Unit 2 Chapter 1 CMMD 2020

Course Title:
Concept of Metrology and Machine

Drawing
Course Code: 18ME34
By: Keshavamurthy YC
UNIT -II
• Comparators: Mechanical, pneumatic and electrical
types, applications. Angular Sine bar, optical bevel
protractor. Slip gauges and classification,
interferometry, optical flats.
• Limits, fits and tolerances: Definition of tolerance,
Principle of interchangeability and selective
assembly, Indian standards, concept of limits of size
and tolerances, definition of fits, types of fits, hole
basis system, shaft basis system, classification of
gauges, brief concept of design of gauges (Taylor’s
principles), Wear allowance on gauges, Types of
gauges-plain plug gauge, ring gauge, snap gauge,
limit gauge and gauge materials.
2 KYC
Introduction to Comparators
• A comparator is a precision instrument employed to compare
the dimension of a given component with a working standard.
• A comparator works on relative measurements, i.e. to say, it
gives only dimensional differences in relation to a basic
dimension.
• So a comparator compares the unknown dimensions of a part
with some standard or master setting which represents the
basic size and dimensional variations from the master setting
are amplified and measured.
• All comparators, usually consists of three basic features.
• 1) A sensing device which faithfully senses the input signal.
• 2) A magnifying or amplifying system to increase the signal
to a suitable magnitude. Mechanical, optical, pneumatic,
hydraulic and electronic methods are used for this purpose.
• 3) A display system (usually a scale and pointer) which utilizes
the amplified signal to provide a suitable read out.
3 KYC
• Need for a Comparator
➢ Comparator is required in mass production and mass
production would be impossible if component parts could
not be produced to close dimensional tolerances.
➢ Use of line standards such as Vernier and micrometer
calipers requires a considerable degree of skill if
consistent results are to be obtained.
➢ Where dimension must be checked with high degree of
precision and speed in the mass production.
➢ When many dimensions are to be checked, in a very short
time.
4 KYC
• Characteristics or Basic Requirements of Comparators
➢ The instrument must be of robust design, so as to withstand the
effect of ordinary usage without impairing its measure to
accuracy.
➢ The indicating devices must be such that readings are obtained
least possible time
➢ Provision for maximum compensation to temperature effects.
➢ The scale must be linear and must have straight line
characteristics
➢ The instrument must be versatile i.e., its design must be such
that it can be used for a wide range of measurements.
➢ The measuring pressure should be low and constant.
➢ The indicator (pointer, liquid column etc) should be clear and
free from oscillations.
5 KYC
• The comparators are generally used for linear measurements,
and various comparators available differ principally in the
method used for amplifying and recording the variations
measured.
• According to the principles used for obtaining suitable degrees
of magnification of the indicating device relative to the change in
the dimension being measured, the various comparators may
be classified as follows:
➢ Mechanical comparators
➢ optical comparators
➢ Electrical and Electronic comparators
➢ Pneumatic comparators
➢ Fluid displacement comparators
➢ Projection comparators
➢ Multi-check comparators
➢ Automatic gauging machines.
6 KYC
• Further the combination of magnifying principles has resulted in
the development of following comparators
➢ Mechanical - optical comparators.
➢ Electro - mechanical comparators.
➢ Multi - check comparators.
• In addition comparators of high sensitivity and magnification are
as follows
➢ The Brookes level comparator.
➢ The Eden-Rolt "millionth" comparator.
7 KYC
Mechanical Comparators
• In mechanical comparators, the required magnification is
obtained by using mechanical linkages, levers, gearing and
other mechanical devices. Example of mechanical type of
comparators are
➢ Dial gauge
➢ Reed comparator
➢ Johansson Mikrokator
➢ Sigma comparator
8 KYC
• Dial indicator: It consists of a robust base whose surface is
perfectly flat and a pillar carrying a bracket in which is
incorporated a spindle fitted with a pinion and a dial scale.
• The linear movement of the plunger is magnified by means of
a rack and pinion train into sizable rotation of the pointer on
the dial scale.
• The dial scale is set to zero by the use of slip gauges
representing the basic size of the part.
• This is generally used for inspection of small precision-
machined parts.
• This type of comparator can be used with various
attachments so that it may be used for large number of
works.
• For example, with a V-block attachment, it can be used for
checking out-of-roundness of a cylindrical component
9 KYC
10 KYC
• Reed Type Mechanical Comparator: Movable link is
constrained by thin metal flexure strips to move vertically
relative to the fixed link, which is attached to the housing.
• Because of their orientation relative to the motion, reeds provide
a large angular movement of the pointer.
• The scale may be calibrated to indicate any deviation from an
initial setting.
• The most commonly used mechanical comparator for height
measurement.
11 KYC
Schematic of Amplifying Mechanism used in Reed Type

12
Mechanical Comparator KYC
• Johansson Mikrokator (Abramson's movement): This
comparator uses the simplest and most ingenious (smart)
method of obtaining the mechanical magnifications designed by
H. Abramson.
• It works on the principle of a button spinning on a loop of string.
• Twisted thin metal strip carries a very light pointer made of thin
glass at the centre of its length.
• The two halves of the strip from the centre are twisted in
opposite directions so that any pull on the strip will cause the
centre to rotate.
• One end of the strip is fixed to an adjustable cantilever strip and
the other end is anchored to the spring elbow, one arm of which
is carried on the measuring plunger.
13 KYC
• As the measuring plunger moves either upwards or downwards,
the elbow acts as bell crank lever and causes twisted strip to
change its length thus making it further twist or untwist.
• Thus, the pointer at the centre of the twisted strip rotates by an
amount proportional to the change in length of the strip and
hence proportional to the plunger movement.
• The spring elbow is formed of flexible strips with a diagonal
which is relatively stiff.
• The length of cantilever can be varied to adjust the
magnification of the instrument. Since the centre line of the strip
is straight even when twisted, therefore it is directly stretched by
the tension applied to the strip.
• Thus in order to prevent excessive stress on the central portion,
the strip is perforated along the centre. A slit washer is used for
lower mounting of the plunger.
14 KYC
Schematic of Johansson Mikrokator

15 KYC
Schematic of Johansson Mikrokator

16 KYC
• Sigma comparator is an example of a mechanical comparator
with magnifications in the range of 300 to 5000.
• The plunger is attached to a rectangular bar which is supported
at its upper and lower ends by flexure plates.
• A knife edge is fixed to the side of the rectangular bar which
bears on a moving block.
• The moving block and the fixed block are connected by flexible
strips al right angles to each other.
• If an external force is applied to the moving block, it would pivot
about the line of intersection of the strips.
• This hinge is suitably pretensioned to allow it to rotate within the
range of the instrument scale.
• A forked arm or Y-arm attached to the moving block transmits
rotary motion to the indicator driving drum through a bronze
band wrapped around the drum.
17 KYC
Mechanism of Sigma Comparator

18 KYC
• Brooke’s Level Comparator: It is a mechanical comparator
used in standards rooms rather than in usual inspection rooms.
• This comparator consists of a highly sensitive spirit level and
provides an excellent but slow means of measuring long
gauges, such as length bars.
• The principle on which this operates is that of the displacement
of the bubble in its sensitive level-tube.
• The important design features of this comparator are the
sensitive level-tube and a rotatable disc having mutually parallel
surfaces located on massive base provided with three levelling
screws
• The upper face of the rotatable disc is a plane lapped surface
while the lower face has a lapped annular ring allowing easy
rotation on the base.
• A bracket which supports the spirit level and allows it to be
raised or lowered during measurement is supported by the main
column of the instrument.
19 KYC
• In operation the end of the bubble is first brought to the centre of
the scale by allowing the two ball feet attached to the level to
rest on the top surface of the rotatable disc by adjusting the
levelling screws of the base.
• The standard (S) and the gauge to be compared (G) are now
wrung to the rotatable disc, and the ball feet are made to rest on
the gauges forming a bridge.
• The position of the end of the bubble against the scale is noted,
then the spirit level is raised, the disc is rotated through 180°
and a second reading is taken.
• The displacement of the bubble along the scale represents
twice the difference in height between the gauges.
1
H = L
2
 H → difference in height between the gauges
L → the bubble displacement
20 KYC
21
Brooke’s Level Comparator KYC
Advantages of Mechanical Comparators
• These are usually cheaper in comparison to other devices
of amplifying.
• These do not require any external supply such as
electricity or air and as such the variations in outside
supplies do not affect the accuracy.
• Usually the mechanical comparators have linear scale
which is easily understood.
• These are usually robust and compact and easy to handle.
• For ordinary workshop conditions, these are suitable and
being portable can be issued from a store.
22 KYC
Disadvantages of Mechanical Comparators
• The mechanical comparators have got more moving parts than
other types.
• Due to more moving parts, the friction is more and ultimately
the accuracy is less.
• Any slackness in moving parts reduces the accuracy
considerably.
• The mechanism has more inertia and this may cause the
instruments to be sensitive to vibration.
• The range of the instrument is limited as the pointer moves
over a fixed scale. (u) Error due to parallax is possible as the
moving pointer moves over a fixed scale.
23 KYC
Pneumatic Comparators
• In pneumatic comparators air is used as a means of
magnification. Pneumatic comparators works on the principle of
an air jet.
• When air jet is in close proximity with a surface; the flow of air
out of that jet will be restricted.
• This will result in a change of pressure in the system, supplying
the jet.
• A chamber is fitted with control orifice C and a gauging orifice G,
through which the air flows from a supply at constant pressure
P1.
• If the size of the control orifice C remains constant, any variation
in the size of the gauging orifice G will cause an alteration in the
pressure P2 in the chamber.
• This pressure variation is measured by a pressure gauge of
suitable sensitivity, which may be a manometer, Bourdon-type
gauge or bellows, and graduated to read in linear units.
24 KYC
Principle of Pneumatic Comparator

25 KYC
• Systems of Pneumatic Comparators: Based on the physical
phenomenon on which the pneumatic comparators works, they
are classified as,
• (a) Flow or velocity type
• (b) Back pressure type
26 KYC
• Flow or Velocity Type Comparator / Force Flow Air Gauges:
Flow or velocity type of pneumatic comparators operate by
sensing and indicating the momentary rate of air flow.
• In this case the compressed air after the filtering and pressure
regulating unit flows through a glass tube containing a small
metal float.
• The compressed air then flows through a plastic tube to the
gauge head having two diametrically opposite orifices for the air
to escape.
• The position of float depends upon the amount of air flowing
through gauge head, which in-turn depends upon the clearance
between the bore to be measured and the gauging head.
• These type of comparators can be assembled together side by
side and thus multiple inter-related dimensions can be seen at a
time.
• This method of measuring multiple dimensioning with great
ease, accuracy and speed is the great advantage of these type
27 of comparators. KYC
Schematic of Flow or Velocity type Comparator

28 KYC
• Back Pressure Type Pneumatic Comparators: The principle
of pneumatic gauging in the back-pressure type comparator is
as follows
• Air from a constant pressure source flows to the atmosphere
through two orifices Oc and Om .
• P1 is the pressure on the upstream of the first orifice and P2 is
the pressure between the two orifices. The relationship between
P1 and P2 depends upon the relative sizes of the two orifices.
• P2 becomes equal to P1 when Om is blocked and tends to zero
as Om is increased indefinitely.
• In the basic back pressure circuit, a bourdon tube, bellows or a
diaphragm deflects according to the back-pressure changes
built up in the circuit when the workpiece is placed over the
measuring head.
• The deflection is amplified by a lever and gear arrangement and
indicated on a dial.
29 KYC
Principle of Back Pressure type Pneumatic Comparator
Back Pressure Circuit

30 KYC
• Solex Pneumatic Gauge: The solex company has marketed a
device employing a water manometer for the indication of back
pressure.
• It consists of a water tank in which water is filled up to a certain
level and a dip tube is immersed into it upto a depth
corresponding to the air pressure required.
• Since air is sent at high pressures than the required, some air
will escape from the dip tube and bubbles to the top of the water
tank.
• Thus the air moving towards the control orifice will be al the
desired constant pressure. Then, the air al this pressure passes
through the control orifice and escapes from the measuring jets.
• The back pressure in the circuit is indicated by the head of
water displaced in the manometer tube.
• The pressure in the manometer is regulated by the relative rates
of escape of air through the control orifice and the measuring
jets.
31 KYC
• If the measuring jets are completely closed, the manometer
level is depressed to the bottom of the tube.
• The tube is graduated linearly to show changes in the pressures
resulting from changes in internal diameter of the work being
measured.
• It is very obvious that the diameter being measured at any
instant is corresponding to the portion against two jets.
• To find the concentricity, the workpiece may be revolved around
the measuring gauge.
• If there is no change in the reading, then it is perfectly a
concentric hole.
• Similarly, the diameter can be noted at several places along the
length of the bore and thus tapering of the hole can be
determined.
• This method is therefore best suited for measuring roundness
and taperness of cylinder bores and gun barrel bores etc.
32 KYC
Solex Pneumatic Gauge

33 KYC
Advantages of Pneumatic Comparators
• The gauging member does not come in contact with the part
to be measured and hence practically no wear takes place on
the gauging member.
• It has very less number of moving parts and thus the accuracy
is more due to the absence of friction and lower inertia.
• It is possible to have a very high degree of magnification.
• It is a suitable device for measuring diameter of holes where
the diameter is small compared with the length.
• It is the best method for determining the ovality and taperness
of the circular holes.
• Measuring pressure is very small and the jet of air helps in
cleaning the dust, if any, from the part to be measured.
34 KYC
Disadvantages of Pneumatic Comparators
• It requires elaborate auxiliary equipment's such as accurate
pressure regulator, compressor etc.,
• The scale is generally not linear.
• When indicating device is glass tube, then high magnification
is necessary in order to avoid the parallax errors.
• The apparatus is not easily portable and is rather elaborate for
many industrial applications
35 KYC
ELECTRICAL COMPARATORS
• Electrical comparators possess a minimum of moving parts and
hence a high degree of reliability can be expected from these
instruments.
• These comparators depends for their operation on the principle
of wheatstone bridge. For the bridge to balance, the ratio of the
resistances in each pair of arms must be equal
R1 R3
=
R2 R4
• Commonly used instruments of this type are electrolimit,

electricator, electrigauge.
36 KYC
• Electrolimit Gauge: Vertical movements of the plunger are
transmitted to an armature, which inturn is suspended by thin
metal strips.
• At the left-hand side, the armature lies between two
electromagnetic coils A and B. These coils form two arms of
an A.C bridge circuit.
• Any movement of the armature between the two
electromagnetic coils sets up out-of-balance effects, which are
recorded by a micrometer.
• If the micrometer is calibrated in terms of displacement of the
plunger, direct reading of extremely small movements of the
plunger can be obtained.
• Electrical comparators are also known as electro-mechanical
measuring systems since, they employ an electro-mechanical
devices which converts mechanical displacement into
electrical signal.
37 KYC
Principle of Electrolimit Measuring Head
38 KYC
• Electronic Gauging: The electronic Gauging System is
designed to fulfill the increasing demand for equipment
particularly suited to the accuracy and versatility required by up-
to-date engineering practice.
• Principle of operation: The movement at the probe tip actuates
inductance transducer which is supplied with an alternating
current from the oscillator.
• The transducer converts the movement into an electrical signal
which is then amplified and fed via an oscillator to the
demodulator. The current in D.C form, then passes to the meter
and the probe tip movement is displayed as a linear
measurement.
• Various measuring and control units can be incorporated which
provide for an extremely wide range of single or multiple
measurements to be made simultaneously.
• .
39 KYC
Principle of operation in Electronic Gauging
40 KYC
• Electricheck Gauges. This gauge simply shows whether the
dimension of a component falls within a predetermined
tolerance range without measuring the actual dimensions.
• It can also be used as an automatic check on machines in
operation to stop the tool when the dimension is out of
prescribed limits.
• It employs reed mechanism in its measuring head and reeds
are caused to bend when the floating (movable) block is
moved.
• The bending movement causes the extension arm to break
an electric circuit. Electric contacts control signal to indicate
whether the dimension is within tolerance or not.
• The gauge has first to be set by precision slip gauges to the
maximum and minimum limits of tolerance.
41 KYC
• Electricator Gauges: This gauge combines the advantages of
both dial indicator for actual measurement and tolerance
signals in the form of sound or light.
• Electronic Measuring Equipment: This provides a reliable
means for making external and internal measurements with a
remarkable accuracy and ease.
• This equipment employs a highly dependable Wheatstone
bridge circuit in the form of a strain gauge.
• Due to the deflection of gauging point because of change of
dimension, a minute change is experienced in the electrical
resistance of the bridge circuit.
• This creates voltage signals which are amplified and they in
turn operate the indicating meter.
• It can be used for a variety of internal and external
measurements and special attachments are provided to make
it more versatile.
42 KYC
• Electronic Comparator: It is based on the principle of
application of frequency modulation or radio oscillation.
• A special ratio oscillator is used which produces impulses of a
definite value at a definite frequency.
• The frequency is controlled by the measuring head. When the
measuring head is applied to the part to be measured the
frequency of the instrument oscillator is modified because of the
variation of the dimension from that of the preset standard.
• The modified frequency is annuled by suitable controls to
restore it back to the basic value.
• The measuring instrument dial is graduated directly in terms of
the physical standards of length which compare with, the
electronic standards of wavelength.
43 KYC
Advantages of Electrical Comparators
• The measuring unit can be remote from the indicating
instrument.
• These comparators have high magnifications with Jess number
of moving parts.
• The mechanism carrying the pointer is very light and not
sensitive to vibration.
• The measuring unit is compact and can have several
magnifications
Disadvantages of Electrical Comparators

• These comparators require an external source of energy to
operate i.e., an a.c electric supply. Thus, the fluctuations in
voltage or frequency of electric supply may affect the results.
• Heating of coils in the measuring unit may cause zero drift and
alter the calibration.
• If a fixed scale is used with a moving pointer, then with high
magnifications a very small range of measurement results.
• Electrical and Electronic comparators are more expensive
than mechanical comparators.
44 KYC
Electro-Mechanical Comparators
• Linear variable differential transformer is the most popular
electro-mechanical device used to convert mechanical
displacement into electrical signal.
• In effect, it is a differential transformer consisting of three
symmetrically spaced coils.
• A differential transformer is one of the most useful variable
inductance transducer, it provides an a.c. voltage output
proportional to the displacement of a core passing through
the windings. It is a mutual inductance device making use of
3 coils.
• The centre coil is energized from an external a.c. power
source and the two end coils are connected together in phase
opposition which in-turn are used as pick up coils.
• The output amplitude and phase depends on the relative
coupling between the two pick up coils and the power coil.
45 KYC
• The relative coupling is in-turn depends upon the position of the
core.
• Theoretically there should be a core position for which the
voltage induced in each of the pick-up coils will be of the same
magnitude.
• When they are connected in phase opposition, the two voltages
cancels giving a resultant output of zero magnitude. This
position is known as the null position.
• With in the limits on either side of the null position, the core
displacements results in - a proportional output.
• The linear range depends upon the length of the secondary
coils. By the use of phase sensitive arrangements it is possible
to distinguish between the outputs resulting from displacements
on each side of the null position.
• All commercial differential transformers are designed to operate
only in the linear range and are known as linear variable
differential transformers (LVDTs).
46 KYC
Schematic arrangement (ssectional view) of a typical LVDT

47 KYC
Typical Differential Transformer Performance Characteristics

48 KYC
OPTICAL COMPARATORS
• There are no pure optical comparators but the instruments
classed as optical comparators obtain large magnifications by
the use of optical principles though mechanical magnification
in these instruments contributes quite a lot for the overall
magnification.
• All optical comparators works on one of the following two main
principles
• I) The use of the optical lever.
• 2) The use of enlarged image.
• Optical comparators are capable of giving high degree of
measuring precision.
• And owing to the reduction of moving members they possess
better wear resistance qualities, than mechanical types.
• Also the inherent disadvantages found with the mechanical
comparators, such as weight, bending properties, friction etc.,
are overcome by optical comparators.
49 KYC
OPTICAL COMPARATORS
• Principle of Optical Lever: If a beam of light AC is directed
on to a mirror, it will be reflected onto the screen at O as a dot.
The angle  at which the beam strikes the mirror is equal to
the angle  at which the beam is reflected from the mirror.
• When the plunger moves upwards vertically, causing the
mirror to tilt by an angle ‘’.
• Then the reflected light beam moves through an angle ‘2’
which is twice the angle of tilt produced by the plunger
movement.
• The illuminated dot moves to "B" thus a linear movement "h"
of the plunger produces a movement of the dot equivalent to
the distance OB on the screen.
• It is also clear that as the distance (CO) of the screen from the
tilting mirror increases, greater will be the magnification and is
called the principle of enlarged image.
•
50 KYC
OPTICAL COMPARATORS
Principle of Optical Lever
51 KYC
MECHANICAL - OPTICAL COMPARATORS
• In mechanical optical comparators small displacements of the
measuring plunger are amplified first by a mechanical system
consisting of pivoted levers.
• The amplified mechanical movement is further amplified by a
simple optical system involving the projection of an image.
• The usual arrangement employed is such that the mechanical
system causes a plane reflector to tilt about an axis and the
image of an index is projected on a scale on the inner surface
of a ground-glass screen.
• Optical magnification provides high degree of measuring
precision due to reduction of moving members and better wear
resistance qualities.
• Optical magnification is also free from friction, bending, wear
etc.
52 KYC
Mechanical Optical Comparator

53 KYC
• Zeiss Ultra-Optimeter: The optical system of this
instrument involves double reflection of light and thus gives
higher degree of magnification.
• A lamp sends light rays through green filter to filter all rays
except green light, which causes less fatigue to eye.
• The green light then passes through a condenser which via
an index mark projects it on to a movable mirror M1.
• It is then reflected lo another fixed mirror M2 and back again
to the first movable mirror.
• The objective lens brings the reflected beam from the
movable mirror to a focus at a transparent graticule
containing a precise scale which is viewed by the eye-piece.
• The projected image of the index line on the graticule can be
adjusted by means of a screw in order to set the initial zero
reading.
54 KYC
• When correctly adjusted, the image of the index line is seen
against that of the graticule scale.
• The end of the contact plunger rests against the other end of
the first movable mirror so that any vertical movement of the
plunger will Lilt the mirror.
• This causes a shift in the position of the reflected index line
on the eye piece graticule scale, which inturn measures the
displacement of the plunger.
55 KYC
Principle of Zeiss Ultra Optimeter

56 KYC
• Eden-Rolt Millionth Comparator: Utilizes both mechanical and
optical magnifications and thus is highly sensitive one.
• Its design is simple and economical. The mechanical amplifying
device utilizes a parallel strip support, consisting of a fixed and a
moving block connected together by parallel thin strips.
• The ends of fixed and moving strips through two pointer strips
are connected to a pointer arm which carries at its end a ring
across which is stretched a spider web.
• A reference gauge is placed between a fixed anvil and movable
measuring block. The slight movement of moving block through
pointer strip causes the pointer arm to be deflected.
• The spider web at the end of the pointer arm is not viewed
directly but it is projected through an optical system on a scale. If
“” by the distance between the pointer strips and ‘l’ be length of
pointer arm, then for movement ‘’ of movable member, angular
deflection of pointer strips=(/ ) and linear displacement of web
=(/ ) x L Mechanical amplification= ( /  )  l   = (l /  )
57 KYC
Eden Rolt Millionth Comparator

58 KYC
Advantages of Optical Comparators
• Optical comparators have few moving linkages and hence are
not subjected to friction and consequent wear and tear. This
results in high accuracy of measurement.
• The scale can be made to move past a datum line and thus
have high range of measurements and no parallax error.
• The magnification is usually high.
Disadvantages of Optical Comparators

• Heat from the source of light, transformers etc., may cause the
setting to drift.
• An electric supply is necessary to operate these type of
comparators.
• The size of these comparators are large, and costly.
• Since the scale is projected on a screen, It is essential to use
these instruments in dark room in order lo take the readings
easily.
• Some comparators in which the scale is viewed through an eye
piece of a microscope are not convenient for continuous use.
59 KYC
APPLICATIONS OF COMPARATORS
• In mass production, where components are to be checked at a

very fast rate.
• As laboratory standards from which working or inspection
gauges are set and correlated.
• For inspecting newly purchased gauges.
• Attached with some machines, comparators can be used as
working gauges to prevent work spoilage and to maintain
required tolerances at all stages of manufacturing.
• In selective assembly of parts, where parts are graded in three
or more groups depending upon their tolerances.
60 KYC
ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
• The angle is defined as the opening between two Lines which
meet at a point.
• If one line moved around a point in an arc, a complete circle can
be formed and it is from this circle the units of angle are derived.
• If a circle is divided into 360 parts, then each part is called a
degree (). An angle is one which requires no absolute
standard, and it is the precision with which a circle can be
divided to get the correct measure of angle.
• Each degree is further divided into sixty parts called minutes ()
and each minute is further subdivided into 60 parts called
seconds (").
• Angular measurement is generally concerned with the
measurement of individual angles on gauges, tools as well as
small angular changes and deflections etc.
61 KYC
• An alternative method of defining angle is based on the
relationship between the radius and arc of a circle. This unit is
called radian and is defined as the angle subtended by an arc of
a circle of length equal to the radius.
• When radius OA = arc AB, then the angel = 1 radian.
62 KYC
• Sine Bar: Sine bars are made from high carbon, high chromium,
corrosion resistant steels which can be hardened, ground and
stabilized.
• Two cylinders of equal diameter are attached at the ends. The
axes of these two cylinders are mutually parallel to each other
and also parallel to and at equal distance from the upper surface
of the sine bar.
• The distance between the axes of the two cylinders will be 100,
200 & 300 mm in metric system.
• Depending on the accuracy of the centre distance, sine bars are
graded as A grade (accurate upto 0.01 mm/m of length) and B
grade (accurate upto 0.02 mm/m)
63 KYC
• Principle of Sine Bar: The sine bar is designed basically for the
precise setting out of angles and is generally used in conjunction
with slip gauges and surface plate.
• The principle of operation of the sine bar relies upon the
application of trigonometry.
• In the right angled triangle ABC, the ratio of the length BC to that
of hypotenuse AB is ref erred to as the sine of the angle .
• BC H
= sin   = sin −1 
AB L
64 KYC
• Accuracy requirements of Sine Bar
• The axes of the rollers must be parallel to each other and the
centre distance L, must be precisely known.
• The top surface of the sine bar must be flat and parallel to a
plane connecting the axes of the rollers.
• The axes of the two rollers must be parallel to each other.
• The rollers must be of identical diameters and round to within a
close tolerance.
• Limitation of sine bars
• The accuracy of sine bars is limited by the measurement of
centre distance of two precision rollers.
• The geometrical condition involved in measuring the exact,
effective centre distance between the two rollers of a sine bar to
a fraction of a µm is an infinitely complex problem.
• Limitation in the use of sine bar as a primary standard of angle.
• Measurements using sine principle are fairly reliable at angles
less than 15°. The sine bars inherently become impractical and
65 inaccurate as the angle exceeds 45° KYC
• USE OF SINE BAR

• i) Measuring known angles or locating any work to a given
angle
• ii) Checking of unknown angles of small components
• iii) Checking of unknown angle of heavy components
66 KYC
i) Measuring known angles or locating any work to a given
angle
• One roller of the sine bar is placed on the surface plate and the
other roller is placed on the slip gauges of height H.
• Let the sine bar be set at an angle . Then sin=H/L, where L is
the centre distance between the rollers.
• Thus knowing , H can be found out and any work can be set at
this angle as the top face of sine bar is inclined at angle  to the
surface plate. Angle plates and clamps can be used in case of
heavy components.
• For better results, both the rollers should be placed on slip
gauges of height H1 & H2 respectively.
H 2 − H1
sin  =
L
67 KYC
Measuring known angles or locating any work to a given angle
68 KYC
ii) Checking of unknown angles of small components
• When an angle of a component to be checked is unknown. It
is necessary to first find the angle approximately with the help
of a bevel protractor.
• If the angle is , then the sine bar is set at an angle  with the
help of slip gauges and clamped to an angle plate.
• A dial indicator is set at one end of the work and moved to the
other end and the deviation is noted.
• Again slip gauges are so adjusted such that dial indicator
reads zero as it moves from one end to the other end of the
workpiece.
• If deviation noted down by the dial indicator is H over a
length L1 of work , then height of slip gauges by which it should
be adjusted is equal to
L
H  1
L KYC
69
Checking of unknown angles of small components

70 KYC
iii) Checking of unknown angle of heavy components
• When components are heavy and can't be mounted on the
sine bar, then sine bar is mounted on the component.
• The height over the rollers can be measured by a Vernier
height gauge using a dial gauge mounted on the anvil of the
height gauge with the fiducial indicator to ensure constant
measuring pressure.
• Height gauge is used for obtaining two readings over the two
rollers of the sine bar.
• The difference in the two readings of height gauge divided by
the centre distance of sine bar gives the sine angle of the
component to be measured.
71 KYC
Checking of unknown angle of heavy components

72 KYC
OPTICAL BEVEL PROTRACTOR
• In this instrument, a circular glass plate is divided at 10 minutes
intervals throughout the whole 360° is fitted inside the main
body.
• A small microscope is fitted through which the circular
graduations can be viewed.
• The readings are taken against a Vernier scale with the help of
a microscope.
• The adjustable blade is clamped to a rotating member which
carries the microscope.
• With the help of microscope it is possible to read to about 2
minutes.
•
73 KYC
OPTICAL BEVEL PROTRACTOR
Schematic of Optical Bevel Protractor

74 KYC
Slip Gauges or Gauge blocks
(Johansson Gauges)
• Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of steel having cross
section of 30 mm face length & 10 mm face width as shown in
fig.
Measuring face
Slip gauge
length l
Fa
ce
len
gth
h
w idt
ce
75 Fa KYC
Slip Gauges or Gauge blocks
(Johansson Gauges)
• Slip gauges are blocks of steel that have been hardened and
stabilized by heat treatment. They are ground and lapped to
size to very high standards of accuracy and surface finish.
• A gauge block (also known Johansson gauge, slip gauge,
or Jo block) is a precision length measuring standard
consisting of a ground and lapped metal or ceramic block.
Invented in 1896 by Swedish machinist Carl Edward
Johansson.
• When correctly cleaned and wrung together, the individual slip
gauges adhere to each other by molecular attraction and if left
like this for too long, a partial cold weld will take place.
• If this is allowed to occur, the gauging surface will be
irreparable after use, hence the gauges should be separated
carefully by sliding them apart . They should then be cleaned,
smeared with petroleum jelly (Vaseline) and returned to their
case.
76 KYC
Wringing of Slip Gauges
• Slip gauges are wrung together to give a stack of the required
dimension. In order to achieve the maximum accuracy the
following precautions must be taken.
• Use the minimum number of blocks.
• Wipe the measuring faces clean using a soft clean chamois
leather.
• Wring the individual blocks together by first pressing at right
angles, sliding & then twisting.
77 KYC
Wringing of Slip Gauges
36 Johansson gauge blocks wrung together easily support their
own weight.
78 KYC
CLASSIFICATION OF SLIP GAUGES
• Slip gauges are available in three basic shapes: rectangular,
square with a central hole, and square without a central hole.
• Rectangular blocks are the most commonly used since they can
be used conveniently where space is restricted and excess
weight is to be avoided.
• Square slip gauges have larger surface area and lesser wear
rate because of uniform distribution of stresses during
measurements.
• They also adhere better to each other when wrung together.
Square gauge blocks with central holes permit the use of tie
rods, which ensure that the built-up slip gauges do not fall apart.
• Slip gauges are classified into grades depending on their
guaranteed accuracy. The grade defines the type of
application for which a slip gauge is suited, such as inspection,
reference, or calibration.
• Slip gauges are designated into five grades, namely grade 2,
79
grade 1, grade 0, grade 00, and inspection grade. KYC
• Grade 2: This is the workshop-grade slip gauge. Typical uses
include setting up machine tools, milling cutters, etc., on the
shop floor.
• Grade 1: This grade is used for tool room applications for
setting up sine bars, dial indicators, calibration of Vernier,
micrometer instruments, and so on.
• Grade 0: This is an inspection-grade slip gauge. Limited people
will have access to this slip gauge and extreme care is taken to
guard it against rough usage.
• Grade 00: This set is kept in the standards room and is used for
inspection/calibration of high precision only. It is also used to
check the accuracy of the workshop and grade 1 slip gauges.
• Calibration grade: This is a special grade, with the actual sizes
of slip gauges stated on a special chart supplied with the set of
slip gauges. This chart gives the exact dimension of the slip
gauge, unlike the previous grades, which are presumed to have
been manufactured to a set tolerance.
80 KYC
• Calibration-grade slip gauges are not necessarily available in a
set of preferred sizes, but their sizes are explicitly specified up
to the third or fourth decimal place of a millimetre.
• Many other grading standards are followed for slip gauges, such
as JIS B 7506-1997 (Japan), DIN 861-1980 (Germany), ASME
(USA), and BS 4311:Part 1:1993 (UK).
• Most of these standards assign grades such as A, AA, AAA,
and B. While a grade B may conform to the workshop-grade slip
gauge, grades AA and AAA are calibration and reference
grades, respectively.
• Slip gauges are available in standard sets in both metric and
inch units. In metric units, sets of 31, 48, 56, and 103 pieces are
available
• For instance, the set of 103 pieces consists of the following:
One piece of 1.005 mm, 49 pieces ranging from 1.01 to 1.49
mm in steps of 0.01 mm, 49 pieces ranging from 0.5 to 24.5 mm
in steps of 0.5 mm, 4 pieces ranging from 25 to 100 mm in steps
81
of 25 mm KYC
INTERFEROMETRY
• Number of fringes that appear in a given length on the screen is
a measure of the distance between the two-point light sources
and forms the basis for linear measurement. This phenomenon is
applied for carrying out precise measurements of very small
linear dimensions, and the measurement technique is popularly
known as interferometry.
• This technique is used in a variety of metrological applications
such as inspection of machine parts for straightness, parallelism,
and flatness, and measurement of very small diameters, among
others.
• Calibration and reference grade slip gauges are verified by the
interferometry technique. The instrument used for making
measurements using interferometry technique is called an
interferometer.
• A variety of light sources are recommended for different
measurement applications, depending on convenience of use
and cost.
82 KYC
INTERFEROMETRY
• The most preferred light source is a tungsten lamp with a filter
that transmits monochromatic light.
• Other commonly used light sources are mercury, mercury 198,
cadmium, krypton 86, thallium, sodium, helium, neon, and gas
lasers.
• Among all the isotopes of mercury, mercury 198 is one of the
best light sources, producing rays of sharply defined
wavelength.
• In fact, the wavelength of mercury 198 is the international
secondary standard of length.
• Interference fringes can be obtained with enormous path
differences, up to 100 million wavelengths.
• While optical flats continue to be the popular choice for
measurement using the interferometry technique, a host of
other instruments, popularly known as interferometers, are also
available.
83 KYC
INTERFEROMETRY
• Optical Flats: The most common interference effects are
associated with thin transparent films or wedges bounded on at
least one side by a transparent surface.
• Soap bubbles, oil films on water, and optical flats fall in this
category. The phenomenon by which interference takes place is
readily described in terms of an optical flat.
• An optical flat is a disk of high-quality glass or quartz. The
surface of the disk is ground and lapped to a high degree of
flatness.
• Sizes of optical flats vary from 25 to 300 mm in diameter, with a
thickness ranging from 25 to 50 mm.
• When an optical flat is laid over a flat reflecting surface, it
orients at a small angle θ, due to the presence of an air cushion
between the two surfaces.
• Consider a ray of light from a monochromatic light source falling
on the upper surface of the optical flat at an angle. This light ray
is partially reflected at point ‘a’.
84 KYC
INTERFEROMETRY
85 KYC
INTERFEROMETRY
• The remaining part of the light ray passes through the
transparent glass material across the air gap and is reflected at
point ‘b’ on the flat work surface.
• The two reflected components of the light ray are collected and
recombined by the eye, having travelled two different paths
whose length differs by an amount ‘abc’.
• If ‘abc’ = λ/2, where λ is the wavelength of the monochromatic
light source, then the condition for complete interference has
been satisfied.
• The difference in path length is one-half the wavelength, a
perfect condition for total interference.
• The eye is now able to see a distinct patch of darkness termed
a fringe. Next, consider another light ray from the same source
falling on the optical flat at a small distance from the first one.
• This ray gets reflected at points ‘d’ and ‘e’. If the length ‘def’
equals 3λ/2, then total interference occurs again and a similar
fringe is seen by the observer.
86 KYC
INTERFEROMETRY
• However, at an intermediate point between the two fringes, the
path difference between two reflected portions of the light ray
will be an even number of half wavelengths.
• Thus, the two components of light will be in phase, and a light
band will be seen at this point.
• To summarize, when light from a monochromatic light source is
made to fall on an optical flat, which is oriented at a very small
angle with respect to a flat reflecting surface, a band of alternate
light and dark patches is seen by the eye.
• Typical fringe pattern seen on a flat surface viewed under an
optical flat. In case of a perfectly flat surface, the fringe pattern
is regular, parallel, and uniformly spaced.
• Any deviation from this pattern is a measure of error in the
flatness of the surface being measured.
• Fringe patterns provide interesting insights into the surface
being inspected. They reveal surface conditions like contour
lines on a map.
87 KYC
Tolerance
• Tolerance is defined as the magnitude of permissible variation
of dimension from the specified value.
• In order to maintain economic production and facilitate the
assembly of components it is necessary to allow a limited
deviation from the designed size.
• Due to its inevitability, tolerances constitute an engineering
legality for deviation from the ideal value.
• The primary purpose of tolerances is to permit variation in
dimensions without degradation of the performance beyond the
limits established by the specification of the design.
• Where high performance is the criterion, there the functional
requirements will be the dominating factor in setting tolerances.
• However, where the functional performance provides some
latitude, then tolerance choice may be influenced and
determined by factors like standardization, methods of tooling,
and available manufacturing equipment.
88 KYC
Tolerance
• Ideal conditions would call for parts without any kind of
dimensional variation, but in actual practice it is impossible due
to following reasons
➢ Variations in the properties of the material being machined
introduce errors.
➢ The production machines themselves have some inherent
inaccuracies built into them and have the limitations to
produce perfect parts.
➢ It is impossible for an operator to make perfect settings. In
setting up the machine, i.e. in adjusting the tools and
workpiece on the machine, some errors are likely to creep in.
89 KYC
Design considerations in selection of
Engineering tolerance
➢ The establishment of correct engineering or manufacturing
tolerances is a matter of serious concern because both too
tight and too loose tolerances result in excessive cost.
➢ Large variation may affect the functionality of the part.
➢ Small variations may affect the economy of the part.
Reasons for tendency to select tight tolerances:
The unexperienced designer in order to protect himself
specifies significantly tighter tolerance than necessary for the
following reasons
• Creed for precision.
• Fear of interference/ excessive clearance b/w assembled
parts
• Selection of tolerances from company/vendor standards
• Selection from similar pervious design. KYC
90
Systems of writing tolerances
Unilateral System: Dimensions of a part is allowed
to vary only on one side of the basic size.
• Preferred in interchangeable manufacture.

• Assists operator to machine mating parts
• GO gauge ends are standardized.
91 KYC
Systems of writing tolerance
Bilateral System: Dimensions of part is allowed to
vary on both the sides of basic size.
• Mass production: Machine setting done to the
basic size.
Relation between Tolerance and Cost
Close tolerance need:
• Precision machines, tools, materials.
• Trained , highly skilled operators
• Tight inspection
• Close supervision and control
Specifying tolerances for given assemblies
The type of assembly, i.e. fit between two mating components is
decided based on functional requirements.
Based on it, tolerances on shaft and hole are decided using two
approaches,
Two approaches:
• Complete interchangeability approach
• Statistical approach.
Complete interchangeability approach:
• No risk is taken about a single non confirming assembly.
• For clearance fit: Tolerance on shaft = tolerance on hole = half
the max clearance-half the min clearance
94 KYC
Statistical approach: The statistical approach bases the
permissible tolerances on the normal distribution curve,
considering that only 0.3% components would lie beyond ± 3
limits. This approach, obviously, allows wider tolerances
compared to complete interchangeability approach.
• The statistical approach thus permits cheaper production.
methods but can be used when components are produced in
bulk.
• If all the assignable causes of variation are fully controlled, then
expected frequency curves of shafts and holes will be normal
frequency curves, and accordingly the expected frequency of
the clearances will also be the normal curve.
• Mean clearance=Mean size of hole – Mean size of shaft
σ hole-shaft = σ clearance =  hole
2
+  shaft
2
• Maximum spread of clearance – minimum clearance=6clearance

Maximum clearance - Minimum clearance
σ clearance =
95 6 KYC
Statistical approach: bases the permissible

tolerances on the normal distribution curve, considering
only 0.3 % components would lie beyond 3σ.
96 KYC
TOLERANCE ACCUMULATION
• If a part comprises of several steps, each step having some tolerance
over its length, then overall tolerance on complete length will be sum of
the tolerances on individual length.
• The effect of accumulation of tolerances can be minimized by adopting
progressive dimensioning from a datum.
Progressive dimensioning
Tolerance accumulation
97 KYC
Interchangeability
• The concept of interchangeability was introduced first in United
states. But in early days, it was aimed at quick and easy
replacement of damaged parts by attaining greater precision in
manufacture .
• When one component assembles properly (functionality aspect
of assembly is satisfied) with any mating component, both
chosen at random, then it is known as interchangeability.
• It is a condition which exists when two or more items possess
such functional and physical characteristics so as to be
equivalent in performance and durability and are capable of
being exchanged one for the other without alteration of the
items themselves.
• Interchangeability is the ability of one product, process or
service to be used in place of another to fulfill the same
requirements.
98 KYC
Principle of Interchangeability
• Interchangeability: occurs when one part can be substituted
for a similar part which has been made to the drawing.
Interchangeability is possible only when standards are strictly
followed.
• Requires precise machines or processes whose process
capability is equal to or less than the manufacturing tolerance
allowed for the part.
Advantages :
• Assembly time reduced.
• Increased output with reduced production cost.
• Production of mating components at different places by
different operators.
• Replacement of worn out, defective parts .
• Cost of maintenance and shutdown period reduced.
99 KYC
Universal/Full interchangeability
• Parts drawn from any two altogether different sources for
mating purposes.
• Common standards followed by all.
• All standards traceable to a single source-international std.
• Machine with high process capability & high accuracy.
• Requires close supervision.
100 KYC
Local interchangeability
• When all parts to be assembled are made in the same manf
unit by following local standards.
• Set of tools and gauges are made for components, that will
confirm to the required standard within the workshop.
• Local standards traceable to international standards
101 KYC
Selective assembly
• Selective assembly is the method of obtaining high precision
assemblies from relatively low precision components. The
problem of producing mating parts to have specified clearance
while assembling pose a great challenge to the engineers.
• It is found that it is not economic to manufacture parts to the
required high degree of accuracy for their correct functioning.
• Instead, they are made in an economic manner, measured to
the required high accuracy and graded or sorted into groups
each of which contains such parts of the same size to within
close limits.
• Components are fitted by a skilled mechanic often in a fitting
room .
• Subsequently, if a replacement is needed, it must also be
machined to suit and then fitted as above.
• This technique is most suitable where close fit of two component
assemblies are required. It results in complete protection against
non-conforming assemblies and reduces machining costs.
102 KYC
Selective assembly
• Components produced by a machine are classified into
several groups according to the size, then the corresponding
groups will match properly.
• Components of high quality & low cost.
• Results in protection against defective assemblies.
• Reduces matching costs – parts produced with wider
tolerances.
• Followed in aircraft, auto mobile industries.
103 KYC
Selective assembly –An example
• Assembly of piston with cylinder bores.
Let bore size be 50 mm and clearance is 0.12 mm.
Tolerance on the bore and the piston be 0.04 mm
• Dimension of bore diameter is 50 0.02 mm
• Dimension of piston is 49.88 0.02 mm
• By grading and marking the bores and the pistons they may
be selectively assembled to give the clearance of 0.12mm as
given below:
• Cylinder bore 49.98 50.00 50.02
• Piston 49.86 49.88 49.90
104 KYC
INDIAN STANDARD SYSTEM OF
LIMITS AND FITS
• IS 919 for limits and fits was first published in 1963.
• Comprises of 20 grades of fundamental tolerances (grades of
accuracy)
• 28 types of fundamental deviations indicated by letter symbols
for both holes & shafts.
• A to ZC for holes and a to zc for shafts in diameter steps up to
500 mm.
• 28 designations are represented by
A,B,C,CD,D,E,EF,F,FG,G,H,J,JS,K,M,N,P,R,S,T,U,V,X,Y,Z,ZA,
ZB,ZC.
105 KYC
CONCEPT OF LIMITS OF SIZE AND
TOLERANCE
Limits of size: The two extreme permissible sizes of a component,

between which the actual size should lie including the maximum and
minimum sizes of the component
106 KYC
Maximum and minimum metal
limits/ conditions
• Maximum metal limit: max possible amount of metal.
• Least metal limit: least possible amount of metal.
For shaft: 25 +/-0.05

MML: upper limit =25.05
LML: lower limit =24.95
For hole: 30 +/-0.05

MML: lower limit=29.95
LML: upper limit =30.05
107 KYC
Terminology of Limits and Fits
• Nominal size: The nominal size of a dimension or part is the
size by which it is referred to as a matter of convenience.
• Basic size: Size of a part in relation to which all limits of
variation are determined. Often, basic size and nominal size of a
part or dimension are used with the same sense. When used for
fits between shaft and hole, same basic size is specified or both
shaft and hole.
• Zero Line: This is a line which represents the basic size so that
the deviation from the basic size is zero.
• Limits: These are two extreme permissible sizes for any
dimension (high and low).
• Tolerances: Tolerance on a dimension is the difference
between the high and low limits of size. It is got to be allowed in
order to cover the reasonable imperfection in workmanship and
the inevitable inaccuracy of manufacturing processes, and
varies with different grades of work. It can be unilateral or
109
bilateral. KYC
• Shaft: refers not only to the diameter of a circular shaft but also
to any external dimension of a component.
• Hole: refers not only to the diameter of a circular hole but also
to any internal dimension of a component.
• Actual size: Dimensions as measured on a manufactured part.
Basic size and zero line

• Allowances: Difference between the hole dimension and shaft
dimension for any type of fit is called allowance.
• Maximum allowance is obtained by subtracting the minimum
shaft size from the largest hole size and the minimum allowance
is the difference between the largest shaft and the smallest hole
size.
• Thus allowance is positive for clearance fit and negative for
interference fit.
• Fits: When two parts are to be assembled, the relation resulting
from the difference between their sizes before assembly is
called a fit. Depending upon the actual limits of hole or shaft, the
fit may be clearance fit , or a transition fit, or an interference fit.
• Zero line: straight line drawn horizontally to represent the basic
size.
111 KYC
Terminology of limits and Fits
• Deviation: algebraic difference between the size and the
corresponding basic size.
• For shafts 'a' to 'h', the deviation is below the zero line and for
shafts 'j to 'zc' it is above the zero line.
• For holes 'A' to 'G', lower deviation is above the zero line and for
'J' to 'ZC', it is below the zero line.
• Upper deviation: algebraic difference b/w the upper limit of
size and the corresponding basic size. Designated by ES for
hole and es for shaft.
• Lower deviation: algebraic difference b/w the lower limit of size
and the corresponding basic size. Designated by EI for hole and
ei for shaft.
• Limits of size: two extreme permissible sizes of a feature , b/w
which the actual size lies.
• Maximum limit of size: greatest permissible size of a feature .
• Minimum limit of size: smallest permissible size of a feature.
112 KYC
FUNDAMENTAL DEVIATIONS
Representation of different types of

fundamental deviations (a) Holes (b) Shafts
113 KYC
• Tolerance Zone: zone bounded by two limits of size of a part in
the graphical representation of tolerance.
• Grades of Tolerance: It is an indication of the degree of
accuracy of manufacture and is designated by ‘IT’ followed by a
number. IT –International Tolerance Grade. (IT1,----IT16).
• Standard tolerance (IT): It is a tolerance belonging to any one
of the standard grades.
• Standard Tolerance factor (i, I): A factor which is a function of
the basic size and which is common to the formulae defining the
different grades of tolerances.
• Size Tolerance: The difference between the maximum limit of
size and the minimum limit of size, i.e. the difference between the
upper deviation and the lower deviation.
• 'Go' Limit: It refers to upper limit of a shaft and lower limit of a
hole. Thus it corresponds to the maximum material condition.
• 'Not Go' Limit: It refers to the lower limit of a shaft and upper
114
limit of a hole. It corresponds to the minimum material condition.
KYC
Relationship of the deviation with tolerance:
• For shaft: IT=es-ei (UD-LD)
• For hole: IT=ES-EI
• Fundamental Deviation: one of the two deviations which is
nearest to the zero line for either hole or shaft.
• Basic Shaft: is the shaft whose upper deviation is zero.
Denoted by ‘h’.
• Basic Hole: is that hole whose lower deviation is zero.
Denoted by ‘H’.
• Maximum Clearance: In a clearance fit , it refers to the
difference between the minimum size of hole and the
maximum size of shaft.
• Minimum Clearance: In case of clearance or transition fit, it
refers to the difference between the maximum size of hole and
the minimum size of shaft.
115 KYC
• Minimum interference: It is the difference between the maximum
size of hole and the minimum size of shaft in an interference fit
prior to assembly.
• Maximum interference: In an interference or a transition fit it is
the difference between the minimum size of hole and the
maximum size of shaft prior to assembly.
• Allowance: The difference between the maximum shaft size and
minimum hole is known as allowance. In a clearance fit, this is
minimum clearance and is positive allowance. In an interference
fit, it is the maximum interference and is negative allowance.
Minimum and Minimum and maximum

116 maximum clearance Interference KYC
• Maximum size of the hole i.e., High limit of the hole (HLH)
• Minimum size of the hole i.e., Low limit of the hole (LLH).
• Maximum size of the shaft, i.e.,, High limit of the shaft (HLS).
• Minimum size of the shaft i.e., Low limit of the shaft (LLS).
• Maximum metal limit (MML) of hole is LLH
• Maximum metal limit (MML) of shaft is HLS
• In order to find out the type of fit, one needs to determine
HLH − LLS and LLH − HLS.
• If both the differences are positive, the fit obtained is a
clearance fit, and if negative, it is an interference fit.
• If one difference is positive and the other is negative, then it
is a transition fit.
117 KYC
Compound tolerance
• When tolerance is determined by established tolerances on
more than one dimension, it is known as compound tolerance
• For example, tolerance for the dimension R is determined by the
combined effects of tolerance on 40 mm dimension, on 60º, and
on 20mm dimension.
• The tolerance obtained for dimension R is known as compound
tolerance. In practice, compound tolerance should be avoided
as far as possible.
118 KYC
Positional Tolerance
• Position Tolerance are a group of geometric tolerances that
controls the extent of deviation of the location of a feature from
its true position.
• This is a three-dimensional geometric tolerance comprising
position, symmetry, and concentricity.
• Geometric tolerances are used to indicate the relationship of
one part of an object with another.
119 KYC
Fits
• Fit may be defined as a degree of tightness or
looseness between two mating parts to perform a
definite function when they are assembled together.
• Types of Fits
➢ Clearance Fit
➢ Interference Fit
➢ Transition Fit
120 KYC
Fits
• Clearance fit: The largest permitted shaft diameter is
smaller than the diameter of the smallest hole, so that the
shaft can rotate or slide through with different degrees of
freedom.
30.15 +0.10 -0.00
29.85 +0.05 -0.00
30.25 -29.85=0.4
30.15 -29.90=0.25
Clearance Fit (Positive clearance)
121 KYC
Fits
• Interference fit: The minimum permitted diameter of the
shaft is larger than the maximum allowable diameter of the
hole. In this case the shaft and the hole members are
intended to be attached permanently.
30.25 -30.30=-0.05
30.15 -30.35=-0.20
Interference Fit (Negative clearance)
122 KYC
Fits
• Transition fit: The diameter of the largest allowable hole is
greater than that of the smallest shaft, but the smallest hole is
smaller than the largest shaft, so that a small positive or
negative clearance exists.
30.600.05
30.550.05
30.60 -30.55=0.05 30.50 -30.65=-0.15
Transition Fit
123 KYC
Types of Fits
Fits
Clearance Fit Transition Fit Interference Fit
•Slide fit •Push Fit •Medium Force Fit
•Easy slide fit •Force (Shrink) fit •Tight (press) Fit
•Running fit •Wringing Fit •Shrink Fit or

Heavy force fit
•Slack running fit
•Loose running fit
124 KYC
Types of clearance fit
• Slide fit: small clearance, min clearance is zero, mating parts
move slowly in relation.
• Eg. tail stock movement of lathe, change gears in gear box.
• Easy slide fit: small graduated clearance, for slow & non
regular motion.
• Eg. Spindle of lathe & dividing heads.
• Running fit: appreciable clearance, space for lubrication,
rotation at moderate speed.
• Eg. Gear box bearings, crank shafts in bearings
• Slack running fit: considerable clearance, compensation for
mounting errors. Eg shaft of centrifugal pump.
• Loose running fit: rotation at very high speed
• Eg. Idle pulley on shaft-quick return mechanism of planer.
125 KYC
Types of Interference Fit
• Force Fit: no disassembly, assembly at high pressure.
• Eg forging machine.
• Tight Fit: less interference, parts replaced while overhauling.
• Shrink Fit: max negative allowance, force required.
• Eg fitting of frame on rim.
126 KYC
Types of Transition Fit
• Wringing Fit: zero interference or clearance, parts replaced
during minor repairs.
• Push Fit: small clearance, parts disassembled during
operation of a machine.
• Eg change gears.
127 KYC
SYSTEM OF FITS
• To obtain the desired class of fits, either the size of the hole
or the size of the shaft must vary.
• Two types of systems are used to represent the three basic
types of fits, namely clearance, interference, and transition
fits.
• They are (a) hole basis system and (b) shaft basis system.
• Although both systems are the same, hole basis system is
generally preferred in view of the functional properties.
128 KYC
SYSTEM OF FITS
• In HOLE basis system, the size of the hole is kept constant and
the shaft size is varied to give various types of fits. In a hole
basis system, the fundamental deviation or lower deviation of
the hole is zero, that is, the lower limit of the hole is the same as
the basic size.
• The two limits of the shaft and the higher dimension of the hole
are then varied to obtain the desired type of fit.
129 HOLE BASIS SYSTEM KYC

Hole basis system
• Hole is kept constant while the shaft size is varied to obtain
different types of fits.
• Lower limit of hole is same as basic size
• High limit of hole and two limits of shaft are varied to obtain
130 KYC
SYSTEM OF FITS
• HOLE BASIS type of system is widely adopted in industries, as
it is easier to manufacture shafts of varying sizes to the required
tolerances.
• Standard size drills or reamers can be used to obtain a variety
of fits by varying only the shaft limits, which leads to greater
economy of production.
• The shaft can be accurately produced to the required size by
standard manufacturing processes, and standard-size plug
gauges are used to check hole sizes accurately and
conveniently.
131 KYC
SYSTEM OF FITS
• In Shaft Basis System the dimension of the shaft is kept
constant and the hole size is varied to obtain various types of
fits is referred to as shaft basis system.
• In this system, the fundamental deviation or the upper deviation
of the shaft is zero, that is, the HLH equals the basic size.
• The desired class of fits is obtained by varying the lower limit of
the shaft and both limits of the hole.
132 SHAFT BASIS SYSTEM KYC

SYSTEM OF FITS
• In SHAFT BASIS system is not preferred in industries, as it
requires more number of standard-size tools such as reamers,
broaches, and gauges, which increases manufacturing and
inspection costs.
• It is normally preferred where the hole dimension is dependent
on the shaft dimension and is used in situations where the
standard shaft determines the dimensions of the mating parts
such as couplings, bearings, collars, gears, and bushings.
133 KYC
Shaft basis system
• Shaft is kept constant and sizes of hole are varied to obtain
• High limit of shaft is same as basic size and various fits are
obtained by varying the low limit of shaft and both limits of hole.
• Used when ground bars are readily available.
134 KYC
Difference between Allowance & Tolerance
Tolerance Allowance
Permissible variation in Prescribed difference between
dimension of a part. dimensions of two mating parts.
Difference between higher and Intentional difference between lower
lower limits of a dimension of a limit of hole and higher limit of shaft.
part.
Provided on dimension of part. Provided on dimension of mating
parts.
Absolute value without sign. May be positive / negative.
135 KYC
Difference b/w hole basis & shaft basis system
Hole basis system Shaft Basis system

Size of hole lower deviation is Size of shaft whose upper
zero assumed as basic size. deviation is zero assumed as
basic size
Limits on hole are kept Limits on shaft are kept
constant, shaft are varied. constant, hole are varied.
Preferred in mass production- Not preferred – inconvenient ,
convenient, less costly. time consuming, more costly.
Easy to vary shaft sizes Difficult to vary hole sizes.
Less amount of capital & Large amount of capital &
storage space for tools storage space.
Gauging of shafts easily done Gauging of holes –internal
with adjustable gap gauges. measurement cannot be easily
& conveniently done.
136 KYC
Numericals
• In a limit system, the following limits are specified for a hole and
shaft assembly:
+0.02 -0.02
+0.00 -0.05
Hole=30 mm and shaft=30 mm
• Determine the (a) Tolerance and (b) allowance.
• Tolerance on hole = 30.02 -30.00=0.02mm
• Tolerance on shaft=(30-0.02)-(30-.005)=0.03mm
• Allowance=Maximum metal condition of hole – Maximum metal
condition of shaft
• =30.00-29.98=0.02mm
137 KYC
Numericals
• The following limits are specified in a limit system, to give a
clearance fit between a hole and a shaft:
+0.03 -0.006
-0.00 -0.020
• Determine the following:
• (a) Basic size
• (b) Tolerances on shaft and hole
• (c) Maximum and minimum clearances
• Solution
• (a) Basic size is the same for both shaft and hole is 25mm
• (b) Determination of tolerance:
• Tolerance on hole=25.03-25.00=0.03mm
• Tolerance on shaft=(25-0.006)-(25-0.020)=0.014mm
• Determination of clearances:
• (c) Maximum clearance = 25.03 − 24.98 = 0.05 mm
• Minimum clearance = 25.00 − (25 − 0.006) = 0.006 mm
138 KYC
Numericals
• Tolerances for a hole and shaft assembly having a nominal size
of 50 mm are as follows:
+0.02 -0.05
+0.00 -0.08
• Determine the following:
• (a) Maximum and minimum clearances
• (b) Tolerances on shaft and hole
• (c) Allowance
• (d) Lower limit of hole and Higher limit of shaft
• (e) Type of fit
• Solution: Maximum clearance=0.10mm
• Minimum clearance=0.05mm
• Tolerance on hole=0.02mm & Tolerance on shaft=0.03mm
• Allowance=0.05mm
• Lower limit of hole=50.00mm & Higher limit of shaft=49.95mm
• Since both maximum and minimum clearances are positive, it
139
can be conclude that the given pair has a clearance fit. KYC
EXERCISE
• A clearance fit has to be provided for a shaft and bearing
assembly having a diameter of 40 mm. Tolerances on hole and
shaft are 0.006 and 0.004 mm, respectively. The tolerances are
disposed unilaterally. If an allowance of 0.002 mm is provided,
find the limits of size for hole and shaft when (a) hole basis
system and (b) shaft basis system are used.
• For the following hole and shaft assembly, determine (a) hole
and shaft tolerance and (b) type of fit.
+0.025 +0.080
+0.000 +0.005
• For the following hole and shaft assembly, determine (a) hole
and shaft tolerance and (b) type of fit
+0.05 +0.08
+0.00 +0.06
140 KYC
SYSTEM OF LIMITS AND FITS
• The rapid growth of national and international trade
necessitates the developments of formal systems of limits
and fits, at the national and international levels.
• The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
specifies the internationally accepted system of limits and fits.
Indian standards are in accordance with the ISO.
• The ISO system of limits and fits comprises 18 grades of
fundamental tolerances to indicate the level of accuracy of the
manufacture. These fundamental tolerances are designated
by the letters IT followed by a number. The ISO system
provides tolerance grades from IT01, IT0, and IT1 to IT16 to
realize the required accuracy.
• The greater the number, the higher the tolerance limit. The
choice of tolerance is guided by the functional requirements
of the product and economy of manufacture.
• Tolerance values corresponding to grades IT5–IT16 are
determined using the standard tolerance unit (i, in μm),
which is a function of basic size.
141 KYC
SYSTEM OF LIMITS AND FITS
• D is in mm and it is the geometric mean of the lower and upper
diameter of a particular step in which the diameter lies
D = Dmax  D min
i (microns) = 0.45 3 D + 0.001D for basic size upto 500mm

i (microns) = 0.004 D + 2.1 for basic size from 500mm upto 3150mm
• The various steps specified for the diameter steps are as follows:
• 1–3, 3–6, 6–10, 10–18, 18–30, 30–50, 50–80, 80–120, 120–180,
180–250, 250–315, 315–400, 400–500 500–630, 630–800, and
800–1000 mm.
142 KYC
Designation of Holes , Shafts and Fits
• Example
• 50 mm H-hole with tolerance grade of IT7 is 50H7
• 50 mm f -shaft with tolerance grade of IT8 is 50f8
• Basic size is 50 mm , hole is H7, shaft is f8
• The fit is 50 H7f8.
143 KYC
144 KYC
Formulae for Fundamental Deviations for shafts
for sizes above 500 mm up to 3150 mm
145 KYC
STANDARD TOLERANCE UNITS
146 KYC
NUMERICAL
• Calculate the limits of tolerance and allowance for a 25mm shaft
and hole pair designated by H8d9.
Given
➢ 25mm lies in the diameter range of 18-30mm
➢ IT8=25i
➢ IT9=40i
➢ Fundamental deviation of shaft= -16D0.44
➢ Fundamental deviation of Hole=0
• Solution: D = D  D = 18  30 = 23.238mm
max min
i = 0.45 3 D + 0.001D = 0.45 3 23.238 + (0.001 23.238) = 1.307  m

i = 1.3 m
• Hole quality 8, fundamental tolerance
=25*i=25*1.3=32.533=0.033mm
• Hole fundamental deviation is 0
• Hole limits are 25mm and 25+0.033=25.033mm
• Hole tolerance =25.033-25=0.033mm
147 KYC
Numerical contd..
• For quality “9” shaft, the fundamental tolerance=40i=40*1.3=52
• For ‘d’ shaft the fundamental deviation = -16D0.44 = -16*23.2380.44
• =-63.86=-64=-0.064mm
• The shaft limits are 25-0.064=24.936mm and 25-(0.064+0.052) =
24.884mm
• Tolerance = 24.936-24.884=0.052mm
148 KYC
Exercise
• Determine the tolerances on the hole and shaft for a precision running
fit designated by 50H7g6
Given
➢ 50mm lies between 30-50mm
➢ Fundamental deviation for H hole =0
➢ Fundamental deviation for g shaft=-2.5D0.34
➢ IT7=16i
➢ IT6=10i
State the actual maximum and minimum sizes of the hole and shaft,
maximum and minimum clearances.
149 KYC
Gauges
• Gauges are inspection tools of rigid design which serve to

check the dimensions of manufactured parts.
• Limit gauges ensure the size of the component being
inspected lies within its specified limits. They are non-
recording and do not determine the actual size of the part.
• Gauges do not indicate the actual value of the inspected
dimension on the work
150 KYC
Classification of Gauges
• Plain gauges are used for checking plain (unthreaded) holes
and shafts. Gauges are classified.
❖ According to their type
➢ Standard and limit gauges
➢ Limit gauges
❖ According to their purposes
➢ Workshop.
➢ Inspection.
➢ Reference or master gauges.
❖ According to the form of the tested surface
➢ Plug gauges for checking holes.
➢ Snap and ring gauges for checking shafts.
❖ According to their design
➢ Single limit and double limit gauges
➢ Single ended and double ended gauges
➢ Fixed and adjustable gauges.
151 KYC
LIMIT GAUGING
• There are several methods available to determine the
dimensions of components in a system of limits and fits.
• The method of measurement adopted for mass production of
parts is called the system of limit gauging.
• It has an advantage that it can be operated by unskilled
persons.
• Instead of measuring actual dimensions, the conformance of
product with tolerance specifications can be checked by a "GO"
and "NOT GO" gauges.
• These gauges represent the limit sizes of the workpiece, as per
the specified product tolerances.
• A "GO" gauge represents the maximum material condition of the
product (i.e. minimum hole size, or maximum shaft size) and
conversely, a "NOT GO" gauge represents the minimum
material condition (i.e. maximum hole size, or minimum shaft
size).
152 KYC
Plug gauges
• Plug gauges are the limit gauges for a hole and consists of two
cylindrical wear resisting steel plugs whose sizes are made to the
limiting values of the hole dimension.
• The handles can be made of any suitable steel e.g, handles
maybe made of light metal alloys for heavy plain plug gauges, or
suitable non-metallic handles may be provided for smaller plain
plug gauges.
• The plain plug gauges are normally of double ended type for
sizes upto 63 mm and of single ended type for sizes above 63
mm.
Double ended plug gauge

153 KYC
Plug gauges
• The plug made to the lower limit of the hole is known as "GO"
gauge, and this will obviously enter any hole which is not smaller
than the lower limit allowed.
• The plug made to the upper limit is known as "NOT-GO" or "NO-
GO" gauge and will not enter any hole which is smaller than the
upper limit allowed. GO and NO-GO plugs are arranged at either
end of a common handle
154 KYC
Types of Plug Gauges
• Single ended plug gauge:
• Double ended plug gauge
155 KYC
• Progressive form of plug gauge: For smaller through holes, a
progressive form of plug gauge is used.
• In this both the GO and NOGO gauges are on the same side
separated by a small distance.
• First the GO portion is inserted into the hole. After the full length
enters into the hole, further entry will be obstructed by the
portion if NOGO of the ho1e is within the tolerance limits.
Progressive form of Plug gauge
156 KYC
• Shell form of plug gauge: For dimensions over 100mm and
upto 250mm a shell form of plug gauges are used. While for
very large holes spherically ended gauges are used.
Shell form of Plug gauge
157 KYC
Ring Gauges
• The plain ring gauges are made of suitable wear resisting
steel and the gauging surfaces are hardened to a hardness of
about 720 H.V.
• The gauging surfaces are first suitably stabilized using proper
heat treatment process and then ground and lapped and
other surfaces are finished smooth.
• These are protected against climatic conditions by applying a
suitable anti-corrosive coating.
• These are available in two designs, 'Go' and 'No Go'. These
are designated by 'Go' and 'No Go' as may be applicable, the
nominal size, the tolerance of the workpiece to be gauged,
and the number of the standard followed.
• The general shapes of Go' and 'No Go' gauges, for range
from 3 to 70 mm in 10 steps and from 70 to 250 mm in 17
steps respectively.
158 KYC
Ring Gauges
Ring gauge (No-Go & Go guage) cross sectional view
159 KYC
Ring Gauges
Go and No-Go Ring Gauges for Dimensions 3 to 70mm

160 KYC
Snap or Gap Gauges
• Rib type snap gauges: Double-ended type snap gauges can
be conveniently used for checking sizes in the range of 3 mm to
100 mm and single ended progressive type snap gauges are
suitable for size range of 100 to 250 mm.
• The gauging surfaces of the snap gauges are hardened upto 720
HV and are suitably stabilized, ground and lapped. The other
surfaces are finished smooth.
Go and No Go snap Go and No Go snap gauges

161 gauges 3mm to 100mm 100mm and upto 250mmKYC
Materials for Gauges
Material requirements:
• Hardness to resist wear
• Stability- size or shape will not change over time
• Corrosion resistant
• Machinability – to required size and degree of accuracy.
• Low coefficient of linear expansion
• Parts of gauge to be held in handle to have low thermal
conductivity.
162 KYC
Materials For Gauges
• High carbon steel either water or oil hardened
• Mild steel case hardened on working surface
• Chromium plating: corrosion & wear resistant.
• Case Hardened Steel: Low carbon case-hardening steel
• Glass gauges: eliminate corrosive effects –perspiration from
hands.
• Invar: 36% Nickel –low coefficient of expansion – not suitable
for long period.
163 KYC
GAUGE DESIGN
• To a greater or lesser extent, every gauge is a copy of the
part which mates with the part for which the gauge is design.
• For example, a bushing is made which is to mate with a shaft;
in this chase, the shaft is the opposed (mating part) part.
• The bushing is checked by a plug gauge, which in so far as
the form of its surface and its size is concerned, is a copy of
the opposed part (shaft).
• If a gauge is designed as an exact copy of the opposed part in
so far as the dimension to be checked is concerned it is called
a 'Standard Gauge'.
• In design of a gauge, simplicity should be the main aim as
simple gauges can take measurements continuously and
accurately.
164 KYC
Taylor’s Principle of Gauge Design
• It states that GO gauges should be designed to check maximum
material limit, while NO-GO gauges should be designed to
check minimum material limit.
• GO gauges should check all the related dimensions (roundness,
size, location etc.) simultaneously, whereas NO-GO gauges
should check only one element of dimension at a time.
165 KYC
Wear Allowance
• Since the gauge maker can't make absolutely accurately
gauges, permissible deviation in accuracy must be assigned for
gauge manufacture.
• Furthermore, the measuring surfaces of 'Go' gauges which
constantly rub against the surfaces of parts in inspection, are
consequently subjected to wear and lose their initial size.
• Thus due to wear, the size of 'Go' plug gauges is reduced, while
that of 'Go' snap gauges is increased.
• It is of course desirable to prolong the service life of gauges
and, therefore, a special allowance of metal, the wear allowance
is added in a direction opposite to the wear.
• For this reason new 'Go' plug gauges are made with two
positive deviations and 'Go' snap gauges with two negative
deviations from the nominal size. (The nominal size on which
limits of gauges are based are the limits of the parts to be
checked)
Wear Allowance
• GO plug gauge reduced due to wear. Wear Allowance is added.
• GO snap/ring gauge is increased. Wear Allowance is
subtracted.
• Applied in direction opposite to wear
• Wear allowance applied to Go gauge diameter before gauge
tolerance is applied.
• Gauge tolerance=10% of work tolerance.
• Wear Allowance=5% of work tolerance.
Wear Allowance
Numerical
• Design the general type of GO and NOT GO gauges for a 40 mm shaft
and hole pair designated as 40 H8/d9, given that
• (a) i = 0.453 3D + 0.001D
• (b) 40 mm lies in the diameter range of 30–50 mm
• (c) IT8 = 25i
• (d) IT9 = 40i
• (e) upper deviation of shaft = –16D0.44
• (f) wear allowance assumed to be 10% of gauge tolerance
• SOLUTION: The standard diameter steps for 40 mm shaft falls in the
range of 30–50 mm.
• D can be calculated using the equation
D = Dmax  D min = 30  50 = 38.7298mm

i = 0.453 3 D + 0.001D
= 0.453 3 38.7298 + (0.001 38.7298) = 1.571 m
169
i = 1.571 m KYC
Contd…
➢ For hole quality H8, the fundamental tolerance is 25i.
• 25i = 25(1.571) = 39.275 μm = 0.039275 mm ≈ 0.039 mm
➢ For hole, the fundamental deviation is zero.
• Hence, hole limits are as follows:
• LLH = 40 mm
• HLH = 40.00 + 0.039 = 40.039 mm
➢ Hole tolerance = 40.039 − 40 = 0.039 mm
➢ For shaft quality d9, the fundamental tolerance is 40i.
• 40i = 40(1.571) = 62.84 μm = 0.06284 mm ≈ 0.063 mm
• For d shaft, the fundamental deviation is given by −16D0.44
• Therefore, fundamental deviation = −16(38.7298)0.44
• = −79.9576 μm ≈ −0.07996 mm ≈ −0.080 mm
• Hence, shaft limits are as follows:
• HLS = 40 − 0.080 = 39.92 mm
• LLS = 40 − (0.080 + 0.063) = 39.857 mm
➢ Shaft tolerance = 39.92 − 39.857 = 0.063 mm
170 KYC
Contd…
• Hence, the hole and shaft limits are as follows:
Hole=40++0.039
0.000 mm and shaft=40 −0.080
−0.143 mm
• Assuming gauge tolerance to be 10% of work tolerance,

• gauge tolerance for hole = 10% of 0.039 = 0.0039 mm
• Wear allowance for hole = 10% of Gauge tolerance; therefore,
• Therefore, wear allowance for hole = 10% of 0.0039 = 0.00039 mm
• Similarly,
• Gauge tolerance for shaft = 10% of 0.063 = 0.0063 mm
• Wear allowance for shaft = 10% of 0.0063 = 0.00063 mm
171 KYC
Contd…
➢ For hole:
• The limits of GO Plug gauge are as follows:
• Low limit = Basic size + Wear allowance
• Low limit = 40.00 + 0.00039 = 40.00039 mm
• High limit = Basic size + (Wear allowance + Gauge tolerance)
• High limit = 40.00 + (0.00039 + 0.0039) mm
• = 40.00 + (0.00429) = 40.00429 mm
+𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟐𝟗
➢ Limits of GO plug gauge = 𝟒𝟎 mm
+𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟗
• The limits of NOT GO Plug gauge are as follows:
• Low limit = Basic size + Fundamental tolerance for hole
• Low limit = 40.00 + 0.039= 40.039 mm
• High limit = Basic size + (Fundamental tolerance for hole + Gauge
tolerance)
• High limit = 40.00 + (0.039 + 0.0039) mm
• = 40.00 + (0.0429) = 40.0429 mm
+𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟐𝟗
➢ Limits of NOT GO plug gauge = 𝟒𝟎 mm
+𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟎
172 KYC
Contd…
➢ For shaft:
• The limits of GO snap gauge are as follows:
• High limit = Basic size − (Fundamental deviation + Wear allowance)
• High limit = 40.00 − (0.080 + 0.00063) mm
• High limit = 40.00 − (0.08063) = 39.91937 mm
• Low limit = Basic size − (Fundamental deviation + Wear allowance +
Gauge tolerance)
• Low limit = 40.00 − (0.080 + 0.00063 + 0.0063) mm
• = 40.00 − (0.08693) = 39.91307 mm
−𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟎𝟔𝟑
➢ Limits of GO snap gauge = 𝟒𝟎 mm
−𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟔𝟗𝟑
• Limits of NOT GO snap gauge are as follows:
• High limit = Basic size − (Fundamental deviation + Fundamental
tolerance)
• High limit = 40.00 − (0.080 + 0.063) mm
• High limit = 40.00 − (0.143) = 39.857 mm
• Low limit = Basic size − (Fundamental deviation + Fundamental
tolerance + Gauge tolerance)
• Low limit = 40.00 − (0.080 + 0.063 + 0.0063) mm
• Low limit = 40.00 − (0.1493) = 39.8507 mm
−𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟑𝟎
➢ Limits of NOT GO snap gauge = 𝟒𝟎 mm
−𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟗𝟑
173 KYC
Contd…
• The disposition of gauge tolerances and wear allowance for the
GO and NOT GO plug and snap gauge are schematically
shown
174 KYC
NUMERICAL
• Calculate the dimensions of plug and ring gauges to control the
production of 50mm shaft and hole pair of H7d8 as per IS
specifications. The following assumptions may be made: 50mm lies in
diameter step of 30 and 50mm and the fundamental deviation for “d”
shaft is given by -16D0.44 and fundamental deviation for hole H is
zero. Tolerance unit i(microns)=0.453D+0.01D and IT6=10i and above
IT6 grade the tolerance magnitude is multiplied by 10 at each fifth
step.
175
175 KYC

Unit 2 Chapter 1 CMMD 2020

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Concept of Metrology and Machine

Schematic of Amplifying Mechanism used in Reed Type

Schematic of Johansson Mikrokator

Schematic of Johansson Mikrokator

Mechanism of Sigma Comparator

Principle of Pneumatic Comparator

Schematic of Flow or Velocity type Comparator

Principle of Back Pressure type Pneumatic Comparator

Back Pressure Circuit

Solex Pneumatic Gauge

• Commonly used instruments of this type are electrolimit,

Principle of Electrolimit Measuring Head

Principle of operation in Electronic Gauging

Disadvantages of Electrical Comparators

Schematic arrangement (ssectional view) of a typical LVDT

Typical Differential Transformer Performance Characteristics

Principle of Optical Lever

Mechanical Optical Comparator

Principle of Zeiss Ultra Optimeter

Eden Rolt Millionth Comparator

Disadvantages of Optical Comparators

• In mass production, where components are to be checked at a

• USE OF SINE BAR

Measuring known angles or locating any work to a given angle

Checking of unknown angles of small components

Checking of unknown angle of heavy components

Schematic of Optical Bevel Protractor

• Preferred in interchangeable manufacture.

• Maximum spread of clearance – minimum clearance=6clearance

Statistical approach: bases the permissible

Limits of size: The two extreme permissible sizes of a component,

For shaft: 25 +/-0.05

For hole: 30 +/-0.05

Basic size and zero line

Representation of different types of

Minimum and Minimum and maximum

29.85 +0.05 -0.00

30.60 -30.55=0.05 30.50 -30.65=-0.15

Clearance Fit Transition Fit Interference Fit

•Slide fit •Push Fit •Medium Force Fit

•Easy slide fit •Force (Shrink) fit •Tight (press) Fit

•Running fit •Wringing Fit •Shrink Fit or

•Loose running fit

129 HOLE BASIS SYSTEM KYC

132 SHAFT BASIS SYSTEM KYC

Hole basis system Shaft Basis system

i (microns) = 0.45 3 D + 0.001D for basic size upto 500mm

i = 0.45 3 D + 0.001D = 0.45 3 23.238 + (0.001 23.238) = 1.307  m

• Gauges are inspection tools of rigid design which serve to

Double ended plug gauge

• Double ended plug gauge

Progressive form of Plug gauge

Shell form of Plug gauge

Ring gauge (No-Go & Go guage) cross sectional view

Go and No-Go Ring Gauges for Dimensions 3 to 70mm

Go and No Go snap Go and No Go snap gauges

D = Dmax  D min = 30  50 = 38.7298mm

• Assuming gauge tolerance to be 10% of work tolerance,

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