Hartley 1

Tess Hartley

Denise Frame Harlan

COR109D The Great Conversation

31 March 2019

Cover Letter

My research topic was examining the effects of Two-Way Immersion language programs
(TWIs) in America and how they are used and implemented. I also explored how TWIs measure
up against other language learning styles. This narrowed topic took quite a bit of refining before
it reached this final form. My initial desire for this essay was to discuss how the deemphasis on
the importance of learning a second language in America leads to a lack of global understanding
and cultural empathy. I quickly realized by combing through research and the in-class workshop
with Erica Street that this topic was too vague and ideas such as “global understanding” and
“cultural empathy” are difficult to measure. After recognizing this, I set aside my initial research
question and started looking for what was standing out in research about second language
education in America. This time around, I began seeing (in several journals) information about
TWI programs. An elementary school in my district back home had one of these programs but I
hadn’t given it much thought. I began reading about these programs and their benefits and found
myself wondering why politicians and communities were not paying attention to this structure of
learning. This thought is where my new research topic was formed. I wanted to look at the
current successes and recent failures in the implementation of TWI programs across America. I
also wanted to find policies that standardized the implementation of them, but I could find none.
It became clear that these programs are gaining popularity but lack the support to create them.
After spending a lot of time to reach this conclusion and fully settle into a much stronger
research topic, I presented my ideas to the class. Unfortunately, I did not find the presentations
very useful. The questions I received from my peers did not help me narrow or edit my topic
which was a little frustrating since I felt I needed more assistance than I received. Nevertheless, I
pushed on into drafting and found a lot of help in my peer editing group. I could talk through my
topic and my outline and receive helpful feedback. The process of writing this essay was very
drawn out, which made it difficult to stay motivated. If I could have written it in half the time
(class schedule allowing) that would have been better for how I work. Despite that, I learned a
lot about TWI programs and their benefits. One of the benefits I found actually did talk about
cultural ignorance and global understanding, so my initial topic was not entirely lost in the
process of refining my thesis. I believe the advantages of TWI programs should be recognized
and policies should be created to implement these programs throughout American schools.
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Tess Hartley

Denise Frame Harlan

COR109D The Great Conversation

31 March 2019

Two-Way Immersion Language Programs in the United States

Principal Montes of Cal Elementary knew the only way to continue bilingual education in

her school after the state of California passed the English Language in Public Schools Statute in

1998 was to implement a Two-Way Immersion (TWI) language program. Cal Elementary, a

school situated not far from the Mexican-California border, had a large population of Spanish-

speaking students whose identity and culture was strongly rooted in the Spanish language. The

statute, otherwise known as Proposition 227, changed how these “Limited English Proficiency”

(LEP), or “English Language Learner” (ELL) students received instruction in California. Before

Proposition 227, children may have had the opportunity to receive education in Spanish as well

as English, but the implemented statute required California school districts to place ELLs in

special classes with English instruction. These classes were often taught for only one year and all

lessons were taught in English. This kind of education cut out a bilingual student’s native

language (an important part of their identity) entirely.

The passage of a statue like Proposition 227 “also implies that the majority English-

speaking population knows what is ‘best’ for language minorities in terms of educational

experiences” (Kim 240). Policies like this reflect the anti-immigration sentiments that are so

strong in border regions and can be harmful to a bilingual, bicultural child. Studies at the Center

for Research and Education of Students Placed at Risk at Johns Hopkins University in 2003
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concluded that “ELLs who receive formal schooling in their native language academically

outperform, in English, ELLs who receive instruction only in English” (Garza 22). Students

understand content because it is taught in the language with which they are most comfortable

alongside English. Additionally, they benefit from a range of other cognitive advantages due to

their bilingualism. Two-Way Immersion programs apply the assets ELLs receive from

instruction in both languages to educate native English speakers as well. TWIs provide the

chance for native English speakers to become bilingual, a skill that is increasingly desired in a

globalized world. As more research is being done to prove the effectiveness and refine the

process of creating these programs, policies will have to be developed to standardize TWI

program implementation. These policies should combat the anti-immigration sentiments that are

stealing cultural identity from ELLs in American schools and enforcing an English-only ideology

that is damaging to a growing and changing America.

In order to understand the effectiveness and application of TWI programs, it is important

to recognize other language learning styles that are commonly used. There are four pedagogies

that will be discussed here. Submersion, also referred to as the “sink or swim” method places

ELLs in classrooms where they are taught only in English and expected to pick up the language

by complete “immersion”. Many of these students, however, do not speak English at home,

therefore they are not completely immersed, which delays their path to fluency. ESL instruction,

devotes special instruction time, entirely in English, to ELLs, pulling them out of regular classes

to teach them which effectively separates them from their English-speaking peers. The final two

language learning styles that will be discussed here are similar in their approaches. Both early-

exit and late-exit programs allow instruction in a language other than English, but work to “phase

out” non-English class time. For early-exit programs, the non-English language is phased out
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sooner (after one or two years) than the late-exit program (Kim 237-239). It should be noted that

all of these pedagogies focus on only the non-English speakers rather than all of the students

enrolled in a school. This is where TWI programs differ from other language learning styles.

In Two-Way Immersion programs non-native English and native English speakers are

combined in one classroom that teaches all students using both languages in their instruction.

This allows every student the opportunity to become bilingual. Commonly, language instruction

is split up by subject or just by class time, but the implementation of these programs differs from

district to district. Many models use either the 50:50 or 90:10 ratio approach (meaning either the

language instruction is divided evenly or the non-English language is taught a majority of the

time in the early elementary years before switching to a 50:50 model). TWI programs are also

most commonly used in elementary schools, when a student’s ability to acquire a language is

easiest. By starting students in bilingual education when they are young, the benefits of

bilingualism are more likely to affect a student when they are older. Both the cognitive and

cultural benefits of bilingualism will be discussed later in this paper. Some districts, like one in

Arlington, Virginia, have expanded their elementary programs to include middle school and even

preliminary high school programs to ensure language skills improve to the point of complete

fluency for both ELLs and native English students. This provides a cohesive learning experience

for each student’s education in the district.

Bilingual children who learn in TWI programs receive cognitive gains, additional

communication skills, improvements in test scores, and relationships with other students that

would otherwise be unlikely. Raluca Barac and Ellen Bialystok of York University completed a

study of 104 elementary-aged children in 2012 to study the effects of bilingualism and if being

proficient in another language made a difference in their performance in both verbal and non-
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verbal tasks. The students were divided into four groups for the research: English monolinguals,

Chinese-English bilinguals, French-English bilinguals, and Spanish-English bilinguals. Before

experimentation began, data was collected on each students’ home use of the language,

socioeconomic status, and schooling history. This data was gathered to discover if other factors,

not simply the ability to speak two languages, affected a student’s results. The research

concluded that linguistic performance “varied with educational experience and similarity

between the two languages” that a student spoke (Bara, Bialystok 420). Spanish speaking

students linguistically outperformed the two other bilingual groups in the study due to the fact

that Spanish and English are similar languages. However, the performance of the students in

non-verbal tasks1 “endorse the conclusion that bilingualism itself is responsible for the increased

levels of executive control”2 (Barac, Bialystok 420). All three groups of bilingual children were

able to outperform their monolingual peers in executive function, concluding that bilingualism

provides increased cognitive ability on non-linguistic related tasks.

But that is not the only advantage to bilingualism. US citizens make up “less than 5% of

the world’s population” (US Census Bureau) and English is not the most commonly spoken

language in the world, in fact, it’s the third. As American political support for language

acquisition declines and statutes like Proposition 227 are passed, citizens are losing the

opportunity to be educated on and understand other world cultures. This is resulting in a loss of

cultural competency in general. In other words, the worldwide stereotype of the “Ugly

American”3, one who is ignorant and unable to think critically or treat other cultures and
1
Tests such as the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test, 2nd edition (which was used to measure fluid reasoning in this
study) and the Color-shape task switching test (which was used to measure executive function) were administered to
the students (Barac, Bialystok 417).
2
Executive control is the brain’s ability to “plan, focus attention, remember instructions, and juggle multiple tasks
successfully”, all important cognitive skills that children are not necessarily born with, but require opportunities to
develop (“Executive Functions and Self-Regulation”).
3
A term taken from William Lederer and Eugene Burdick’s 1958 political novel, The Ugly American which details
fictional, but probable, U.S. diplomatic failures in Southeast Asia (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
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languages with respect, is becoming more true every day. This image can be counteracted

however, with both philosophical and linguistic education. Ela Molina-Sevilla de Morelock and

Theresa Golightly Dickman at University of the Cumberlands in Kentucky created a hypothesis

based on the “Ugly American” conclusions which states “Second Language Learning (SLL), and

Hispanic or Ethnic Studies, helps students to develop an understanding of and tolerance of

different ways and worldviews” (de Morelock 209). Educating children from different linguistic

backgrounds with both languages gives native English speakers the potential to become

understanding and tolerant of languages and cultures that differ from their own. TWI programs

are the ideal platform to not only teach a second language to native English speakers, but also to

develop relationships and cultural understanding between students from different linguistic and

cultural backgrounds. The ability to bridge cultural divides is becoming more necessary in an

increasingly diverse America.

But the benefits of TWI programs reaches beyond the border of America as well. Despite

the fact that a majority of Americans are still only monolingual, it is becoming vitally important

to know multiple languages “in order to compete in an international and globalized market,

especially when competing with other countries’ citizens who are already speaking two or more

languages” (de Morelock 206), leaving monolingual Americans at a huge disadvantage. If

policies were created and bilingual education was more supported in America, citizens would

start learning languages early on when it is cognitively easier. By the time students reach a

working age, they would be able to communicate in multiple languages. TWIs allow for this to

be a reality, but they must receive political support in order to be implemented effectively.

In fact, this is one of the biggest arguments against TWI programs. Since they were first

introduced in America in the 1960s, dual language educational programs have taken many
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different forms with different implementation strategies. TWI programs do not yet have

standardized procedures for the implementation and upkeep of these programs, which makes it

difficult for school districts to know how to effectively introduce them. These programs also

require more qualified (bilingual) teachers. But TWI programs are studied more and more every

year and as research is conducted, effective implementation strategies will be refined. When

politicians and communities recognize the benefits of bilingualism and how TWI programs result

in bilingualism for all, policies can be implemented to support these programs and reverse the

enforced English-only ideology that is present in so many schools. Bilingual teachers will be

available to educate future generations due to successful implementation of TWI programs.

While it would be difficult for America to make a move to support and fund TWI programs,

community and political support could make it possible.

TWI language programs in America provide an opportunity for ELL students to become

fluent in English while maintaining their fluency and cultural identity in their native language.

They also provide native English speakers the ability to gain valuable language skills that will be

an asset to them in the future. Cognitively, all bilingual students benefit from an increase in

executive control. With TWI programs, the potential exists for Americans to increase their global

awareness and cultural competency. Learning in a bilingual environment gives students the

opportunity to learn about cultural sensitivity that will allow them to be competitive in a global

market later in life. TWI programs accomplish this more than other language pedagogies due to

the integrated nature of instruction that allows for relationships to develop between students from

different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. No student is separated from the rest of their class

to be taught English in an ineffective way. Education in TWI programs is inclusive, effective,

and beneficial for all students. More research is being done to prove the effectiveness and refine
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the process of implementing TWI programs. As this research advances and more benefits of

early language education are discovered, policies will have to be implemented to aid the

standardized implementation of TWI language programs.

Works Cited
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Barac, Raluca, and Ellen Bialystok. “Bilingual Effects on Cognitive and Linguistic

Development: Role of Language, Cultural Background, and Education.” Child

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Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “The Ugly American.” Encyclopaedia Britannica,

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 13 Dec. 2015, www.britannica.com/topic/The-Ugly-

American.

“California Proposition 227, the ‘English in Public Schools’ Initiative (1998).” Ballotpedia,

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%22_Initiative_(1998).

Christian, Donna, et al. “Bilingualism for All: Two-Way Immersion Education in the United

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no. 5, July 2010, pp. 205–218. EBSCOhost, doi:10.18848/1833-1882/CGP/v05i05/51719.

“Executive Function & Self-Regulation.” Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University,

developingchild.harvard.edu/science/key-concepts/executive-function/.

Garza, Elizabeth. “In the Shadow of the Mexican Border.” Radical Teacher, no. 75, Spring 2006,

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Kim, Yoon Kyong, et al. “Bilingual Education in the United States: An Historical Overview and

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