faults on,
Overvoltages, cause of, autotransformers 433-434
as, 295-297, 391-395 ground circuit for, isolation of,
contact with higher voltage systems 435-436
as, 279-280 resistance of, 429
forced-current-zero interruption as, grounding of, 426-438
294-295 lightning disturbances on, 435
grounded-Y broken-delta potential lightning protection for, 435
transformers as, 284 resistance to ground of, 427-429
high-reactance line-to-ground con- shock hazard on, causes of, 427-429
nection as, 281-282 safety rules for, 427
intermittent line-to-ground short on ungrounded systems, 433-434
circuit as, 286-289, 337-338, voltage rating for, 426
340-341 small, on secondary power systems,
liehtnine
I , 299-302
I as. 694-696
neutral grounding of Y-Y trans- disconnect means for, 696
formers as, 295-297 (See also Grounding, equipment)
resonant L-C circuits as, 281-285 Positive-phase-sequence component,
static as, 279 definition of, 116-117
switching surges as, 289-294 (See also Symmetrical-component
curbing of, by ground-fault neu- analysis)
tralizer, 289 Power centers (see Unit substations,
b y system neutral grounding, 279, load-center)
280, 282, 285, 289, 296, 297 Power circuit breakers (see Circuit
on ungrounded systems, 278-299, breakers, power)
34&343 Power-company service (see Purchased
power)
Panelboards in secondary power s y 6 Power consumption in industry, 808,
tems, 692 -"-
PPP
Parallel operation of utility and indus- Power factor, definition of, 441-442
trial, 816-817 fundamentals of, 440
Per cent, conversion of ohms to, 38, 40 of groups of loads, 444-446
Per-unit method, base number for, improvement of, 446-448
selection of, 53, 55 advantages of, 459-474
comparison of, with per cent method, calculation methods for, 448-449
53 kilowatt multiplier used in,
formulas used in, 38, 54-57 449-451
ohms to, conversion of, 38 by capacitors with induction motors,
ohms used in., 54., 55 474-484
in symmetrieal-component analysis, kilovar generators for, capacitors as,
value of, 124-125 449
Pilot-wire relays, operating principles location of, 4 5 6 4 5 8
of, 528-529 synchronous machines as, 452-
pilot-wire supervisory system for, 529 453, 485
setting of, 567 power-hill savings from, 4 5 9 4 6 0
(See also Relays) power-system losses reduced by,
Plant factor, 808 470-471
Plastic-case circuit breakers (see Circuit release of system capacity by, addi-
breakers, molded-case) tional lording permitted by,
Plug-in busway, 701 462-468
INDEX Pbl
Power factor, irnprovcment of, release of Power systems, primary, cable for, 723-
system capacity by, definition 724
of, 460 characteristics of, 706-707
economics of capacitors for, 468- circuit-breaker switching arrange-
470 ments for, bus, 715-718
examples of, 460-461, 4 6 7 4 6 8 bu s-tie, 717-7 18
by synchronous machines, 452-453, feeder, 718-723
485 generating station, 725-726
of thermally overloaded apparatus, main substation, 712-715
460-461 circuit breakers used in, 708-711
voltage increased by, 471-474 feeders in, installation of, 723-724
(See also Capacitors, shunt) loop, 661-664, 718, 720-723
of induction motors, 474-476 parallel or alternate, 717, 719-720,
leading and lagging, definition of, 443- 722, 723
444 radial, 718-720
examples of, 443-444 tie, 718, 722
low, causes of, 439 generating-station bus arrangements
effects of, 439 in, 725-730
measurement of, 453-456 generator-transformer unit system
by wattmeter readings, 454 in, 730
of motor-starting current, 271-272
generators in, double-winding, 730
Power fuses (see Fuses, power) main substations in, circuit arrange-
Power-generating stations, clectrical lay- ments of, 712-715
out of, 725-730 transformer connections for, 711-
plant factor of, 808
712
(See also Generation of electric power;
Gencrators; Parallel operation of overhead lines in, 723-724
purchased-power arrangements for,
utilitv and industrial: Turbines)
Power-generation costs (see costs, power 707-708, 712-715, 725
generation) reactors in, bus-tie, 730
Power-plant efficiency (see Efficiency) generator duplex, 730
Power supply (see Generation of electric generator series, 730
power; Power systems, primary) synchronizing, 725-730
Power systems, capacity released in, by service reliability in, 706-707
capacitors, 462-468 switches in, manual, 721-722
for commercial-type buildings (see switchgear in, metal-clad, 708-711
Commercial-type buildings) station-type, 70&710
for critical loads, 814-817 transformers for, delta-Y-conneoted,
economic comparisons of (see Economic 711
comparisons of power systems) tertiary windings in, 711
for factory combined light and power three-winding, 711-712
(see Factories) Y-Y connections for, 711
for lighting circuits, 704 protective devices for,short-eireuit-
load-center (see Load-center power current (see Short-eircuit-current
distribution systems) protective devices)
losses in, reduction by capacitors of, relay protection for, typical layout of,
47M71 542543
~~
Voltage, system, selection of, for ovens, Voltage drop, steady-state, calculation of,
electric, 575, 580, 595-597 formulas for, 232-234
for plants, large, 613-621 charts of, for husway, 242-244
for primary power systems, 597- for cable, 237-241
619 for transformers, 235-237
safety an, effect of, 575-576 definition of, 201-202
for secondary power systems, effect of, 202-204
576597 Voltage flicker, in combined light and
for serving different voltage loads power systems in factories, 500
at 600 volts or Less, 580-581 limits of, 215-216
of single-phase vs. three-phase, reduction of, by separate circuits, 226
57S580 by series capacitor, 227
switeheertr. effect of. 612-617
~I
summary of methods for, 230-231
for transmission circuits above by system design, 590
15 kv, 619-621 by voltage stabilizer, 226-227
utilization devices, effect of, 575 Voltage identification, basic pattern of,
of 208 Y/120 volts where ap- 194
plicahk, 579 Voltage ratings, basic structure of, 1 9 s
of 480 volts vs. 240 volts. 57&579 194
of 480 volts vs. 600 volts; 577-578 of capacitors, 199, 499-500
of 600 volts and less, 576597 of eenorators. 194. 197-198
of 2400 volts, where most eco- of Tamps, 194, 190 ~
Preface vii
Introdnction xi
1. Short-circuit-current Calculating Procedures 1
by Donald Beeman, Alan Graeme Darling, and R . H.
Kaufmann
2. Symmetrical Components as Applied to Short-circuit-current
Calculation on Three-phase Systems I11
by R. H . Kaufmann
3. Selection of A-C Short-circuit Protective Devices and Circuit
Equipment 144
by Donald Beeman and R. H . Kaufmann
4. Voltage-Standard Ratings, Allowable Variations, Reduction
of Variations, Calculation of Drops 101
by W . R . Criles and Mavnord N . Halberg
5. System Overvoltages-Causes and Protective Measures 278
by R. H . Kaufmann and Maynard N . Halberg
6. System Grounding 337
by L. J . Carpenter and L. G . Levoy, J r .
7. Equipment Grounding 404
by L. J . Carpenter, Shelby C. Coolce, J r . , R H . Kaufmann,
and David Stoelzel
8. Power-factor Improvement 430
by W . C . Bloomquist
9. System Overcurrent Protection 504
by Francis P. Brightman
10. Selection of System Voltages 574
by Donald Reeman
11. Load-center Power Systems and Circuit Arrangements 622
by Donald Beeman
ix
x CONTENTS
in that system. All conditions of a tield short circuit are generally not
known, as measuring instruments are not usually continuously connected
t o the circuit t o tell what the circuit current conditions were when the
circuit breaker opened. Unfortunately, there is a tendency t o construe
such field operation as proof that a circuit breaker is satisfactory, whereas
the facts obtained from tests made under controlled conditions may show
that it may be inadequate under many conditions in the particular system
involved.
Field data are part of the engineer’s warehouse of facts, and certain
kinds of field data are extremely valuable. The engineer must be sure
that he knows the conditions under which the field data are obtained
and that the data are broad enough t o mean something. Referring again
to the short-circuit protection picture, the operating experience in any
one plant with inadequate protective equipment may have been satis-
factory over a period of years. Generalizing on that one experience
only or even a few more like it may lead t o the belief that inadequate
circuit breakers mill never fail. More complete data may prove that
inadequate equipment has failed in literally hundreds of other cases not
known t o a particular individual. Therefore, any field data that are
used should be extensive and represent a cross section of industry and
not just a few isolated cases.
To do this job effectively, the engineer must be constantly searching
for facts on which t o base his decisions. Then if power system engi-
neering is based on facts-the scientific method-many electric power
system shortcomings will be overcome.
OVER-ALL PLANNING
SAFETY
ECONOMICS
SIMPLICITY
FLEXIBILITY
SERVICE FZUABILITY
Service reliability in any plant is important. Most manufacturing
proeesaes are on a production-line basis, so that a shutdown of any part
INTRODUCTION X"
SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
The main fundamental in selecting equipment is to choose the best
available. It costs no more in the end and pays dividends in service
continuity and lower maintenance. Some widely accepted principles are:
1. Use only metal-clad equipment a t 15 kv and below.
2. Choose noninflammable transformers.
3. Use factory-assembled equipment for easier field installation and
better coordination.
4. Be sure equipment ratings are adequate in every respect, i.e.,
voltage, current, int.errupting rating, etc.
Much of the advantage of the high-quality equipment can he lost if it
is carelessly installed and maintained.
MAINTENANCE
14. Are circuils properly metered to lell what loads are? Is provision
made for connecting portable meters where permanent meters are not
justified? Adequate metering is the only way one can check the system
performance and to check when loads reach the limit,s of apparatus
ratings. Remote metering, i.e., telemeteriug, gives meter readings at
centralized points remote from the location of the meters.
15. Power-factor correction. Can the power bill be reduced through
reduction of vars? Can you increase voltage and current-carrying
capacity by using capacitors? Where should they be installed? Should
they be switched? See Chapter 8.
16. Superviswy control. Are there remote water-pumping stations or
other loads that should be controlled from the powerhouse or some other
central points? Supervisory control will do it.