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Perpetual Pavement: Future Pavement Network

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Journal of Advanced Construction Materials, Vol. 19(1), 2015

Perpetual Pavement: Future Pavement Network

*
Mithil Mazumder Hyunhwan Kim** Soon-Jae Lee***

Abstract
This paper reviews the importance of perpetual pavement in future pavement networks. Definition of perpetual
pavement including its mechanistic-empirical design principles and difference with conventional pavement are
discussed. Specific layer purposes and distresses are provided. Recommendations are given for future research in
order to obtain an optimum asphalt perpetual pavement design.

Introduction contrasts to design of Conventional Pavement

Perpetual asphalt pavement is intended as a long (empirical methods) where increasing traffic is the

life pavement as it is designed to sustain for fifty sole consideration for the thickening of the

years or more with minimum maintenance and pavement, which makes them over conservative. An

rehabilitation activities. As Michael Nunn pointed unique approach based on mechanistic-empirical

out in 1998, flexible pavements over a minimum concepts was originally proposed by Monismith

strength are not likely to exhibit structural damage (1992) for perpetual pavement. The assumption of

even when subjected to very high traffic flows over this approach was that pavement distresses which

long period of time. Later, Uhlmeyer et al., (2000) originated at a depth could be resisted if pavement

found that most hot mix asphalt (HMA) pavements parameters such as stress, strains, and deflections

thicker than 160mm exhibit only surface initiated could be kept below where the distress begin to

top-down cracking rather than bottom up fatigue occur.

cracking and deep structural rutting. Therefore, if As an emerging sustainable concept to the generations
surface initiated cracking and rutting can be taken based on conservation of resources and reduction of

care of before they caused any damage to the environmental impacts, the APA instituted the

structural integrity, the pavement life could be Perpetual Pavement award program in 2001 to

greatly prolonged (Mahoney, 2001). recognize the Department of Transportation (DOT)

This concept was hidden in full depth and deep and other owners of the pavements based on the

strength HMA pavement structures which have been principles that those pavements must be at least 35

constructed since 1960 until this idea was introduced years old, must never have had a structural failure,

in 2000 by Asphalt Pavement Alliance (APA) called and have no more than four inches (101.6mm)

Perpetual Pavement. APA defined a perpetual added thickness and overlay at least 13 years apart.
pavement as ‘an asphalt pavement designed and The first winner of a Perpetual Pavement award was

built to last longer than 50 years without requiring New Jersey Turnpike designed by John D’Angelo’s

major structural rehabilitation or reconstruction and team, which was built in 1951. Between 2001 and

needing only periodic surface renewal in response to 2013, approximately 91 pavements have been

distress confined to the top of the pavement’ (APA, awarded which includes interstate highways, rural

2002). The design approach of Perpetual Pavement roads, city streets and airport runways.

*** 텍사스주립대학교 건설학부 연구조교 (E-mail : m_m624@txstate.edu)

*** 텍사스주립대학교 건설학부 연구조교 (E-mail : k_h82@txstate.edu)
*** 텍사스주립대학교 건설학부 부교수 (E-mail : SL31@txstate.edu)

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The perpetual pavement system, is an economical The perpetual pavement concept was introduced by
solution to state and federal DOTs for saving Huddleston et al., (2001) in an APA publication
massive amounts of budget and time. Therefore, an called "Perpetual pavements" (Thompson et al.,
optimal perpetual pavement design based on 2006). The typical perpetual pavement design
pavement performance, construction costs, maintenance consists of three HMA layers designed to resist a
and rehabilitation should be implemented for the future certain distress types. The main idea is to construct
sustainability of pavement networks. asphalt pavements with an impermeable rut and
wear resistant top structural layer placed on a rut
Perpetual pavement & conventional pavement resistant and durable intermediate layer and a fatigue
resistant and durable base layer (Romanoschi et al.,
The regular conventional asphalt pavement structure 2008). The premise to this approach was that
for highway/interstate facilities consists of the HMA pavement distress with deep structural origins should
layers over granular base and subbase layers on top be kept below thresholds where the distress begin to
of the naturally compacted or stabilized subgrade occur (Newcomb, 2010). Deterioration of perpetual
soil. The surface course is usually composed of pavements typically results in the surface layer due
HMA because this layer is directly subjected to the to cracking or rutting (Numm & Ferne, 2001).
traffic loads. This layer plays a vital role in Traffic and weathering will cause damage to appear
pavement surface drainage as it should prevent the in the surface layer every 15 to 20 years (Hatch,
propagation of excessive surface wear to the 2008). This damage includes top down fatigue
following HMA, base and subbase layers (Garcia, cracking, thermal cracking, rutting and surface wear
2001). Base and subbase courses are constructed (APA, 2002). Resurfacing may be essential when
using crushed stones or granular material or gravels. improvements are needed for noise, driving comfort,
Although a strong and sound subgrade layer can or safety. Table 1 summarizes the technical
replace the subbase layer and the base can be properties of perpetual pavement compared to
placed directly over the subgrade. Material layers conventional pavement.
are usually arranged in order of descending stiffness
and cost with the stiffness material on the top and Thompson and Carpenter (2009) defined two
the lowest stiffness material on the bottom for conditions that meet perpetual pavement standards:
economic purpose (Wang, 2013). This pavement (a) The tensile strain of the pavement is less than
design is based on empirical method which rely on the fatigue endurance limit (FEL) for the hottest
month of the year.
relationships between observations of pavement (b) If the above condition is not met for the hottest
performance, a scale that represents traffic, some month, but it is met for some months where
the temperature is slightly lower than the
gross indicator of material quality such as a
hottest month and the flexural strain is lower
structural co-efficient and the thickness of the layers than FEL.
(Newcomb, 2010). The thickness of pavement
increases with increasing traffic which results to an Mechanistic Empirical (M-E) Design, layer specification
overly conservative cross section and unnecessary and distresses
added cost.
Perpetual pavements are originated from the For many years the design of flexible pavements

realization that forever increasing the thickness of was based on empirical method like the one used in

the pavement to continue to provide structurally the 1993 AASHTO Guide for the design of

sound roads with ever increasing traffic volumes are pavement structures.

too costly (Newcomb et al., 2010; Scheer, 2013).

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Journal of Advanced Construction Materials, Vol. 19(1), 2015

The result of this model was obtained from the response in terms of stresses, strains or deflections
road tests conducted in Ottwa, Illinois from 1958 is used to estimate the allowable number of loads
until 1960. In that study, the pavements were to failure for a given conditions of loading and
subjected to 1 million axle load applications and material properties (Newcomb et al., 2010). There
failures were monitored overtime. The heaviest are many software application based on these design
single axle load used at the road test was about 8 principles. The key assumptions of these design
million equivalent single axle load (ESAL) to the approach in which the pavement response
thickest asphalt section. Since that time, pavement determined in terms of stress, strain and deflections
structures have been designed for heavy traffic by mechanistic analysis needs to be kept under a
volumes that exceed the 8 million ESAL level by specified limit. These approaches are based on
25 times, thus forcing pavement designers to multilayer elastic analysis. Two basic material
extrapolate the road test results far beyond the parameters, elastic modules and poison’s ratio are
conditions for which they were developed important for the determination of appropriate
(Newcomb, 2010). results. M-E design approach has large sensitivity to
the transfer function parameters which is estimated
However, this concept was hindered by the from relevant inputs. As there may be uncertainty
conditions at test road such as “one environmental with the design inputs due to natural variability it
condition, a limited number of axle weights tires can be solved either by using conservative values of
pressures and axle configuration, and only 1.1 parameters or by using stochastic techniques
million axle load repetitionsˮ (Timm et al., 2004). (McDonald & Mandanat, 2012). Table 2 illustrates
The Structural Number (SN) is an index used to various software tools and their benefits.
determine the total depth of the pavement which is
based on layer strength coefficients and thickness. Among these design approaches two popular M-E
But the drawback of this type of design is the design programs are (1) Mechanistic Empirical
inability to separate the layers of the structure to Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) and (2) Per Road
understand each layer’s contribution to the (Timm & Davis, 2009). MEPDG is one of the most
pavement’s life (APA, 2002). Although it is based renowned perpetual pavement design program
on nine distinct considerations which are pavement contributed several advantages and improvements to
serviceability index, traffic, soil, materials of the traditional empirical methods for the design of
construction, environment, drainage, reliability life flexible pavements. The AASHTO Joint Task Force
cycle cost and shoulder design, a shift has begun to on Pavements (JTFP) has sponsored the project and
occur from purely empirical design to M-E design this was the beginning for the National Cooperative
due to its overdesign phenomenon. Highway Research Program (NCHRP) project I-37A.
MEPDG allows the consideration of the properties
The design of perpetual pavement is based on a of numerous materials in the design, whereas 1993
mechanistic design check which computes the AASHTO method only allowed consideration of one
sufficiency of the mechanistic response in terms of material mix.
maximum horizontal tensile strain at bottom of the
lowest HMA layer and the maximum vertical On the other hand, Per Road is a less popular M-E
compressive strain on top of the subgrade not design program that was developed by the APA. In
exceeding prescribed limits. A flow chart showing a 2005, China used Per Road for designing their
typical M-E design approach is shown in Figure 1. experimental sections near the city of Binzhou,
Shandong province (Timm et al., 2013).
This is an iterative approach in which the pavement

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This program incorporates the Waterways Experiment based on expected traffic, weather, the characteristics
Layered Elastic Analysis (WESLA) for the design of of the materials and preliminary pavement structure
each layer, as well as the Monte Carlo simulation geometry. Generally traffic data is captured from the
for modeling traffic loading on pavement (Behbahani traffic loads passing over the sensors like strain
et al., 2009). Also, APA developed PerRoadXpress gauges and earth pressure cells. Data is collected in
used to design low volume pavements. Although a high speed and transferred using wireless mesh
these two design approaches differ, both programs network or via internet. Weigh in Motion (WIM)
develop similar pavement structures when using Systems also used to estimate the motionless weight
identical input data (Timm & Davis, 2009). of a vehicle by measuring the vertical component of
dynamic tire forces applied to a sensor on a smooth,
Historically mechanistic based design methods
level road surface.
include layered elastic analysis (Boussinesq’s single
layer theory and Burmister’s multi-layer theory). This According to Walubita et al., (2011) they measured
layered elastic models are based on important data from two WIM stations on IH 35 (Laredo
assumptions such that each layer is homogenous District) and SH 114 (Forth Worth District) at
with some properties throughout the layer and Texas. Their aim was to redesign two sections with
isotropic elastic. However, flexible pavement FPS software after obtaining the actual traffic data
materials and foundation soils are inelastic. Also the from WIM stations and evaluating with the initial
structural layers and foundation have boundaries. design. They found out that perpetual pavement
Loads are moving and dynamic. In these scenario, structures could be optimized down to about 30 to
finite element modeling (FFM) come up with a 35 cm in total HMA thickness, resulting in over
better solution to represent the complex material 12.5 cm HMA cost savings without compromising
properties, accurate pavement geometries and moving, the Perpetual structural integrity. Due to traffic over
dynamic vehicle loadings (Zaghloul, 1993; Hua, estimation in the initial design, lower module values
2000; Al-Qadi et al., 2004; Wang & White, 2013). materials were used which resulted in conservative
The FEM consists of diving the model to be design. They concluded that optimization of the
analyzed into discrete bodies or finite elements, perpetual pavement can be achieved based on the
which have well defined thermal and mechanical use of the actual discrete WIM traffic data and
properties. It is divided into four major parts, which particular material properties. The environmental
are the discretization, the element equations, the conditions, such as moisture, temperature and frost
global fitness matrix and the solutions of the depth were monitored using time-domain reflectory
problem (Chapra et al., 1988). Linear elastic FE (TDR) probes, MRC thermistors and PCV encased
model used traditional Hooke’s law to describe the and freely flowing wells.
behavior of HMA materials whereas viscoelastic FE
Along with traffic data, when material and layer
model used generalized Maxwell model. However,
geometry are introduced into an analytical model to
one of the drawback of FE model is that it could
obtain responses like strains, stresses and deflection
not be calibrated with the field measured
much of the success attributed to the materials and
longitudinal and transverse strains concurrently
mix designs selected for the each pavement layers.
because of the fact that pavement has different
Most approaches for designing perpetual pavement
stiffness values in two direction which are neglected
are focused on restraining the pavement’s response
in FEM (Liao & Sargand, 2011).
to bottom-up fatigue cracking and structural rutting
According to Figure 1, it can be seen in the chart (Newcomb et al., 2010).
that the process begins after putting input values

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 Journal of Advanced Construction Materials, Vol. 19(1), 2015
This specific principle maintains by the four specific
part of the Perpetual pavement structure (Harm,
2001; Newcomb et al., 2001; Gierhart, 2008; Wills
& Timm, 2009).
a. a. solid foundation
b. b. flexible, fatigue-resistant HMA base layer
c. c durable, rut-resistant intermediate HMA layer.
d. d rut-resistant, renewable surface layer.
e.
All these layer give the needed thickness to the
perpetual pavement. Nun et al. (1997) began to
propose the ideas of a thickness limit for Asphalt
pavements. Using the existing design charts for the
United Kingdom, he proposed 15.35 inches asphalt
layer in order to perform it perpetually. Rolt (2001)
and Merrill et al. (2006) found similar results by
expressing that 10.7 inches of properly constructed
and designed asphalt could provide a structure with
enough strength to resist fatigue cracking and 7.1
inches would accumulate little deformation
time. In the United States, researchers give much
importance to the specific layer thickness rather than
experimenting as a whole. However, Al-Qadi et al.
(2008) has shown that pavement 13.58 inches thick
have exhibited strains well below any proposed
fatigue threshold limit. There is a certain thickness
after that no more material is useful for prolonging
the structural life of a pavement (APA, 2002). Each
specific layer thickness with specific
contributed to a total perpetual pavement structure.
Subgrade:
The subgrade should provide adequate
because it provides resistance to deflection allowing
rollers to produce a firm compaction of all layers
(APA, 2002). It is critical to the overall performance
of perpetual pavement. It provides
components to the life of a pavement structure like
it acts as working platforms for dump trucks and
support the traffic loads. Proper design
construction of the foundation are keys in preventing
volume changes due to wet-dry cycles in expansive
clays and freeze-thaw cycles in frost susceptible soils
(Newcomb et al., 2010). Lime, cement or fly ash
procedures are frequently used to stabilize the
subgrade if additional support is necessary (Tarefder
& Bateman, 2009; Scheer, 2013). The material used
in the subgrade should be free of highly plastic
fines which can be a detriment to stiffness and
strength of the base (Muench et al., 2007, APA,
2002, Scheer, 2013). Pratico et al. (2011) proposed
that for higher traffic volume combined lime-cement
treatment is good compared with lime treated
subgrade soils. The changes of module in these
layer and unbound materials may affect the
mechanistic responses of the pavement and should
consider the worst condition in order to prevent
damage (APA, 2002). The Illinois DOT (IDOT) and
Newcomb et al. (2010) proposed that the subgrade
should have a California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of at
least six to avoid excessive deformation during the
construction and overstressing periods of pavements
over life. It is important that a stiff granular base layer
or sub base should be given above to protect the
subgrade.
Fatigue-Resistant Base Layer:
Fatigue resistance and bottom up cracking prevention
are the main stresses being addressed by this layer.
Increasing the asphalt content of the bottom layer
and decreasing the in-place air void percentage
purpose ensure the protection against fatigue cracking by
augmenting the tensile strength at the base to
overcome the tensile strain generated by the traffic
load (Newcomb et al, 2010). As it is obvious that if
stiffness the engineer design stiff structure, the tensile strain
at the base of the HMA will be reduced. The FRL
should have a half percent of asphalt binder content
increase (Carpenter & Shen, 2006).
essential Generally two basic mix designs used to improve
the fatigue life: Softer binder and higher binder
content. The most common practice for improving
and the fatigue life is by incorporating a higher asphalt
content in the mix design (Romanoschi et al., 2008;
Newcomb et al., 2010). California, Illinois,
Oklahoma, Texas, China and NCAT are using this
approach in order to reduce the fatigue cracking.
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High modulus asphalt like polymer modified asphalt field (APA, 2010).
(PMA) with fiber compound could be used to
reduce the base course thickness, leading to a cost Rutting can be prevented by using an appropriate
effective and eco-friendly perpetual pavement high temperature grade binder. Since the temperature
(Montanelli et al., 2013). It allows to reduce requirement can be relaxed one grade as it will not
moisture susceptibility and improve fatigue resistance. experience like the severe surface temperatures
In addition to that when the total thickness of the (Wills & Timm, 2009). Pavement temperature had
pavement exceed 12 inches the necessity for the rich large effect on pavement response but it changed
bottom fatigue layer reduces and using FRL is not with depth. Surface deflection must be corrected to
an economic option (Tarefder & Bateman, 2012). a reference pavement temperature. Mid depth
Generally rich bottom pavements built with about an temperature considered as the representative
0.5% increase in asphalt but different agencies or temperature for pavement structure. It has the best
states highway used varying design methodologies, relation to measured tensile strain (Ma & Huang,
For example, On I-710 project in California an 2013). BWLLS3 method is recommended for
additional 0.5% asphalt was used whereas in China calculating the mid depth pavement temperature if
0.6% additional asphalt used for a rich bottom there is no measured mid depth pavement
structure (St. Martin et al., 2001; Yang et al., 2005). temperature data. Also Huber and Chen temperature
Higher air voids in the FRL result reduced fatigue correlation method is recommended for temperature
crack. Typically standard design consists of 6 to 7% correction at the network level (Gedafa et al., 2013).
air voids (Carpenter & Shen, 2006). It is used Thinner HMA layers and stiffness tend to be more
because of the plastic flow phenomenon of the effected by increasing temperature. Recently, Sadek
asphalt material which permits it to expand under et al., (2014) concluded that increase in temperature
high temperature although excessive air void can between winter and summer in Qatar decreased the
lead to water penetration. stiffness of asphalt mixture by 80%.

Wills (2009) reported obtaining information from

Intermediate layer:
phase III of the NCAT Test Track that PG 76
The intermediate layer of the perpetual pavement
polymer modified binder had a half rutting rate
system designed to carry most of the traffic load
compared to unmodified PG 67 binder. Also,
ensuring both rutting resistance and durability.
reclaimed asphalt pavements and recycled asphalt
Stability in this layer can be achieved by stone on
shingles both can be used to increase rutting
stone contact in the aggregate and using a binder
resistance by stiffening the pavement (Newcomb et
with an appropriate high temperature grading
al., 2009; Wills, 2009). Performance testing of
(Newcomb et al., 2010). Both binder and aggregate
rutting resistance known as flow number can be
are of importance for resisting shearing failure and
measured by asphalt mixture performance tester
formation of ruts. It is typically the thickest layer in
(AMPT) although this procedure is still in
the system expose to both tension and compression
developing stage (Newcomb et al., 2010).
by situating on both sides of the neutral axis. The
stone on stone contact in the coarse aggregate gives
Surface layer:
stability to mix however large nominal maximum
The surface layer provides protection from direct
aggregate size can lead to segregation and pressure
environment and traffic exposure by ensuring resist
of air void can expose to the intrusion of water. So
rutting, mitigate surface cracking, provide adequate
a viable option is to keep lower void content in the
friction, minimize splash and spray and reduce
mix design with a high level of compaction in the

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Journal of Advanced Construction Materials, Vol. 19(1), 2015

tire-pavement noise (Newcomb et al., 2010). The significance of the FEL for HMA materials is
As it is subjected to highest temperature variation that the pavement structure thickness design depends
means inclined to experience more thermal cracking on limiting the maximum tensile strain below the
which can be prevented by a selection of low FEL. A minimum thickness to limit the strain below
temperature grade binder. APA recommends using a the FEL ensure the infinite fatigue life (Carpenter et
performance grade one temperature higher than is al., 2003).
typically the area (APA, 2002; Wills & Timm,
2009). Generally for perpetual pavement structure According to Sargand et al. (2008) and NCHRP-646
wearing surface should have a design life of (2010) report, a hypothesized value of 70 micro
approximately 20 years (Wills, 2009). Since the strain for the FEL has been used in perpetual
thickness of the surface course is thinner compared pavement design for several years. This concept was
to other layers which restricts the use of nominal first proposed by Monismith and McClean in 1972
maximum size aggregate (Newcomb & Hanson, based on the laboratory test (Prowell, 2010). A
2006). survival analysis based on Long Term Pavement
Performance database indicated that FEL theory
APA recommends three types of wearing courses for appears to be valid and it is a property of the
perpetual pavement: dense graded Superpave, stone HMA material (Von Quintus, 2006). In order
matrix asphalt (SMA), open graded friction course accurate FEL strain determine limit fatigue testing
(OGFC). However, OGFC cannot provide any should be conducted in excess of 10 million cycles
resistance to structural distress as it is not (Prowell et al., 2006). Although the value of 70
considered as a structural layer (Tarefder & micro strain has been widely used many researchers
Bateman, 2012). Dense graded Superpave mixes are have demonstrated that FEL can be assumed higher
the most appropriate choice for low traffic volumes than 70 micro strain. FEL has no single value for
due to its economical and easiest way of production. this limit however researcher talked about a range
between 60 and 150 micro strain (Jaoude&Hanch,
Fatigue endurance limit (FEL): 2012).
After putting various design parameters into the
analytical model, outputs are than transformed into If the strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer kept
accumulate damage in terms of bottom up fatigue below the prescribed limit, pavement itself start the
cracking and structural rutting. These responses used healing process to nearly replace all the energy lost
in transfer functions to predict the life of the while being deformed (Carpenter et al., 2003).
pavement through theoretical horizontal strain at the Khaiavi & Ameri (2013) expressed one concern
bottom of the HMA and vertical compressive strain about finding the fatigue life of HMA in laboratory
at the top of the subgrade. If these two strain experiment. They concluded that fatigue life
values are accurately estimated and maintained the corresponding to 65% reduction in initial stiffness is
definition of certain strain limits under which this close to the observed failure point rather than
two distress (fatigue cracking & structural rutting) considering 50% reduction in initial stiffness. In
will not occur the pavement will act as a perpetual China, Yang et al. (2005) discovered that the
pavement. The most widely examined parameter in thickness of the pavement layers can be reduced by
asphalt pavement is the fatigue endurance limit. only using an FEL value of 125 micro strain instead
of 70 micro strain. Also, fatigue cracking does not
FEL is the flexural strain below which damage is occur when the tensile strain at the bottom as high
not cumulative, thus resulting theoretically in no as 200 micro strain (Newcomb et al., 2010;
fatigue failure in the HMA (Thompson et al., 2006). Nishizawa et al., 1996).

- 41 -
Even though the concept of FEL suggests that a increased the subgrade stiffness from 5000 to 15,500
sample tested at a strain level below the prescribed psi, rutting in this layer reduced by 60% and total
strain limit will withstand an infinite number of rutting reduced by 30%. They concluded that
cycles but in laboratory it is impossible to test improved subgrade plays a vital role in resisting
samples under infinite loading cycles. In order to rutting. Structural rutting considered as a permanent
address this discrepancy between the conditions in deformation whereas surface rutting confined to the
the laboratory and in the field, generally shift factors upper few inches of the pavement and a good
applied. Ning et al. (2010) concluded that FEL can indicator for starting the rehabilitation process. So
be expressed as a function of the initial flexural the advantage in this case is that these cracks can
stiffness, frequency and temperature. Flexural be seen and actions can be taken to eliminate them
stiffness of the base layer can affect the FEL. by the application of asphalt overlays or inlays
KLluttz et al. (2012) confirmed that the calculated (Romanoschi et al., 2008). Thus protect the intact
FEL for the control base mixture was 77 micro structure below the surface course and eliminates
strain whereas the FEL for high polymer mix any major structural rehabilitation or reconstruction
(HPM) base was 231 micro strain. Currently, field leading to monetary savings (Romanoschi et al.,
thresholds for fatigue cracking are only conservative 2008). Thick pavement structure without proper
estimates based upon laboratory work. stiffness could not result in a long lasting pavement
design. Thick pavement structures experienced the
Timm et al., (2014) investigated two perpetual vertical shear strain few inches below the surface.
pavements at the NCAT Test Track which were The vertical shear strain causes top down fatigue
designed to fail after only 10 million ESALs but cracking and rutting (Al-Qadi et al., 2008).
still these sections withstand successfully 30 million
ESALs demonstrating perpetual nature. Each section Top down cracking (TDC):
exceeded the laboratory determined endurance limits Recently surface crack has become the major
for each base mixture by 60% and the strain data cracking mechanism for perpetual pavement because
were used to develop a controlling strain ratio of they were not considered when asphalt structures
2.18 times the laboratory measured endurance limit. analyzed and their influences on pavement service
However, these findings should be validated by life after the compaction process. Top down cracking
using real traffic sections. is another mode of failure which occurs as
longitudinal or transverse cracks that initiate at
Structural rutting: pavement surface and propagate over time downward
Structural rutting failures are relatively rare in and outward; partially or the full depth throughout
modern pavement but require very expensive major the layer thickness of the asphalt pavement
rehabilitation or reconstruction when they do occur (Uhlmeyer, 2000). Low temperature and construction
(Newcomb et al, 2010). Generally, the concept is quality considered to the occurrence of TDC (Freitas
that the vertical compressive strain at the top of the et al., 2003). Recently, researcher trying to
subgrade should be kept below than 200 micro understand its mechanism by implementing FEM in
strain otherwise plastic deformation formed resulting order to relate stress intensity factor (SIF) and load
rutting. Tarefder& Bateman, (2012) expressed that parameters induced by vehicle (Yongjie et al., 2014;
fatigue cracking is not a major concern in the Luo et al., 2010). Still the mechanism causing top
design of perpetual pavement for New Mexico rather down cracking due to compaction is not fully
than rutting given importance for the selection understood.
criteria. Regarding subgrade stated that when they

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Journal of Advanced Construction Materials, Vol. 19(1), 2015

Compaction loading exercise of long duration on the pavement resulting in less material consumption.
asphalt surface at high temperature is considered as Investing in revising the fatigue endurance limit by
one of the major remedies. Generally lack of developing correlation between laboratory fatigue
research work dealing with construction issues, endurance limit and field measured strain is required
believing that the problem is related to insufficient based on the real traffic section. Study is also
design and the overconfidence on the equipment needed to find out the reasons behind top down
around for century can be considered as the reason cracking, its failure mechanism and proper
behind top down cracking (Hammoud, 2010). compaction procedure. Structural layers become
stronger with time rather than weakening so an
Conclusion understanding of pavement layer bonding is essential
Perpetual pavements are becoming more accepted from an execution standpoint. In addition to that
and popular due to its sustainability. Users of how to make the existing pavement into an optimal
perpetual pavement enjoying benefits of improving perpetual pavement need to be studied.
safety and low user delay cost due to less
maintenance activities, there are also concerns, It has been evident that perpetual pavement is more
including modification to the design procedure, economic compared to traditional pavement
economic application and material restriction. Fruitful considering user delay cost. So life cycle cost can
investigation is necessary for the better understanding be carried out among different types of perpetual
of implementing an optimum asphalt perpetual pavement. As the main reason behind the huge
pavement design. Further research and development initial construction cost of perpetual pavement is that
of a numerical model that simulates the pavement it consumes enough asphalt. So an economic
deterioration for perpetual pavement should be approach can be using less asphalt to make it but
established based on the tire movement, freeze thaw still ensure its definition. Day by day the cost of
cycles, stochastic techniques and partial or full aggregates and other pavement materials are
debonding. increasing so a sustainable optimal perpetual
pavement design is inevitable for future pavement
Study is needed to find out mix design for networks.
constructing high modulus asphalt pavement which
can ensure in reduction in overall thickness of the

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 Figure 1. Perpetual pavement and its design model (Newcomb et al. 2010)

Table 1. Comparison between perpetual pavement and conventional pavement

Technical Properties Perpetual Pavement Conventional Pavement

Conventional pavement based on

Mechanistic design basically computes and
the 1993 AASHTO pavement
checks the sufficiency of the mechanistic
design guide, thickness of the
responses in terms of maximum horizontal
Design Criteria pavement depends on the
tensile strains at the bottom of the lowest
increasing traffic resulting overly
HMA layer and the maximum vertical
conservative cross–section and
compressive strains on top of sub-grade.
unnecessary added cost.

High compared to perpetual

Deterioration Rate With age deterioration rate is low.
pavement.

Failure Mechanism Top down longitudinal cracking Bottom up fatigue cracking

Reconstruction required after a

Reconstruction Only time to time rehabilitation required.
certain period of time.

Lower due to shorter work zone periods and

User Delay Cost Higher
off-peak period construction.

Layers are well defined and each layer has its

Layer Specification Layers are not well defined.
own purpose.

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Journal of Advanced Construction Materials, Vol. 19(1), 2015

Table 2. Software tools and their benefits

Software Specific design approach Advantage/Disadvantage

Design approach based on a linear elastic

It is limited to a total input of seven
analysis and key material input is back
layers including the subgrade.
calculated FWD modulus of the pavement
Predicts pavement life with respect to
FPS21W layers.
rutting and cracking.
SCI computed using the computer
Climate impacts are not taken care of.
program WESLEA for linear elastic
multilayer system.

Environmental/climatic effects well

It utilizes a hierarchical system for both accounted.
MEPDG material characterization and analysis. Predicts performance as a function of time.
It has three input levels. Analysis period can be given over 50
years.

It uses the same reference temperature

Predicts performance as a function of
VESYS5 for all the asphalt layers in the
time.
pavement structure.

A wide range of input data including

It is limited to a total input of five layers
pavement structure, environment,
including the subgrade.
material properties, traffic loading and
PerRoad Predicts the pavement life with respect
seasonal temperature variations need to
to rutting and fatigue.
be submitted in an organized five layer
pavement structure.

Allows user to use climate data in

XML format generated in
DARWin-ME It is a modification over MEPDG principle.
DARWin-ME and ICM format climate
data file generated in MEPDG.

The damage is calculated for each

element based on its state of stress, Top down longitudinal cracking
VECD
temperature, loading rate and boundary mechanism can be identified.
conditions.

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