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Active Listening and Counselor

Self-Efficacy
a
Dana Heller Levitt PhD, NCC
a
Ohio University , USA
Published online: 22 Sep 2008.

To cite this article: Dana Heller Levitt PhD, NCC (2002) Active Listening and
Counselor Self-Efficacy, The Clinical Supervisor, 20:2, 101-115, DOI: 10.1300/
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Active Listening
and Counselor Self-Efficacy:
Emphasis on One Microskill
in Beginning Counselor Training
Dana Heller Levitt

ABSTRACT. By emphasizing active listening over the other microskills,

it is hypothesized that beginning counselors will feel more efficacious
and better able to hear clients, thus performing better in skill areas. In this
pilot study with five Master’s-level counselor trainees in their first coun-
seling practicum, an emphasis on active listening in instruction and indi-
vidual supervision resulted in increases in active listening and self-effi-
cacy ratings, as well as performance in three skill areas (reflection of
feelings, challenging, and immediacy). These results suggest the impor-
tance of attending to counselors’ strengths and reducing anxiety in the
first counseling experience. [Article copies available for a fee from The
Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address:
<getinfo@haworthpressinc.com> Website: <http://www.HaworthPress.com> © 2001
by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

KEYWORDS. Active listening, self-efficacy, counselor training

At the heart of counseling is listening, the experience of being heard and ac-
cepted that enables growth and change (Toller, 1999). An important aspect of
empathic understanding is basic communication skills, more so than the spe-

Dana Heller Levitt, PhD, NCC, is Assistant Professor of Counselor Education at

Ohio University. Address correspondence to: McCracken Hall, Ohio University, Ath-
ens, OH 45701-2979. The author wishes to acknowledge Dr. N. Kenneth LaFleur for
his contributions to this research study and manuscript.
The Clinical Supervisor, Vol. 20(2) 2001
 2001 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. 101
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cific words or counseling techniques used (Goldin & Doyle, 1991). The coun-
selor-client working alliance, the relationships of two human beings in the
room together, is the foundation upon which counseling is built (Meier & Da-
vis, 1997; Egan, 1998). Teaching beginning counselors how to listen and re-
spond effectively within this context has been of great interest in the counseling
profession.
Students come to graduate school and practicum skilled in academic work
and with virtually no skills in counseling (Neufeldt, Iversen, & Juntunen, 1995).
From a developmental perspective, beginning counselors are most concerned
with performing specific skills and conducting counseling correctly (Leach,
Stoltenberg, Eichenfield, & McNeill, 1997). Ironically, anxious attention to
skills and performance creates less attention to the client, thus trainees become
less effective listeners and counselors (Neufeldt et al., 1995).

ACTIVE LISTENING

One of the microskills taught to counselors is active listening. The microskills

model of training provides the opportunity to practice listening attentively and
responding empathically (Goldin & Doyle, 1991). Active listening is often lost
because of concerns about performing other skills. Egan (1998) suggests that
active listening involves four components: listening and responding to verbal
messages, observing nonverbal behavior, listening to the context of clients’
concerns, and listening to content that may eventually need to be challenged.
Meier and Davis (1997) outline the process of active listening as the founda-
tion for counseling. They suggest that counselors exhibit trust by inviting cli-
ents to participate, explain the counselor’s role, guide and pace (versus lead)
the process, and emphasize clients’ needs to be heard and understood (Meier &
Davis, 1997). Because listening in these ways is essential to performing basic
counseling microskills (reflecting feelings and content, immediacy, confronta-
tion), counselors not listening actively are not likely to feel effective in other areas.
Microskills training is perhaps one of the most effective and widely used
forms of teaching basic counseling to graduate students (Baker, Daniels, &
Greeley, 1990; Freeman & McHenry, 1996). This approach emphasizes the
use of specific skills with adherence to Rogers’ (1980) facilitative conditions
of empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard. Originated by
Ivey and Ivey (1999), this approach is intended to train students in four skill ar-
eas: basic attending and self-expression skills (eye contact, verbal following,
and non-verbal skills); microtraining skills (attending, such as questions, para-
phrasing, feeling reflections, and summarizing; and influencing, including the
expression of content and feelings and interpretation of client statements); fo-
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cus dimensions; and qualitative dimensions of Rogers’ core conditions of

counseling (Baker et al., 1990). Instruction, supervised practice, and immedi-
ate and concrete feedback are integrated to develop the skills of beginning
counselors after systematically teaching each skill. Counselors taught in the
microskills approach in an early study had significant increases over time in
client ratings of counselor effectiveness and counselor ratings of their own
self-efficacy (Baker et al., 1990).

SELF-EFFICACY

Self-efficacy involves the belief that one has the ability to perform the be-
haviors required to produce particular outcomes as well as expectations that
given behaviors will in fact lead to particular outcomes (Bandura, 1986).
Self-efficacy also requires knowledge and skills to perform tasks. Although
counselors are taught knowledge and skill bases, they nevertheless experience
anxiety and low self-efficacy as a result of concerns over performance, evalua-
tion anxiety, correctly conducting counseling, and lack of understanding of the
complexities of counseling (Leach et al., 1997). In fact, self-efficacy is less
concerned with actual skills than with what people believe they can do with the
skills they possess (Bandura, 1986). As self-efficacy beliefs are the primary
determinant of counseling action, a counselor with lower efficacy perception
will likely not be as effective (Larson & Daniels, 1998).
A contributing factor to counselor self-efficacy is that students have likely
only seen ideal examples of counseling and may hold perfectionist ideas about
their own abilities (Yager & Beck, 1985). It has been suggested that self-effi-
cacy for counselor trainees reflects that of their supervisors (Steward, 1998).
As a result of these factors counselors may focus more on their own discomfort
than on helping clients, having less energy to listen and understand. Although
the relationship between self-efficacy and level of training is unclear, it has
been noted that it is stronger for counselors with some experience than those
without any (Larson & Daniels, 1998).
Evaluation anxiety becomes a source of low self-efficacy and resistance to
sharing feelings about counseling with supervisors (Yerushalmi, 1992). This
self-defense enables beginning counselors to conceal what they fear about
their skills and performance (Williams, Judge, Hill, & Hoffman, 1997). Coun-
selor developmental level has been found to relate to self-efficacy, influencing
the extent to which defensive measures are employed (Larson & Daniels,
1998). Beginning counselors often do not see the connection between clients
feeling positive about counseling and their own self-confidence in this helper
role (Melchert et al., 1996).
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The purpose of this pilot study was to examine the relationship between
counselor self-efficacy and training emphasis for beginning counselors. It is
suggested that greater emphasis on active listening will decrease performance
anxiety and increase self-efficacy. If counselors are able to truly listen to cli-
ents after developing a solid foundation in the other microskills, they may be
more effective in actively listening and allow the other skills to flow more nat-
urally. Beginning counselors may be more likely to believe that counseling is
useful to clients and that they have the capacity to be effective. As clients come
to counseling needing to be heard and helped, counselors’ beliefs in their abili-
ties will make them more effective in helping clients get what they need. The
specific aim of the study was to support the hypothesis that emphasis on active
listening will produce significant increases in beginning counselors’ self-effi-
cacy and performance in three skill areas: reflection of feeling, challenging,
and immediacy.

METHOD

Participants

Five first-year Master’s students in a Council for the Accreditation of Coun-

seling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) accredited counselor ed-
ucation program at a mid-Atlantic state university participated in the study.
They were enrolled in a section of a counseling laboratory practicum in which
they were taught counseling skills and counseled two clients for five weeks
each. Students taking this course had satisfactorily completed one semester of
introductory-level graduate courses in the counselor education program. Six
students were enrolled in the course and were asked for their participation. One
student declined, resulting in five participants. All participants were female,
ages 26-44 years (M = 33.4). The participants identified themselves as Cauca-
sian (n = 3), Asian American (n = 1), and African American (n = 1).

Counseling Laboratory Practicum

The counseling laboratory practicum, taught by an advanced doctoral stu-

dent, met weekly for 4 1 2 hours throughout the semester. Students were taught
the elements of counseling and given the opportunity to practice with peers
during the first three weeks of the course. Counselors then met with students
from an undergraduate education course who volunteered for brief counseling
as part of a class project, at which point data were collected regarding active
listening and self-efficacy. Each student in the practicum saw two clients, one
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at a time. Peers observed counseling though a two-way mirror. In addition to

peer feedback and group process that took place during class time, each student
also met weekly for approximately one hour for individual supervision with the
course instructor. All counseling sessions were audio taped and periodically vid-
eotaped with clients’ consent. Course time was divided to allow for counseling
sessions, peer feedback, group feedback, and topical discussions. Students gave
individual case presentations, showing a portion of a counseling session in
group supervision during the last five weeks, which gave them practice in case
presentation and conceptualization in addition to focused and in-depth peer
feedback.
Teaching Emphasis
The microskills training model is often used to teach the counseling labora-
tory practicum at this institution. For this study, this model was used with an em-
phasis first placed and remaining on active listening and relationship building
with clients. The microskills were taught during the first three weeks and revis-
ited during the course, but in the context of listening and developing relation-
ships with clients. Students familiarized themselves with listening and responding
to peers in practice counseling sessions during the first three weeks of the course.
When students began seeing clients, individual and group supervision fo-
cused on counselors’ abilities to listen empathically to clients. Students were en-
couraged that skills would develop and be used more naturally when they were
truly listening to clients. They were taught that a foundational understanding of
the skills would provide them with ways to respond to what they were hearing
rather than focusing on how to use each skill. The importance of listening was
reiterated by emphasizing that counseling skills are not effective when a coun-
selor has not heard the client. Weekly teaching components included how to be
present with clients, the impact of counselor values on listening, and means of
communicating understanding to clients. Topical issues such as ethics and cul-
tural considerations were addressed with focus on the impact on the counseling
relationship and listening abilities. Individual supervision emphasized the im-
portance of listening to clients over techniques and capitalized on active listen-
ing skills students had prior to counselor training. As Juhnke (1996) suggests, it
was important to address students’ competence, strengths, and possibilities as
well as areas in need of improvement.

Active Listening Measures

Students evaluated themselves weekly on counseling performance in each

of the microskills. Students completed a weekly self-assessment of progress
(see Appendix A) and rated performance in each skill area on a four-point
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scale (1 = inadequate, 2 = improving, 3 = average, 4 = proficient). Weekly rat-

ings of active listening performance were examined for the semester. Steward
(1998) suggested that there is a connection between counselor and supervisor
self-efficacy, and it is therefore important to include perceptions from both.
Larson and Daniels (1998) similarly stated that counselors might mediate their
supervision experience so that self-efficacy relates positively to the environ-
ment and less directly to supervisor appraisal. Therefore, in addition to their
own assessments, similar weekly ratings completed by the course instruc-
tor/supervisor were also examined for the semester (see Appendix B).

Self-Efficacy Measures

A short questionnaire was developed for students to assess self-efficacy on

a weekly basis. The questions asked students are included in Appendix C. The
questions were based on the definition of self-efficacy as it applies to coun-
selor development and performance. Responses to questions were based on a
four-point Likert-type scale consistent with that used for active listening mea-
sures. The weekly questionnaires were studied for the semester to determine
changes in self-efficacy over time. Both the active listening and self-efficacy
measures were developed through a review of the literature regarding charac-
teristics of effective counseling skills and counselor self-efficacy. Because this
was a pilot study, reliability and validity data were not compiled for the early
forms of these instruments.

PROCEDURE

Measures of perceived active listening (counselor and supervisor) and

self-efficacy were collected. Because the researcher was interested in changes
in skill performance as a function of active listening and self-efficacy, three
commonly used and difficult microskills were selected for investigation: re-
flection of feelings, challenging, and immediacy. Ratings were gathered from
counselor and instructor/supervisor on the weekly progress evaluations de-
scribed earlier. Repeated measures of all variables were collected for each par-
ticipant throughout the semester.

RESULTS

Figure 1 provides an illustration of the results for each measure. Although

highly variable, active listening showed increases when rated by the supervi-
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sor (2.0–3.375). Ratings increased most significantly at the third and eighth
sessions. The lowest rating occurred at the sixth session (M = 2.25) and in-
creased again thereafter. A similar increase was found when students rated
themselves in active listing, ranging from 2.0 to 2.88, which also represents the
scores for the first and tenth sessions respectively. Ratings increased to 2.75 at
the third session and maintained a relatively stable rate until the final session.
Participants showed an increase in mean ratings of self-efficacy over the
course of the semester (range = 1.5–2.5) with increases noted at the fourth (M =
1.8) and eighth (M = 2.5) sessions. Students maintained this highest rating of
2.5 from the eighth through the final session.
FIGURE 1. Repeated Measures of Active Listening, Self-Efficacy, Reflection
of Feelings, Challenging, and Immediacy

Key: AL = Active Listening, SE = Self Efficacy, RF = Reflection of Feeling, CH =

Challenging, IM = Immediacy, S = Supervisor Rating, C = Counselor Self-Rating

Estimated Marginal Means of MEASURE_1 Estimated Marginal Means of MEASURE_1

3.6 3.0

3.4
2.8
Estimated Marginal Means
Estimated Marginal Means

3.2
3.0 2.6

2.8
2.4
2.6
2.4 2.2

2.2
2.0
2.0
1.8 1.8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 8 9 10
3 4 5 6 7
ALS ALC

Estimated Marginal Means of MEASURE_1

2.6

2.5
Estimated Marginal Means

2.4

2.3

2.2

2.1
2.0

1.9
1.8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

SE
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FIGURE 1 (continued)

Estimated Marginal Means of MEASURE_1 Estimated Marginal Means of MEASURE_1

2.6 2.3
2.4
2.2
2.2
Estimated Marginal Means

Estimated Marginal Means

2.1
2.0

1.8 2.0

1.6
1.9
1.4
1.8
1.2
1.0 1.7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
7
RFS RFC

Estimated Marginal Means of MEASURE_1

Estimated Marginal Means of MEASURE_1
3.0
2.6
2.4
2.5
Estimated Marginal Means

2.2
Estimated Marginal Means

2.0
2.0
1.8

1.5 1.6
1.4
1.0 1.2
1.0
.5 .8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

CHS CHC

Estimated Marginal Means of MEASURE_1

Estimated Marginal Means of MEASURE_1 2.6
3.0
2.4

2.2
Estimated Marginal Means

2.5
Estimated Marginal Means

2.0

1.8
2.0
1.6

1.5 1.4

1.2
1.0 1.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

IMS IMC

Performance in other skill areas likewise showed increases. Supervisor rat-

ings of reflection of feeling increased from 1.25 to 2.5 from the first to tenth
sessions. There was one decrease at the fourth session (M = 1.88), which re-
mained steady for three sessions before increasing to 2.25 at session eight.
Counselor ratings of reflection of feeling likewise increased although at a less
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variable rate (range = 1.75–2.25). The rate of increase was not as steady, with
consistent increases shown only from the fourth to fifth (2.0, 2.13) and seventh
through ninth sessions (1.75, 2.21, 2.25). Challenging also showed increases
in supervisor ratings, ranging from 1.0 to 2.83. Ratings were lowest at the sec-
ond (M = 1.0) and fifth (M = 1.33) sessions, and otherwise remained above a
rating of 1.83. Counselor self-ratings on challenging ranged from 1.0 to 2.38
and increased steadily with the exception of a decrease at session six (M = 1.5).
Supervisor ratings of immediacy were significantly more variable than other
skill areas, ranging from 1.0 to 4.0. Ratings increased sharply at session eight
(M = 3.5) after remaining at a mean of 1.0 for the previous six sessions. Coun-
selor self-ratings of immediacy were less variable (range = 1.25–2.5), although
showing a predominantly upward slope. The greatest increase was seen from
the sixth (M = 1.38) to eighth (M = 2.5) sessions, at which point ratings
plateaued for the remaining three sessions.

DISCUSSION

The results of this pilot study suggest that emphasizing active listening over
other microskills in beginning counselor training may be one contributing fac-
tor to increases in self-efficacy and performance in other skill areas. Subjects
showed increases in their active listening abilities alongside these self-efficacy
and skill area improvements. Of note is the consistent decrease in skill perfor-
mance and self-efficacy ratings at the sixth session. As the sixth session was
the beginning of counselors’ work with their second clients, it is hypothesized
that the first session with a new client presents challenges for counselors. This
is an important observation, particularly because counselors’ ratings quickly
returned to, and often surpassed, the level reached with the first client. This
suggests that counselors grasp the ability to listen to clients, which impacts
overall counseling performance, despite setbacks when faced with a new client.
Where it is known that students enter practicum with a great deal of aca-
demic ability as well as anxiety, it is important to work with their strengths.
Most counselor education students have some ability to listen, yet get caught
up with other requirements of their programs. By attending to and modeling
active listening, counselors may begin to see and believe in their effectiveness
and provide more effective services to the clients they see.

Limitations

The small sample size (N = 5) and all-female sample for this pilot study
does not provide results that are readily applicable to all populations of coun-
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selors in training. It is, however, a beginning point to the development of best

practices to training effective and competent counselors. The multiple roles
played by the researcher (investigator, rater, instructor, and supervisor) cre-
ated a bias in conducting the laboratory practicum and individual supervision.
Conversely, the researcher’s familiarity may have ensured that the emphasis
on active listening was present during the study, although the risks of bias may
outweigh such benefits.
Because it is known that many factors contribute to self-efficacy, it cannot
be determined to what extent this training approach is responsible for in-
creases. It is expected that time and experience contribute to counselors’ com-
fort and role understanding, yet it is unknown how much active listening
played a part in these results. The controlled environment, relatively well-ad-
justed nature of the clients, live observation, and weekly supervision may have
added to increases on the variables measured. It is uncertain whether these
conditions are replicable in another setting or if results may have varied with a
more heterogeneous sample, particularly because the participants were rela-
tively consistent with regard to skill level.

Suggestions for Further Research

The successful practices currently employed by counselor educators cannot

be ignored, yet the profession has an obligation to add to them to meet the
changing needs of counselors entering the field. A larger, more diverse popu-
lation is needed to determine the extent to which active listening influences
self-efficacy and skill performance. Research is needed regarding the effects
of active listening, as well as other factors contributing to self-efficacy. As pre-
viously discussed, it cannot be determined to what extent this training ap-
proach is responsible for increases in self-efficacy; analysis of various factors
is needed to ascertain its role. Additional studies investigating changes in skill
performance and self-efficacy when beginning counseling with a new client
are warranted to determine the resilience of prior training.
This study incorporated both the individual and peer group supervision
components of the practicum course. It is questionable how the results may
differ given the absence of one or the other. It is likely that individual supervi-
sion enhanced performance by its focus on each trainee’s particular needs. In
isolation from peer group supervision, or even group supervision facilitated by
someone other than the individual supervisor, different aspects of self-efficacy
and training approaches may be understood.
Investigation of existing self-efficacy measures is needed alongside stan-
dardization in the rating of individual counseling skill areas. Few studies em-
ploy empirically validated ratings for counselor skill performance, making it
 Dana Heller Levitt 111
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difficult to ascertain the validity of the ratings used in this study. Self-efficacy
measures must also be developed and tested for psychometric properties. It is
important that anxiety be reduced wherever possible to increase counselor ef-
fectiveness, and a focus on strengths and successes through listening may be
an effective means of doing so.

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Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive the-
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Egan, G. (1998). The skilled helper: A problem-management approach to helping (6th
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Freeman, B., & McHenry, S. (1996). Clinical supervision of counselors-in-training: A
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Goldin, E., & Doyle, R. E. (1991). Counselor predicate usage and communication pro-
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Williams, E. N., Judge, A. B., Hill, C. E., & Hoffman, M A. (1997). Experiences of
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APPENDIX A
Weekly Self-Assessment of Progress
Date_________________ Counselor________________________
Client________________ Session #________________________
After reviewing your session transcript and audio/video tape, use the
following scale to rate your competence in this session:
1–inadequate 2–improving 3–satisfactory 4–proficient

_____1. Attending: Demonstrated interest, focused on the client, en-

couraged the client to speak through the use of verbal and non-
verbal encouragers.

_____ 2. Active Listening: Demonstrated the ability to follow the client

with understanding in all aspects of communication.

_____ 3. Reflecting Feeling: Demonstrated and communicated em-

pathy by reflecting client emotions, explicit and implicit.

_____ 4. Reflecting Content: Demonstrated active listening via clarifi-

cation, paraphrasing, and summarization.

_____5. Challenging/Confronting: Identified client discrepancies and

inconsistencies and was able to probe further or confront when
necessary.

_____ 6. Probing/Questioning: Demonstrated the use of purposeful,

open, and/or closed questions to keep session on track and to
encourage further communication and understanding of the cli-
ent’s world.
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_____ 7. Non-Verbals: Exhibited appropriate, effective use of body

language, vocal tone, facial expressions, and eye contact to
convey warmth, positive regard, and acceptance. Aware of cli-
ent non-verbals.

_____ 8. Opening: Opened the session smoothly and effectively.

_____ 9. Closing: Closed the session smoothly and set direction for
the next session.

_____ 10. Immediacy: Used “I-you” statements and process-related

questions to bring the present tense into the counseling session,
when appropriate.

_____ 11. Use of Silence: Allowed appropriate silences and demon-

strated the ability to tolerate silence during the session.
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APPENDIX B
Weekly Progress Report (To be completed by supervisor)
1–inadequate 2–improving 3–satisfactory 4–proficient
Counseling Skills
_____ Attending
_____ Active Listening
_____ Reflecting Feeling
_____ Reflecting Content
_____ Challenging/Confronting
_____ Questioning
_____ Non-Verbals
_____ Opening
_____ Closing
_____ Immediacy
_____ Silence
Areas in need of further attention:
Areas of improvement since last week:
Areas of continued demonstrated proficiency:
Supervision
_____ Professionalism
_____ Preparedness for supervision session
_____ Openness to feedback
General comments:
 Dana Heller Levitt 115
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APPENDIX C
Self-Assessment of Self-Efficacy
Date______________ Counselor____________________
Client_____________ Session #_____________________
After reviewing your session transcript and audio/video tape, use the
following scale to rate the following statements as they apply to you:
1–inadequate 2–improving 3–average 4–proficient

_____1. I am able to effectively develop therapeutic relationships with

clients.
_____2. I am able to effectively facilitate client self-exploration.
_____3. I am able to accurately identify client affect.
_____4. I am able to effectively facilitate goal development with clients.
_____5. I am able to conceptualize cases.
_____6. I am able to keep my personal issues from affecting my coun-
seling.