UNIT 4 Machine Drawing Fundamentals-I

Go, change the world
RV College of
Engineering
Course Coordinator
Keshavamurthy YC
Assistant Professor,
07-10-2020 Department of Mechanical Engineering, 1RVCE.
keshavamurthyyc@rvce.edu.in
RV College of Go, change the world
Engineering
UNIT IV - CONTENT
Machine Drawing Fundamentals-I
 Need of Graphical Language, Importance of Machine Drawing,
Tools (from Instruments to Current Software's).
 Projections: Designation and Relative position of views. Principles
of Drawings: Scales as per ISO standards, Importance of Title Block
and Part list, Lines convention. Conventional Representations of
Materials, Interrupted views and Braking of Shaft, Pipe, Bar, Surface
finishing & Machining symbols.
 Classification of nuts, terminology used in the drawing of nuts and
bolts. Drawing of orthographic projections of a bolt, empirical
relations of dimensions of nut and bolt with respect to bolt head
diameter.
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References
 Fundamentals of Machine Drawing by Sadhu singh
 Machine drawing by K L Narayana, P Kannaiah and K Venkata Reddy
 Machine drawing by K R Gopalakrishna
 A Textbook of Machine drawing by Dr R K Dhawan
 A Textbook of Machine drawing by P S Gill
 Machine drawing by N D Junnarkar
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DRAWING OF A MACHINE PART
 Part drawings and Assembly drawings of Toyota Motors
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QA
Question 1: Why should an Mechanical engineering student study
Machine drawing (answer in one word)
 https://www.menti.com/h9yqooqtfd
 https://www.mentimeter.com/s/31e20aedb9a37666ffeab7931eae82ec
/724f39639b80
 Question 2: Define Engineering drawing in one word.
 https://www.menti.com/vcw698swfc
 https://www.mentimeter.com/s/ec48ac92278143b37be8973e98a0812
9/9758032b1624
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Need of Graphical Language
 For an effective exchange of ideas with others, an engineer must be
proficient in the three means of communication that are at his
disposal, namely (1) any language, both written and oral, (2) symbols
associated with the basic sciences and (3) the graphic language.
 Any engineering drawing forms the graphic language from which a
trained person can visualize the required object. Since an engineering
drawing displays a precise picture of the object to be produced, it
conveys the same object to every trained eye.
 Drawings that are prepared in one country can be utilised in any other
country, irrespective of the language spoken there. Hence, this graphic
language is called the universal language of engineers.
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Importance of Graphical Language
 The graphic language came into existence when it became necessary,
apart from depicting existing objects, to build new structures and
create new objects.
 An engineer expresses his ideas on a paper through the medium of
drawing. A complete working drawing of a job is followed by giving an
accurate shape to the raw materials, according to the drawing.
 In the absence of graphic language, the ideas on technical matters have
to be conveyed by speech or writing, both are unreliable and difficult to
understand by the shop floor people for manufacturing.
 This method involves not only lot of time and labour, but also
manufacturing errors. Without engineering drawing, it would have
been impossible to produce objects such as aircrafts, automobiles,
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locomotives, etc., each requiring KYC
thousands of different components. 7
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Need of Graphical Language
 Best results can be obtained if engineering drawing skills are developed
with due consideration of the following:
 Thorough understanding of original drawing
 Visualizing the job three dimensionally
 Clearly understanding and appreciating the shape, size, proportion and
design
 Expressing ideas on paper quickly and clearly by sketches
 Developing speed and accuracy of the drawing using pencil and other
drawing instruments
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Classification of Drawings
 Machine Drawing
 Part Drawing
 Assembly Drawing
 Production Drawing
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Machine Drawing
 Drawing pertaining to machine parts or components. Machine drawing
is presented through several orthographic views, so that the size and
shape of the component is fully understood.
 Part drawings and assembly drawings belong to this classification.
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Production Drawing
 A production drawing, also referred to as working drawing, should
furnish all the dimensions, limits and special finishing processes such as
heat treatment, honing, lapping, surface finish, etc., to guide the
craftsman on the shop floor in producing the component.
 The title should have the information about the material used for
product, number of parts required for the assembled unit, etc.
 Since a craftsman will ordinarily make one component at a time, it is
advisable to prepare the production drawing of each component on a
separate sheet.
 However, in some cases the drawings of related components may be
given on the same sheet.
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Production Drawing
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DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND ACCESSORIES
 The following set of instruments are required for ensuring
perfection in manual drawing:
 Drawing board
 Drawing Sheet
 Tee-square
 Mini drafter
 Set square
 Compasses and Dividers
 Protractor
 French curves
 Pencil
 Eraser
 Sharpener
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 Drawing board
 Drawing board is made of soft wooden platens. Almost perfect
planning of the working surface of the drawing board is to be ensured.
 A strip of hard ebony edge is fitted up in a groove on the shorter edge
of the board and perfectly lined to provide the guide for the T-square.
 The standard sizes of the drawing board is shown in Table (Slide 15).
 D2 size of drawing board is normally recommended for Engineering
students.
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 Drawing Sheet
 Drawing sheet is the medium on which drawings are prepared by
means of pencils or pen.
 Drawing sheets are available in standard sizes as shown in Table 1.2.
 A standard A0 size sheet is the one with an area of 1 m-2 and having
dimensions of 1189 x 841.
 Each higher number sheet (A1, A2, A3, etc. in order) is half the size of
the immediately lower numbered sheet.
 For drawing practice for first year engineering students A2 size is the
preferred drawing sheet. The recommended sizes obtained for various
drawing sheets are shown in figure (Slide 17).
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Figure: Recommended sizes obtained
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for various drawing sheets 17
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 Mini-drafter
 This is a device used to draw parallel or inclined lines very effectively
with ease.
 This is mounted on the top left corner of the drawing board by means
of a clamping mechanism which is an integral part of the device.
 Figure (Slide 19) shows the photograph of a typical college level mini
drafter.
 An L-shaped scale which is graduated in millimeters acts as the working
edge of the mini-drafter.
 The L-Shaped scale also has a degree scale for angle measurement. The
working edge can be moved to any desired location on the drawing
board.
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 Set squares
 Set squares are a set of 45 set square and 30- 60 set-square, as
shown in figure (slide 21).
 They are used in conjunction with each other and with T-square to
draw parallel, inclined and perpendicular lines.
 They are made of transparent acrylic. Each is having beveled edges with
engraved mm or inch marking.
 The 45 set square generally has a protractor, where as the 30 -60
set-square includes French curves.
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Figure: Set squares 45 and 30-60

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 Compasses
 These are used to draw arcs or circles.
 Generally two sizes of compasses: one large compass and the other a
small spring bow compass are commonly found.
 Each compass consist of a needle point and a pencil point.
 For drawing very large radius arcs, the pencil point leg can be removed
from the knee joint and a lengthening bar can be inserted to increase
the radius of the arc.
 Figure in slide 23 shows the image of a compass.
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Figure: Photograph of a compass

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 Divider
 Dividers are used to transfer lengths to the
drawings either from scales or from the
drawing itself.
 Similar to the compasses, two sizes of
dividers are used in technical drawings.
 One large divider and the other small spring
bow divider.
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 Pencils / lead sticks/ pencil sharpener /eraser:
 The primary tool used in technical drawings is the pencil or lead sticks.
 The neatness, quality and accuracy of a drawing greatly depends upon
the type and condition of the pencil used for drawing.
 Pencil leads are made of graphite with clay added in varying amounts to
make 18 grades from 9H to 7B.
 These grades can be divided into 3 groups:
 Hard: 9H to 4H
 Medium: 3H to B (3H, 2H, H, HB and B)
 Soft: 2B to 7B
 Pencil sharpener is used to mend the pencils.
 Eraser is used to erase the unnecessary
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 French curve/Flexible curve
 French curve is free form template make of acrylic and is used to
draw a smooth curve passing through a number of points.
 The outer profile of the French curve is adjusted such the smooth
curve passes through more than three points and a curve passing
through these lines are drawn.
 The next part of the curve is then drawn by using the next three
points in addition to the last two points of the previous curve.
 A typical French curve is shown in figure 6.
 A flexible curve is consists of a flexible, generally made of metallic
wire coated with a thick rubber material. This can be bend in to any
shape so that its working edge can be matched with a number of
points and a smooth curve can be obtained .
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 Figure: A typical French Curve.
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LAYOUT OF DRAWING SHEETS
 Any engineering drawing has to follow a standard format.
 The drawing sheet consist of drawing space, title block and sufficient
margins.
 After fixing the drawing sheet on the drawing board, margins should be
drawn.
 The layout should facilitate quick reading of important particulars.
 Drawings are prepared at various locations and quick references should
be located easily.
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 A typical drawing sheet consists of the following:
 Borders space left all around in between the trimmed edges of the sheet. A minimum
of 10 mm
 Filling margin 20 mm minimum on left hand side with border included. This is
provided for taking perforations.
 Grid reference system for all sizes of drawing sheets for easy location of drawing
within the frame.
• The length and the width of the frames are divided into even number of divisions.
• Number of divisions for a particular sheet depends on complexity of the drawing.
• The length of the grids lies between 25 mm to 75mm depending on the Drawing
sheet size.
• The grids along vertical edges are named by capital letters whereas grids along the
horizontal edges are by numerals.
• Numbering and lettering start from the corner of the sheet opposite to the title box
and are repeated on the opposite sides.
• The numbers and letters are written upright. Repetition of letters or numbers like AA,
BB, etc. are practiced in case they exceed
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 Title box – An important feature which is a must in every drawing sheet.
• The title box is drawn at the bottom right hand corner of every drawing sheet and
provides technical and administrative details regarding the drawing/component.
• Though there are various dimensions for the title box, for Engineering students it
is advisable to use a title box of size 170 mm x 65 mm.
• The title box is divided in to two zones: (a) part identification zone and (b)
additional information zone. In the part identification zone, information like the
component identification number , name of the part, the legal owner of the
drawing (i.e. the name of firm/component/etc will be highlighted where as in the
additional information zone, technical information like symbols indicating the
system of projection, scale of drawing, method of indicating surface texture,
geometric tolerances, etc. will be highlighted.
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Figure: Typical drawing layout showing the margins,

location of title block and grids.
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A typical title box recommended for Engineering

students.
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Standard sheet sizes as per BIS
Designation Size (mm)

A0 841 x 1189
A1 594 x 841
A2 420 x 594
A3 297 x 420
A4 210 x 297
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QA
 Question 3: Paper size ‘A0’ has an area of
 https://www.menti.com/mi3shxzed5
 https://www.mentimeter.com/s/63a7e24c91b010430cc4a4701c90a3c
9/43798ece10a8
 Question 4: Which of the following pencil leads is hardest?
 https://www.menti.com/p5v5odp5qh
 https://www.mentimeter.com/s/230b2c90d9cb93ab92848949c8bedd7
5/14145fe145fd
 Question 5: A title block does not provide which of the following
information?
 https://www.menti.com/u23aej7fg8
 https://www.mentimeter.com/s/2446615b1349e2a1b59b94ecfd2ba34
0/21e0a45511a2
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CAD software’s
 3D modeling software is now an essential tool for a lot of industries.
 Engineers and designers are making the most of these advanced
software tools, useful for many applications, from simulation to
manufacturing.
 Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computers (or workstations)
to aid in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a
design.
 CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the designer,
improve the quality of design, improve communications through
documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing.
 CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining,
or other manufacturing operations.
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CAD software’s
 CAD software for mechanical design uses either vector-based graphics
to depict the objects of traditional drafting or may also produce raster
graphics showing the overall appearance of designed objects.
 Current computer-aided design software packages range from 2D
vector-based drafting systems to 3D solid and surface modelers.
 Modern CAD packages can also frequently allow rotations in three
dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any desired
angle, even from the inside looking out. Some CAD software is capable
of dynamic mathematical modeling.
 However, it involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting
of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey
information, such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances,
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according to application-specific conventions.
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CAD Software's
 Open source
 FreeCAD
 OpenSCAD
 LibreCAD
 SolveSpace
 QCAD
 Salome
 OnShape
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CAD Software's
 Proprietary software
 Solidworks
 CATIA
 Rhino
 Siemens NX (Unigraphics)
 DraftSight
 SketchUp
 Autodesk AutoCAD/Inventor/Revit
 Solid Edge
 TurboCAD
 CorelCAD
 PTC Creo (Pro/Engineer)
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QA
 If a line is drawn between points 1,5 and -3,5 its absolute length is
 https://www.menti.com/6e1tpnzkf1
 https://www.mentimeter.com/s/0888e6b73777e204cba10ad5f12e7a8
0/6355d3a6c1dc
 What does WCS stand for?
 https://www.menti.com/uxkd448tc7
 https://www.mentimeter.com/s/834fbce5dbe5a0c5048c7a689baac34e
/050926d059e8
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Projections
 The word ‘Projection’, is of Latin origin, meaning “to thrown forward”
 Projection is defined as an image or the act of obtaining the image
(view) of an object.
 Projectors: They are the rays of sight containing the point and meeting
the corresponding plane of projection.
 A plane of projection (i.e, an image or picture plane) is an imaginary flat
plane upon which the image created by the line of sight is projected.
 The image is produced by connecting the points where the lines of sight
pierce the projection plane.
 In effect, 3-D object is transformed into a 2-D representation, also called
projections. The paper or computer screen on which a drawing is
created is a plane of projection.
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Projections
Simple projection system

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Classification of projections
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Classification of projections
 Following four methods of projection are commonly used:
1. Orthographic projection
2. Isometric projection
3. Oblique projection
4. Perspective projection.
 In the above methods 2, 3 and 4 represent the object by a pictorial view
as eyes see it. In these methods of projection a three-dimensional object
is represented on a projection plane by one view only.
 While in orthographic projection an object is represented on the mutual
perpendicular projection planes. Each projection view represents two
dimensions of an object. For the complete description of the three-
dimensional object at least two or three views are required.
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ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
 If an observer, imagined to be positioned at infinity in front of a plane,
looks at a point P with an eye, the line of sight joining the eye of the
observer to the point P will be perpendicular to the plane and will meet
the picture plane at point p.
 Point p′ is the view of point P and is known as its orthographic projection.
The line of sight is known as the projector and the picture plane is called
the plane of projection.
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 A single orthographic projection of an object gives information about only
two dimensions of a three-dimensional object. Hence, more than one
projection is required.
 For simple objects only two projections are required. Therefore, a vertical
plane (VP) and a horizontal plane (HP), which are perpendicular to each
other, are generally selected as the planes of projection.
 These two planes, if extended to infinity, divide the complete space into
four quadrants or four dihedral angles. They are numbered as follows:
Location Dihedral Angle or Quadrant Number
Infront of VP, above HP First
Behind VP, above HP Second
Behind VP, below HP Third
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Infront of VP, below HP KYC
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The vertical and horizontal planes of projection in quadrant system

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 Principle of first angle projection: In first angle projection, the object is
imagined to be positioned in the first quadrant. The object is situated in
front of VP and above HP. The object lies between the observer and the
plane of projection.
 The projection of object on VP is known as the front view or the front
elevation, or simply the elevation.
 The projection of object on HP is known as the top view or the top plan,
or simply the plan.
 The notations used here are as follows:
 (i) The original point is represented by capital letters: for example, A, B, P and Q.
 (ii) The top view is represented by a lowercase letters: for example, a, b, p and q.
 (iii) The front view is represented by a lowercase letter with a dash: for example, a′, b′, p′ and q′.
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METHODS OF OBTAINING ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS
 View from front: It is defined as the view that is obtained as projection
on the vertical plane by looking at the object normal to its front surface.
 It is the usual practice to position the object such that its view from the
front reveals most of the important features.
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 View from top: It is defined as the view that is obtained as projection on
the horizontal plane, by looking the object normal to its top surface.
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 View from side: It is defined as the view that is obtained as projection on
the profile plane by looking the object, normal to its side surface.
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PRESENTATION OF VIEWS
 The different views of an
object are placed on a
drawing sheet which is a two
dimensional, to reveal all the
three dimensions of the
object.
 For this, the horizontal is
rotated clockwise 90 and
profile plane is rotated
backward by 90(rotate till
they coincide with the vertical
plane).
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Designation and Relative position of views
 An object positioned in space may be imagined as surrounded by six
mutually perpendicular planes. So, for any object, six different views
may be obtained by viewing at it along the six directions, normal to
these planes. Figure shows an object with six possible directions to
obtain the different views which are designated as follows:
1. View in the direction a = view from the front
2. View in the direction b = view from above
3. View in the direction c = view from the left
4. View in the direction d = view from the right
5. View in the direction e = view from below
6. View in the direction f = view from the rear
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Six views of an object

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ILLUSTRATION OF THE VIEWS AFTER THE BOX HAS BEEN PARTIALLY UNFOLDED
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Relative position of six views in First angle projection

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Relative position of six views in Third angle projection

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PRINCIPLES OF DRAWING
 Engineering drawings are to be prepared on standard size drawing
sheets.
 The correct shape and size of the object can be visualized from the
understanding of not only the views of it, but also from the various
types of lines used, dimensions, notes, scale, etc.
 To provide the correct information about the drawings to all the people
concerned, the drawings must be prepared, following certain standard
practices, as recommended by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).
 Engineering drawings are prepared on drawing sheets of standard sizes.
The use of standard size sheet, saves paper and facilitates convenient
storage of drawings.
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 Sheet sizes: The basic principles involved in arriving at the sizes of
drawing sheets are: (a) X:Y = 1:2 (b) XY = 1. where X and Y are the sides
of the sheet.
 For a reference size A0 having a surface area of 1m2, X = 841mm and
Y=1189 mm.
 The successive format sizes are obtained either by halving along the
length or doubling along the width, the areas being in the ratio 1:2.
 Designation of sizes: The original drawing should be made on the
smallest sheet, permitting the necessary clarity and resolution.
 The preferred sizes according to ISO-A series (First choice) of the
drawing sheets are used. When sheets of greater length are needed,
special elongated sizes (Second choice) are used.
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 These sizes are obtained by extending the shorter sides of format of the
ISO-A series to lengths that are multiples of the shorter sides of the
chosen basic format.
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SCALES
 Scale is the ratio of the linear dimension of an element of an object as
represented in the drawing, to the real (actual) linear dimension of the
same element of the object itself.
 Wherever possible, it is desirable to make full size drawings, so as to
represent true shapes and sizes.
 If this is not practicable, the largest possible scale should be used. While
drawing very small objects, such as watch components and other similar
objects, it is advisable to use enlarging scales.
 Designation: The complete designation of a scale should consist of the
word “Scale”, followed by the indication of its ratio as:
 SCALE 1 : 1 for full size, SCALE x:1 for enlarge scale and SCALE 1:x for
reduced scale. The designation of the scale used on the drawing should
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SCALES
 Recommended Scales: The recommended scales for use on technical
drawings are given in Table. The scale and the size of the object in turn,
will decide the size of the drawing.
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SCALES
 Representative Fraction: The ratio of the length on the drawing to the
length of the actual object is called representative fraction (RF).
length on the drawing
RF 
length of the actual object
 Here, the length in both the numerator and the denominator should be
measured in the same units.
 For example, if the 20 mm length of the object is represented by 10 mm
length on the drawing, RF is equal to 10/20 = 1/2. This means that the
scale of the drawing is half of the full-size.
 If 20 mm length of the object is represented by the 20 mm length on the
drawing, then RF is equal to 20/20 = 1/1. The scale of the drawing is full-
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SCALES
 Again, if 20 mm length on the object is represented by 100 mm length on
the drawing, the RF is equal to 100/20 = 5/1. In this case, the drawing is
said to have been drawn to five times the full-size scale.
 The actual scale used to prepare the drawing is written on the drawing
sheet as RF=1/2 or SCALE 1:2
 CONSTRUCTION OF SCALES: Only standard scales are readily available. If
the required scale is not available, it is constructed on the drawing sheet.
To construct a scale, the following information is required:
i. RF of the scale.
ii. Units in which the measurements are to be taken—kilometres, metres,
centimetres or millimetres.
iii. Maximum length that the scale has to show.
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Critical Thinking Exercises
 Two cities are located at a distance of 40 km from each other. On a
map, the distance between these cities is found to be 16 cm. What is
the RF of the scale used for the map? Which scale would be suitable for
this map to be able to read kilometers and hectometers, and for the
scale to be long enough to read 50 km?
 The distance between two towns is 120 km. A train covers this distance
in 4 hours. Construct a plain scale to measure distance up to a single
kilometer and long enough to measure 40 km. Take the RF of the scale
as 1/200000 and construct a comparative scale to measure time up to a
single minute. Find the distance travelled by the train in 25 minutes.
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SCALES
 TYPES OF SCALES
 The following types of scales are usually used:
 (i) Plain scales
 (ii) Diagonal scales
 (iii) Comparative scales
 (iv) Vernier scales
 (v) Scale of chords
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PLAIN SCALES
 A plain scale is constructed by dividing a line into a number of equal
parts or units and subdividing the first division into a number of equal
smaller parts. Thus, plain scales represent units and subunits. This could
be units such as kilometres or metres and its fractions such as metres or
1/5th of a metre.
 A plain scale has the following features:
i. The complete length of the scale is divided into main units.
ii. The first main division on the left is subdivided into subunits.
iii. The zero is placed at the end of the first main division on the left, that
is, between units and subdivisions.
iv. The units are serially numbered to the right of the zero mark while
subunits are numbered to the left.
v. The RF of the scale is written below
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the scale. 66
Engineering
PLAIN SCALES
Example: Draw a plain scale of 5cm:1m to read in meters and decimeters and that is long enough
to measure 3.8m. Mark the following distances on the scale:
(i) 2 m and 6 decimeters
(ii) 3 m and 8 decimeters
Plain Scale
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Engineering
DIAGONAL SCALES
 DIAGONAL SCALES: When very small
subdivisions are required to be made, plain
scales cannot be drawn accurately. In such
cases, diagonal or vernier scales can be used.
 Diagonal scales are based upon the fact that the
lengths of the respective sides of similar
triangles are in proportion.
 In Figure the length 0–A is divided into 10 equal
parts and straight lines 1–1′,2–2′, . . . 9–9′ are
drawn parallel to AB, thus forming 10 similar
triangles 0–1–1′, 0–2–2′, . . . 0–A–B.
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Engineering
DIAGONAL SCALES
 Example: A distance of 1,000 km is to be represented by a length of 200
mm. Draw a diagonal scale that can read up to a single kilometer and
that is long enough to measure 700 km. Mark off 657 km and 343 km.
length on the drawing 200mm 1
RF   
length of the actual drawing 1000km 5000000
Length of scale=RF  maximum length to be measured
1
Length of scale=  700000000  140mm
5000000
Note that as the scale is required to read up to a single kilometer, a straight line of
140mm length would be required to be divided into 700 equal parts. But this is not
possible practically. Therefore, a diagonal scale is most suitable when the RF is so small.
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Engineering
DIAGONAL SCALES
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Engineering
VERNIER SCALES
 VERNIER SCALES: Vernier scales are prepared instead of diagonal scales
when the available space is small and accurate measurements are
required to be made according to a very small unit.
 A vernier scale consists of a primary scale and a vernier. This primary
scale is an ordinary plain scale with main divisions and subdivisions.
 The smallest unit that is obtained is further divided with the help of a
vernier.
 Each main division represents 1 m. Each main division is subdivided into
10 equal parts, so that each subdivision represents 1 decimeter.
 The scale is made capable of reading 1/10th of a decimeter (1 cm) with
the help of a vernier.
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Engineering
VERNIER SCALES
 The logic of a vernier scale is as follows. Just above the main division on
the left, the rectangular vernier strip is drawn starting from 0 of the
main scale with the length equal to eleven subdivisions.
 This length is divided into 10 equal parts so that each part represents
11/10 decimetres. Hence, the difference between one part of the
vernier strip and one subdivision of the plain scale is (11/10)-1=(1/10)
decimetre =1 cm.
 Similarly, the difference between two parts of a vernier and two
subdivisions of a plain scale is 2 cm. Thus, the measurement of the
difference between vernier divisions and the same number of plain-
scale divisions enables marking of distances equal to 1, 2, . . . 9 cm.
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Engineering
VERNIER SCALES
 Draw a vernier scale of RF equal to 1/20 and capable of reading meters,
decimetres and centimeters. Show on it the following lengths:
i. 2 m, 5 decimetres and 6 cm
ii. 1.44 m
iii. 16.8 decimetres
 The maximum length to be measured is 2 m, 5 decimeters and 6 cm.
Therefore, let the scale be drawn to measure 3 m.
 (ii) Calculate the length of the scale, that is, RF x maximum length to be
measured
1 3 1000mm
  150mm
20 1
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Engineering
VERNIER SCALES
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Engineering
COMPARATIVE SCALES
 COMPARATIVE SCALES: Scales drawn with the same RF but graduated to
read units in different systems are called comparative scales.
 Say, one scale is prepared to be read in the British system and another
one with the same RF is to be read in the metric system; then, a drawing
based on British units can be read in metric units and vice-versa.
 Similarly, if two equivalent physical phenomena are represented by the
same length on their respective scales, using the length representing a
particular measure of one phenomenon one can read the corresponding
measure of the other phenomenon.
 For example, let us say a car travels at a speed of 50 km per hour and one
scale is prepared to read kilometers, hectometers and decimeters. The
other is prepared to read hours, minutes, and seconds.
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Engineering
COMPARATIVE SCALES
 Then if the length representing 50 km and 1 hour is the same, one can
read the time required to travel any particular distance or the distance
travelled in any particular time using any one of the scales.
 Comparative scales can be plain scales or diagonal scales. Often, they are
constructed one above the other, but they can be constructed separately
also.
 Example: In an old drawing, a distance of 1 foot is shown by a line of 3
inches length. Construct a scale to read in feet and inches and long
enough to measure 3 feet. Construct a comparative scale attached to this
scale to read decimetres and centimetres and to measure up to 100 cm.
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Engineering
COMPARATIVE SCALES
 Calculate the representative fraction.
length on the drawing 3 1
RF   
length of the actual drawing 1 12 4
 Calculate the length of the scale in both the systems.

 The length of the scale in the British system
1 3
 = RF x length to be measured in feet   3  feet  9inches
4 4
 The length of the scale in metric system
1
 = RF x length to be measured in cm  100  25cm
4
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Engineering
COMPARATIVE SCALES
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Engineering
SCALE OF CHORDS
 Whenever a protractor is not available, a scale of chords can be used
either to measure or to set out angles.
 The scale of chords is based on the fact that the length of the
circumference of an arc of a fixed radius r is directly proportional to the
angle subtended by it at the centre of the arc and, hence, the length of
the chord on that arc is also unique for each angle subtended at the
centre. The scale can be prepared as follows:
 Draw a line AB, to any convenient length, and then draw the right angle
ABC. With B as the centre and radius equal to AB, draw an arc to intersect
BC at point C. Now arc AC or chord AC subtends an angle of 90 at the
centre B.
 Now, divide the arc AC. It can be divided into 9 or 18 parts to obtain a
07-10-2020
scale that can read angles in multiples
KYC of 10 or 5. 79
Engineering
SCALE OF CHORDS
 To divide arc AC into nine equal parts, first divide it into three equal
parts by drawing arcs with radius equal to AB and points A and C as
centres and intersecting the arc AC at points 60 and 30 respectively.
 Subdivide each of these parts into three equal parts using a divider so
that each of the nine equal parts subtends an angle of 10.
 Divide each of these nine equal parts into two equal parts to obtain
18 parts of the arc AC so that each division subtends an angle of 5.
 Now, with A as centre and chordal length A–5, A–10,..A–90 as radii,
draw arcs and intersect the extended straight line AB to obtain
chordal lengths on the straight line.
 It may be noted that the length of the chord increases with the
increase in angle but this increase is not directly proportional to the
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angle. KYC 80
Engineering
SCALE OF CHORDS
07-10-2020 KYC 81
Engineering
SCALE OF CHORDS
 Construct an angle of 55 using the scale of chords of slide 81.
 Solution:
 Draw any straight line AB of convenient length.
 With A as centre and radius equal to 0–60, i.e., the chord length for 60
angle measured from Figure in slide 81, draw an arc to intersect AB at
point M.
 With M as centre and radius equal to the 0–55, i.e., the chord length for
55 angle measured from slide 81, draw an arc to intersect the
previously drawn arc at point C and join AC.
 Then, angle BAC is equal to 55°.
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Engineering
SCALE OF CHORDS
Constructing 55 angle using scale of chords

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Engineering
SCALE OF CHORDS
 If an angle greater than 90 is required, it should be drawn in two steps.
For example, to set off an angle of 105, it may be drawn as two angles,
say, 55+50. Angle CAD, which is 50, is set off by marking point D at
chordal distance 0–50 from point C.
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Engineering
QA
 QNo.8: The ratio of the length of the drawing of the object to the actual
length of the object is called
 https://www.menti.com/z6muwrooji
 Drawings of buildings are drawn using
 https://www.menti.com/i8hpomxh7c
 When measurements are required in three units --·-·-···-·--·--- scale is
used
 https://www.menti.com/1ec3odxn2e
 On an old map, a scale of miles is constructed. On measuring, a
distance of 30 miles is seen to be of 10 cm length. Construct a plain
scale to measure up to 45 miles. Construct a comparative scale
07-10-2020
attached to this scale to read kilometers
KYC
and to measure up to 48 km. 85
Engineering
Importance of Title Block
 The title block should lie within the drawing space such that, the
location of it, containing the identification of the drawing, is at the
bottom right hand corner.
 This must be followed, both for sheets positioned horizontally or
vertically
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Engineering
 The direction of viewing of the title block should correspond in general
with that of the drawing. The title block can have a maximum length of
170 mm. If only one unit, say, millimetres, is used, a general note, for
example, ‘All dimensions are in mm’ is written above the title block, so
that one need not write ‘mm’ after every dimension.
 A typical title block, should provide the following information:
i. Title of the drawing
ii. Sheet number
iii. Scale
iv. Symbol, denoting the method of projection
v. Name of the firm
vi. Initials of staff drawn, checked and approved.
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Engineering
07-10-2020 KYC 88
Engineering
Importance of Part list
 Parts list , also known as a bill of materials (BOM) is a tabular list of the
items used to make an assembly.
 When drawings of a number of constituent parts of an object are drawn
in a single drawing sheet, a list of these parts should be placed above or
beside the title block in a tabular form.
 Parts list is usually combined with the assembly drawing, but it can be
an individual document that provides a complete list of all parts needed
to build assembly.
 Part list (BOM) is used by purchase department to procure the right
material and required quantity; hence it should show the name of raw
material size rather than finished size.
 Standard components like bolts, nuts, washer, bearings, belts should
07-10-2020 have a part number and mentioned KYC on the list. 89
Engineering
Importance of Part list
Part Drawing of a Crane Hook

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Engineering
Lines conventions
 Lines of different types and thicknesses are used for graphical
representation of objects.
 Engineering drawings are prepared with the help of symbolic lines.
 These lines are drawn using two thicknesses, usually specified as thin and
thick.
 The recommended ratio of the thickness of the thick to thin lines is
atleast 2:1.
 The recommended values of the thickness of the lines is usually 0.25,
0.35, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0, 1.4 or 2.0 mm.
 The thickness of the line that is to be used in a drawing should be chosen
from the above options depending upon the size and type of drawing.
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Engineering
Lines conventions
 For the views of an object, all the thick lines should be of uniform
thickness throughout the drawing. Similarly, all the thin lines should be
uniformly thin.
 Symbolic lines are used to represent different applications.
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Engineering
Lines conventions
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Engineering
Lines conventions
 PRECEDENCE OF LINES: At times, some of the main lines may coincide
with hidden or center lines. Since continuous lines exhibit the shape of
the object, they are given priority over all lines.
 If dashed lines appear over center line, then priority is given to dashed
line. Following is the precedence that should normally be used for lines.
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Engineering
Lines conventions
 Outlines: Lines drawn to represent visible edges and surface boundaries of
objects are called outlines or principal lines. They are continuous thick or
wide lines
 Margin lines: They are continuous thick or wide lines along which the prints
are trimmed.
 Dimension lines: These lines are continuous thin lines. They are terminated
at the outer ends by pointed arrowheads touching the outlines, extension
lines or centre lines.
 Extension lines: These lines are continuous thin lines. They extend by about
3 mm beyond the dimension lines.
 Projection lines: These lines are continuous thin lines.
 Construction lines: These lines are drawn for constructing figures. They are
shown in geometrical drawings only.
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They are continuous thin light lines. 95
Engineering
Lines conventions
 Hatching lines: These lines are drawn to make the section evident. They are
continuous thin lines and are drawn generally at an angle of 45 to the main
outline of the section. They are uniformly spaced about 1mm to 2mm apart.
 Leader or pointer lines: Leader line is drawn to connect a note with the
feature to which it applies. It is a continuous thin line.
 Border lines: Perfectly rectangular working space is determined by drawing
the border lines. They are continuous thin lines.
 Short-break lines: These lines are continuous, thin and wavy. They are
drawn freehand and are used to show a short break, or irregular
boundaries.
 Long-break lines: These lines are thin ruled lines with short zigzags within
them. They are drawn to show long breaks.
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Engineering
Lines conventions
 Hidden or dotted lines: Interior or hidden edges and surfaces are shown by
hidden lines. They are also called dotted lines. They are made up of short
dashes of approximately equal lengths of about 2 mm spaced at equal
distances of about 1 mm. When a hidden line meets or intersects another
hidden line or an outline, their point of intersection or meeting should be
clearly shown.
 Centre lines: Centre lines are drawn to indicate the axes of cylindrical,
conical or spherical objects or details and also to show the centres of circles
and arcs. They are thin, long, chain lines composed of alternately long and
dot spaced approximately 1 mm apart. The long dashes are about 9 to 12
mm. Centre lines should extend for a short distance beyond the outlines to
which they refer.
 Cutting-plane lines: The location of a cutting plane is shown by long, thin,
chain line, thick at ends only.
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Engineering
Lines conventions
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Engineering
Conventional Representations of materials
 As a variety of materials are
used for machine
components in engineering
applications, it is preferable
to have different
conventions of section lining
to differentiate between
various materials.
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Engineering
Conventional Representations of materials
07-10-2020 KYC 100

Engineering
Interrupted views and Braking of Shaft, Pipe, Bar
07-10-2020 KYC 101

Engineering
Symbol to designate Surface finish on drawing
Machining Method
Sampling Length
Roughness value in μm
Machining Allowance Direction of Lay

Engineering
INDICATION OF SURFACE TEXTURE
a) The basic symbol consists of two legs of unequal length inclined at
approximately 60 to the line representing the considered surface. The
symbol must be represented by thin line
b) If the removal of material by machining is required, a bar is added to the
basic symbol
c) If the removal of material is not permitted, a circle is added to the basic
symbol
d) When special surface characteristics have to be indicated, a line is added
to the longer arm of any of the above symbols,
a) b) c) d)
Engineering
Indication of Surface Roughness
 The value or values defining the principal criterion of roughness are
added to the symbols
Roughness a Roughness a Roughness a shall a- surface roughness value

obtained by any obtained by be obtained without
production process removal of material removal of any
by machining material
 If it is necessary to impose maximum and minimum limits of the

principal criterion of surface roughness, both values shall be shown
a1- Maximum limit

a2- Minimum limit
Engineering
Indication of Surface Roughness
Engineering
ROUGHNESS GRADE SYMBOL
Engineering
AVERAGE ROUGHNESS VALUE FOR VARIOUS OPERATIONS
Engineering
SYMBOLS – DIRECTIONS OF LAY
Engineering
METHODS OF INDICATING SURFACE ROUGHNESS ON COMPONENT
Surface quality symbols must be introduced
in the view in which the major dimension of
the surface is dimensioned
Symmetrical surface requiring the same

surface quality, both the surfaces
should be provided with the relevant
symbol
Cylindrical part, the required surface quality

of the cylindrical surface should be
indicated by the relevant symbol, along one
the edges of the view.
If part requires same surface quality all

over its surfaces, the relevant symbol
should be indicated as shown in figure

UNIT 4 Machine Drawing Fundamentals-I

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UNIT 4 Machine Drawing Fundamentals-I

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Go, change the world

Figure: Set squares 45 and 30-60

Figure: Photograph of a compass

 Figure: A typical French Curve.

Figure: Typical drawing layout showing the margins,

A typical title box recommended for Engineering

Designation Size (mm)

Simple projection system

The vertical and horizontal planes of projection in quadrant system

Six views of an object

Relative position of six views in First angle projection

Relative position of six views in Third angle projection

 Calculate the length of the scale in both the systems.

Constructing 55 angle using scale of chords

Part Drawing of a Crane Hook

07-10-2020 KYC 100

07-10-2020 KYC 101

Machining Allowance Direction of Lay

Roughness a Roughness a Roughness a shall a- surface roughness value

 If it is necessary to impose maximum and minimum limits of the

a1- Maximum limit

Symmetrical surface requiring the same

Cylindrical part, the required surface quality

If part requires same surface quality all

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