Course Title:

Concept of Metrology and Machine

Drawing
Course Code: 18ME34

By: Keshavamurthy YC
 UNIT -I

• Concept of measurements: General concept –

Generalised measurement system-Units and
standards-measuring instruments- sensitivity,
readability, range of accuracy, precision-static and
dynamic response-repeatability-systematic and
random errors-correction, calibration, interchange
ability.

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 EXPLORATION
• During the ancient times, an
Egyptian carpenter never
misplaced his ruler because
it was attached to his body.

• A span is the distance

measured by a human hand,
from the tip of the thumb to the
tip of the little finger of an
outstretched hand. In ancient
times, a span was considered
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to be half a cubit. KYC
 EXPLORATION
• A cubit is the distance from
the tip of the middle finger of
the outstretched hand to the
front of the elbow.

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 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

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 Introduction to Measurements
Definition : Measurement is defined as the process of
obtaining a quantitative comparison between a predefined
standard and an unknown magnitude.
OR
Measurement is a process of comparing quantitatively an
unknown magnitude with a predefined standard.
Requirements
• Standards must be accurately known
• Procedure & apparatus –commonly accepted & provable
Significance of measurement system
• Fundamental basis for R&D
• Measurement is fundamental element of any process
control
• Measurement is required for proper performance
• Forma basis of commerce.
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 GENERAL MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS
• The primary objective of measurement in industrial
inspection is to determine the quality of the component
manufactured.
• Different quality requirements, such as permissible
tolerance limits, form, surface finish, size, and flatness,
have to be considered to check the conformity of the
component to the quality specifications.
• Quantitative information of a physical object or process has
to be acquired by comparison with a reference.

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 GENERAL MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS
• The three basic elements of measurements
1. Measurand, a physical quantity such as length, weight,
and angle to be measured
2. Comparator, to compare the measurand (physical
quantity) with a known standard (reference) for
evaluation
3. Reference, the physical quantity or property to which
quantitative comparisons are to be made, which is
internationally accepted.
• All these three elements would be considered to explain
the direct measurement using a calibrated fixed reference.
• In order to determine the length (a physical quantity called
measurand) of the component, measurement is carried
out by comparing it with a steel scale (a known standard).
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 GENERAL MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS

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 Methods of Measurement
• Measurements are performed to determine the magnitude of
the value and the unit of the quantity under consideration.
• For instance, the length of a rod is 3m, where the number, 3,
indicates the magnitude and the unit of measurement is
meter. The choice of the method of measurement depends
on the required accuracy and the amount of permissible
error.
• Irrespective of the method used, the primary objective is to
minimize the uncertainty associated with measurement.
• The common methods employed for making measurements
are as follows:
• Direct method, Indirect method, Fundamental or absolute
method, Comparative method, Transposition method,
Coincidence method, Deflection method, Complementary
method, Null measurement method, substitution method,
Contact method, Contactless method, Composite
method
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 Methods of Measurement
1. Direct method: The quantity to be measured is directly
compared with the primary or secondary standard. Scales,
vernier callipers, micrometers, bevel protractors, etc., are
used in the direct method.
• This method is widely employed in the production field. In the
direct method, a very slight difference exists between the
actual and the measured values of the quantity. This
difference occurs because of the limitation of the human being
performing the measurement.
2. Indirect method: In this method, the value of a quantity is
obtained by measuring other quantities that are functionally
related to the required value. Measurement of the quantity is
carried out directly and then the value is determined by using
a mathematical relationship.
• Some examples of indirect measurement are angle
measurement using sine bar, measurement of strain induced
in a bar due to the applied force, determination of effective
diameter of a screw thread, etc.
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 Methods of Measurement
3. Fundamental or absolute method: In this case, the
measurement is based on the measurements of base quantities
used to define the quantity. The quantity under consideration is
directly measured and is then linked with the definition of that
quantity.
4. Comparative method: In this method, the quantity to be
measured is compared with the known value of the same quantity
or any other quantity practically related to it. The quantity is
compared with the master gauge and only the deviations from the
master gauge are recorded after comparison. The most common
examples are comparators, dial indicators, etc.
5. Transposition method: This method involves making the
measurement by direct comparison, wherein the quantity to be
measured (V) is initially balanced by a known value (X) of the
same quantity; next, X is replaced by the quantity to be measured
and balanced again by another known value (Y). If the quantity to
be measured is equal to both X and Y, then it is equal to V = XY
• An example of this method is the determination of mass by
balancing methods and known weights.
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 Methods of Measurement
6. Coincidence method: This is a differential method of
measurement wherein a very minute difference between the
quantity to be measured and the reference is determined by
careful observation of the coincidence of certain lines and
signals. Measurements on Vernier caliper and micrometer are
examples of this method.
7. Deflection method: This method involves the indication of the
value of the quantity to be measured directly by deflection of a
pointer on a calibrated scale. Pressure measurement is an
example of this method.
8. Complementary method: The value of the quantity to be
measured is combined with a known value of the same quantity.
The combination is so adjusted that the sum of these two
values is equal to the predetermined comparison value. An
example of this method is determination of the volume of a solid
by liquid displacement.
9. Null measurement method: In this method, the difference
between the value of the quantity to be measured and the
known value of the same quantity with which comparison is to
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be made is brought to zero. KYC
 Methods of Measurement
10. Substitution method: It is a direct comparison method.
This method involves the replacement of the value of the
quantity to be measured with a known value of the same
quantity, so selected that the effects produced in the
indicating device by these two values are the same. The
Borda method of determining mass is an example of this
method.
11. Contact method: In this method, the surface to be
measured is touched by the sensor or measuring tip of the
instrument. Care needs to be taken to provide constant
contact pressure in order to avoid errors due to excess
constant pressure. Examples of this method include
measurements using micrometer, vernier calliper, and dial
indicator.
12. Contactless method: As the name indicates, there is no
direct contact with the surface to be measured. Examples of
this method include the use of optical instruments, tool
maker’s microscope, and profile projector.
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 Methods of Measurement
13. Composite method The actual contour of a component to be
checked is compared with its maximum and minimum
tolerance limits. Cumulative errors of the interconnected
elements of the component, which are controlled through a
combined tolerance, can be checked by this method. This
method is very reliable to ensure interchangeability and is
usually effected through the use of composite GO gauges.
The use of a GO screw plug gauge to check the thread of a
nut is an example of this method.

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 Methods of Measurement

Null
Deflection

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Contact Contactless KYC
 Generalized System of Measurement

• Physical quantities such as length and mass can be directly

measured using measuring instruments. However, the direct
measurement of physical quantities such as temperature,
force, and pressure is not possible.
• In such situations, measurements can be performed using a
transducer, wherein one form of energy/signal that is not
directly measurable is transformed into another easily
measurable form.
• Calibration of the input and output values needs to be carried
out to determine the output for all vales of input.
• A generalized measurement system essentially consists of
three stages. Each of these stages performs certain steps so
that the value of the physical variable to be measured is
displayed as an output for our reference.

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 Generalized System of Measurement

• The three stages of a measurement system are

as follows
Stage I : A Detector –transducing or sensor stage
Stage II: An Intermediate stage modifying stage, or
signal conditioning stage
Stage III: A Terminating or read-out stage

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 Generalized System of Measurement

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE GENERALIZED MEASURING SYSTEM

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 Generalized System of Measurement

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE GENERALIZED MEASURING SYSTEM

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 Generalized System of Measurement
STAGE I: DETECTOR–TRANSDUCER STAGE
• The main function of the primary detector–transducer stage is to
sense the input signal and transform it into its analogous signal,
which can be easily measured.
• The input signal is a physical quantity such as pressure,
temperature, velocity, heat, or intensity of light. The device used
for detecting the input signal is known as a transducer or
sensor. The transducer converts the sensed input signal into a
detectable signal, which may be electrical, mechanical, optical,
thermal, etc. The generated signal is further modified in the
second stage.
• The transducer should have the ability to detect only the input
quantity to be measured and exclude all other signals.

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 Generalized System of Measurement
STAGE II: INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING STAGE
• In the intermediate modifying stage of a measurement
system, the transduced signal is modified and amplified
appropriately with the help of conditioning and processing
devices before passing it on to the output stage for display.
• Signal conditioning (by noise reduction and filtering) is
performed to enhance the condition of the signal obtained
in the first stage, in order to increase the signal-to-noise
ratio.
• If required, the obtained signal is further processed by
means of integration, differentiation, addition, subtraction,
digitization, modulation, etc.
• It is important to remember here that in order to obtain an
output that is analogous to the input, the characteristics of
the input signals should be transformed with true fidelity.
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 Generalized System of Measurement
STAGE II: OUTPUT OR TERMINATING STAGE
• The output or terminating stage of a measurement system
presents the value of the output that is analogous to the
input value. The output value is provided by either
indicating or recording for subsequent evaluations by
human beings or a controller, or a combination of both.
• The indication may be provided by a scale and pointer,
digital display.
• Thus, measurement of physical quantities such as
pressure, force, and temperature, which cannot be
measured directly, can be performed by an indirect method
of measurement.
• This can be achieved using a transduced signal to move
the pointer on a scale or by obtaining a digital output.

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 Example of Generalized Measurement System

Figure: Tyre gauge for measuring pressure in automobiles

24 Figure: Block diagram of tyre gauge functions KYC

 Example of Generalized Measurement System
• To illustrate a very simple measuring system, let us
consider the familiar tyre gauge used for checking
automobile tyre pressure.
• It consists of a cylinder and piston, a spring resisting the
piston movement, a stem with scale divisions.
• As the air pressure bears against the piston, the resulting
force compresses the spring until the spring and air
forces balance.
• The calibrated stem, which remains in place after the
spring returns the piston, indicates the applied pressure .
• The piston-cylinder combination constitutes a force-
summing apparatus, sensing and transducing pressure
to force. As a secondary transducer, the spring converts
the force to a displacement.
• Finally the transduced input is transferred without signal
conditioning to the scale and index for read out.
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 Example of Generalized Measurement System

26
Block diagram of measuring system of acceleration KYC
 Example of Generalized Measurement System
• Illustration of more complex system (measurement of
velocity).
• The first stage device, the accelerometer, provides
voltage analogous to acceleration.
• In addition to voltage amplifier, the second stage may
also include a filter that selectively attenuates unwanted
high frequency noise components.
• It may also integrate the analogue signal with respect to
time, thereby providing velocity-time relation, rather than
an acceleration time signal.
• Finally, the signal voltage will probably need to be
increased to the level necessary to be sensed by the
third or recording and read out stage, which may consist
of data acquisition computer and printer.
• The final record will then be in the form of computer
generated graph.
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 SI: fundamental Units

Physical Quantity Unit Name Symbol

length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
temperature Kelvin K
amount of
mole mol
substance
luminous intensity candela cd

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 SI: Derived Units
Physical Quantity Unit Name Symbol

area square meter m2

volume cubic meter m3

speed meter per second m/s

acceleration meter per second square m/s2

weight, force newton N

pressure pascal Pa
energy, work joule J

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 Supplementary units

Physical Quantity Unit Name Symbol

Plane angle Radian rad

Solid angle Steradian sr

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 STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT
• During the medieval period, the measurement process
underwent an evolution and people accepted the process in
specific trades, but no common standards were set.
• In order to make measurements a meaningful exercise,
comparison with a known quantity is very essential. It is
necessary to define a unit value of any physical quantity under
consideration such that it will be accepted internationally.
• Standard is defined as the fundamental value of any known
physical quantity, as established by national and
international organizations of authority, which can be
reproduced.
• Fundamental units of physical quantities such as length, mass,
time, and temperature form the basis for establishing a
measurement system.
• Standards play a vital role for manufacturers across the world in
achieving consistency, accuracy, precision, and repeatability in
measurements and in supporting the system that enables the
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manufacturers to make such measurements. KYC
 EVOLUTION OF STANDARDS
• A brief look at history reveals the following interesting facts.
• The Egyptian cubit was the earliest recorded length standard—
the length of the Pharaoh’s forearm plus the width of his palm.
The royal cubit was the first master standard made out of black
granite, which was used in Egyptian pyramid construction.
• The actual foot length of the Greek monarch was defined as a
foot.
• King Henry I decreed the length from the tip of nose to the end
of the middle finger, when the arm is fully stretched as one yard.
• The metric system, which was accepted by France in 1795,
coexisted with medieval units until 1840, when it was declared
as the exclusive system of weights and measures.
• In 1798, Eli Whitney introduced the concept of manufacturing
interchangeable components for assembling guns.
• This led to the development of standardization of manufacturing
activities to achieve interchangeability
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 EVOLUTION OF STANDARDS
• In 1855, the imperial standard yard was developed in England,
which was quite accurate.
• In 1872, the first international prototype metre was developed in
France.
• The International Metric Convention, which was held in France
in 1875, universally accepted the metric system, and provisions
were also made to set up the International Bureau of Weights
and Measures (BIPM – Bureau International des Poids et
Mesures) in Paris, which was signed by 17 countries.
• In 1866, the USA passed an act of Congress to employ the
metric system of weights and measures in all contracts,
dealings, and court proceedings.
• In the USA, since 1893, the internationally accepted metric
standards have served as the basic measurement standards.
Around 35 countries, including continental Europe and most of
South America, officially adopted the metric system in 1900.

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 EVOLUTION OF STANDARDS
• Establishment of international organizations for
standardization such as the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) in 1906 and the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) in 1947.
• In October 1960, at the 11th General Conference on Weights
and Measures held in Paris, the original metric standards
were redefined in accordance with the 20th-century
standards of measurement and a new revised and simplified
international system of units, namely the SI units was
devised. SI stands for systeme international d’unites
(international system of units).
• In 1999, a mutual recognition arrangement (MRA) was
signed by the Committee of Weights and Measures to cater
to the growing need for an open, transparent, and
comprehensive method to provide users with reliable
quantitative information on the comparability of national
metrology services.
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 MEASUREMENTS STANDARDS
LABORATORY

International
International Organization of Legal Metrology, Paris
International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres,
France

India
National Physical Laboratory
Dr. K.S. Krishnan Marg
New Delhi – 110012
India
Phone: 91-11-45609212
Fax: 91-11-45609310
Email: root@nplindia.org or root@nplindia.ernet.in

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 MATERIAL STANDARD
• Two standard systems for linear measurement that have been
accepted and adopted worldwide are yard and metric
systems.
• Most countries have realized the importance and advantages
of the metric system and accepted meter as the fundamental
unit of linear measurement.
• The problem with material standards is that the materials used
for defining the standards could change their size with
temperature and other conditions.
• In order to keep the fundamental unit unchanged, great care
and attention had to be exercised to maintain the same
conditions.
• The natural and invariable unit for length was finalized as the
primary standard when they found that wavelength of
monochromatic light was not affected by environmental
conditions.
• Yard or meter is defined as the distance between two scribed
lines on a bar of metal maintained under certain conditions of
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temperature and support. KYC
 Standards of Measurement

• First- Imperial standard Yard-England.

• Second- International Prototype Meter-

France.
• Wavelength standard.

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 Imperial Standard Yard
• The imperial standard yard is a bronze bar 1 sq. inch in cross-
section and 38 inches in length, having a composition of 82%
Cu, 13% tin, and 5% Zn.
• The bar contains holes of ½-inch diameter × ½-inch depth.
• It has two round recesses, each located one inch away from
either end and extends up to the central plane of the bar.
• A highly polished gold plug having a diameter of 1/10 of an
inch comprises three transversely engraved lines and two
longitudinal lines that are inserted into each of these holes
such that the lines lie in the neutral plane.
• The top surface of the plug lies on the neutral axis.
• Yard is then defined as the distance between the two
central transverse lines of the plug maintained at a
temperature of 62 °F.
• Yard, which was legalized in 1853, remained a legal standard
until it was replaced by the wavelength standard in 1960.
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 Imperial Standard Yard
• One of the advantages of maintaining the gold plug lines at
neutral axis is that this axis remains unaffected due to bending
of the beam.
• Another advantage is that the gold plug is protected from
getting accidentally damaged.
• It is important to note that an error occurs in the neutral axis
because of the support provided at the ends.
• This error can be minimized by placing the supports in such a
way that the slope at the ends is zero and the flat end faces of
the bar are mutually parallel to each other.
• Airy points can be defined as the points at which a horizontal
rod is optionally supported to prevent it from bending.
• These points are used to support a length standard in such a
way as to minimize the error due to bending.

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 Imperial Standard Yard
• Sir George Biddell Airy (1801–92) showed that the distance d
between the supports can be determined by the formula
1
L
n2 − 1
• Where n is the number of supports and L is the length of the
bar.
• When it is supported by two points, n=2. Substituting for n, the
distance between the supports is obtained as 0.577L.
• This means that the supports should be at an equal distance
from each end to a position where they are 0.577L apart.
• Normally, airy points are marked for length bars greater than
150 mm.

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 Imperial Standard Yard

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 Imperial Standard Yard

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 Imperial Standard Yard

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 Imperial Standard Yard

38"
36" at 62 deg F

Neutral axis
1"

1"
Gold plug

Bronze bar 82% Cu, 13% Tin, 5% Zinc 1"

Enlarged view of gold plug showing engraving

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 Airy points

Deflection in bars- errors in length caused by end faces not

being parallel

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 Significance of Airy-Points in Imperial
Standard Yard

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 Airy points - contd…
1
• Distance between supports = L
n2 − 1

n: no. of supports
L: length of bar
1
For simply supported beam =  L = 0.577 L
3
L − 0.577 L
• Distance of each support from end of bar =
2
• Bessel points :
• At points of min deflection ends sag so as to lift the centre &
minimize central deflection.
• Occurs when points of support are 0.554L.

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 Difference between Airy points &
Bessel points
Bessel points (minimum deflection
Airy points (end faces parallel)
points)

Sag permitted to pull ends of bar Ends allowed to sag to lift centre to
up with measuring plane. prevent deflection.

No deflection at ends. Ends deflected downwards.

Distance between supports Distance between supports =0.554L

=0.577L
Distance between supports & Distance between supports & sagging at
sagging at center is more. center is less.

Suitable for length standards. Suitable for line standards.

Indicated on length bars above Not indicated on straight edges &

150 mm. reference planes.

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 International Prototype Meter
• International prototype meter was established in 1875 by
International Bureau of Weights and Measures .
• It is defined as the distance between the centre positions of
the two lines engraved on the highly polished surface of a 102
cm bar of pure platinum–iridium alloy (90% platinum and 10%
iridium) maintained at 0°C under normal atmospheric pressure
and having the cross-section of a web.
• The top surface of the web contains graduations coinciding
with the neutral axis of the section. The web-shaped section
offers two major advantages. Since the section is uniform and
has graduations on the neutral axis, it allows the whole
surface to be graduated.
• This type of cross-section provides greater rigidity for the
amount of metal involved and is economical even though an
expensive metal is used for its construction.
• The bar is inoxidizable and can have a good polish, which is
required for obtaining good-quality lines.
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 International Prototype Meter
• It is supported by two rollers having at least 1 cm diameter,
which are symmetrically located in the same horizontal plane
at a distance of 751 mm from each other such that there is
minimum deflection.
• Web section – max rigidity, economy of costly material.

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 International Prototype Meter

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 Disadvantages of Material Standards
• Material standards are affected by changes in environmental
conditions such as temperature, pressure, humidity, and
ageing, resulting in variations in length.
• Preservation of these standards is difficult because they must
have appropriate security to prevent their damage or
destruction.
• Replicas of material standards are not available for use at
other places.
• They cannot be easily reproduced.
• Comparison and verification of the sizes of gauges pose
considerable difficulty.
• While changing to the metric system, a conversion factor is
necessary.

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 WAVELENGTH STANDARD
• By using wavelengths of a monochromatic light as a natural
and invariable unit of length, the dependency of the working
standard on the physical standard can be eliminated.
• The definition of a standard of length relative to the meter can
easily be expressed in terms of the wavelengths of light.
• The use of the interference phenomenon of light waves to
provide a working standard may thus be accepted as ultimate
for all practical purposes.
• However, there were some objections to the use of the light
wavelength standard because of the impossibility of producing
pure monochromatic light, as wavelength depends upon the
amount of isotope impurity in the elements.
• However, with rapid advancements in the field of atomic
energy, pure isotopes of natural elements have been
produced. Cadmium 114, krypton 86, and mercury 198 are
possible sources of radiation of wavelengths suitable for the
natural standard of length.
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 WAVELENGTH STANDARD
• There is no need to preserve the wavelength standard as it is
not a physical one. This standard of length is reproducible, and
the error of reproduction can be of the order of 1 part in 100
million.
• Finally, in 1960, at the 11th General Conference of Weights
and Measures held in Paris, it was recommended and decided
that krypton 86 is the most suitable element if used in a hot-
cathode discharge lamp maintained at a temperature of 68 K.
• According to this standard, meter is defined as 1,650,763.73
wavelengths of the red–orange radiation of a krypton 86
atom in vacuum.
• Yard is defined as 1,509,458.35 wavelengths of red-orange
radiation in vacuum of krypton-86 isotope.
(Yard=0.9144meter)
• This standard can be reproduced with an accuracy of about 1
part in 109 and can be accessible to any laboratory.
• Krypton 86 chosen as it produces sharply defined interference
lines.
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 Wavelength standard/Optical length standard

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 Advantages of Wavelength Standards

• Length does not change (not influenced by effects of

variation in surrounding conditions).
• Need not be stored / preserved.
• Easily reproducible.
• Used for comparative measurements of very high accuracy.
• Not subjected to destruction by wear and tear.

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 Metre as of today (Modern Meter)
• Metre is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in
vacuum in 1/299 792 458 second.
• The modern meter was defined in the 17th General
Conference of Weights and Measures held on 20 October
1983.
• According to this, the meter is the length of the path travelled
by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a
second.
• This standard is technologically more accurate and feasible
when compared to the red–orange radiation of a krypton 86
atom and can be realized in practice through the use of an
iodine-stabilized helium–neon laser.
• The reproducibility of the modern meter is found to be 3 parts
in 1011, which could be compared to measuring the earth’s
mean circumference to an accuracy of about 1 mm.
• 1 yard = length of path travelled in 3*10-9 seconds.
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 Subdivisions of standards

• Primary standards
• Secondary standards
• Tertiary standards
• Working standards

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 Subdivision of standards
Primary standards: It is essential that there should
be one and only one material standard (in paris).
• No direct application to a measuring problem
encountered in engineering
• Used after 10-20 years for comparison with
secondary stds.

Secondary standards: These are close copies of

primary standards with respect to design, material
and length.
• Kept in the custody of every country in laboratory.
• Used for comparison with tertiary stds.
• Safeguard against loss or destruction of primary stds.

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 Subdivision of standards contd…
Tertiary standards: Tertiary standards are reference
standards employed by National Physical Laboratory
(NPL) and are the first standards to be used for reference
in laboratories and workshop
• True copies of secondary stds.
• Reference for comparison with working stds.

Working standards: These standards are similar in

design to primary, secondary and tertiary standards, but
being less in cost and are made of low-grade materials.
• Used on the shop floor.
• General application in metrology laboratories.

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 Classification of standards based on
purpose

Standard Purpose
Reference Reference
Calibration of inspection and
Calibration
working standards
Inspection Used by inspectors
Working
Used by operators
standards

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 Hierarchical Classification of standards

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 Hierarchical Classification of standards
• Accuracy is one of the most important factors to be maintained
and should always be traceable to a single source, usually the
national standards of the country, that are in close contact with
the BIPM.
• Hence, there is an assurance that items manufactured to
identical dimensions in different countries will be compatible
with each other, which helps in maintaining a healthy trade.
• Comparisons with national standards are seldom performed, as
frequent comparisons may degrade their accuracy. For frequent
comparisons of the lower-order standards, national reference
standards are generally used.
• For calibration purposes, normally working standards are
employed. These working standards stand third in the
hierarchical classification and are sometimes called national
working standards. Interlaboratory standards and reference
standards for laboratories, which are of good quality, are
derived from working standards.
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 Line standards
Line standards: When length being measured is expressed as
the distance between two lines.
Line standards do not provide high accuracy as that of end
standards. Example: Measuring scale, Imperial standard yard,
International prototype meter, meter rule with divisions.
• Scales can be engraved
• Quick & easy to use
• Scale markings not subjected to wear
• No built-in datum
• Scales are subjected to parallax error
• Magnifying lens/ microscope required.

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 End Standards
End standards: When the length being measured is
expressed as the distance between two parallel end faces.
End standards can be made to a very high degree of
accuracy. Example: Slip gauges, gap gauges, vernier
calipers, micrometer etc.
• Highly accurate , precise.
• Time consuming & measures only one dimension
• Subjected to wear and no parallax error
Disadvantages:
• Forming two parallel surfaces at ends
• Heat treat ends for stability.

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 Comparison between Line standards and End
standards
Characteristics Line standards End Standards
Principle of Length -distance between as distance b/w two flat parallel
measurement distance b/w two lines faces
Accuracy Limited accuracy +/- 0.5 mm High accuracy +/-0.001 mm
Ease & time of Measurements made using Requires skill & time
measurement scale are quick & easy consuming
No wear, may occur on Wear on their measuring
Effect of wear
leading ends surfaces.
Cannot align with axis of Can align with axis of
Alignment
measurement measurement
Manufacture &
Simple and low cost Complex & high cost
cost
Parallax effect Subjected to parallax error No parallax error
Slip gauges, end bars,
Examples Scale
micrometer
66 KYC
 TRANSFER FROM LINE STANDARD TO
END STANDARD
• Primary standards are basically line standards and that end
standards are practical workshop standards.
• Line standards are highly inconvenient for general
measurement purposes and are usually used to calibrate end
standards, provided that the length of primary line standard is
accurately known.
• There is a probability of the existence of a very small error in the
primary standard.
• It is important to accurately determine the error in the primary
standard so that the lengths of the other line standards can be
precisely evaluated when they are compared with it.
• Measurements are made using end standards, the distance is
measured between the working faces of the measuring
instrument, which are flat and mutually parallel.
• A composite line standard is used to transfer a line standard to
an end standard.
67 KYC
 TRANSFER FROM LINE STANDARD TO
END STANDARD
(NPL method of deriving End standard from line standard)
Line Standard Comparator

Measured difference d1= x 1- x 2

x1 x2

36 inch line standard

1
/2
inch block /2 inch block
1
1
35 /2 inch end standard

a b l c d

68 KYC
 TRANSFER FROM LINE STANDARD TO
END STANDARD
• A line standard comparator is used to transfer the line standard
correctly to the ends of a bar.
• It consists of two microscopes mounted about a yard apart over
a table.
• An end standard about 35½ inch in length is produced with flat
& parallel faces.
• Two ½inch blocks with centrally engraved lines are ‘wrung’ to
the ends of this end standard, such that the distance between
the center lines is approximately 36 inches.
• The difference of readings between the lines on the line
standard & the lines on the end standard are noted every time,
by arranging the end blocks in different ways to eliminate errors
in wringing & of marking of center lines.
• If the actual length of the end standard is l, then for the four
different ways of wringing the end blocks, we can write;
l + b + c = 36 + d1 l + b + d = 36 + d 2
l + a + c = 36 + d3 l + a + d = 36 + d 4
69 KYC
 TRANSFER FROM LINE STANDARD TO
END STANDARD
• Where d1, d2, d3 & d4 are the differences noted for the successive
positions of the ½ inch blocks respectively.
• Taking mean, l + 1 (a + b + c + d ) = 36 +  d 1
2 4
• Next the 35½ inch end standard wrung with one of the ½ inch
blocks is compared with 36inch end bar (to be calibrated) on a
Brooke’s level comparator & the deviation D1 may be noted.
• Then the other ½inch block is wrung with it & again is compared
with the end bar (to be calibrated) & the deviation D2 is noted.
• If L is the actual length of the 36inch end bar, then
l + a + b = L + D1 l + c + d = L + D2
1
l + (a + b + c + d ) = L +
 D
2
2 2
• Combining the above equation 1 & 2,

L = 36 +
 d D
−
70
4 2 KYC
 TRANSFER FROM LINE STANDARD TO END
STANDARD
/2 inch block
1

D1 b
a

1
35 /2 inch end standard
L

36 inch end bar

being calibrated

71 KYC
 BROOKES LEVEL COMPARATOR

72 KYC
 Calibration of End bars
• The actual lengths of end bars can be found by wringing
them together and comparing them with a calibrated
standard using a level comparator and also individually
comparing among themselves.
• This helps to set up a system of linear equations which can
be solved to find the actual lengths of individual bars.
• The procedure is clearly explained in the forthcoming
numerical problems.

73 KYC
 Calibration of End Bars
• A one meter (1000mm) calibrated bar is wrung to a surface
plate and two 500mm bars (A and B) are wrung together to form
a basic length of one meter, which is then wrung to a surface
plate adjacent to a meter bar as shown in the Figure. The
difference in height X1, is noted.

74 KYC
 Calibration of End Bars
• Then comparison is made between the two 500mm length bars
A and B to determine the difference in length.
• LA= the length of 500mm length bar A
• LB=the length of 500mm length bar B
• X1=difference between one meter length bar and the combined
length of bars A and B
• X2=difference in length between bar A and bar B
• L=Actual length of one meter bar.
• From fig.(a) L  X 1 = LA + LB
• From fig.(b) LB = LA  X 2
L  X 1 = LA + ( LA  X 2 ) =2 LA  X 2
L  X1  X 2 LB = LA  X 2
2 LA = L  X 1  X 2 LA =
2
75 KYC
 NUMERICALS
1. A calibrated meter end bar has an actual length of
1000.0003mm. It is to be used in the calibration of two bars A
and B, each having a basic length of 500mm. When compared
with the meter bar LA+LB was found to be shorter by
0.0002mm. In comparing A with B it was found that A was
0.0004mm longer than B. Find the actual length of A and B.

76 KYC
 NUMERICALS
1. A calibrated meter end bar has an actual length of
1000.0003mm. It is to be used in the calibration of two bars A
and B, each having a basic length of 500mm. When compared
with the meter bar LA+LB was found to be shorter by
0.0002mm. In comparing A with B it was found that A was
0.0004mm longer than B. Find the actual length of A and B.
L − X 1 = LA + LB LA = LB + X 2
L − X 1 = ( LB + X 2 ) + LB L − X 1 = 2 LB + X 2
2 LB = L − X 1 − X 2
L − X 1 − X 2 1000.0003 − 0.0002 − 0.0004
LB = =
2 2
LB = 499.99985mm
LA = LB + X 2 = 499.99985 + 0.0004
LA = 500.00025mm
77 KYC
 NUMERICALS
2. Three 100mm end bars are measured on a level comparator
by first wringing them together and comparing with a 300mm
bar. The 300mm bar has a known error of +40µm and the
three bars together measure 64µm less than the 300mm bar.
Bar A is 18µm longer than bar B and 23µm longer than bar C.
Find the actual length of each bar.

78 KYC
 NUMERICALS
3. Four length bars A, B, C, D of approximately 250mm each are to
be calibrated with standard calibrated meter bar which is
actually 0.0008mm less than a meter. It is also found that, bar B
is 0.0002mm longer than bar A, bar C is 0.0004mm longer than
bar A and bar D is 0.0001mm shorter than bar A. The length of
all four bars put together is 0.0003mm longer than the calibrated
standard meter. Determine the actual dimensions of each bar.

79 KYC
 NUMERICALS
2. Answer : LA=100.006mm LB=99.988mm LC=99.983mm
3. Answer: LA=249.99975mm LB=249.99995mm
LC=250.00015mm LD=249.99965mm

80 KYC
 NUMERICALS
• It is required to obtain a meter standard from a calibrated line
standard using a composite line standard. The actual length of
the calibrated line standard is 1000.015 mm. The composite line
standard comprises a length bar having a basic length of 950
mm and two end blocks, (a+b) and (c+d), each having a basic
length of 50 mm. Each end block contains an engraved line at
the centre. Four different measurements were obtained when
comparisons were made between the calibrated line standard
and the composite bar using all combinations of end
blocks:L1=1000.0035 mm, L2=1000.0030 mm, L3=1000.0020
mm, and L4=1000.0015 mm. Determine the actual length of the
meter bar. Block (a + b) was found to be 0.001 mm greater than
block (c + d) when two end blocks were compared with each
other.

81 KYC
 Slip Gauges or Gauge blocks
(Johansson Gauges)
• Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of steel having cross
section of 30 mm face length & 10 mm face width as shown in
fig.

Measuring face

Slip gauge
length l

Fa
ce
len
gth
h
w idt
ce
82 Fa KYC
 Slip Gauges or Gauge blocks
(Johansson Gauges)
• Slip gauges are blocks of steel that have been hardened and
stabilized by heat treatment. They are ground and lapped to
size to very high standards of accuracy and surface finish.
• A gauge block (also known Johansson gauge, slip gauge,
or Jo block) is a precision length measuring standard
consisting of a ground and lapped metal or ceramic block.
Invented in 1896 by Swedish machinist Carl Edward
Johansson.
• When correctly cleaned and wrung together, the individual slip
gauges adhere to each other by molecular attraction and if left
like this for too long, a partial cold weld will take place.
• If this is allowed to occur, the gauging surface will be
irreparable after use, hence the gauges should be separated
carefully by sliding them apart . They should then be cleaned,
smeared with petroleum jelly (Vaseline) and returned to their
case.
83 KYC
 Wringing of Slip Gauges
• Slip gauges are wrung together to give a stack of the required
dimension. In order to achieve the maximum accuracy the
following precautions must be taken.
• Use the minimum number of blocks.
• Wipe the measuring faces clean using a soft clean chamois
leather.
• Wring the individual blocks together by first pressing at right
angles, sliding & then twisting.

84 KYC
 Wringing of Slip Gauges
36 Johansson gauge blocks wrung together easily support their
own weight.

85 KYC
 ACCURACY
• Accuracy is the closeness with which an instrument reading
approaches the true value of the quantity being measured.
• Accuracy is the degree of agreement of the measured
dimension with its true magnitude.
• Accuracy can also be defined as the maximum amount by which
the result differs from the true value or as the nearness of the
measured value to its true value, often expressed as a
percentage.
• True value may be defined as the mean of the infinite number of
measured values when the average deviation due to the various
contributing factors tends to zero.
• In practice, realization of the true value is not possible due to
uncertainties of the measuring process and hence cannot be
determined experimentally.
• Positive and negative deviations from the true value are not
equal and will not cancel each other.
86 KYC
 ACCURACY
Requirements of accurate measuring instruments
• Error should be eliminated
• Sources of inaccuracy eliminated
• Instrument should be calibrated
• Should possess constant accuracy
Factors affecting accuracy of measuring system
• Factors affecting calibration standards
• Factors affecting work piece
• Factors affecting inherent characteristics of instrument
• Factors affecting person
• Factors affecting environment

87 KYC
 ACCURACY
• Factors affecting calibration standards
➢ Coefficient of thermal expansion
➢ Internal calibration
➢ Elastic properties
➢ Stability with time
• Factors affecting work piece
➢ Cleanliness of workpiece
➢ Surface finish
➢ Defects on workpiece
• Factors affecting inherent characteristics of instrument
➢ Adequate sensitivity
➢ Adequate consistency
➢ Good accuracy precision
88 KYC
 ACCURACY
• Factors affecting person
➢ Skill and training methodology
➢ Selection of instruments and standards of
measurements
➢ Altitude towards personal accuracy achievements
• Factors affecting environment
➢ Temperature , humidity
➢ Clean surrounding
➢ Adequate illumination

89 KYC
 PRECISION
• Precision is the degree of repetitiveness of the measuring
process. It is the degree of agreement of the repeated
measurements of a quantity made by using the same method,
under similar conditions.
• The ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the same
results during the act of measurements for the same quantity is
known as repeatability.
• Repeatability is random in nature and, by itself, does not assure
accuracy, though it is a desirable characteristic.
• Precision refers to the consistent reproducibility of a
measurement. Reproducibility is normally specified in terms of a
scale reading over a given period of time.
• If an instrument is not precise, it would give different results for
the same dimension for repeated readings.
• In most measurements, precision assumes more significance
than accuracy.
90 KYC
 The person hit the bull's-eye?
Three targets with three arrows each to shoot.

Both Precise but Neither

accurate not accurate
and precise accurate nor precise

91 KYC
 Precision Accuracy

Degree to which measured

Repeatability of process value agrees with true value of
measured quantity

Never designates accuracy May designate precision

Close relationship of observed Relationship between value of

reading with average value observed

Standard deviation is index of Difference between measured

precision less value of and true value is error of
standard deviation more measurements. Less error
precise the instrument more accuracy

92 KYC
 REPEATABILITY & REPRODUCIBILITY
• Five factors may contribute to the variability found in
repeated measurements: (1) observer, (2) instrument used
(eg, model, serial number), (3) instrument calibration, (4)
environment (temperature, humidity, etc), and (5) time
interval between measurements.
• Precision consists of both repeatability and reproducibility.
• Repeatability refers to the variability in repeated
measurements in which the above factors are
considered constant.
• Reproducibility, on the other hand, refers to variability
when 1 or more of the 5 factors vary.

93 KYC
 REPEATABILITY & REPRODUCIBILITY
• Repeatability pertains to the closeness of output readings
when the same input is applied repetitively over a short
period of time with the same measurement conditions, same
instrument and observer, same location and same conditions
of use maintained throughout.
• Reproducibility relates to the closeness of output readings for
the same input when there are changes in the method of
measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location,
conditions of use and time of measurement.

94 KYC
 Calibration
• Calibration is a comparison of instrument performance to
standards of known accuracy. Calibrations directly link
customers measurement equipment to national and
international standards.
• Calibration : the procedure laid down for making adjusting or
checking a scale so that readings of an instrument or
measurement system conform to an accepted standard .
• Graphical representation of calibration record is called
calibration curve.
• Curve relates standard values of input or measurand to actual
values of output throughout operating range of instrument.
• Advantages of calibration
• Accuracy in performing manufacturing operations,
• Reduced inspection and ensured quality products by reducing
errors in measurement.

95 KYC
 SENSITIVITY
• Sensitivity refers to the ability of a measuring device to detect
small differences in a quantity being measured.
• Sensitivity is the rate of displacement of the indicating device
of an instrument with respect to the measured quantity.
• Sensitivity is the ratio of the changes in the output of an
instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be
measured.
• Ratio of scale spacing to scale division value
• It is also called amplification factor/ gearing ratio
Sensitivity has wide range of units
• Operation of resistance thermometers depends on change in
resistance to change in temperature. Units: ohms/deg c
• i/p to o/p of electrical/ electronic equipment –gain
• Increase in displacement with optical and mechanical
instruments – amplification

96 KYC
 SENSITIVITY
• Thus if the sensitivity of a thermocouple is denoted as
10µV/C, it indicates the sensitivity in the linear range of the
thermocouple voltage vs. temperature characteristics.
• Similarly sensitivity of a spring balance can be expressed as
25 mm/kg, indicating additional load of 1 kg will cause
additional displacement of the spring by 25mm.
• Sensitivity of an instrument may also vary with temperature or
other external factors. This is known as sensitivity drift.
• Suppose the sensitivity of the spring balance mentioned above
is 25 mm/kg at 20C and 27mm/kg at 30C. Then the
sensitivity drift/C is 0.2 (mm/kg)/C.
• In order to avoid such sensitivity drift, sophisticated
instruments are either kept at controlled temperature, or
suitable in-built temperature compensation schemes are
provided inside the instrument.

97 KYC
 Sensitivity
• If the calibration curve is linear, as shown, the sensitivity of the
instrument is the slope of the calibration curve.
• If the calibration curve is not linear as shown, then the sensitivity
varies with the input.

98 KYC
 LINEARITY
• Linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input
characteristics symmetrically and linearly.
• Linearity is actually a measure of nonlinearity of the instrument.
When we talk about sensitivity, we assume that the input/output
characteristic of the instrument to be approximately linear. But in
practice, it is normally nonlinear, as shown in Fig.
• The linearity is defined as the maximum deviation from the
linear characteristics as a percentage of the full scale output.

O
Linearity =
Omax − Omin

99 KYC
 Readability
• Readability is defined as the closeness with which the
scale of the analog instrument can be read.
• Readability is defined as the ease with which readings
may be taken with an instrument.
• Readability difficulties may often occur due to parallax
errors when an observer is noting the position of a pointer
on a calibrated scale
• Fine and widely spaced graduation lines ordinarily
improve the readability. If the graduation lines are very
finely spaced, the scale will be more readable by using the
microscope, however, with the naked eye the readability
will be poor.

100 KYC
 HYSTERESIS
• Hysteresis is phenomenon which depicts different output effects
when loading and unloading, whether it is a mechanical /
electrical or any system.
• Hysteresis exists not only in magnetic circuits, but in instruments
also.
• For example, the deflection of a diaphragm type pressure gage
may be different for the same pressure, but one for increasing
and other for decreasing, as shown in Fig.

H
Hysteresis = 100
Omax − Omin

101 KYC
 HYSTERESIS
• Causes: All energy put to stressed parts when loading is not
reversible upon unloading
• Different values of output for same input under increasing and
decreasing conditions.
• Due to mechanical friction, slack motion in bearings, elastic
deformation, magnetic & thermal effects.

102 KYC
 Drift
• Drift causes the measurement result to vary for a given input quantity.
• It occurs due to wear and tear of parts, hysteresis effect in metals,
changes in metals caused by contamination, environmental factors,
magnetic fields, changes in temperature and mechanical vibrations,
high mechanical stress in parts.
• Thus drift is an undesirable quantity and it occurs very slowly. Drift cant
be easily compensated for but can be carefully guarded against by
care, prevention, inspection and maintenance. It is drift which causes
change in calibration of instrument.
• Drift can be classified into three categories
• (i) Zero drift: It sets in when the calibration gradually shifts due to
slippage, permanent set. It can be taken care of by zero setting.
• (ii) Span drift: Proportional change in the indication all along the
upward scale in called span drift.
• (iii) Zonal drift: It occurs only in a zone (portion) of span.

103 KYC
 Drift

Span drift Zero drift

104 KYC
 Definitions and Concepts
• Range (or span) : It defines the maximum and minimum values
of the inputs or the outputs for which the instrument is
recommended to use. For example, for a temperature measuring
instrument the input range may be 100-500C and the output
range may be 4-20 mA.
• Threshold : If instrument input is increased very gradually from
zero , there will be some minimum value below which no output
can be detected . This minimum value defines threshold of
instrument.
• Resolution: If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary
input value, it will again be found that output does not change at
all until a certain increment is exceeded. This increment is called
resolution.

105 KYC
 STATIC & DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
• Static characteristics: The set of criteria defined for the
instruments, which are used to measure the quantities which are
slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with
time.
• Static characteristics refer to the characteristics of the system
when the input is either held constant or varying very slowly.
• Classification of static characteristics are mainly: Accuracy,
Precision, Range, Sensitivity, Linearity, Hysteresis, Resolution,
Drift, Static error, Dead zone.
• Dynamic characteristics: The performance of the instrument
when the input variable is changing rapidly with time.
• The dynamic performance of an instrument is normally
expressed by a differential equation relating the input and output
quantities. It is always convenient to express the input-output
dynamic characteristics in form of a linear differential equation.

106 KYC
 Dynamic characteristics
• Speed of response: The rapidity with which a measurement
system responds to changes in the measured quantity.
• Measuring lag: The retardation or delay in the response of a
measurement system to changes in the measured quantity.
➢ Retardation lag : Response begins immediately after the change
in measured quantity
➢ Time delay lag : Response begins after a dead time after the
application of the input (shifted along the time scale).
• Fidelity: Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of the
system to reproduce the output in the same form as the input.
It is the degree to which a measurement system indicates
changes in the measured quantity without any dynamic error.
• Dynamic error: It is the difference between the true value of
the quantity changing with time & the value indicated by the
measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also
called measurement error.

107 KYC
 Response of Measuring Systems
• The evaluation of the ability of a system to transmit and present
all the pertinent information included in the input signal and to
exclude everything else, is called response
• If the output information truly represents the input. If the input
information is in the form of a sine wave, a square wave, or a
sawtooth wave, does the output appear as a sine wave, a
square wave, or a sawtooth wave.
• Is each of the harmonic components in a complex wave treated
equally, or are some attenuated, completely ignored, or perhaps
shifted timewise relative to the others?
• These questions are answered by the response
characteristics of the particular system—that is, (1) amplitude
response, (2) frequency response, (3) phase response, and (4)
slew rate.

108 KYC
 Response of Measuring Systems
1. Amplitude response is governed by the system’s ability to
treat all input amplitudes uniformly.
• If an input of 5 units is fed into a system and an output of 25
indicator divisions is obtained, we can generally expect that an
input of 10 units will result in an output of 50 divisions.
• Although this is the most common case, other special nonlinear
responses are also occasionally required.
• Whatever the arrangement, whether it be linear, exponential, or
some other amplitude function, discrepancy between design
expectations in this respect and actual performance results in
poor amplitude response.
• Of course no system exists that is capable of responding
faithfully over an unlimited range of amplitudes.

109 KYC
 Response of Measuring Systems
2. Frequency response: Good frequency response is obtained
when a system reacts to all frequency components in the same
way.
• If a 100-Hz sine wave with an input amplitude of 5 units is fed
into a system and a peak-to-peak output of 2½cm results on an
oscilloscope screen, we can expect that a 500-Hz sine-wave
input of the same amplitude would also result in a 2½cm peak-
to-peak output.
• Changing the frequency of the input signal should not alter the
system’s output magnitude so long as the input amplitude
remains unchanged.

110 KYC
 Response of Measuring Systems
3. Phase response: Amplitude and frequency responses are
important for all types of input waveforms, whether simple or
complex.
• Phase response, however, is of primary importance for the
complex wave only.
• Time is required for the transmission of a signal through any
measuring system.
• Often when a simple sine-wave voltage is amplified by a single
stage of amplification, the output trails the input by
approximately 180, or one half cycle. For two stages, the phase
shift may be about 360 and so on.
• The actual shift will not be an exact multiple of half wavelengths
but will depend on the equipment and the frequency. It is the
frequency dependence that defines phase response.

111 KYC
 Response of Measuring Systems
4. Slew rate: Slew rate is another form of frequency response
is delay or rise time. When a stepped or relatively
instantaneous input is applied to a system, the output may
lag.
• The time delay after the step is applied, but before proper
output magnitude is reached is known as rise time.
• It is a measure of the systems ability to handle transients.
Sometimes rise time is defined specifically as the time,
required for the system to pass from 10% to 90% of its final
response.
• Slew rate is maximum rate of change that the system can
handle.

112 KYC
 DYNAMIC RESPONSE
• The behaviour of the system when inputs vary with time (i.e.,
input are dynamic in nature) and so does the output, is called
dynamic response. Such a response in measurement systems
is found to occur in industrial, aerospace and biological
applications.
• The dynamic inputs are of two types:
i) Steady state periodic (ii) Transient.
• Steady state periodic quantity is one whose magnitude has a
definite repeating time, whereas the time variation of a
“transient” magnitude does not repeat.

113 KYC
 DYNAMIC RESPONSE
• The response of a measurement system subjected to a time
varying input can be divided into the following two parts:
• (i) Steady state response (ii) Transient response
• Steady state response is simply the response when time
reaches infinity.
• Transient response in measurement system, is defined as the
part of response which goes to zero as time becomes large.

114 KYC
 Errors and types of errors
• Error: is defined as the difference between measured and the
true value of the quantity.
Error =   xm − xtrue
• Types of errors
➢ Bias errors (systematic errors), are those errors which
occur in the same way each time a measurement is made.
• Example, if the scale on an instrument consistently reads 5%
high, then the entire set of measurements will be biased by
+5% above the true value.
➢ Precision errors (random errors) : are different for each
successive measurement but have an average value of zero.
• Example, mechanical friction or vibration may cause reading
of a measuring mechanism to fluctuates about true value,
sometimes reading high and sometimes reading low. This lack
of mechanical precision will cause sequential readings of the
same quantity to differ slightly, creating a distribution of values
surrounding the true value.
115 KYC
 Classification of errors
1. Bias/systematic errors:
a) Calibration errors
b) Certain consistently recurring human errors
c) Certain errors caused by defective equipment
d) Loading errors
e) Limitations of system resolution
2. Precision / random errors:
a) Errors caused by disturbances to equipment
b) Errors caused by fluctuating experimental conditions
c) Errors derived from insufficient measuring system sensitivity
3. Illegitimate errors:
a) Blunders and mistakes during an experiment
b) Computational errors after an experiment
116 KYC
 Classification of errors
4. Errors that are sometimes bias error and sometimes
precision error
a) Errors from instrument backlash, friction, hysteresis
b) Errors from calibration drift and variations in test or
environmental conditions
c) Errors resulting from variations in procedure or definition
among experimenters.

117 KYC
 Sources of errors
• Noise: Any signal does not convey useful information. Noise
may originate either at the sensing device, communication
channel or in indicating element of the system.
• Response time: Any measuring system has got some response
time; it cannot immediately indicate the input signal applied to it.
• Design limitations: In design of an instrument there are certain
inevitable factors (friction, resolving power) which lead to
uncertainty of measurements.
• Deterioration of measuring systems: Physical or chemical
deterioration in characteristics of measuring elements occur in
the measuring system.
• Environmental effects: The changes in atmospheric
temperature may alter the elastic constant of a spring.
• Errors in observation and interpretation: Operators can also
make mistakes in observing, interpreting or recording the data.
➢ Parallax errors, Linear interpolation of scales, Faulty logging.
118 KYC
 Correction
• Correction is the revision applied to the indicated value so that
the final result obtained improves the worth of the result.
• Systematic errors tend to be consistent in magnitude and/or
direction.
• If the magnitude and direction of the error is known, accuracy
can be improved by additive or proportional corrections.
• Additive correction involves adding or subtracting a constant
adjustment factor to each measurement; proportional
correction involves multiplying the measurement(s) by a
constant.

119 KYC
 Interchangeability
• The concept of interchangeability was introduced first in United
states. But in early days, it was aimed at quick and easy
replacement of damaged parts by attaining greater precision in
manufacture .
• When one component assembles properly (functionality aspect
of assembly is satisfied) with any mating component, both
chosen at random, then it is known as interchangeability.
• It is a condition which exists when two or more items possess
such functional and physical characteristics so as to be
equivalent in performance and durability and are capable of
being exchanged one for the other without alteration of the
items themselves.
• Interchangeability is the ability of one product, process or
service to be used in place of another to fulfill the same
requirements.

120 KYC
 Interchangeability
• Interchangeability, occurs when one part can be
substituted for a similar part which has been made to the
drawing. Interchangeability is possible only when standards
are strictly followed.
• Requires precise machines or processes whose process
capability is equal to or less than the manf tolerance
allowed for the part.
Advantages
• Assembly time reduced.
• Increased output with reduced production cost.
• Production of mating components at different places by
different operators.
• Replacement of worn out, defective parts .
• Cost of maintenance and shutdown period reduced.
121 KYC
 Selective assembly
• Selective assembly is the method of obtaining high precision
assemblies from relatively low precision components. The
problem of producing mating parts to have specified clearance
while assembling pose a great challenge to the engineers.
• It is found that it is not economic to manufacture parts to the
required high degree of accuracy for their correct functioning.
• Instead, they are made in an economic manner, measured to
the required high accuracy and graded or sorted into groups
each of which contains such parts of the same size to within
close limits.
• Components are fitted by a skilled mechanic often in a fitting
room .
• Subsequently, if a replacement is needed, it must also be
machined to suit and then fitted as above.

122 KYC
 Universal/Full interchangeability
• Parts drawn from any two altogether different sources for mating
purposes.
• Common standards followed by all.
• All standards traceable to a single source-international std.
• Machine with high process capability & high accuracy.
• Requires close supervision

123 KYC
 Local interchangeability
• When all parts to be assembled are made in the same
manufacturing unit by following local standards.
• Set of tools and gauges are made for components, that will
confirm to the required standard within the workshop.
• Local standards traceable to international standards

124 KYC