Early Science in Mesoamerica

2.
THE MESOAMERICAN TECHNOLOGY IN

PRE-COLUMBIAN TIMES
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Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
▪ Identify the technologies that shaped Mesoamerica in pre-

Columbian times.
▪ Recreate a 3D miniaturized replica of one Mesoamerican

technology that remains relevant to modern society using readily
available materials.
▪ Discuss how the use of the above technology evolved through

time.
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Major References:
• Cartwright, Mark. (2018). “Olmec Civilization.” Retrieved from:
https://www.ancient.eu/Olmec_Civilization/
• Jarus, Owen. (2017). “The Maya: History, Culture and Religion.” Retrieved from:
https://www.livescience.com/41781-the-maya.htm
• “Pre-Columbian civilizations”. Encyclopædia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/topic/pre-Columbian-

civilizations
• The Arizona Museum website https://www.arizonamuseumofnaturalhistory.org/explore-the-

museum/exhibitions/cultures-of-the-ancient-americas/mesoamerica
• "The Technology of the Incas and Aztecs ." Science and Its Times: Understanding the Social
Significance of Scientific Discovery. Retrieved from:
https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/technology-
incas-and-aztecs
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Module Outline
I. What is Mesoamerica? B. The Mayan Architecture
II. A Timeline at the Height of Power B.1. Pyramid at Chichen Itza
of each Civilization B.2. Sayil Palace
III. Summary of Mesoamerican Contribution B.3. Temple of Inscriptions
to Science and Technology B.4. Ball Courts
IV. The Olmecs C. The Mayan Religion
A. Olmec Cities and Trading D. The Mayan Agriculture
B. Olmec Religion D.1. The Rubber
C. Olmec Art E. The Mayan Medicine
D. Olmec Colossal Heads F. The Decline of the Mayan
E. The End of the Olmecs F.1. The Mayan People Today
V. The Maya VI. The Aztecs
A. Mayan Contributions to Science and A. The Aztec Religion
Technology B. Aztec Engineering and Hydrology
A.1. The Mayan Calendar B.2. The Aztec Aqueduct
A.1. The Mayan Units of Time C. Sustainable Agriculture: The Aztec Way
A.2. The Mayan Mathematics C.1. Aztec Canoe
A.3. The Mayan Language and D. The Aztec Architecture
Writing System E. The Aztec Calendar and Dates
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F. Aztecs Heiroglyphs VIII. Activity 2: Quiz on Mesoamerica

G. Aztec Math and Number System IX. Activity 3: Rebuilding Mesoamerica
H. Aztec Education
I. The Aztec Ballgame
J. Chocolates
K. What Happened to the Aztecs
VII. The Inca
A. Inca Government and Administration
A.1. Inca Government Organization
A.2. The Inca Tax
B. Inca Architecture
C. The Inca Road System
D. Inca Food and Agriculture
E. The Decline of the Inca Empire
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I. What is Mesoamerica?
▪ What does it mean? • Meso = middle
• America = North and South America
▪ Where is it located? • Mesoamerica is the region that is now Mexico and

Central America.
• In pre-Columbian times, it was the most densely populated region of

the Americas.
PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC

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▪ Mesoamerica includes the Region in North

America and
central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala
, Nicaragua, Honduras El Salvador, and
northern Costa Rica
▪ Within this region pre-Columbian

societies flourished before the Spanish
colonization of the Americas in the 15th
and 16th centuries where they caused
mass genocide of the people there
▪ This region is home to the Olmec, Maya,

Aztec & Incan civilization.
Map of the pre-colonial Mesoamerica region

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II. A Timeline at the Height of
Power of each Civilization
• 1200 B.C. – 600 A.D.
• First known civilization to form in Central and Latin
Olmec America.
• 250 A.D. – 900 A.D.

Maya • Developed in what is now called the Yucatan Peninsula.
• 1200 A.D. – 1521 A.D.

Aztec • Built their capital on what is now Mexico City.
• 1438 A.D. – 1533 A.D.

Inca • Developed in the Andes Mountains in what is now Peru.

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III. Summary of Mesoamerican Contribution

to Science and Technology
▪ Calendars
▪ Mathematics
▪ Architectural Wonders
▪ Agriculture
▪ Engineering/Hydrology
▪ Chocolates
▪ Medicine

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IV. THE OLMECS

(1200 B.C. – 600 A.D.)
▪ The Olmec lived along the Gulf Coast of modern-day Mexico in tropical
rain forests and lowlands from around 1200 BCE to 400 BCE.
▪ Both the Maya and the Aztecs were influenced by the Olmec civilization,
the earliest known civilization in Mesoamerica.
▪ The Olmec are known for the immense stone heads they carved from a
volcanic rock called basalt. Archaeological evidence also suggests that
they originated the Mesoamerican practices of the Mesoamerican
Ballgame—a popular game in the pre-Columbian Americas played with
balls made from solid rubber—and that they may have practiced ritual
bloodletting.

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A. Olmec Cities and Trading
• Olmec prosperity was initially based on
exploiting the fertile and well-watered coastal
areas of the Gulf of Mexico to grow such crops
as corn and beans (often twice-yearly) which
allowed for an agricultural surplus.
• By c. 1200 BCE significant urban centers

developed at San Lorenzo (the earliest), La
Venta, Laguna de los Cerros, Tres Zapotes and
Las Limas. San Lorenzo reached its peak of
prosperity and influence between 1200 and
900 BCE when its strategic position safe from
flooding allowed it to control local trade.
• The three sites of San Lorenzo, La Venta and

Principal Olmec Settlements
Laguna de los Cerros all had a bilateral
symmetry in their planning and at La Venta the
first pyramid in Mesoamerica was constructed.
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• Typical Olmec trade goods included obsidian,

jade, serpentine, mica, rubber, pottery, Jadeite Olmec Mask
feathers and polished mirrors of ilmenite and
magnetite.
• Trading helped the Olmec build their urban

centers of San Lorenzo and La Venta. These
cities, however, were used predominantly for
ceremonial purposes and elite activity; most
people lived in small villages.
• Individual homes had a lean-to—sort of like a

garage shed—and a storage pit for storing root
vegetables nearby. They also likely had
gardens in which the Olmec would grow
medicinal herbs and small crops, like
sunflowers.
The Great Pyramid in La Venta

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B. Olmec Religion
• Religion has become the unifying force of each civilization that thrive in Mesoamerican
region and for the Olmecs, it serves as an energy that bind them as one to their ruler
and to the Gods that they believe into. There are no direct written accounts of Olmec
beliefs, but their notable artwork provide clues about their life and religion.
• There were eight different androgynous—possessing male and female characteristics—

Olmec deities, each with its own distinct characteristics. For example, the Bird Monster
was depicted as a harpy eagle associated with rulership. The Olmec Dragon was shown
with flame eyebrows, a bulbous nose, and bifurcated tongue. Deities often represented
a natural element and included the following:
The Maize deity Surviving art, like this

The Rain Spirit or Were-Jaguar relief of a king or
chief found in La
The Fish or Shark Monster Venta, help provide
clues about how
• Religious activities regarding these Olmec society
deities probably included the elite functioned.
rulers, shamans, and possibly a priest
class making offerings at religious sites
in La Venta and San Lorenzo.
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C. Olmec Art
• The Olmec culture was defined and unified by
a specific art style. Crafted in a variety of
materials—jade, clay, basalt, and greenstone,
which is an archaeologist's term for carved,
green-colored minerals—much Olmec art
is naturalistic.
• Other art expresses

fantastic anthropomorphic—human-shaped—
creatures, often highly stylized, using an
iconography reflective of a religious meaning.
Common motifs include downturned mouths
and cleft heads, both of which are seen in Olmec hollow baby figurine. Realistic ceramic
objects, such as this portrayal of an infant, illustrate
representations of were-jaguars and the rain the highly skilled artistic style of the Olmec culture.
deity.

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D. Olmec Colossal Heads
• The most striking art left behind by this • The Olmec brought these boulders from
culture are the Olmec colossal—very the Sierra de los Tuxtlas mountains of
big—heads. Seventeen monumental Veracruz. Given that the extremely
stone representations of human heads large slabs of stone used in their
sculpted from large basalt boulders production were transported over large
have been unearthed in the region to distances, requiring a great deal of
date. The heads date from at least human effort and resources, it is thought
before 900 BCE and are a distinctive that the monuments represent portraits
feature of the Olmec civilization. All of powerful individual Olmec rulers,
portray mature men with fleshy cheeks, perhaps carved to commemorate their
flat noses, and slightly crossed eyes. deaths. The heads were arranged in
However, none of the heads are alike, either lines or groups at major Olmec
and each boasts a unique headdress, centers, but the method and logistics
which suggests they represent specific used to transport the stone to the sites
individuals. remain uncertain.

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• The Olmec are considered a “cultural hearth” by historians.
• This first civilization had enormously influence the next civilizations to

thrive within the region
This sculpture, which stands almost eight feet tall

The stone head statue that was unearthed in Mexico from the Olmec
and weighs about 24 tons, is typical of the
civilization
colossal heads of the Olmec.

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• The Olmec population declined sharply between

400 and 350 BCE, though it is unclear why.
Archaeologists speculate that the depopulation
was caused by environmental changes, specifically
by the silting-up of rivers, which choked off the
E. The End of water supply.
the Olmecs • Another theory for the considerable population

drop proposes relocation of settlements due to
increased volcanic activity as the cause rather than
extinction. Volcanic eruptions during the Early, Late,
and Terminal Formative periods would have
blanketed the lands with ash and forced the Olmec
to move their settlements.

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V. THE MAYA
(250 A.D. – 900 A.D.)
▪ The Maya lived in modern-day southern Mexico

and Central America. Including the areas that are
today Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, and
Honduras.
▪ They were an agriculture-based society. They grow
corn, beans, and squash, and practice many of the
same crafts, such as weaving and pottery.
▪ Their central location made it very easy for the Map of the ancient Mayan civilization
Maya to trade and interact with other cultures from

North and South America.

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▪ The Maya built a large and complex system of roads to stay connected
with other cities and people. These roads were used for trading goods
inside and outside the Mayan empire.
▪ Mayan civilization left behind important architectural wonders which
includes the ruins of huge ziggurat and observatories used by
astronomers.
▪ The Maya excelled at agriculture, pottery, hieroglyph writing, calendar-
making and mathematics, and left behind an astonishing amount of
impressive architecture and symbolic artwork.
▪ Most of the great stone cities of the Maya were abandoned by A.D.
900, however, and since the 19th century scholars have debated what
might have caused this dramatic decline.

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A. Mayan Contributions to Science and Technology
A.1. Created a 365 day calendar by watching the

stars
Consists of two parts:
1. Solar calendar with 365 days, divided into 18

months with 20 days each with 5 extra days at the
end
2. Lunar calendar and a Calendar based on the

movement of the Planet Venus. This was a sacred
calendar with 260 days and 13 weeks of 20 days
each.
A depiction of Mayan calendar

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A.1.1. The Mayan units of time are as
follows:
• The Kin figures equate to one day and

were numbered 0-19;
• The Uinal equate to 20 kin or days and
were numbered 0-17;
• The Tun equate to 18 Uinal of one Earth
year (365 days) and were numbered 0 -
19;
• The Katun equate to 360 Uinal or 7,200
days and were numbered 0-19;
• The Baktun equate to 400 tun or 144,000
days and were numbered 1-13.
"The Long Count has a cycle of 13 baktuns,

which will be completed 1.872.000 days
(13 baktuns) after 0.0.0.0.0. This period
Read more at:
equals 5125.36 years and is referred to as https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/mayan.html
the “Great Cycle” of the Long Count"
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A.2 The Maya used math and were the first people to use the zero
• The Mayan and other Mesoamerican cultures used

a vigesimal number system based on base 20 (and,
to some extent, base 5), probably originally
developed from counting on fingers and toes.
• The numerals consisted of only three symbols: zero,

represented as a shell shape; one, a dot; and five, a
bar.
• Thus, addition and subtraction was a relatively

simple matter of adding up dots and bars.
• After the number 19, larger numbers were written in

a kind of vertical place value format using powers
of 20: 1, 20, 400, 8000, 160000, etc (see image on the
right), although in their calendar calculations they
gave the third position a value of 360 instead of 400
(higher positions revert to multiples of 20).

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A.3. Developed an advance languange, glyph writing system and books.
• The Mayans formalized their language into a
codified writing system.
• Their glyphs were used much like those of

A glyph found in one
of Mayan temple ruins
Ancient Egypt, to represent words, sounds, and
syllables through the use of pictures and other
symbols. The Mayans used around 700
glyphs to do this and, incredibly, 80% of their
language can still be understood by their
descendants today.
• The Mayans also developed a form of an early

book that recorded the exploits of their gods,
daily life, news and many more subjects.
The last two pages of
the 'Paris Codex' one of
the few surviving Mayan • Their books were written on bark and folded
books.
into fan-like structures. Many of these were
sadly destroyed by the Conquistadors but
thankfully some have survived to this day.
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B. The Mayan Architecture
▪ The Mayan built towering temples, pyramids, plazas and palaces

around the empire.
▪ The ceremonial centers usually consisted of pyramidal mounds
with temples or other buildings on top. On top of the temples,
priests performed religious ceremonies and sacrifices while people
watched from the plazas below
▪ These structures were grouped together around an open
plaza. The core of the structures was built of stone rubble and lime
concrete. The exterior facade was faced with finished limestone
blocks or stucco. Carved wood was used for door lintels. A
corbel-like vault was developed that required very heavy walls
and narrow interior spaces. Windows, if present at all, were very
small. Both the interior and exterior walls were colorfully
painted. Many of the structures acted as astronomical markers to
track the movement of the heavenly bodies.

B.1. Pyramid at Chichén Itzá
• The Maya incorporated their advanced

understanding of astronomy into their
temples and other religious structures.
• The pyramid at Chichén Itzá in Mexico,

for example, is situated according to the
sun’s location during the spring and fall
equinoxes.
• At sunset on these two days, the pyramid

casts a shadow on itself that aligns with a
El Castillo (the Castle), Chichen Itza,
carving of the head of the Mayan
Yucatan, Mexico. 9th-13th century.
serpent god. The shadow forms the
serpent’s body; as the sun sets, the
serpent appears to slither down into the
Earth.
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B.2. Sayil Palace (600-900 A.D)
Ruins of Sayil Palce at Puuc Route south of Merida in the western Yucatan, Mexico
• Sayil Palace is one of the oldest palaces in Maya history. The palace is
a three-story building with each story set back from the one below.
Instead of stacking the rooms one above the other, they were built
side by side. The whole palace was made from stone and concrete in
the Puuc architectural style. The building known as El Mirador on the
site is believed to have been used as an observatory.

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B.3. Temple of Inscriptions (A.D. 675-A.D. 683)
• The Temple of the Inscriptions is the largest

stepped pyramid in the region, situated in the
heart of Palenque. It was built to
commemorate the ruler K’inich Janaab’ Pakal.
It is one of the best sources of archeological
information of the Maya civilization with the
inscriptions on its walls telling us much about this
great civilization. It has five entrances at the
front with carved walls, and the staircase was
built to reach the crypt situated at a higher
level. Various tablets have been found in the
temple which tell us how the Maya understood
The Temple of Inscriptions, Palenque, Mexico. the notion of time.

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B.4. Ball Courts
• Ball courts, as the name suggests, were used to

play traditional Mesoamerican ball games. The
games had their own rules and regulations
where two teams tried to bounce a rubber ball
through a ring without using their arms and legs.
• The ball court usually had sloping sides, but in

Uxmal, the sides were vertical; in Tikal, the court
was a triple court and the walls were L-shaped.
• The ball games were believed to be based on

religion, and the courts were built with their
sacred nature in mind. The games were played
One of the walls and goals of the ball court in from north to south, and the loser of the game
the Maya-Toltec cityof Chichen Itza. 1050-1200
CE.
had to make a sacrifice to the gods. The sport
was particularly popular in Copan.

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C. The Maya Religion
High priests
• The Maya were deeply religious, and performing
worshiped various gods related to nature, religious
rituals
including the gods of the sun, the moon, rain
and corn.
• At the top of Maya society were the kings, or

“kuhul ajaw” (holy lords), who claimed to be
related to gods and followed a hereditary
succession. Maya
religious
• They were thought to serve as mediators inscriptions
between the gods and people on earth, and depicting
performed the elaborate religious ceremonies one of their
and rituals so important to the Maya culture Gods
were they practice human sacrifice.

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D. The Mayan Agriculture
• Although somewhat limited by their geographical location

and local plant species, Mayan farmers were expert
agriculturists. Their main crop staples included Corn
(maize) but they also cultivated beans and squash, which
were often grown together with corn to provide mutual
support for each crop.
• As their population grow there is a need to double up their

production of crops thus this factor drives the Mayans to
mass produce the crops they have been utilizing to
withstand the growing population of the empire.
Some of the crops cultivated by the Maya

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• Recent discoveries also indicate Mayan farmers grew manioc

(cassava), a highly nutritious and energy-rich root vegetable and
an excellent source of carbohydrate. It turns out that their
cultivation of cassava might solve a long-standing mystery as to
how they were able to sustain such a large civilization and
population given their lack of metal tools and locale.
• The Mayans were highly accomplished engineers and employed

their skills to develop innovative farming techniques including
raised farm beds and terrace farming. These techniques were
vitally important in providing means of reducing water runoff and
erosion and turning mountainous regions into productive
farmlands.
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D.1. The Rubber
 Another unusual Mayan crop was rubber.
 The Maya cut slits in the bark of the rubber

tree and collected its sap. They used the
dried sap to make water-resistant shoes and
clothing.
 Rubber was also used to make balls. The

Maya played games in enclosed, I-shaped
courts with the rubber balls. These ball
games took on a ritual significance and
were an important part of Mayan culture.

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▪ An image of a ball court at

Xochicalco, a pre-Columbian
archaeological site in the western
part of the Mexican state of Morelos.

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E. Mayan Medicine
• For the Mayans, like other ancient civilizations, medicine was a mixture of religion and science.
Medicinal activities tended to be practised by priests who inherited their positions and received
extensive training.
• For the Mayans, health and ill-health was a matter of balance and imbalance. Balance equalled
health and imbalance sickness. They believed this was always controlled by the diet, gender, and
age of a person. They knew about stitches and often used human hair to suture wounds. They also
regularly made casts to speed the healing and recovery of fractures and other bone breakages.
• By all accounts, they were particularly skilled at dentistry and used iron pyrite as tooth fillings. Mayan
'witch doctors' were also skilled in creating prosthetics made from jade and turquoise and used
obsidian for making cuts.
• Obsidian is noted for its near-monomolecular edge whose use, when compared to other materials,
has the ability to accelerate healing and reduce scarring. It is still in use today by some surgeons
performing specialist operations.
• The Mayans also had extensive knowledge of their local plant ecosystem and used over 1500
different plants to treat a variety of ailments.

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Despite the Maya’s remarkable scientific

achievements, their culture began to decline toward
the beginning of the 11th century. Cause of the
civilizations decline are as follows:
• Maya were wiped out by war;

F. The Decline of the Maya • Disruption of their trade routes;
• Maya’s agricultural practices and dynamic growth
resulted in climate change and deforestation;
• Maya culture was subsumed by the Spanish
conquistadors in the 16th century.

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F.1. The Mayan People Today
Descendants of Maya people
• More than 2 million descendants of Maya

people live in Guatemala and southern
Mexico today.

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VI. THE AZTECS

(1200 A.D. – 1521 A.D.)
• Aztec people settled in the Valley

of Mexico and what is now Mexico
City.
• The capital city of Aztec empire is

“Tenochtitlan”
• There are approximately 30 million

people living in the entire empire.
Map of the ancient Aztec empire

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▪ From their magnificent capital city, Tenochtitlan, the Aztecs

emerged as the dominant force in central Mexico, developing
an intricate social, political, religious and commercial
organization that brought many of the region’s city-states under
their control by the 15th century.
▪ Aztec was known also as Toltec and thus some would refer the
Aztec empire as Toltec empire.They were fierce warriors who
used military power to build a huge empire and starts to collect
taxes from the people they conquered which mounted the
wealth of the empire.

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A. The Aztec Religion
• The Aztec faith shared many aspects with other

Mesoamerican religions, like that of the Maya,
notably including the rite of human sacrifice.
Depiction of Aztec
human sacrifice • In the great cities of the Aztec empire,
during religious magnificent temples, palaces, plazas and
ceremonial rights
statues embodied the civilization’s unfailing
devotion to the many Aztec gods, including
Huitzilopochtli (god of war and of the sun) and
Quetzalcoatl (“Feathered Serpent”), a Toltec
god who served many important roles in the
Aztec faith over the years.
• The Great Temple, or Templo Mayor, in the

Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan was dedicated to
Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, the rain god.

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B. Aztecs Engineering and Hydrology
B.1. THE WONDER OF AZTECS CAPITAL CITY TENOCHTITLAN
▪ At the height of Aztec civilization there were over

300,000 people living in the capital city of
Tenochtitlan and approximately 30 million living in
the entire empire.
How did the Aztecs build a city in the center of a

lake?
▪ Tenochtitlan was built on an island;
▪ It was connected to the mainland by causeways

leading north, south, and west of the city;
The pre-columbian city of Tenochtitlan
▪ The city was interlaced with a series of canals, so
that all sections of the city could be visited either on
foot or by canoe.
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Tenochtitlan, as pictured at the time of The present day “Tenochtitlan” , the city of
conquest. The city was built in an island Mexico.
with causeways around for accessibility.

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B.2. The Aztec Aqueduct
▪ Two aqueducts served the city, rather than one.

While the other aqueduct piped in fresh water from
outlying springs, the other could be cleansed of
mud and silt. For this reason, continuous water
supply is served in the city.
▪ Excrement was collected, the solids rowed out in

barges and used as manure, and urine was used to
make dyes fast.
The present day Aztec aqueduct

pipe seen around and in the
outskirts of Mexico city. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC
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▪ The copious quantity of used water that

resulted from the Aztec fondness for
taking baths was filtered through
charcoal before being allowed to return
to the aquifer.
▪ Fluctuations in the level of the lake were

dealt with by a system of canals, sluices,
and—crucially— dykes, which had
roadways atop them and drawbridges
and causeways connecting them.
Pictured Aztec aqueduct with dykes,
roadways atop and a drawbridge.

C. Sustainable Agriculture: The Aztec Way
▪ The Aztecs were the first to develop the “floating

gardens.” Later, it was given a name called
“chinampas.”
▪ Chinampas are artificial islands that were created by

interweaving reeds with stakes beneath the lake's
surface, creating underwater fences. A buildup of soil
and aquatic vegetation would be piled into these
"fences" until the top layer of soil was visible on the
water's surface.
▪ These agricultural lands received this nickname due to
the illusion they caused. The bodies of land appeared
to be "floating" on the water because the canals
surrounded the chinampa plots. Aztec people crafting a chinampa in
freshwater lakes of Xochimilco and Chalco

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▪ Chinampas is still
seen today around
lake Xochimilco
and Chalco
▪ Prior to this time, farmers maintained

small-scale chinampas adjacent to their
households and communities in the
freshwater lakes of Xochimilco and
Chalco

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C.1. Aztec Canoe
• Aztecs has developed special boats called

canoes which made transportation through
streams and rivers easier. This mode of
transportation was thus extensively used
throughout the Aztec Empire. They dug many
small canals for the transportation of canoes.
The Aztec canoe
• Average size of a is 14 feet in length, were dug used for
out from a single tree trunk and had upturned transportation
ends. They were propelled by wooden pole or
paddle. It took about a week for a skilled
carpenter to make a canoe, and it could cost
the equivalent in the market of a single fine
cotton cape. At the other extreme, the largest
canoes, made of straight-grained spruce trees,
were 50 or more feet in length, capable of
carrying either 60 passengers or 3 tons of maize.

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D. The Aztec Architecture
• The Aztec Empire is famous for many of its
features including the amazing
architectural styles that the Aztec people
used in the construction of their buildings
and cities.
• Aztec architecture followed similar

principles to other earlier Mesoamerican
civilizations, including, the use of a grid
system in city building and the construction
of large temples in the shape of a pyramid.
• The Teotihuacan pyramids are some of the
largest of their kind in the Americas. Ancient
Pyramids at Teotihuacan a vast Mexican archaeological
Teotihuacanos constructed the Pyramid of complex northeast of Mexico City.
the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon in the
year 100 C.E., centuries before the Aztec had
arrived in Teotihuacan. These marvels still
stand at an incredible height of around 65
meters (213 feet) and 43 meters (141 feet)
respectively. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC
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E. Aztecs Calendar and Dates
• The Aztec's system of tracking days was very intricate and their calendar system was derived
from the Mayan one. The Aztec people followed two main calendars.
• One was a more sacred calendar consisting of 13 months of 20 days, while the other was an
agricultural or solar calendar with 18 months of 20 days. The solar calendar, being the
scientific one, should add up to 365 days, yet it only adds up 360.
• The Aztec sunstone, a very famous calendar,

weighs 24 tons and is 13 feet in diameter. It The Aztec sun
contains information on the days that begin and stone is a late post-
classic Mexica
end months as well as the gods related to the sculpture housed in
days. The center of the stone contains a god the National
Anthropology
called Tonatiuh. Surrounding it are four squares Museum in Mexico
containing symbols that represent the ages City, and is
perhaps the most
preceding the time of the Aztecs (tiger, water, famous work of
wind,rain). Lastly, around the squares, there is a Aztec sculpture.
ring that possesses 20 segments for the 20 days

of the month. Each day has it's own unique
symbol and god.
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F. Aztecs Hieroglyphs
• The Aztecs language was called Classical Nahuatl and it wasn't written
as an alphabet but as a series of glyphs. Each symbol represented only
one sound. The language of the Aztecs were eventually developed into
an alphabet, yet they used to simply be a series of pictures used in three
different ways.
• The first way was pictograms. This was simply about the symbol meaning
what it looked like. This method was easy understand but it required
hundreds and thousands of symbols to have meaningful language.
• The second way is ideograms. Ideograms are related to idea behind

what the symbol represents. A picture of footprints could represent a trip
or even a passage of time in a certain direction.
• The last way is phonograms. This is finally how a picture can represent a
certain sound such as a picture of a bee could represent the sound of
"b". All these components came together in the Aztec glyphs.

50
• Not only were the picture important, but color played a key role too.
In order to tell a story, there wasn't a line of several glyphs but rather a
few colorful glyphs positioned properly.

51
G. Aztec Math and Number System
• Aztec number system was a vigesimal one, which means they used 20 as a base number. In their arithmetic
calculations, there were symbols that were used to represent different values. A dot meant the number 1, a
bar meant 5, and there were many other symbols for 20 and its various multiples.
• It was also clear that the Aztecs had a very clear understanding of multiplication and division in the sense of
geometry. Their standard unit of linear measurement was called land rod, equivalent to 2.5 meters. If an
object was not an exact amount of land rods, certain symbols were added to indicate
the remaining length (less than a land rod).
• These symbols were related to body

parts as the human body was very
well understood. For example, the
This map from 1540
heart symbol would represent a similar
has notations in Aztec
length to the distance between one's numbers depicting
fingertip and heart. The hand symbol dimensions of lands
would stand for an identical length of near Texcoco, the
the distance from one's right fingertip ancient capital of the
and one's left fingertip. Acolhua Aztecs.

52
H. Aztec Education
• One of the Aztecs primary contribution is the idea of
compulsory universal education. They decided to make
it mandatory for children to attend school
and receive education. Aztec
Calmecac
• From age 12 to 15, kids attended a type of school from
Florentine
called cuicalli, also known as house of song. This was a Codex
place where they learned ceremonial songs and the
cosmology of their people.
• Most girls ended their education there at age 15,

however boys went to a type of school
called telpochalli from ages 15 to 20. Aztec
Telpochcalli
from
• They slept at this school, but if that wasn't an option the Florentine
Codex
boys went to another type called calmécac.
Calmécac taught of a variety of subjects as well as
trained them for the military as the school offered
opportunities for a government position.
53
I. “Tlachtli” the Aztec J. CHOCOLATE: SOMEBODY’S Perfect Food
Ball Game
▪ Chocolates is one of the most desired foods of
Mesoamerica and was consumed by
the Olmec, Maya, and Aztec civilizations,
amongst others.
A group of Aztec men playing Tlachtli
▪ Aztecs Invented a ball

game termed as Aztec jar of chocolate The Aztec way chocolate creation
“Tlachtli”
Read more at:
Read more at: https://www.history.com/topics/anci
https://www.britannica.com/sports/tlachtli PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC
ent-americas/history-of-chocolate
54
K. What happened to the Aztecs?
▪ Invaders led by the Spanish conquistador

Hernán Cortés overthrew the Aztec Empire
by force and captured Tenochtitlan in
1521, bringing an end to Mesoamerica’s
last great native civilization.
The defeat of The surrender of the Aztec emperor

Aztecs from the
Spanish
conquistador
Hernan Cortes

55
VII. THE INCA

(1438 A.D. – 1533 A.D.)
• The Inca civilization flourished in ancient Peru between

c. 1400 and 1533 CE, and their empire eventually
extended across western South America from Quito in
the north to Santiago in the south, making it the largest
empire ever seen in the Americas and the largest in the
world at that time.
• the Incas conquered people and exploited landscapes

in such diverse settings as plains, mountains, deserts, and
tropical jungle.
• Famed for their unique art and architecture, they

constructed finely-built and imposing buildings wherever
they conquered, and their spectacular adaptation of
natural landscapes with terracing, highways, and Map of the Inca empire
mountaintop settlements continues to impress modern
visitors at such world famous sites as Machu Picchu.
56
A. Inca Government & Administration
• The Inca government was called the Tawantinsuyu. It was a monarchy ruled by a single
leader called the Sapa Inca.
Sapa Inca - The emperor or king of the Inca Empire was called the Sapa Inca, which
means "sole ruler". He was the most powerful person in the land and everyone else
reported to the Sapa Inca. His principal wife, the queen, was called the coya.
A.1. Inca Government Organization

• Viceroy - Below the Sapa Inca was the viceroy, or Inkap Rantin. He was a close relative of the Sapa Inca and worked
as his closest advisor.
• High Priest - The high priest, called the "Willaq Umu", was also a very powerful man. He was probably second in power
to the Sapa Inca due to the importance of religion in the Inca Empire.
• Governors of a Quarter - The Inca Empire was divided up into four quarters. Each of these quarters was ruled by a
governor called an Apu.
• Council of the Realm - The Sapa Inca also kept a council of men who advised him on major matters. These men were
powerful nobles.
• Inspectors - In order to maintain control and to make sure people were paying their taxes and following the ways of
the Inca, the Sapa Inca had inspectors that watched over the people. The inspectors were called "tokoyrikoq".
• Military Generals - There were also military generals. The head general was usually a close relative of the Sapa Inca.
These leaders were called "Apukuna".
• Other Officials - There were many other government officials and leaders throughout the Inca Empire such as priests,
military officers, judges, and tax collectors.

57
A.2. The Inca Tax
• For tax purposes censuses were taken and
populations divided up into groups based on
multiples of ten (Inca mathematics was almost
identical to the system we use today). As there
was no currency in the Inca world, taxes were
paid in kind - usually foodstuffs, precious metals,
textiles, exotic feathers, dyes, and spondylus
shell - but also in labourers who could be shifted
about the empire to be used where they were
most needed, known as mit'a service.
• To keep track of all these statistics, the Inca

used the quipu, a sophisticated assembly of
knots and strings which was also highly
transportable and could record decimals up to
10,000.
Quipu are recording devices
fashioned from strings
historically used by the Inca

58
B. Inca Architecture
• Master stone masons, the Incas constructed
large buildings, walls and fortifications using
finely-worked blocks - either regular or
polygonal - which fitted together so precisely
no mortar was needed.
• With an emphasis on clean lines, trapezoid

shapes, and incorporating natural features into
these buildings, they have easily withstood the
powerful earthquakes which frequently hit the
region.
• The distinctive sloping trapezoid form and fine

Inca 12 Angle Stone masonry of Inca buildings were, besides their
obvious aesthetic value, also used as a
recognisable symbol of Inca domination
throughout the empire.

59
• Inca qollqa (storehouses) used for

storing grain and other foodstuffs.
15-16th century CE,
Ollantaytambo.
• The Inca site of Machu Picchu built

by Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui(1438-71 CE).
Fortress, sanctuary, and once home to around
1,000 residents, the site is perched in the high
Andes above the river Urubamba.

60
C. Inca Road System
• The Inca Empire was connected by its vast road

system (running 25,000 miles), which made
Inca road
communication between even far away points system located
possible within days. Messengers lived in pairs – and At the Andes
their whole responsibility was to be ready to receive mountain
range
a message and run to deliver it – so one of them
would sleep while the other remained ready to do
the job.
• With the road system and messenger service, the

king could send out an order to mobilize an army for
defense and the men of the various communities
would respond in a timely fashion.
• There were stations, inns, and storage depots along

this roadway to supply troops, give travelers a rest,
and maintain those who worked for the messenger
services. The Q'eswachaka bridge, an Inka suspension (catenary)
PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC bridge on the Apurimac River near Huinchiri, Peru.
61
• Inca roads were built without the benefit of sophisticated

surveying equipment using only wooden, stone,
and bronze tools. As they were built in different
geographical zones using local populations, the roads
are, consequently, not uniform in construction design or
materials.
• Sometimes there are also two or three roads constructed

in parallel, especially near the larger urban centres. A map of
the Inca road
Flattened road beds - often raised - were usually made
system which
using packed earth, sand, or grass. The more important included some
roads were finished with precisely arranged paving 40,000 km of
stones or cobbles. routes.
• Roads were typically edged and protected with small

stone walls, stone markers, wooden or cane posts, or
piles of stones. Drainage was provided by frequent drains
and culverts, which drew off rainwater from the road
surface, channelling it either along or under the road.
When crossing wetlands, roads were often supported by
buttress walls or built on causeways.
Read more at: https://www.ancient.eu/image/3004/inca-road-system/

62
D. Inca Food & Agriculture
• The Inca state developed a huge farming
apparatus, where crops and herds were
commandeered from conquered people and
the people themselves were periodically
commandeered to work on state-owned
farms. More positively, a vast network of
storage facilities was developed to insure
against times of drought and disaster and
foodstuffs were often given out as gifts by rulers
seeking to make themselves popular.
• Land was worked using simple tools such as a

hoe, clod breaker, and foot plough -
the chakitaqlla, which consisted of a wooden
or bronze pointed pole that was pushed into
An Inca circular terracing used to increase agricultural
the ground by placing one's foot on a yield. Moray, Peru, 15-16th century CE.
horizontal bar. Hoe blades were typically made
using sharpened cobble stones.
Read more on: https://www.ancient.eu/article/792/inca-food--agriculture/
63
• Crops cultivated across the Inca Empire
included maize, coca, beans, grains, potatoes,
sweet potatoes, ulluco, oca, mashwa, pepper,
tomatoes, peanuts, cashews, squash,
cucumber, quinoa, gourd, cotton, talwi, carob,
chirimoya, lúcuma, guayabo, and avocado.
• Livestock was primarily llama and alpaca

herds. These animals were vital to many
aspects of Andean life as they provided wool,
meat, leather, moveable wealth,
transportation - especially for the army, and
they were often sacrificed in religious
ceremonies.
• The Incas were ambitious farmers, and to

maximise agricultural production, they
transformed the landscape with terracing,
canals, and irrigation networks, whilst wetlands
were often drained to make them suitable for
Some of Inca cultivated crops farming.
64
A painting depicting
Francisco Pizarro
conquering the Inca empire
E. The Decline
of Inca Empire
• The Inca Empire fell to the Spanish conquistadores
under Francisco Pizarro in 1533 CE, but it had been
in decline already for some time.
• Rebellions throughout the empire were already

ongoing by the time Pizarro arrived in the region
and the diseases (especially smallpox) brought by
Europeans had already destroyed large swaths of
the population (up to 90%).
65
VIII. ACTIVITY 2: QUIZ ON MESOAMERICA
• Mesoamerican civilization: the complex of indigenous cultures that developed in

parts of Mexico and Central America prior to Spanish exploration and conquest in
the 16th century. In the organization of its kingdoms and empires, the sophistication
of its monuments, buildings and cities, and the extent and refinement of
its intellectual accomplishments, had set apart the Mesoamerican civilization from
its counterpart in history.
• Prepare for a 10 point quiz on “Mesoamerican Technology in Pre-Columbian Times”

to be published under this module in the Moodle course site. Quiz will be accessed
on September 29 and will be closed on October 09 (11:59 PM). Make sure to log in
and answer the quiz in your Moodle course site between the aforementioned
dates.
• Those who can’t take the quiz will be automatically marked “0” as your point in this
activity.

66
IX. ACTIVITY 3: REBUILDING MESOAMERICA
• For this activity you will work in groups.
• You will recreate one technology of the Mesoamerican civilization that has utilization
in modern times into a 3D miniaturized replica. You may choose among the following:
chinampas, corn production, rubber, agriculture terraces, aqueduct,
canoe/transportation, calendar, natural products (e.g. cocaine as anesthesia),
chocolates, tools for agriculture or daily living (e.g. pottery), road systems,
temples/architecture.
•
• There should be no duplication among groups with this class. Submit your topic in the
forum section under this module in the Moodle course site.
• Plan your ideas and activities with your groupmates using digital platforms. During your
planning process divide the task among the members of the group.
• Construct your 3D replica using readily available materials.

67
• Include a write up with the following content:
1) Description of the technology and its use in Mesoamerican civilization
2) Uses of this technology and any modification in the present time
3) Discuss how you develop your replica (contribution of each member,
materials used and where they obtained the materials, challenges
encountered and solutions)
• Write up should only be 500-700 words in length.
• Include references written in proper format (e.g. APA).
• Take a clear photo (jpeg. Format) of your replica and send it together with your write
up to Google classroom (check instruction with your instructor).
• Deadline of submission is on October 17, 11:59 PM. Late output submission will have a
deduction (minus 1 per whole hour late).

68
Rubrics for Grading (Activity 3)
Exceptional Admirable Acceptable Attempted
Criteria 30 points
10-8 pts. 7-5 pts. 6-4 pts. 3-1 pts.
Explored several choices of readily Tried a few ideas before selecting The work shows considerable use of Materials that was readily available is
available materials before selecting readily available material and readily available materials and a not used and it does not show
one, generated many ideas and generated combinations suited for the developing understanding of the understanding of the concept as a
tried unusual combinations or concept. concept. whole.
changes of the concept.
10
Craftsmanship/Creativity
The replica was beautiful and With a little more effort, the work Showed average craftsmanship; The student showed average
patiently done; it was as good as could have been outstanding; lacks the adequate, but not as good as it could craftsmanship, lack of pride in finished
hard work could make it. finishing touches. have been, a bit careless. work
The replica was planned carefully The replica shows that the student The student did the model adequately, The replica was completed and turned
and showed an awareness of the applied the principles of design while yet it shows lack of planning and little in, but showed little evidence of
elements and principles of design; using one or more elements evidence that an overall composition understanding of the elements and
chose color scheme carefully, used effectively; showed an awareness of and design was planned to emulate principles of design, no evidence of
Composition/Design/ 10 space effectively that captured well filling the space adequately to capture the technology. planning as what was manifested by
the technology. the technology desired the replica of technology presented.
Resourcefulness
Writing shows high degree of Writing is coherent and logically Writing is coherent and logically Writing lacks logical organization. It
attention to logic and reasoning of organized with transitions used organized. Some points remain shows some coherence but ideas lack
points. Unity clearly leads the between ideas and paragraphs to misplaced and stray from the topic. unity.
reader to the conclusion and stirs create coherence. Overall unity of Transitions evident but not used
thought regarding the topic. ideas is present. throughout essay.
Main points well developed with high Main points are present with limited Main points lack detailed development.
quality and quantity support. Main points well developed with quality detail and development. Some critical Ideas are vague with little evidence of
Write up 10 supporting details and quantity. Critical thinking is present.
Reveals high degree of critical critical thinking.
thinking. thinking is weaved into points
Fails to follow format and write up

Meets format and write up Meets format and other requirements requirements; less than 500 and more
Meets all format requirements with requirements with 500-700 words. with 500-700 words and may have than 700 words.
500-700 words and evidences some assembly errors
attention to detail.

69

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2.

THE MESOAMERICAN TECHNOLOGY IN

▪ Identify the technologies that shaped Mesoamerica in pre-

▪ Recreate a 3D miniaturized replica of one Mesoamerican

▪ Discuss how the use of the above technology evolved through

• “Pre-Columbian civilizations”. Encyclopædia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/topic/pre-Columbian-

• The Arizona Museum website https://www.arizonamuseumofnaturalhistory.org/explore-the-

F. Aztecs Heiroglyphs VIII. Activity 2: Quiz on Mesoamerica

▪ What does it mean? • Meso = middle

• America = North and South America

▪ Where is it located? • Mesoamerica is the region that is now Mexico and

• In pre-Columbian times, it was the most densely populated region of

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC

▪ Mesoamerica includes the Region in North

▪ Within this region pre-Columbian

▪ This region is home to the Olmec, Maya,

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC

• 250 A.D. – 900 A.D.

• 1200 A.D. – 1521 A.D.

• 1438 A.D. – 1533 A.D.

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC

III. Summary of Mesoamerican Contribution

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC

IV. THE OLMECS

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC

• By c. 1200 BCE significant urban centers

• The three sites of San Lorenzo, La Venta and

• Typical Olmec trade goods included obsidian,

• Trading helped the Olmec build their urban

• Individual homes had a lean-to—sort of like a

The Great Pyramid in La Venta

• There were eight different androgynous—possessing male and female characteristics—

The Maize deity Surviving art, like this

• Other art expresses

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC

• The Olmec are considered a “cultural hearth” by historians.

• This first civilization had enormously influence the next civilizations to

This sculpture, which stands almost eight feet tall

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC

• The Olmec population declined sharply between

the Olmecs • Another theory for the considerable population

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC

▪ The Maya lived in modern-day southern Mexico

Maya to trade and interact with other cultures from

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC

A.1. Created a 365 day calendar by watching the

Consists of two parts:

1. Solar calendar with 365 days, divided into 18

2. Lunar calendar and a Calendar based on the

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC

• The Kin figures equate to one day and

"The Long Count has a cycle of 13 baktuns,

• The Mayan and other Mesoamerican cultures used

• The numerals consisted of only three symbols: zero,

• Thus, addition and subtraction was a relatively

• After the number 19, larger numbers were written in

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC

• Their glyphs were used much like those of

• The Mayans also developed a form of an early

▪ The Mayan built towering temples, pyramids, plazas and palaces

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC