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Structural pattern of Sub-Himalaya in Dang and Deukhari valleys ofwestern

Nepal

Article  in  Journal of Nepal Geological Society · September 2009

DOI: 10.3126/jngs.v39i0.31484

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 ''.. -.r. ajr,/€nr1 -tr.i.n , 2009, Vo!. 39, pp. g 18

Structural pattern of Sub-Himalaya in Dang and

Deukhari valleys ofwestern Nepal

Anar,Deep Regmi, Megh Raj Dhital, Rishi Gadtaula, anal Nar€sh Kazi
Tammkar
Ce tral Depath@t of Geotog, Ttibh^d Unitctsjq, Kirnput., Ka l*",ar.
U","t
\'l nail: nnold(,j, rcan^, \nt,ra i,ktl

ABSTRACT
.
. ,:! L r.p\,{irrk.ur rcsrcrn N l',r.,,..oLndirrrhcD.ns,,or,(u\!.r ..r.cr\.
: .l:....1T,1"r:'q"..."rried^,
(,j]roDJr rLroJ r.8-fr\ildcrluSrflt.rrrcrur\.,citro.p,nrt.fr,.r,rnot,td.kiinrhi.5rcHidt,\.
f! lt. Ble iTl' r.r ll.,.'i Rttlnrr,r. tI Ktol Br-(,tru,..crJ R:,p,. U,..1,f,", ,.r r.,,fl o
' r:l:. r$pe.rivdv snnirany, rhe hain rords are rhc MJlxi Khuri A.rier,nc. Msoi K;,,r,i !i".r,,,", i],r,",,* sr.""rr"",
i:rirr Syiclinc. Bdijipu I Anriclinc. Btrainsai Khota Anri"ri*. ru,,,i xr,.r" e"ir"i,". er* i#"r" **, ,r,"
-u
.r,si'\.1.",,trt.tr-\,n.,,ndrh.r,orosi,1',,nporn,(.iti,.rnre..h-ron.w,,.,.,,,,;;."',,;;;'i11,
: J.
ll .1,.T'l:_"jl
\(rr rormeo;,ll lf, ,rin',I thc
crflrer
\ irLr.n n,n clea r \ lcmonstrlrcs
trru\r\
rhar rhc rocks wtrc subjccred ro inrensc dcrorn ion, and ttrc

Iic\nordsr Sub Hinrlaya. Siwatiks, sl.ucrure, brkthrusr. rhin skii.cd rccronics_ ov*rurncd tatds
Rec.ired: 3 Oclober 200R revision accepted: t6 N1!r.h t0l)9

INTRODUCTION LITHOSTR,{TIGRAPIIY
.LJ Jrclc^n\i.r,.,irwo\r eJr.une r. nc Drrg Thc distribution ofdifiercntrock units are shown in Fis.
. rr h ,,rher i, he DcukhJ.i Va .'J {t-ig. il. Th; 2. and rl\ .rlh^nririgrbrh! nt rtrc .rLJv
rrea i\given in FiE.
' .ertt ner I rrca\ in tle sruoy arcJ Jre tui Knot.,, L Thr lormdrn,n nom.n.thturc u.rd in thir,l d\ t"Iou.
: . i:;. \1a1ai, Salbariya, Alnitiyd. Agaiya, and cabar. .h:r' , l Dhirrl er Jl (tao)) Ir,,,n rn, sr rai Khota
Bxrdanda arca.
.- \r\aliks have altirudcs rangingfrom 900 m to 1500
.. -:\hibil rvery rugged ropograpby wilh hishlv djssected
' J ne. p .topr. I h. D..u {i . Va . !;. sr.L,unded
. SN\alik Ilills liom alt sjdcs. whereas tire Dang Vdlley
.. -,unded bythe Snvalik I t ils liom rhe sourhern.
eastcrn
-: . :.r€rn sider, and is bordered bv the Lcsser Himalava
. ' .ern.iJ(. ll'c JlUrudc. ol rt-f t)ang Jrd DeJkr,,,i
, o15 :rL ib^1, 1,0 rnd Jnn rn .rb.,!e ,eJ te\et
,-r -.ii\ eh.
Tir. DrrsVailcy lies about i0 km north oflhc
.. -\ ind closes about 30 km wcst of rhe latter ltDeukharj
is rh.,,l
: .:.r l,rng. 7 km wide, and is filled up with the Ouaternarv
1

I r'. ot ,\e rir rr\ ttoi:nA t,.,m norttr lJ ,ouLh

.(J.nrr
. :r. otherhand, rhe Deukhari Vdley is abour50 km krng.
: ..r \ ide and is an elongaled lrough, filted up wjth lhc
- - .i i mar! deposiLs of rhe Rapti River. Most of the mountain
:j::i in rhc study area extend in the cast-wcst direcrion :+1r-:r:t+-
r,:.ll.l to thc main geological strucrurcs. The Dang and
-:,ihuri vrlleys are drained by the Babai and the Rapti Iig. 1: Physiographic setting of Dang and Deukhari
vall€ys and the position ofthe study ar€a
Antar Drcp Reg ti et al.
The lilhologv of the srudy area can be subdivided into
lhe Bdnkas Formalion, Chor Khola Formation. Surai Khola
Formation, Dobata Fornrat()n. and Dhan Khola Formation
in an asccnding order (Figs.2 and 3). Ashort description of
lithostratigraph\ of alt thc formations is prcscntcd below.
The Banka! Formation is exposcd in many parrs of rhc
sludy.rrcr (Fig. 2). The tffmation crops oul all rlong thc
sonthc.D foothills ollhc mountain range in thc DdngValley.
in lhe sourhcm part ofthe Tui Khola Valley, to thc south of
the Malai RivcrValley, to thc nonh ofthe conlluence ofthc
Babaiand lhc Malai Rivers, and lo the north ofRolpaliLard.
The Bankas Fornrdtion forms the co.e ofan anticline in lhe
Khani Kno1a. A periclinal closurc consisting of the rocks of
lhe Bankas Fornration isseen rt the confluence ol rhc Bab.i
River and rhc Malai Klrola.
The Bankrs Formalion compriscs an interb€ddingoffinc
to vcry fine-grained, grey-green sandstonc and red-purplc.
Fig.2: Geological nap ofthe study aiea
10
yellow brown, and dark b.own mudstone. Prcdominari.:
,,'luu' ol rhe mJJ\r.'1cis red-purple. PJlr(osot. :r
calcrct€s are frequent, and planr fossils occur in rt::
mudslones of its upper pdrt.
The sandstones of the Bankas Formation are of fine- r
medium-graincd with subrounded and moderately sphcric:.
grains. The sandstones contain quartz, feldspar, muscovite. ,ni
certain opaquc nrinekls. The grain cont&ts are suturcd r
tangenlial. The micas in the sandstones ofthc BanknsFormatilrn
are .icb in muscovite, whereas biolite is abscnl. Mosl of rh!
snndslonc samples of the Bankas Formation belong to rhi
lilharenite and subo.dinately to the ttldspalhic litharenirc.
Freqrenlly. ibc mica graiDs presenl in thc sandstone ar.
defbrmed (Fie. 4.).
Chot Khola Fonl1tio
The Chor Khola Fonnation is exposed in many parls of
lhe study area (Fig. 2). It crops oul along thc Tui Kholx. in
the Mdsot Khola. Malai Khola, Kal;tara. and around Haure
rnd Bakhere.
 Stnlxt}nl pdn.rn ol Sutl'Ho dt,t\n ! D',r! '1!:'t D'r*lidri trllJ'

.6
BoLrlder, cobble and pebble bearing conglomerate
interbedded with yellow and yellow brown mudstone
and pebbly sandstone

.s lnte.bedded light yellow, gley green, and brown mudstone

Lower part coitains few medium to coarse-grained sandstone,
,gl_l grey srltslone and gravel beds are presenl in the upper oarl

Verv thick-bedded, multistoried, massive, cross-bedded,

sart and pepoer saldstone
E -.ii"m- to verv coarse-qrained bralLhes tunhs and rools
conrainino olani fossl's lncluolng
soft mudirone wh cn is I glt grey to dark grey Saldstone
s con,rins p'ana, lrough cross ocds Sand and mud oa|s
3.s presbnt in the sandslone The uoper part coltalns
"nd
'6 pebbly sandstone.

_9

E Cyclic deposition of fine- to coarse grained, medium to

ln cklv bedoed. lght grey g een-grey and blown calcareous
q sandilone, also so-e sall and peppe- sandstone grey
varegated mudstone Several marl beds are
"no
piesent in tne Lrpper part of the succession- Mudstone
"ifi"ion"
contains leaf fossils

.s
E lnterbeddinq ot tne- to very fi1e-grained grey green
,"nd.to"";"u"ri.g"t"o red'o,lrole yellow-brown ard dar(
-Predominating
grey mudstone. colour of the mudstone
1s red-purple.
-i

in the Thlsipur-Amiliva road section

:ri. l: G€neralised lithostraiigraphic column ofthe Siwaliks

11
Anar Deep Reg ri et nl.

Fig. 4: Sandstone from thc Bankas Fo.mation, shorving the Fig.5: Sandston€ from th€ ChorKholaFormation showing
bending ofthe mica [ake, this bending may be due to tectonit the seU derrloped cl€a\age in calcile. The quart/emin.are
orlithostatic piessure priorloc€mentation.

A cyclic deposition of thickly bedded (usually >s m).

'sah and pcppcr' sxndslone. variegated (yellow, brorvn. r€d-
purplc. and grey-green) nottlcd mudstone has beeo placcd
into the Chor Khola Fornation. The krp parl ofthe formalion
contains pcat and organic detrris wilh abundant leaves. ln
the sandstonc beds, petrified wood fragmcnts, lree lrunks.
and branches arc observed. Mudstone beds drc biolurbated
and cortair a few plant fossils. The sandstones of the ChoI
l.,Iola Formrtion are ol medium- lo coarse-grained. Thc
arc subrounded lo subangular and cxhibil moderale
-erains
-cph€ricit\'. Thc grain conlacts are suiured to ldngcntial. The
Chor Kholx sandsLone contains quartz, fcldspar. muscovitc,
bi ire. !nd opaque minerals (Fig.5). Biotitc Nppcars notably
\ ilh rhe beginning ol lhe ChoI Knola Formation dnd with
rhe end ol Ihe Bankas Formatiur. The sandstoncs belong to
lirhrrenir€s nnd lithic grc\ \ ackes. The sandnon.s ofthe Chor
L:n(n.r Forrrralion .\poscd in lhe norlhern prrt rrc mainjl'
nedium grlin.d. $ hile jn rhoie cmpping our in rhe nruth.rn Fig.6: Spheroidal w€ath€ringofthesandstone in tbe Chor
frrr ,re borh m.dium- and .inIse'grain.d. The srndsron. in Xlola Formation
lh: norrhern pr olthesIUd\ area conlain\ m!n\ sandpipcs
.rnd sho$s \pheroidal sealhcrins palterns (Fig.6). ln the
n.rrhern pr . it corsists of se\ eral sihsrone beds \!ith sand The Surai K}lola Formalion comprises sandslone (aboul
pipes. These siltstone beds are very fe$ in thc southern part 809;) and m udstone (aboul 20%) with a subordinate arnounl
rnd rhe\ are lackingsand pipes.The colourotth€ mudstonc ot calcrete, marl, and shale- Sandslones arc multi_sloreyed,
is also variable. lr is mainly yellow to light grey in lhe coarse to very coarse-grained, and lhcy have 'sall and
northern parl of the study area, while il is green-grey to dark pepper'like appearance owing to lhe significdnt conlenl of
grey in lhe soLrlhernpart. Many thrusts andloldsale P.esenl biotite and quartz. Sandslones also conta;n pekificd lree
within the Chor Khola Fomation. The Chor Khola Fodnation trunks (Fig. 7). The grains in the sandstones are coarse to
is €xposed in different parts of thc study aiea and it shows very coarse and subangular to moderatcly sphcrical. The
only minor differences in its thickness and lithology. contacts b€lwccn ihe grains are often tangential. Suturcd
contacts arc rarc and grains often floal on calcite cemcnt.
The main minerals comprising ihe sandstones are quartz,
SLo ai Klola Formatio fctdspars, muscov;te, and biolile. Most ol the sandstone
sampies fron the Surai Kbola Formation bclong to
The Surai Khola Formalion is exiensively distribuled in
litharenites, fcldspathic litharenites, and lithic graywackes.
the study area. It is seen around Malai, Chorkholagaun,
As comparcd to lhe Chor Khola Formation, tic proportion
Hardawa, Mannamc, dnd in the Masot Kfiola. It forms the
oflithic fragrnents and leldspars is rema.kably higher in the
corc of the Baij apur Anticline, Bhaisi Khola Anticline, and sandstoncs of the Surai Khola Formation-
Masot Khola Synclinc (Fig. 2).

12
 \itt'
-l
:t
.., .}
, -:.. ning prtrifierl iree ;"rks frotn
. . ..rndiKholn. belonging to the Surai
' :. .tri.s in rhickrress rl dillcrcnl
: , rhr Itcrxl !rrjrln)n during
. . _.,.lriJIt inl.rs! (lctarmrlir)n
' I r gr.xr nunrhcr ol gcolosical
.. r inJi\ i.lurl beds rlso chrng.s
- ::! rhickcr bcds) lo thc norlhcrn
i rh. \tudy rrcir. Pctrili.d lrcc
. .:::. \ihi.h rrc tiequcnlh prcscnr in
: - .l!!!\ arcr. ,rc sfoftdic in lhe
- [] Li\.rall litholosy ol lhc Surai
_ : ii.r.n( farts of lhc sludy arcx is
- :r..f i\.\poscd in iivc scpaftrtebells
. ::j :). ll ovcrlies thc Surai Khola
lhL D,,h: .IL{r, rlrun
. .' . : Khol!.r hc Haurcvillagcof Dang.
: .r. .,... to tlr. nol1h of Crbrr rt Amiliya,
!, fl rhc l)obrta Formarion is lighl lo
- , .,nJ bro\n mudslone (70%). mcdium
- : .:.\ 'rndsr(mc (20rr).lighLgrcy siltstr)nc
i r'. ) Th. srrdno|es in lhc Dohrtr
: . ,l\ lnrcr-graincdthrn tl)osc in lhe Surai
- :::::rr. if th€ Dobrlr lrormlrion from rhc
. - .Lrf.rn prrls ol thc stLrdy arca is in rhc
- . r:: .r1 mudstonc,i. The lhickncss of lhe
:- . ,::h.rn pr is lcss than lhat in thc southcrn
. :_i rudstones lrom hoth rhe nonhc.n rnd
. : :i. nudt rrcr arc rich in organ;c mrttcr. In
. . : inrrirlor hrs hccn cul out by a backlhrusl
-. :1.r !.ometrt. Tlris nrairly occurs around
-: :, :lr. Krlan Khola (Fig. 2). Ik)wevcr thc
l3
turdl ptt.nt ol Sub llit ulu\\t in DtU d t Dt kh.ti tn ct\
1,!rrrll iirhology ofrhc Dohrlr Iromrtion is rtnnxl thc sam.
s..r:'r,r)'Jilr.rdtr l. .i.rh. Jr'' r("r,1.' i,r
of mudsllrnc rnd srndsturc.
Dhnn Khollt t.i,t utntt
Thc Dhrn Khol Fornrrlion co sisls .1 corg](rncrrlc
(7i).,?). n dsrorc (l7.li). rurd srr(lston.
corc ol lhc Srlhrri\'r Slnclin.,
(3,r) 11 lirnrs thc
Asrilr Slnclin!. l rl thc
MrsotSyrclirc It hrs rls(i c..rlcd thr cl(arr. olln rnliclinc
in Rolpalirrrr llnd in alhorkhollgrLrn. Thc rhickr)css (n rhis
lirrmrln)n is ! rrirhle lionr thcc to phcc. Both th. thick css
ol thc lonnation rnd thc lhickncss ol iJrdi\ilhrl h.ds in lhc
soulhcrn trrl of thc slud! arcr rrc lcss thrn lhosc ot lhc
northenr prn.Th.1)hrn Khola lronnrlior liom lh. no(trcrn
parl consisls cs\cntirlly ol houldcr con!l(rncrNtcs $ith a
lesser ann)unl ol nrudsl{)nc rs comprrcd lo lhc ()urhcnr prrl.
Similarl),. thc I)hrn Khola Ironnrrion in lh. sourhcm trn i\
dominrt.d hl rn inrcrbcdding of !1rbL)lc cobbtc
conglomcrrte and n dslonc Thc Dhrn Khoh lrornrNtion
c, hibilssnnihr lilholog] ancl thickncss {h(trrshoulthc nud\
,..,. 8,, . rl. r, \ ,r. .,r.1 J l r .,,r ;,i .. .
., Ll lr,,rlJ. , ir .,,r r,,.r', r.. . I I r,, ".,1
, L
sigrrilicrnlly l;onr tlxcc l(J placc.
CEOL(x;l( \L \lRl ( lLR[5
Thc r..k( of th. Sirrllk\ in th. (rLrd\ .L,r.L .,r!
complicrtcd bl nun\ inhri.rre th isls. l:LULri..rnrl\rrio!(
Iypes ol lold\. Ihere arc lold\ rrnging in s.rl. t'onr r I.\
ccntimclrcs to mruy kil(nncLrcs A vcr\ lrrg. o\e unred
block olrbout50km in lcnglh rnd,lkm in $idth occurs in
lhe sludy arca. Il is scparatcd fl1)Dr olher righr wa]-up
scqncnccs bv brcklhrusts liom alldircclions. Thcrc rrc thrcc
regir)nal scrlc brckLhrusts. which rrc 111 trcnding t !ards
casl wcsl and are nerrl) prfullc1 to crch olhc. Al$. thcrc
are lwo rcgionll scale iixward thrusts. which arc dipphg
lowards thc norrh l d lrc l.endingcan wcst. Thc nNcrure
ol lhe sludv area is interpre{cd on lhc brsis ol lhin skinncd
lectonics. and a slut preview ol Lhc tcnns rpplicd is gi!cr
Thin-skinned tecti'nics
Dahlstronr (1970) chs!ificd the lhnrsts !s conlrrcli(mrl
faults $4rich cut up-sccrion ir rhc rransporr dircction Thc
IJLlr. n \ h\eLrl . .ra,.urh ll..i,.r,.r\
trdj.ckny. ln I sl.rircasc t.aicctorlr. the fNl't ol ! lulr. $ hich
passcs with I relrtivcly high rnglc lhr(nrgh l tl\cr. is kro\! n
s ranrp or stecp. and ihe seclion qhich is prrxll.l to rtre
tredding plrne or an! horizonral dLrtuln is lno\n rs I llrr
(BLrtler l9S2). Indi!idurl lulr surfrccs sr.p Io.r layer-
parallel segmcnls within sotl. incomt.r.nr lr\ cring (udt) rd
cul obliquely acrols steep. co p.t.nl b.ds en (rrc to tlre
ncxl favourrble incomfcrcnt unir (funrp). \\ hcre a rhrusL fautt
'ramps up throlgh lhc bcdd ing. ir crerlcs rwo cut-o11 anglcs.
onc with dre hanging wall nnlr and thc orher wiLh Lhc
footwall strata- Cul off linc\ mark lhc intcrseclion of rhc
Anar Deep Regni et al.
thrusts with the straligrrphic horizon that is cu1. The
hanging wall crFoff movcs up rnd over lhe tbot$' ll cul-off
progressively as the faulting proceeds (BoyeI and Elliott
1982)- Ramps which arc cur offs in the hanging $'dll are
tenncd hanging wall ramps. ancl those cut-offs in lhe
footwalls are termcd as loolrvall ramps (Dalhstrom
1970;Butler 1982). Rlmps\hich nrike nolnrrlto Lhe lhrust
transporl direclion arc lcrmed konlal ramps. The)i are
charactcrised by dominanrly reverse dip-slip disflacement
Ramps !v;th a slrike obliquc 1o the lranspon dircction ale
crlled ob liquc rrnps (Dahlstlom I 970) and are characrcrised
by el€ments ol boih stlike'slip and reverse dip-slip. Some
ramps arc lrtcral ramps. Thesc .cpresent placeswhcrc a thrust
*flat' abruptly cuts up-sccttuD lateralllr as a lanrp unlil it
reaches a higher ho.izon, where il once again becomes a
flat. Basal decollements cdn bcconsidered asvcry Iongflals.
The solc thrust is the longcst rcgional ihrust su.facc (Elliott
and Johnson 191J0).
Ifa new thrust dcvclops in the hanging wallofan older
thrusl, rn overstep or ovcrlap sequence lesults (Ellioll and
Johnson 1980).lnsuchsequences,thrust!propagaleiowards
the hinrerland in r sense opposile to thc lranspon dhection.
Hcnce, higher thrusts will represent thc lrtcr movemcnt
across the array offanlls (Butler 1982).
Thrustfaults are seldom solitary. Instead, the lhrusts. and
the horses ofrock evolvedby thrusts that branch and mc.ge
around them. ovcrlap "like rooftiles. all dipping in the sane
gcneral directn,n" (Baily 1938).
Strucrurcs found in the studJ area
A short descriplion ofstructures tbund in the sltdy ar€a
is prcscnled below. 1l is remarkable that mosl of the faults
inter into the folds, thus cutting one of the fold linrbs. This
siluation is cvidenl palticulady in the Masot Khola and
around Knokari.
The name of the lhlust is derivcd lrom the tshcri River
in wcstern Nepal (Kdyxstha el al. 1999). It is a NW SE
t.cnding and north-dipping thrust. In the study arcd, ii is
locdted 10 thc north oi lhe Jaubari Khola (Fig 2). In the
foolwall ofrhc thrust, the younger rocks (i.e., ihe Dhan Khola
Formatnrn) arc observed, whilc in the hanging wall, older
rocks (i.c., thc Bankas Fomatbn) are fbund.
I'his north-dipping lhrust isnamed atler thc Malai River
nl Dang. In the sludy arca, it is obse ed along lhe Babai
Ri\.r r\ well as to the east of lhc confluence with the Malai
Khnla (Fig. l). From thc cdst of the confluencc, il lakes rhc
.nLbi ol rhe Malai Khold and terminales rt the Babai
Br.irh.u.l torming abranch line.In thehangingwall ofthc
rhmri. t nJe r rccks of lhc Bankas Formation arc present, whilc
l:l
in the footwall. youngcr rocks ofthe Dhan Khola Fornalion
arc observed. The thrust is almosl parallel to thc rccks of
thc hanging wall.
This brckthrusl is named aflcr the Babai River, a tnnklin.
river that flows trom the southcrn part ofdre Dang Vrllc)r.In
rhe study area, the thrust prsses through thc cntire length ol
the Babai River (fiom east kr wesl), while it lurns 1() lhe
south aflcr the termination of the Dang Valley in thc wen
(Fig. 2). It is a norlheast soulhwest trending bdckthrusi, thar
dips duc sooth. To the north of the Babai Brckthrust, the
Quaternrry deposits ofthc Dang Valley are observed, while
to tlrc south of the lh.usl, the Bankas Formation crops out.
Thc hackthrust is essentially parallel to thc ovcrlying rocks
of thc Banks Fo.mation in most places. Howcvcr, to the
west€rn cnd ol lhe Dang Vallclr, il obliquely cuts lhc rocks
oflhe footwrll. This mainly happcns near Houre and Kalkalc.
and then thc thrust lerminates at thc Tui Kbola Backdrlust.
which is located to dre south o{ it.
ni Krc|a Bockthrust
The nonhcdst-southwest trcnding Tui Khola Backthrust
follows thc Tui Khola River, flowing in the soulh ofth€ Ddng
Valley (Fis.2).Il forms a ramp kr thccasl olChorkholagaun
and then ent€rs the Malai K$ola whcrc it forms a hanging
wall flar. The thrust continucs furlher soulheast along the
Tui Kbola up to Mannamewhcre il forms a lbotwallaswell
as a hanging-wall ramp. ln ihc hanging wall of thc thrust,
the oldcr rocks of the Bankas Formation ale obscrved, while
in its footwall, the younser Chor Khola Folmation is cxposed
in lhe middlc rcaches of thc Tui Khola. There arc lwo
syoclines developed at its two ends, i-e. alound thc Malai
Khola in thc west and the Masol Knola in the cast (Fig 2)
where lhc .ocks ot the SulaiKhola, Dobala, and Dhan Klola
Formatbns are exposcd. The backthrust cuts obliquely the
Siwalik rocks in lhe no.th ol Satbariya al its southeast end
wherc il lerminates al thc Rapti Backthrusl. It also cuts
obliqucly the beds (forming footwall and hanging wall
ramps) around Agaiya at ils nolthwest cxtrcmity- Thus, the
overturncd hanging-wall bbck ol thebackth.ust is separated
tiom the righl-way-up sequcnces olthe footwall block tiom
all sides.
Kayastha et al. (1999) namcd this thnrst aftel the Rapli
Rivcr flowing through the cenlrai pad ofthc DcuklrariValley.
It is also a southeast norlhwest lrending trackthrust dipping
towards the soulh and it follows the course ofthc Rapli River'
Thc older rocks ofthe Surai Knola Formatnrn are observed
in thc hanging wallofthe thrust. while lhc tucks oflhe Dhan
Khola Fonnation. Dobata Formation. and Surai Khola
Fornalion comprisc its footwall. Thc thrust is essenliality
parallel 10 the rocks of the hanging wall, white ii obliqucly
cuts lhe beds conslituling lhe footwill near Lauri Rihar'
 \t'!k t tol |dnan olSub
: ' : .--::... n rt (jl.\.ncd in
: . ::ji / jn: ir locrlcd ro thc
: - . \:.:i Khila ne!r r\gaiya,
' : .i.:.::i!ix.1!. and lo lhc south
r-- . ..; ihe \fu\or Khol:r. Thc
: -:.:qJ.nf. itre rrending duc
. _..:! rlm 6a lotS'.
.- .. --:: rirbr.^rdinrlreGhorahi
: - r.:i.:t F(jrmrti{rn and the Ch.r
. , :.: :.r n\eflurncd successions
-r I s \lrnr Kh.lr (Fig. 2).
- : :J:J Similrrly, a few rock
- - : ih. Tui Kholr also show
.:,,1 SL\].lliks is rlso observed
,_ r., SinrJlkrn L trorn MJlJi.
!1 . : I\lrol.r Svnclinc is derived frcnr
. 1. 1". ,rne of lhc tribut.rrics of the
-: 1r;d s\nclnre plunging towards
' .:- .i th€ ft)ld prsses th ugh the
: . : l.'n!h Thc fold is an asvnrmctri.
-: n:lJ \ludics ard ils norlh limb is
I l\hoh Syncline forns a widc F- w
. : i L- mor. rpparcnt in thc c.stcrn parr
. :...tlr:$crtcrnpa .Thisisbecause
:.: .! r.line is cut ofi by the Tui Kh0la
: the core ofthis anticline (lig. 2)
. . , hlppens lo thc easr ol Manname.
.: r.rle ti)lds in borh the lnnhs ol lhe
. S\n.lin. is namcd after the vilhgc
- .:: ..:.n i(nd (Fis. l), lhc core of which
. :-:r:r,ir\ of thc Dhan Khoh Formation. Il
:- ::J n,l.l. The norlhcrn limb ol rhe rold
r. -:l: rhrn thc southcrn limb.lt is plonging
- I.i !\is ofthe lirld folk^vs the cou.sc of
: :.,rr.di\trncerndthenentersthcBhrisahi
: .._,\.rcd by lhe auuvill deposirsofthc
- : :.. Rapti Synllinc was dcrivcd tiom rhc
:. ..,t t"qJ, lr i\ Jn op.1r',td ptLrngin!
. . .: rF g l). Prrl of the lbkl in the vicinily of
-: il b\ the Rapti Backthrust. However. rhc
:. ::,nlinerr in lhc lvestern parLj i.c. <lt Kusum,
.: r..J $here Lhc Rapti River fl(rws frcnn itscore.
-. r'::h rl rhc fold is olerlurncd. Thc lbkt is nor
. -.: .l Agaivr. s it is covered by thc allLrvirl
t5
l.li ah')a in Dang a .t Det&hoti t,nttc\s
The BaijapurAnticUne isnamcd after lhe locatily Baijapur
It isan opcn fold plunging towards Nw (Fig. 2). The lotd is
cut otT by thc RaptiBackthrust to rhc sourh ol Khokari. Thc
anticline consists enlirclv of the rocks of lhe Sumi Knoh
Formalion. Thc dip amounl of its timbs ranges frum 201 ro
75'.
Rhaisahi Khala Atik Lint
Tfiis anticlinc is hcated lo thc south oI thc Satbariva
s) 1' liric lr r. dl\r .n,,pen tolJ tlurBrng r.{ ,.d. N\ . t ir
aiis of lhc tbld passcs from the lcft bank r)1 lhc Bhaisahi
Khola (Fig. 2). Hcrc the promincnt lithotogy corsrituting
lhc fold is 'sall and pepper'sdndstone ot lhc Surai Khola
Fonnation The dip ofits 1irld limbs varies from:10! r(l 60!.
KInni Khold Antn li,.
Thc c'r. '.'n rnrj,rin. r. ub.fr'. d JlulS rl. Kh:i i
K\ul, .nd hr' r.renl,i i.J,ricl.n<i...r\c.t .r,,1 rhe
samc river. It is rn open lirld whose anjlud. oftimbs ran-ses
frorr 30'r lo 70!. ID lhe co.c ot' rhis told. the mcks ot llre
Bankrs Formxrion are erto\cd. The our..prn oton. ofttr€
limbs oL lhc fold is rruncaicd b\ rhc Tui Khota Blckthru(.
This nrainly happens alolg rhe Sukhar Khol.r. Th. ind is
surrounded by the MalaiThru* in the no.th $herca\ there
is a huge alluvial fan of ttulocene depo\irs ro the sourh of
Mdkti Klnla A"lit lin?
A periclinal closure ol an anticline is sccn ar rhc
confluerce oflhc Babai Rivcr rnd the MalaiKholN (Fi! 2).
'l'his dnlicline is scpdrrred fiom lhc Khairi Khota Artictinc
bl lhc'l'ui Khola BackLh.ust. It is also an oper tbtd wilh the
attitude of limbs raneing fronr,I0!'to 30!.
Stt.|tttxtcs iI.loss \?dio, A A'
Cross-section A-A' extcnds fronr BabaiBacklhrusl in lhc
north 1(r lhc BNijapurAnliclinc in the soulh (Fig. ii). tl depicts
lhe siruclurc of the wcslcrn part oflhe srudy !rea. F(rn rhe
norlh lLr thc south. lhe pronrincnl strLrciu..s lre rhe Brbri
Backthrusr. Tui Khola Backdrrusr Agaila Slnctinc. Rapti
Backlhrust and lhe B japurAnricline. Thc Bab,ri Blck th ru st
has the lowcst !rgle rnd rhc Rapri Backlhrusr is lhc stccpesr
0111l thc thee Lrickrhrusti. Ir lhc cross seclion. ttrc branch
linc bctq,een thc Blbai Backrhrust and rhc'tui Khoh
Backthrust is seen in thc northern cxtremitf,. Thc .ocks in
lhc Babai Backthrusr rnd lhe Tui Kholl Backrh.ust are
overturncd. In addiln)n. the rocks in thc sourh ot rtrc Tui
Kllola Brckthrustare also ovcrturned. Thc Babai Brckttrrusl
is ovcrtrkcn blr the Tui Khola Backlhmst.'tb the sonth of
thcTri Khola Backrhtusl, the Rapli B.rckthrusr is obsc.ved.
It is slccpcr than the Brbai Backrhrusl and rhe Tui Khola
Antat Dccp Regni et al

\--'---
-- __t-- \\:
\ \ ! --"- '.
1

I
2 2

-5 5

Bankas Fm E chor Khota Fm EI surai Khota Fm E oobara Fm Dhan Khota Fm

E! auabhary DeeEl
= 1fm p 1rm

Fig. 8: Cross-section A-A' drawn across the western part ofthe study area

1
1

-1 -1

2 -2

,3 -3

3rn.r:F f,f, 1:r.rrrrFmE sr - rho.FmEflDobaraFmE DhanKho2Fm E ouaremaryoep E

Fi9. 9: C nr\\^(rtiun tl-li drawn across the ccntral part ofthe study ar.ea

l 1

-1 -1

-2

-3 3
c
Bankas FmH chorKhora FmE SuraiKhola FmEDobala FmEDhai Khola Fm E ouaternary DepB

Fig. 10: Cross-section C-C' drawn across thc eastcm part of th€ stndv ar€a

16
 Stt ul pa
.!: . B..k:rr!ii rnJ rh.
: ].--
'r. i!Br.krhrun
: -. ::- R:tri
rbi.^.d. Irs
Thc
-.
-: : -.::: \. T. rhe sourh of the
::::;lrn. is olrs€r\.d. The
- -: :: .\ ih. RJpri Backthrust.
: ::i trnLl is inclined towards
:. ilrm the ccntrrl part of the
..,::lr ro lhe south, three lhrusr
.: B.i.ri Backthrust. Tui Khola
:...r'ns. $hile tbc rocks lying lo
:.: : 3..krhrust form a rjghFway-up
-, ---.,i lhe Agaiy,] Syncline hasbccn
: .r Br.krhrusr, while thc Satbariya
: .:: :i rh. iouthern end of the cross-
: . . Jr,r$ntronrtbeeasternpartof the
: - : :.ri\es rhrcugh Dharna in thc nonh
-
. !:h. The noihern end olthc cross,
-. -- ri r\ rhe Babri Backlhrusl, whilc its
- :: j h\ IIre Rapti Backthrust. Thc Bankas
: . :: ,.1rhe Babai Backthrusl is vc.y thick.
..:r.linal and syncliral structrres (Fig.
- -rh ol lhe Tui Khola Backthrust.
This is due basically kr thrustirg.
. --::r.f. ir is also secn tlat one ofthc linrbs
.- . )\.cline has bccn truncaled by thc Tui
' ,- Ti. nodh€rn linb ofthe fold is disrincr
-:- :rri is nol seen on the sudace. The corc
, : .,i.r\ of the rocks of the Dhan Khola
i. ..Lrh of lhe Tui Khola Backthrusl. rhe
: -:j ln the southcrn part, the thickncss of
. : ::: (hor Klrola fomations is diminished.
.- Khola Formation is increascd. Thc
'-,.: -i:rri
...rn n) be overhirncd
- :.t. lnerPrctdno'l
: :i:.,blish rhat a thrust belt is a thin skinned,
:::Irnstrale lhat thrust fault sudaces possess
. . 'r. ir.rories. $rrh lung n.rl se.riur..
-::::x,:. s.parated by sho.t 'ramps', which cut
. :rl,rries (Boyer and Elliott 1982). The abovc
' .:::rr in thc ltudy area. Thcy are shown in lhc
.'.r ,i arca (Fig. 2). Thc rocks in the study
.-::,r:h 'hc
flals. parallel to the bcdding plane and
ent of Sub Hit ilrld nt Da q and Der*hati ya e\,s
$all as well ds tbotwall ramps are observed in the sludy
arer. They arc conspicuous especially to rhe wcst of Mal,ti.
around Bdkherej 10 rhe sourheasr of Manname. and to thc
north of Satbariya.
In lhe study a.ea alhg€ther five splay thrusts are
observed. To lhe northern extrcmity, the first splay thrust is
represented by thc BheriTbrust. Ir is a north dipping thrust
with the Bankas Formation in the hangingwalland the Dhan
Klola Formation in its footwall- Tfie second sptay thrust is
rcpresented by the Malai Th.usr. lt is also a north-dipping
th.ust. Il is terminated al thc Babai Backthrust, which is thc
third splay thrust. There are other lwo splay th.usts namely
tfieTuiKhola Backthrusl and thc Rapti Backthrust. All lhes€
thrusts were rcsponsible for the shortening of rhe Siwatik
belt in the study area.
As one movcs south frorn the Babai Bdckthrust towards
the Rapli Backthrust, it becomes clear thrt rhe thrusts cut
offyounger.ocks from no.th to south. Thc backthrusrs are
migrating from the hinterland towards thc tbreland. j.c. rhe
youDger thrusts wcre developcd in rhe hanging watt of the
older thrust. Apiggy-back pr)pagalion parrcrn (Dahtsr(,n
lq70) originates ifa voungerthrusr develLips on the tboh\all
ofan older thrust and ilthe thrusls migrare sequenli!11\ hLrni
rhc fiinlerlard lo\rrds the lbreland.Thus. fftim rhe definrrbn
of lhe pigg\-bacli lhrusting. il is clear thdr rhe pa ern of
thrusting in lhe stud\ area ;s likc a pigg\-back model. Thc
study r€verls thrt there is I triangle zone bounded b\ thc
Bah,i BdckrhrL. in rne soJrh ,1o rhe BlL.iTrru,r i; LhL
In lhc process ol dclailed geological m apping of the area,
ilwas obscrved that thc liickness of the Siwaliks is not
irs constant throughoul thc aren.ln some places it is very lhick,
whilc in some other places it is less. This is mainlv due to
rh. rc, rorrc proce*ci. r hich nave re.:lrcd rn rhe I, irrrrron
of scveral faults, th.usls, and tblds. Also. the study shows
thrl lhc Siwaliks wcre subjected to more than one
deformattuoal phases. This is clear fiom lhe fact that one of
the limbs of mosl of lhc folds has beeD truncared bv
Various rcsearchers working in the Siwaliks have
suggestcd differenr anounts of crusral sho.tening. According
to Adhikari (1993), about 28 km ol crustal shorlening had
occurred in lhe Siwaliks ofthc Surail(})ola arca i.e. alrnosr
about 40% of the total width ofthe Siwalik basin. Sirnila.ty
accordiDg to Mugnier et al. (1!195), rhe western parr of the
slrdy area sufiered a crustal shortening ofgrcater than 40%.
it From this it can be said lhai rhe prcscnr study arca also
cxhibils crusral shortening oI an ordcr of407..
CONCLUSIONS
The rocks of the study area arc highly defonned. Thjs
deformalion is cxpressed in thc folm of faults and fotds.
which succeed one arother in both space and time. Thc
process ol thmst dcvelopment and folding suggests severat
t7
 Anat Deep Regnti et al.
deformalional phases. A series of faulls. which exisl from
the Dorth to the soulh. a.e thc Bhcri Thrust, Malai Thrusl,
Babai Backlh.ust, Tui Khold Backlh.usl. and Rapli
Backthrust. Thcsc thrusts show a .amp flat geomcl.y. Thc
th.usts also hdvc crcalcd branch lines rnd thc triarglc zone.
There are also a nunber offolds such the BaiiapurAnlicline,
Bhaisahi Anticline, Khairi KholaAnticline, and Malai Knola
Anticline, Agajya Syrclinc, Satbariya Syncline, and Masol
Khola Synclinc.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are gratelul lo the Cenlral Departmenl of Geobgl,.
Tribhuvan Universily, lbr providing laboratory facilities and
also for field support. We are indebted lo Mr. Ananta Man
Singh Pradhan lbr his help in gaining the digitised map of
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