The Digestive System

INTRODUCTION
The digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract (alimentary canal) and accessory
structures. The accessory structures include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder,
and pancreas. The gastrointestinal tract is a continuous tube measuring about 9m in length.
Food is moved through the gastrointestinal tract by peristalsis, wavelike contractions of the
muscles in its walls. The tract itself is composed of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, and anus. The small intestine includes three regions, the duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum. The large intestine has four regions, the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal
canal.
The general functions of the digestive system are ingestion, digestion, absorption, and excretion.
Digestion is both a mechanical and a chemical process. In mechanical digestion, teeth cause the
physical breakdown of food by chewing (mastication), and the smooth muscle of the walls of the
stomach and small intestine further enhance this breakdown by churning the food and mixing it
with enzymes. Chemical digestion consists of a series of enzymatic reactions that break down
large carbohydrate, protein, and lipid molecules into end products that are small enough to be
absorbed across the lining of the gastrointestinal tract into the blood or lymph.
THE BUCCAL CAVITY
The mouth opens into the buccal cavity, where mastication of the food occurs. Mastication
involves the teeth, tongue, cheeks, and lower jaw. It increases the surface area of the food for
enzyme action, and forms the food into a bolus for swallowing. The food is mixed with saliva,
which contains salivary amylase enzyme. This catalyses the breakdown of amylase (cooked
starch) to the sugar maltose. The saliva also moistens and lubricates the food for swallowing.
Both the buccal cavity and esophagus are lined with stratified non-keratinized squamous
epithelium to resist wear as food passes down them.
The tongue manipulates the food and mixes it with saliva in the chewing process. It also pushes
the food backward to the pharynx in swallowing. The upper surface of the tongue contains the
taste buds. You can appreciate the role of saliva in lubricating and cleansing the mouth while
eating dry crackers or a peanut butter sandwich.
The roof of the mouth, which is formed by the hard palate and the soft palate, divides the nasal
and oral cavities. This arrangement allows you to breathe while chewing. The uvula is the
downward extension (dangly bit) at the back of the soft palate.
THE ESOPHAGUS
After mastication and swallowing the food bolus is passed down the esophagus. The esophagus
has an outer longitudinal, and an inner circular layer of smooth muscle fibers, which by their
coordinated rhythmic wave-like contractions, known as peristalsis, force the food bolus down to
the stomach. The walls of the esophagus have longitudinal folds which reduce the lumen to a
small star shape when food is not passing, but allow for expansion to accommodate swallowed
food. The circular cardiac sphincter relaxes to allow the food to enter the stomach.
THE STOMACH
The stomach wall has three smooth muscle layers (outer longitudinal, middle circular and inner
oblique), and is thrown into folds. It can stretch considerably to accommodate relatively large
volumes of food. It is lined with simple columnar epithelium and has three types of glands.
1. cardiac glands secrete mucus
2. pyloric glands secrete mucus
3. fundic glands secrete gastric juice which contains:
(a) mucus - protects gut wall.
(b) hydrochloric acid - kills bacteria, makes calcium and iron salts suitable for
absorption in the intestine, provides low pH for optimum pepsin action.
(c) pepsinogen - activated to pepsin which digests proteins to peptides.
(d) rennin - in young mammals which converts the soluble milk protein into an
insoluble form which can be attacked by pepsin.
(e) intrinsic factor - for the absorption of vitamin B.
Little absorption occurs in the stomach, but some glucose, minerals, water, vitamins, alcohol and
drugs are taken up into the blood stream. Contractions of the stomach mix the gastric juice with
the food and also aid in its mechanical breakdown, producing a mixture known as chyme which
is released in small quantities into the small intestine through the pyloric sphincter.
THE SMALL INTESTINE (DUODENUM, JEJUNUM, ILEUM)
This is the main region of digestion and absorption of the soluble end products of digestion. The
outer longitudinal and inner circular layers of smooth muscle in the wall move the food along by
peristalsis. It is lined with simple columnar epithelium and the glands in the wall secrete
intestinal juice.
Intestinal juice contains:
1. amylase - converts amylose in starch to maltose.
2. maltase - converts maltose to glucose.
3. lactase - converts lactose to glucose and galactose.
4. sucrase - converts sucrose to glucose and fructose.
5. erepsin (a mixture of peptidases) - converts peptides to amino acids.
6. lipase - converts fat (emulsified by alkaline bile from the liver) to glycerol and
fatty acids.
7. enterokinase - activates pancreatic trypsinogen to trypsin which converts proteins
and peptides to amino acids.
Also activates pancreatic chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin which also converts
protein and peptides to amino acids.
8. mucus - protects the gut lining.
The absorption of the end products of digestion (monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids,
glycerol, minerals and vitamins) takes place over the large surface area of folds and villi. The
villi are fingerlike projections, about 1mm long in humans, and are well supplied with blood and
lymph capillaries (The lymph system absorbs fats, fatty acids and glycerol). The blood
capillaries all join to form the hepatic portal vein which carries the blood to the liver where
various homeostatic adjustments are made.
THE PANCREAS
This secretes pancreatic juice into the small intestine via the pancreatic duct.
Pancreatic juice contains:
1. dilute solution of alkaline salts to neutralize the acid from the stomach.
 2. amylase.
3. maltase.
4. peptidases.
5. trypsinogen.
6. chymotaypsinogen.
THE LIVER
This secretes bile into the small intestine via the bile duct. Bile is a dilute solution of alkaline
bile salts which:
1. emulsifies fats.
2. activates pancreatic lipase.
3. increases activity of carbohydrate and protein digesting enzymes.
4. increases the uptake of vitamins A, D, and K.
THE LARGE INTESTINE
The small intestine opens into the caecum, which is well developed in herbivores and which
contains symbiotic bacteria which secrete cellulase enzymes to digest the cellulose cell walls of
plant material. One end of the caecum continues as the blind-ending appendix, and in the other
direction it leads into the colon, which is the main region of absorption of water and minerals.
The remains of the food finally enters the rectum prior to expulsion via the anus.

A. Using Background Information

Now use the information included with this lab book, your textbook, and your personal
knowledge to answer questions 1 to 10 in the Moodle lab report.

B. Tooth Structure And Type.

A complete set of adult teeth consists of 32 teeth. From the front to the back of each jaw, they
are the incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. The third set of molars are commonly called
wisdom teeth and these sometimes become impacted because of the evolutionary shortening of
the jaw.
A tooth consists of two major parts: the crown protrudes above the bone, and the root is
embedded in the bone. Most of the tooth is composed of dentin, but the crown is covered by
enamel, an extremely hard substance. The pulp cavity is the hollow interior of the tooth, and it
contains blood vessels and nerves. The blood vessels and nerves enter the tooth through a hole at
the bottom of the root. In carnivores and omnivores this hole becomes smaller when the tooth is
fully grown, reducing the supply of blood. The tooth is then said to have a closed root; dentine is
no longer produced, and the tooth stops growing. The roots of herbivores’ teeth stay open, so
dentine production continues and their teeth keep growing throughout life. These animals feed
on rough material like grass. Continuous growth of the teeth makes sure that the abrasive food
does not wear them away. The tooth is attached to the jaw bone by cement and a mucous
membrane surrounds the neck of the tooth and covers the bone. This membrane is commonly
called gum.
The teeth of fish, amphibians and reptiles are usually cone-shaped. The teeth of mammals are
different shapes and sizes. The different types of teeth are positioned in the mouth according to
their functions. Your text book should have a diagram showing the arrangement of teeth in an
adult human jaw. Humans have two sets of teeth. The first set of “milk” (or deciduous) teeth
form in the jaw before birth and begin to appear (or erupt) about three to six months after birth.
These are gradually replaced by the permanent teeth between the ages of six and twelve. The
third molars (the “wisdom” teeth) do not appear until the age of about 18 years.
The word dentition is used to describe the number and arrangement of teeth in an animal.
Humans and other omnivores have all four basic types of teeth to deal with a mixed diet of plants
and meat. The dentition of adult humans is described in a dental formula using the key as shown
below.
i = incisor c = canine pm = pre molar m = molar
Adult Human Dental Formula is therefore shown as:
i 2 c 1 pm 2 m 3
2 1 2 3
Diagram 1. Tooth types

Incisor Canine Premolar Molar

Procedure
1. Observe the teeth in the document provided.
Identify the type of teeth in each of the images for questions 11 to 14 in the Moodle lab report.

C. Feeding Technique and Dentition.

Mammals show a heterodont dentition as they have different teeth specialized for different
functions. Mammals also show adaptation of their entire dentition to a particular diet, for
example:
Herbivore Dentition
Deer and sheep are herbivores and therefore have a diet that consists of tough plants and grasses.
Vegetation (grass in particular) is relatively hard to masticate and is relatively low in nutritional
value when compared to meat. Therefore the herbivorous dentition shows many adaptations for
the mastication of large volumes of plant material. Instead of having incisors in the front of the
upper jaw, deer and sheep have a tough, horny pad which the incisors of the lower jaw bite
against. There are no canines in the upper jaw and the canines in the lower jaw look like
incisors. There is a space in both jaws in front of the premolars. This space is called the
diastema (see diagram 2). The animal can push its long, muscular tongue through the diastema
to sweep grasses into its mouth, where they are cut off by the action of the lower incisors against
the pad in the upper jaw. The premolars and molars have layers of cement, enamel and dentine
that wear away at different rates. This causes ridges of enamel to form (see diagram 3) and it is
on this ridged surface that the vegetation is crushed by the grinding action of the side to side
movement of the lower jaw. To offset the wearing down of their grinding surfaces herbivore
teeth continue to grow throughout life.

Diagram 2. Deer (herbivore) dentition.

Herbivorous dentition shows many adaptations for the mastication of large volumes of plant material.
The premolars and molars have broad, ridged surfaces and the vegetation is crushed by the grinding
action of the side to side movement of the lower jaw.

Carnivore Dentition
Carnivores have a dentition that is adapted for catching struggling prey and cutting through soft
flesh and hard bones (see diagram 4). Dogs and cats are two of the most common carnivores.
The incisors and strongly developed canines are adapted for holding, killing and tearing the prey.
The premolars and molars are sharp-edged and the last upper premolars and first lower molars
are particularly strongly developed as cutting and shearing teeth and are known as the
carnassials. The “tight” joint of the lower jaw only allows an up-and-down “scissor-like” action,
which is necessary for the cutting action of the carnassials. The skull has attachment sights for
large, strong jaw muscles. The lower jaw has a shallow posterior angle (bend at its back end)
when compared to the herbivore jaw. This shallower angle allows for a wide gape of the mouth
so that particularly large bites can be taken. The jaw joint only allows up and down movements.
Diagram 3. Tooth wear in Herbivores.
ridged surface.

enamal.
dentine.

Molar when first Molar after

formed. wear.

Diagram 4. Dog (Carnivore) dentition.

The canines are long and well developed for grasping and tearing. The incisors, premolars and
molars are used for cutting. The last premolar on each side of the upper jaw and the first molar
on each side of the lower jaw are very large and are called the carnassial teeth. The skull shows
adaptation for the attachment of powerful jaw muscles.

PROCEDURE

HERBIVORES

1. Examine the skull of a deer in the provided document and note the teeth.
Give its dental formula at question 15 in the Moodle lab report.
2. Notice the large molar and premolar teeth.. What are they for?
3. Look at an individual molar tooth. How is this adapted for a herbivore diet.
4. Note the diastema. What is the importance of this?
5. Investigate the articulation between the upper and lower jaws. How does this affect the action
of the teeth and the feeding ability of the animal?
6. If available, compare the skull and teeth of the deer with those of other herbivores such as
cows.

CARNIVORES

1. Examine the skull of a dog in the provided document and note the teeth. Give its dental
formula at question 20 in the Moodle lab report.
2. Notice the large carnassial teeth. These are the last pair of premolars in the upper jaw and the
first pair of molars in the lower jaw. What are they for?
3. Close the upper and lower jaws together. Note how the upper and lower teeth fit (occlusion).
What is the importance of this?
4. Investigate the articulation between the upper and lower jaws. How does this affect the action
of the teeth and the feeding ability of the animal?
5. If available, compare the skull and teeth of the dog with those of other carnivores such as cats.

QUESTIONS
Use this document to record your responses prior to attempting the lab report.

1. List the basic functions of a digestive system.

To break down food into small molecules and absorption

2. Match the following terms to their descriptions: (You can use the words more than once, not
at all, and some answers may require more than one answer.)
mouth esophagus
stomach rectum
liver anus
pharynx large intestine
pancreas salivary gland
small intestine gall bladder
gastric juice= stomach
throat= esophagus
ingestion= mouth
secretes bile= gall bladder
forms chyme= stomach
absorption of water= salivary glands
villi present= small intestine
absorption of nutrients= liver
passes through diaphragm= esophagus
stores bile= gall bladder
 secretes digestive juices= large intestine

3. What functions does HCl have while in the stomach?

 helps digestion by breaking the bonds linking amino acids, a process known as proteolysis.

4. Fully explain why digestion is impaired if a gallstone blocks the bile duct?
Digestive enzymes can become trapped in the pancreas and cause an extremely painful
inflammation called gallstone pancreatitis. 

5. Label the diagram on the next page.

A-tongue
B-parotid
C-pharynx
D-esophagus
E-liver
F-gallbladder
G-stomach
H-large intestine
I-small intestine
J-appendix
K-anal canal
L- Anus
M- Diaphragm
 A B

F G

L
6. Where does most chemical digestion take place in a human? Duodenum

7. List the functions of the stomach.

Storing the food we eat. 
Breaking down the food into a liquidly mixture called chyme. 
Mixing enzymes which is are chemicals that break down food. 
Slowly empties that liquidly mixture into the small intestine.

8. Arrange the terms to indicate the correct order of the parts of the digestive tract.

1. Mouth
2. Pharynx
3. Esophagus
4. Cardiac sphincter
5. Stomach
6. Pyloric sphincter
7. Small
8. Large
9. Rectum
10. Anus

9. Why is absorption across the lining of the stomach difficult for most chemicals/nutrients?

10. How is the small intestine adapted for absorption?

Villi and microvilli provide a very large surface area

11. Name the type of tooth and describe how their structure shows adaptation to their
function.
12. Name the type of tooth and describe how their structure shows adaptation to their
function.
Molar -

13. Name the type of tooth and describe how their structure shows adaptation to their
function.
Incisor

14. Name the type of tooth and describe how their structure shows adaptation to their
function.
Canine
15. Give the dental formula for the deer. Use Image A (3 total images labeled image A) in the
teeth diagram document to determine the formula.

15. Notice the large molar and premolar teeth. What are they for?

17. How is an herbivore molar adapted for a vegetarian diet.

Instead of having incisors in the front of the upper jaw, deer and sheep have a tough, horny pad
which the incisors of the lower jaw bite against.

18. What is the importance of the diastema for an herbivore?

It would allow food to be pushed between the upper and lower jaw through the gap, to be stored
briefly in the cheek.

19. Explain how the articulation between the upper and lower jaws effects the action of the teeth
and the feeding ability of the herbivore?
The articulation of jaw joint allows the upper and lower cheek teeth to come together along the
length of the jaw more or less at once when the mouth is closed in order to form grinding platforms.

20. Give the dental formula for the dog. Use Image B (3 total images labeled image B) in the
teeth diagram document to determine the formula.

21. What is the function of the large carnassial teeth?

used for shearing flesh and bone in a scissor- or shear-like way
22. Explain how the carnassials are adapted for their function. They have adapted too aid in the
stabbing of prey

23. Explain how the articulation between the upper and lower jaws effects the action of the teeth
and the feeding ability of the carnivore?