Linear Measurements

References :
1. handbok of dimensional measurement

2. http://fetweb.ju.edu.jo/staff/me/jyamin/
3. http://www.phy.uct.ac.za/courses/c1lab/vernier1.html
• The measuring instrument / methods can be
classified in various manner.
 Direct / indirect measuring
1. Direct measuring : in which the measured
value is determined directly.
Example: micrometer, vernier caliper.
2. Indirect measuring: in which the dimension is
determined by measuring other values
functionally related to the required value.
example: divider, caliper.
Absolute / comparative measuring
1. Absolute : here, the zero division of the
instrument corresponds with the zero value
of the measured dimension.

2. Comparative : Here, only the deviations of

the measured dimensions from a master
gauge are determined.
 Contact / Contactless measuring
1. Contact: Here, the measuring tip of the
instrument actually touches the surface to be
measured.

2. Contactless: Here, no contact is required for

measurement.
Linear / Angular measuring instrument
• Linear or (length) measuring instrument:

• Angular or (angle) measuring instrument:

 Depending on the accuracy
1. Most accurate group includes light
interference instruments.
2. Second group includes: optimeters, dial
comparators.
3. Third group includes: dial indicator, vernier
calipers.
• Measuring instrument can be divided based
on their metrological properties, such as
range of measurement scale, graduation
value, scale spacing, sensitivity, and reading
accuracy.
 Range of measurement
• It indicated the size values between which
measurements can be made on the given
instrument.
• Example: micrometers are available for the
following ranges. (0 to 25, 25 to 50, 50 to 75,
75 to 100, 100 to 125, 125 to 150)mm .
 Scale division value
• It is the measured value corresponding to one
division of the instrument scale.
Example: the scale division value of a
micrometer is 0.01mm.
 Sensitivity
• It is also called “ amplification factor” or
“gearing ratio”
• It is the ratio of scale spacing to the scale
division value.
• Example: on a dial indicator the scale spacing
is 1.5 mm and the scale division value is 0.01
mm then the sensitivity is 150mm.
 Types of length standards
• The distance may be expressed as the
distance between two lines or the distance
between two faces.
• The instruments used for the direct
measurement if the linear dimensions fall into
two categories:
1.Line standards.
2.End Standards.
 Line Standards / End standards
• In the Line Standards. The measurement is
made between two parallel lines engraved
across the standard.

• In the End Standard. The measurement is

made between two flat parallel faces.
 Steel Rule
• Type: This is a low-resolution line-measuring
instrument

• Operating principle: comparing an unknown

length to a previously calibrated one.
• Construction: It consists of a strip of hardened
steel having line graduations etched or
engraved at intervals of fraction of standard
unit of length. These graduations may not be
uniform all throughout its length. This allows
for multiple use for particular range as per
accuracy required.
• Basic desirable qualities:
• (1) Clearly engraved lines.
• (2) Minimum thickness.
• (3) Good quality spring steel.
• (4)Graduations on both sides.
• (5) Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
• Degree of accuracy affected by:
• (1) Quality of rule.
• (2) Skill of user in estimation the parts of mm.
• Reliability of measurement when using scale
for direct measurement depends on the
proper positioning of the scale in relation to
workplace.
 Some accessories of Rules

Removable hooks

Clamping shaft
Some accessories of Rules

Center finder Right angle aligner

 Errors
1- Instrument limitations.
2-Geometric errors (flatness and parallelism).
3-Thickness of the grade line.
4-Least increment limitation.
5-Observation error.
6- Alignment error.
7- Parallax error (object not well aligned with scale).
 Calipers
• Calipers are used to pick off diameters or
distance from a workpiece.
• This setting is then measured with a scale,
vernier caliper, or micrometer.
• They are known as “ transfer measuring
instruments”.
 Construction & Use:
• They consist of two legs hinged at the top with
the ends of the legs span the parts to be
inspected.
 Types of calipers.
• Calipers can be classified as : Outside, Inside.

• Calipers can be classified as : Spring, Firm

joint, Lock joint , Transfer.
 firm joint calipers

Inside firm joint caliper Outside firm joint caliper

 Spring caliper

Inside spring caliper outside spring caliper

• Operating principle: They are devices for
comparing measurements against known
dimensions.
• Construction: The legs are made from carbon
& alloy steel containing not more than 0.05%
Sulphur, and 0.05% Phosphorous with working
ends suitably hardened and tempered to
hardness of 400-500 HV and faces up to 650 +
50 HV. They are joined together by a rivet.
They have rectangular cross section.
• Qualities: They should be free from cracks,
seams, dirt, flaws and must have smooth
bright finish.

• Nominal Size is the distance between the

center of the rolling end and the extreme
working end of a leg.
• Caliper’s Capacity is the maximum dimension
that can be measured by the caliper. It should
not be lesser than the nominal size.

• The accuracy depends on the sense and feel

of the operator. Therefore, caliper should be
held gently and square to the work with slight
gauging pressure applied.
• Precision (medium resolution) linear
measurement.
Characteristics of precise measuring
instruments
(1) High degree of sensitivity.
(2) High degree of accuracy.
(3) Minimum inertia in moving part.
(4) Freedom from variance.
 Vernier caliper

The basic components

1- Beam (line graduated)
2- Fixed jaw
3-Sliding jaw
 Vernier depth scale

Vernier Height scale

• In metric systems, there are two variations of
the Vernier Scale:

1.Where the main scale is graduated into mm

and 0.5 mm.
2.Where the main scale is graduated in whole
mm only.
• The relation between the size of the division
on main scale and the size of a division on a
vernier scale is :

( n  1)  C  n  Cv
n 1
Cv  C
n
C
C  Cv 
n
• C = size of a division on main scale.
• Cv= size of a division on a vernier scale.
• n= number of total divisions on the vernier
scale.
 Ref. http://www.wooster.edu/physics/lindner/Ph203_2000Labs/VernierCaliper.pdf

The small divisions on the rule span 1 mm.

10 divisions on the vernier gauge span 9 divisions on
the rule.
Hence, the small divisions on the vernier span
9/10 mm = 0.9 mm = 0.09 cm,
and the difference between a small division on the
vernier and a small division on the rule is
1/10 mm = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm.
 How to read a vernier caliper.
• The reading on the main scale just before the
zero of the vernier is noted.This is called Main
scale reading (M.S.R).The number of division on
the vernier which coincides perfectly with any
one of the main scale divisions is noted.This is
called vernier coincidence (V.C).The vernier
coincidence (V.C) is multiplied by least count to
get the fraction of a main scale division.This is
added to the main scale reading (M.S.R) to total
reading.
 Reference:
http://www.phy.uct.ac.za/courses/c1lab/vernier1.html
 Reference:
http://www.phy.uct.ac.za/courses/c1lab/vernier1.html
• Graduation characteristics: they should be
clearly engraved so that they are clearly
visible.

• Sources of Errors with Vernier Caliper :

Caliper not properly set to zero, Manipulation
of the vernier scale reading, Wear in
measuring tips, non-perpendicular plane
between bar and jaws, or between jaws and
workpiece.
 Care to be taken in using the Vernier
Scale :

• (1) Not to be treated as a wrench or hammer

since they are not rugged.
• (2) Should not be dropped or tossed aside
rather, handled with care.
• (3) Should be cleaned from dirt.
• Precautions :
• (1) Use the fixed jaw as the reference jaw,
• (2) Do not play with the sliding jaw on the
scale in order not to lose accuracy,
• (3) Regularly check the tips of the jaws for
possible wear.
 Advances in Vernier calipers

Digital Caliper Dial Caliper

 The Micrometer

The basic principle of the micrometer

Is an extremely accurate screw thread
with pitch (advancement with one
rotation) equal to 0.5 mm. The
measured part is placed between the
anvil and the spindle. The Ratchet is
used to reduce the fixing force on the
part.

The measurement is read on the line

graduation on the sleeve and the
graduation on the thimble.
The accuracy of the micrometer is governed by the Lead error.
Question????

If the value of the measurand

0.45 in what is the expected
Uncertainty or error in
Measurement?

The calibration chart for the micrometer. X-axis is the value of the reference
Y-axis is the error in measurement (reference – reading of the micrometer)
Accuracy of the micrometer depends
on

1- The parallelism and the flatness of the

Measuring surfaces
2- The deflection of the frame (because of the
Holding strength) The use of an optical flat to check
3- The accuracy of the screw thread The accuracy of the micrometer
4- Heat transfer
5- Lack of alignment with the object
6- The reading error
Micrometer types
Micrometer
accessories
Micrometer types
Reading the micrometer
 Fixed gauges

Fixed gauges are the pillers of interchangeability with efficient testing of the
Manufactured part and adding the feel factor to the inspection process

Master gauges: Used for

Calibration of measuring instruments
It takes the shape of full cylinder

Limit gauges: These usually establish

the ends of the measurement
And be adjustable
 External (snap)

Internal (plug gauges)

 Gauge blocks
Disvered by johansson, a sweedish deligate to Mauser factory in Germany in 1985

He devised a techniques to produce any length from a build up of individual

Fixed Master guages. The stacking is possible by a mechanised lapping process
to the surface of the masters.
Block gauge set
The basic uses of the 0.5 and I block gauges are: a primary standard, as a reference stand
For calibrating other blocks and a working standard for calibrating sensitive measuring
tools
The basic applications for II block gauges is in the setting of adjustable limit gauges
And for comparative length measurement

The basic use of the III block gauges is in the actual measurement and
For calibrating measuring instruments
Usually the surfaces of the gauge blocks are subject to damages the following figur
Shows how to remove such minute damges
Other non-graduated instruments