History of Indian Classical music

Evolution of the concept of Tala

Historical Perspective of Tala :

The concept of tala is quite fundamental to the understanding of Indian music.

Bharat’s ‘Natyasastra’ is considered to be earliest available work on music of India

describes ‘tala’ as one of the constituent element of music. He defines‘ Gandharva’
as ‘svaratala – padatmakam’ ( the organic unity of tone , rhythmic cycle and word.)

For the very reason it is difficult to trace the origin of tala as far as the historical

sources are concern. Since ancient musicologists like Bharata, Dattalia etc. take it for

granted to be a part of and parcel of their musical heritage.

Considering the tradition of ‘Sama gana’ – which is considered to be older than

thatof the ‘Gandharva’ form of music and look for some traces of the origin of tala.

The word ‘Gandharva’ is somewhat of a mythical origin – on one hand it is associated

witha class of semi-divine beings who are supposed to be the professional

musiciansof God, on the other hands it denotes the art of musical performance as

originally practised by Narada who is supposed to have introduced it to the mortal

world by celebrities like Bharata, Dattalia etc. though Bharat while describing origin
of Natya, derives gita from ‘Sama veda’.

It is stated to have been created by Brahma, with the determination that, it would

would be the repository of the object with sciences, the originator of all fine arts,
the indicator of the future pattern of human activity, the means for the

the accomplishment of the objective of virtue and wealth, glory and fame, full of

instruction and compilation. It was not meant to serve desire for pleasure

one of four recognized human values, since its objective was restricted to dharma

and artha (virtue and wealth).

Form of music presented by Natyasastra, represented a tradition, that was oriented

toconform to the higher values of life. There was another tradition of musical arts
whichcatered to the popular taste as entertainment and enjoyment- later was

acknowledged as ‘desi-music’ by Matanga and Sarangadeva. In the field of

literature also same parallelism of Sanaskrit and Prankit, former representing

theelite culture and the later being a vehicle of people at large.

Viewed in the perspective there is no wonder if no definite trace of the concept of

tala is to be found in the tradition of ‘sama gana’ even though it was melodically

sufficiently developed to employ seven tones and three scales. There can be two

different approaches to look for the origin of tala.

The concept of tala is a complex one, comprehending not only rhythm but also

tempo and the measurement of musical time in a cyclic manner. The primary

function of tala as spelled out by Bharat, Sarangdeva is to measure what may be

called musical time and cyclic repeatation is one of the most distinguishing feature

of the concept of tala.

There is no wonder if no definite trace of concept of tala is to be found in the

tradition of ‘sama gana’ .

In Vedic music, rhythm was observed in composition (sahitya) with the help of

metres (Chanda). Tunes were added to the rks, and rks were constituted out of

letters arranged in different metres. The rk stanzas with tune were ‘sama ganas’.

While the metrical compositions of the samans provided the scope for rhythm

no evidence of tala was there in the structure of singing of ‘sama ganas’- not the

sources for the origin of tala.

The perception of rhythm is much more spontaneous and natural to the human

mind than that of the svara and even pada since the development of language

must have taken quite a long time in the history of human civilization. The rhythmic

movement of the limbs and the body came more easily and effortlessly as

manifestation of joy and in the form of different emotions to the primitive man and
so the origin of tala may rather be sought in the perception of rhythm in the song

and dance as practised in the prehistoric times. So tala gradually developed as a

specific manifestation of rhythms in order to spell out the temporal element in the

rhythmic fabric of time-space.

As far as Natyasastra is concerned, tala’s exposition is limited – Marga-talas.

It is followed by ‘Sangita churamani’ of Jagadekamalla which deals with tala

adequately. For an authentic and adequate information and the history of ideas

related to tala ,one must depend entirely upon ancient Sanskrit works.

As far as the Marga talas are concerned, Sarangadeva had shown hardly any

change or development with respect to Desi tala, which were fully developed during

the time of Sarangadeva.

The concept of Tala –

Bharat said in other words that tala implies a certain perspective in which music as a

whole is conceived by him.

Bharata’s music is not an autonomous art – it is ancillary to drama – every musical

concept is correlated to the aims and objective of a dramatic performance. He

considered music a ‘silpa’ as contrast to ‘vidya’. The function of a ‘vidya’ is to lead

a man to immortality or freedom. The cultivation of ‘silpa’(art) is subordinated to the

aim of life attainable through vidya.

Bharat Natyasastra represents the study of what may be called highly cultivated

music practised among the members of highly cultured section of the society- it

being instructive, educative and elevating the orientation. Bharata identified tala

with ‘ghana’ (the solid instrument) which he has considered to be one of four classes

of musical instrument constituting the instrumental ensemble. The instrumental

ensemble is to be known as four fold as distinguished by their characteristic feature

(i) the string instrument (kutis),
(ii) the covered instrument (drums)
(iii) the solid ringing instrument
(iv) the wind instrument.

Bharat has defined tala as-

The instrument that has been called ‘ ghana’ in association with ‘kala’(unsounding

action) , pata (sounding action) and laya (tempo) is to be known as having time for

its measure in the use of tala.

The exposition of tala can properly and fully be comprehended by understanding the

related concept of ghana, pata, laya, and kala (time).

Ghana – solid musical instrument used as a medium for the manifestation of tala.

Bharat has classified the instruments into four groups and this classification is based

on his concept of svara to one which is two fold

(i) body based (sarirah)

(ii) based on string instrument

According to Bharat – Gandharva music caused by voice, lute (vina), and flute

(Vamsa). Because three are capable to produce svara.

Very function of tala is to measure time of a musical rendering, it has immense

value to grasp the notion of time as understood by the ancient people.

The other constituent factor of tala is given by kala, pata, and laya. First two

represent action. Time is considered eternal by itself and therefore unlimited.

Time is conceived in two aspects- (i) Eternal, (ii) transitory.

Time is an eternal substance and basis of all experiment. Time is not measurable

But what is measurable is the action or the event that takes place in it.

This time is transitory and relative, it always has a point of reference or standard

of measurement with reference to which it becomes perceptible. This time is

chronological, and consists in the notion of sequence, in which certain events are

prior and other posterior.

According to Abhinava Gupta, tala is the mean fashioned out of sasabda and

nishabda kriya for measuring the extent of singing as it extended in time. The

extension means the property of space, then tala is essentially means of determining

and regulating the act of singing in time space.

Abhinavagupta has referred only two aspects of tala:

(i) Movement (Kriya)

(ii) Divisive time measurement (Parichitti)

There are other two, which are equally important:

(iii) Pattern of time division

(iv) Cyclic recurrence

Since tala is the means of measuring the act of singing in time space, Sarangdeva

Identifies tala with Kala(time), he says:

Providing through action(kriya) measured by units such as laghu etc. the

measurement of song(gita) time is tala.

Though Sarangdeva is a close follower of Bharat, a critical scrutiny of definition of

tala given by both of them points to some difference which cannot be said

categorically but it provides lot of evidence of the development of the idea in the
same direction.

According to Bharat, tala was associated with the medium of its expression-‘ghana’

which shows his understanding was concrete.

But Sarangadeva- tala is nothing but time which signifies an abstract concept based

on the distinction that was made between the subject and the medium of
expression. This development in conceptual term was forerunner to the change over

from ‘ghana’ to the ‘avanaddha’ as a medium of expression of tala in the Indian

music. According to Bharata, it is Ghana along with kala, pata, and laya provides the
standard of measurement in time. Sarangadeva says that time is delimited by the
action measured by laghu etc. there by setting the measurement of song dance etc.is
tala. Tala signifies measurement of time through the ‘matras’ produced by sounding
and unsounding action. Whether it is the time, that is measured by tala or the act of
singing that is measured by tala in time, tala is concerned with a time factor that is
brought by Sarangadev. Time is not perceptible without action or change and is a
pattern of action that determines the form of tala. Change represents alteration or
relative action and rest, the frequency of which produce ‘tempo’(laya). So we can
see how the three factors – the time, the action and the rate of change(caused by
relative action and pause) go to constitute tala.

Time or the expanse of the act of singing in time is measured through ‘kala’ and
‘pata’- the sounding and silent action. This is achieved by striking a bronze
instrument (or a ghata or pitcher) at regular intervals of time. Though ‘ghana’ was
used for keeping the time, the other system of keeping time is by the clapping, time
continued in a modified form as far as the ‘Marga’ talas are concerned. Tala was
manifested by hands-action of the hand is called ‘Kriya’ , which are two types

(i) sasabda (sounding0,

(ii) nishabda (silent).

Bharat gave other name – Kala and pata. Kala was used in various sense- it denotes a
unit of time mesure in tala accompanied with some action- sasabda and nishabda,
particularly it signifies the nishabda kriya in contrast with pata that signifies sounding
action.

Kala literally signifies a phase there by a part of a whole and thus it has the function
of a unit in the cycle of tala. The unit of time has no absolute value, it varies
according to the Marga or the particular span of tala, to which it is related. The fact
that it has no absolute value is very important as this flexibility was used in evolving
the structure of Desi tala. In metrical measurement of ‘Kala’ is equal to a ‘matra’
which is equivalent to the time taken by pronouncing a short vowel or the time of a
nimesa (winking of the eye). In this context of tala, a kala or matra, is equal to ‘five
laghus’. In the Marga talas, the actual unit of a tala which is considered ‘kala’
consists of ‘two laghus’ or a‘guru’( of the tala system). So each kala of a tala is equal
to the time taken by pronouncing ten short syllables. Bharata says that ‘kala’ is three
fold, according to it pertains to the three Margas.

(i) Citra
(ii) Vartika
(iii) Daksina

The concept of kala is inevitably related to that of Marga in the Marga talas.

Shrangadev told about four Marga, adding Dhruva in the beginning. According to
him (i) Dhruva Marga, the kala is of one matra,
 (ii) Citra two matras,

(iii) Vartika four matras

(iv) Daksina it is of eight matras, matra being equal to laghu. A nimesa is
found to be equal to 0.24sec. So one laghu is equal to 1.20 seconds.

Another book ‘Sangita Chudamani’ speaks about six Margas :

(i) Dakshina
(ii) Vartika
(iii) Chitra
(iv) Chitratara
(v) Chitratama
(vi) Ati chitratara

With the kala consists of 8, 4, 2, 1,1/2 matra and Anudhruta.

The addition of three margas of Bharata in different ways is a clear pointer to the
development of ‘Desi’ tala which has the laghu as their unit of measurement in contrast to
the ‘guru’ of Marga tala. The four margas provide a fourfold measure of tala throws flood
light on very signicant concept of Marga which is very intimately related to the concept of
the three fold tala in terms of

(i) Ekakala
(ii) Dvikala
(iii) Catuskala

forms of all the Marga talas associating with them- citra,vartika, and dakshina Margas
respectively.

Marga essentially implies a device of providing different standards of measuring the same
tala structure.

Ekakala form of caccatputa is SSI - Two gurus, one laghu and one pluta. A guru is equivalent
to two laghus and a pluta is equivalent to three laghus, each of which is capable of being
expanded to give rise to what is known as ‘Padabhanga’ (section).

The Dvikala form comprises of eight gurus , each SS SS SS SS and

Catuskala form comprises of four groups of four guru each – SSSS SSSS SSSS SSSS, thus
expansion of the basic structure is achieved by introducing ‘nishsabda’ kala between
‘sasabda’ kala.

Ekakala form has all sasabda kriyas.

The dvikala form begins with ‘nishsabda kriya’ and proceeds with ‘nishsabda’ and ‘sasabda’
kriya in each ‘padabhanga’.

Catuskala form has one ‘sasabda’ and three ‘nishsabda’ kriya in each ‘padabhanga’.

Kalas are named as follows :

Name of the sasabda kala Abbreviation Name of the nishsabda kala Abbreviation

Dhruva Dhru avapa a

Samya Sa nishkrama ni

Tala Ta Viksepa vi

Sannnipata Sam Pravesa pra

The third constituent factor of tala is laya (tempo). Tempo is caused by time space taken

by the kalas .The time interval obtained between one sounding kalas and other is called

‘visranti’(rest) by Sarangadeva who defines laya as rest following the action. In other words
‘tempo’ is nothing but the interval of time betweena series of action (kriya).

This concept is naturally to be contrasted with modern concept of ‘laya’ as speed or rate of
action. The former consider the rest as the substance of laya while latter consider action as
its substance. The two are related like both sides of a coin.

But the consequence of this difference in emphasis is such that the way of ecpressing it
today is just the opposite of what it was earlier. Now a days, the increase of ‘laya’ means
increase of speed of action and consequently decreasing the rest which is very opposite of
the earlier concept according to which increase of laya means the increase of the rest period
and decrease the rate of action.

What lends tala a distinct identity with reference to rhythm is what Dattalia calls ‘Parivarta’
and Sarangadeva calls ‘Parivartana’. Which he defines as the repeatation of a ‘Padabhanga’
(section) or the whole of a tala (Abritti). In this repeatation in cyclic order distinguishes tala
from a simple rhythm. The ‘parivarta’ or ‘parivartana has come to us in the form of
‘abartana’ of modern practice. Also Sarangadeva has defined ‘Yati’, & ‘Graha’ as regulation
affecting laya (tempo).

A melody is conceived as divided into three parts- the beginning, middle, and the end. So
yati or its three varities are:

(i) Sama
(ii) Srotogatha
(iii) Gopuccha
 Consist of varied distribution of slow, middle and fast tempo.

The concept of ‘Graha’ – relationship between the commencement of a tala pattern and
that of the rendering. The three types of ‘graha’:

(i) Sama
(ii) Atita
(iii) Anagata

Relate to the three layas – on, after and before the commencement of the composition.

Sama – is the aesthetic confluence of the singer, player and the drummer. This is the point
where the beauty and the intricacies of raga and tala tend to get focused. This is one of the
unique aspect of Hindustani music.

In Carnatic music, old concept of ‘graha’ still continues. There the focal point is the start of
the composition and all the intricacies of tala and svara calculated towards that point.
Sarangadeva has defined graha(hold) in which commencement of the tala coincides in time
with that of melody.

Tala is indiated through the action of ‘sasabdaa’ and ‘nishabda’ kriya. It has also been
obsorvd that tala was manifested through ‘ghana’.

Sarangadeva has also said that - a separate cymbol holder(tabla dhara) expert in the
Gandharva’ system should be provided to assist the singer and to safe guard against his slip.

Abhinavagupta while explaining the utility of ‘ghana’ as a medium of keeping tala – points
out that the system of indicating tala through the sounding and silent acts of hand is
relevant only in the context of ‘Gandharva’ and not with regards to ‘gana’ even ‘Dhruv gana’
so for this forms which was known as ‘gana’ ‘ghana’ was the medium of tala.

Another point made by him is that the use of ‘ghana’ secures what is called ‘Prayaga-Samya.
Samya means evenness , concord, harmony.

Marga talas are used only with ‘Gandharva’ music and not with ‘gana’

The gitakas and purvaraga (prelude) of a drama are known forms of musical practice where
talas were used. The ‘gitakas’ are tala structures sheltering music form slippage. They are
tala oriented melodic forms.

Sarangadeva has described fourteen gitkas in category of ‘prakarna gita’ but made
distinction between seven ‘gitakas’ and seven ‘gitas. Gitakas are as follows:

(i) Madraka
(ii) Aparantaka
(iii) Ullopyaka
 (iv) Prakari
(v) Ovenaka
(vi) Robindraka
(vii) Uttara

Gitas are :

(i) Chandaka
(ii) Asrita
(iii) Vardamana
(iv) Panika
(v) Gatha
(vi) Sama.

These are predominantly tala oriented melodic structure in which the Marga tala are
variously employed, more than one tala is in use with reference to different ‘anga’.

The ‘angas’ are integral part of ‘gitakas’. The first of these gitakas : Madrak , which is of
three types – ‘Ekakala’, ‘Dvikala’,’Catuskala’;

Each of which is twofold –

(i) one having three vastus (compositional section),

(ii) Having four vastus

‘Sirsaka’(anga) is performed with three vastus.

A vastu of ‘ekakala madraka’ is made of eight ‘gurus’ and eight’laghus’.

Marga talas means demonstration of tala unit such as laghu, guru, and pluto in relation to
the sounding and silent action (kriya) that are used to indicate them as ‘avapa’ and others.

‘Prastara’ presents- a ‘catuakala’ madrata forms, are similarly conceived with variation or
addition in the number of ‘vastus’ and ‘angas’ used.

Bharata has used them in the prelude. Sarangadeva informs that they were sung in the
praise of ‘Lord Shiva’ and were capable of leading to spiritual liberation. These were perhaps
the only composition in which ‘Marga’ talas were employed. The ‘Dhruva’ song of Bharata
which was outside ‘Gandharva’ were unsuitable for ‘Marga’ talas. The scant practical use of
‘Marga’ talas strongly suggests that evan in the time of Bharata, he tradition of ‘Non-Marga’
talas, later identified by Sarangdeva as ‘Desi tala’ were also in practice.
Desi tala –

Before Sarangadeva we did not come across the term Desi-tala, probably it was coined by
him in view of the fact that he has classified the musical art in two broad division-

‘Marga’ and

‘Desi’.

Somesswara in his book ‘Manasollasa’ classifies talas into four types :

(i) Tryasra
(ii) Caturasra
(iii) Misra
(iv) Khanda

The term tryasra and caturasra are also available in Bharata book, but here time measure is
different. Caturasra is formed by two, four, or six gurus whereas the basic unit of Tryasrs is
that of three gurus that is augamented by six. Misra variety is a combination of two and
Samkirna tala consists of the combination of tryasra and caturasra type.

Concept of ‘Khanda tala’ is of great importance. The word ‘Khanda’ means a part or a
fraction. Structure of the desi talas says that they were constructed by way of ‘fractions’ of
gurus which was accepted standard unit of Marga tala.

For them standard unit is ‘laghu’ which also is fractioned into one-half, one-quarter and so
on. So origin of desi talas is khanda tala.

Desi talas are recognised by action measure (time) laghu as required by the exigency of
melodic excellence and indicated by the beating of bronze cymbals. Sanragadeva by his
presentation made it clear that the concept and the structure of Desi talas is quite different
from that of Margo talas.

(i) Standard unit of measurement in this talas is laghu.

(ii) The standard unit can be varied according to the exigencies of melodic
excellence
(iii) Tala is to be manifested by beating of cymbals and not by nishsabda and sasabda
kriyas.

The use of laghu is indicative of ‘Druta’ and ‘Viramanta’.

(i) Druta is half the measure of laghu, and

(ii) ‘Anudhruta’ is half of ‘Druta.
(iii) Viramanta has no independent measure of its own but denotes one-half of
the measure to which it is attached. Thus laghu viramanta is equal to one and
a half of laghu, guru viramanta will be same as pluto. It is not very popular. In
 addition to laghu, guru, & pluta, the Desi talas have ‘druta’, ‘anudruta’, and
‘viramanta. There is another measure- called ‘Kakapata’ which is equal to
four laghus. One laghu is called ‘Matra’, which word more or less replaces the
the word ‘Kala’. Though there is no mention of ‘sasabda’ and ‘nishsabda’
kriya in Desi tala , Sarangadeva speak of ‘asabda’(laghu) in the context of tala
as ‘Simhanandana’. The term ‘asabda’ has entirely different connotation as
compared to ‘nishsabda’ which is kriya.

The flexibility obtaining in the standard measure of laghu- which in the case of Desi tala is
variable from four short syllable time to six syllable time, provides a very distinct
characteristic of ‘Desi tala’ where as Marga talas because of fixed value of ‘laghu’(five short
syllable time) was possible to maintain a certain standard tempo. This structure of Desi tala
provides greatest scope for variations in tempo. The great variety of talas is obtained
through the difference in order in which the ‘avayavas’ (limbs) of tala such as laghu, dhruta,
etc. occurs.

Somessvara has mentioned about 20 talas where other text generally give 101.
Sarangadeva has given120 desi talas. The structure of more of these is similar as would be
found from the comparative chart showing ‘Desi tala’ in practice upto 13 th. century.

Structurally “Adi’ tala is the simplest with one laghu(I).

In ‘Panchama’ the same measure is broken into two Dhrutas(0 0). Thus the talas of same
time measure has been differentiated by being arranged into different time units and order.
The structural form and the very spirit of ‘Desi tala’ could be properly understood by
comparing and contrasting them with Marga talas:

(i) The Marga talas are kept through the action of hand (sasabda & nishsabda
kriya), but the Desi talas are kept with the help of’Kamasyatala’.
(ii) The basic time unit in Marga tala is ‘kala’ which is equal to two laghus or one
guru. In Desi tala the basic unit is ‘Matra’ is equal to one laghu..
(iii) The value of laghu in the Marga talas is fixed as five syllables while in desi tala
it varies from four to six. This has resulted in a variation of standard tempo in
Desi tala.
(iv) Marga tala unit measure are laghu, guru and pluto. In Desi talas we have
drut, anudrut, viramanta
(v) The Marga talas have grahas, Yati etc. and many more essential factor; In
Desi talas these concepts have no values.
(vi) The form and number of Marga talas are fixed for ever, where Desi tala
enormous development can be observed, the number rose upto 244 .
(vii) The marga talas in their original form is not very lengthy in measure which
varies from three to six gurus only. Desi talas vary from one laghu to 31
laghus in length.
 (viii) Since Marga talas formed a part of Gandharva, there purpose was allied with
it and therefore used in ‘gitakas’ and while the Desi talas were used in
‘Prabandhas.’

From very restricted orientation of Malrga tala it becomes apparent that there must
have been tradition of non marga talas being practised in the form of music from
early times which slowly developed and gained recognition first by Somessvara as
‘Khanda tala’ then by sarangadeva as ‘Desi tala’ in more formalized form.
Somessvara made an important stage in the development of ‘desitala’ as far as
historical evidence is concerned by the following few observation:

(i) He did not mention any distinction like marga and Desi.
(ii) He did not use any such terminology as ‘Marga’ instead he spaks of
‘manas’(Standard measure) , though by this term he is referring to the same
phenomenon. Thus he informs us about the dilution of the concept of margas
and other term.
(iii) He does not use any such terminology as Marga, Yati, Graha etc.
(iv) He does not even mention the three layas(tempo) of the Margo talas.

Though the memory of the Margo talas was inherited , they were no longer in actual use
and other tradition of popular music.

Up till 13th.century it was ‘Kamsa tala’ that was the means of manifesting tala.

The use of ‘avanaddha’ for this purpose is evidently a later development and is probably
related to the development of ‘bols’ alongside talas as far as the desi tala is concerned, it is
definitely related to the development of ‘Prabandha’ .Many of the talas bears the
‘prabandha ‘name. It may be concluded that ‘Desi tala’ owe their development primarily to
the ‘Prabandha’.