Module No.

5
Pascal’s Principle
Fluid Mechanics
SCI 103

This course deals with the science of fluids (liquids and gases). It discusses aerodynamics,
the study of air and gases in motion; and hydrodynamics – the study of liquids in motion. It also
explains the fundamental concepts and principles relating to speed, pressure and forces particularly
Bernoulli, Pascal and Archimedes’. It allows students to gain knowledge of how this topic is
applied to daily activities and solve practical problems.

Total Learning Time: 3 hours per week

As the name implies, a fluid is a substance that flows readily. Gases and liquids are fluids.
Its ability to flow enables a fluid to exert an upward force on an immersed object such as a ship, to
multiply a force in a hydraulic “lift” to an airplane wing.

In the following lessons, common observations on bodily processes such as related to blood
circulation, the functions of aorta and capillaries will be given attention. The distribution of water
the source Metro Roxas Water District (MRWD) to each consumer’s pipes is made possible. We
will find out also that there is nothing mysterious about these properties of fluid, properties that
follow from laws of physics that we already know.

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. trace the historical development of hydrodynamics

2. describe the characteristics of fluid flow
3. differentiate laminar from turbulent flow
4. explain continuity equation
5. discuss the works of Jean Louis Poiseuille
6. state and explain Poiseuille’s law
7. apply equations to solve related problems accurately

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 1. Nature of Hydrodynamics
2. Historical Dvelopment of Hydrodynamics
3. Fluid Flow
4. Characteristics of Fluid Flow
5. Continuity Equation
6. Jean Louis Poiseuille
7. Poiseuille’s Law

Nature of Matter

Nature of Hydrodynamics

Motion of fluids play a very important roles in our lives. Drinking water is distributed to
the different consumers by allowing it to flow from the main reservoir through big and small pipes.
Sewage is carried off by flowing water through underground pipes. Steam that flows through pipes
provides the heat needed in the different manufacturing processes in many industries. Blood
flowing through our blood vessels carries oxygen and nutrients needed in the different systems of
our bodies.
The study of fluids in motion is very complex and broad in scope.

History of Hydrodynamics

In the 18th and 19th centuries there was a clear distinction between hydrodynamics and
hydraulics, and the fields evolved independently. Hydrodynamics was the application of advanced
mathematics to idealized flows rarely encountered by engineers, who used empirical formulas to
make progress with practical hydraulics problems. Only in the 20th century were the challenged of
real flows properly dealt with by physically based theories, and those developments, too, are well
described by Darrigol. The early contributors to the tortuous development of the equations of
motion of inviscid fluids include the Swiss mathematicians Leonhard Euler, Johann Bernoulli, and
Johann’s son Daniel; and the Frenchmen Joseph Louis de Lagrange and Jean le Rond d’Alembert.
Although these names are now attach to their respective mathematical results, a great deal of
overlap and interaction exists between each formulation.

Characteristics of Fluid Flow

Three properties of pressure in fluid:

1. The forces on a fluid at rest exerts on the wall of its container, and vice versa, always act
perpendicular to the walls.
If this were so, any sideways force by a fluid on the wall could be accompanied, according
to the third law of motion, by a sideways of a force back on the fluid; which would cause the fluid
to move parallel to the wall. But the fluid is at rest, so the force must be perpendicular to the walls
of the container. A moving fluid is another matter. Frictional force act between a moving fluid and,
for instance, the walls of a pipe or the bank of a river. The difference between a body of liquid in
contact with a solid and two solids in contact is that the former case there is no static friction
between them.
2. The external pressure exerted on a fluid is transmitted uniformly throughout the volume of a
fluid.
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 If there were not so, the fluid would flow from a region of high pressure to one of low
pressure, which would equalize pressure. We must
keep in mind however, that this statement is also
the Pascal’s principle, which refers to a pressure
imposed from the outside of the fluid. The fluid at
the bottom of the container is always under more
pressure than that at the top owing the weight of
the overlaying fluid. A notable example is the
earth’s atmosphere, although such pressure
differences are ordinarily significant only for
liquids.
3. The pressure on the small surface in a fluid is
the same regardless of the orientation of the
surface.
If this were not so, again, the fluid would flow in such a way as to equalize the pressure.
Based on the figure, at a given depth, the force exerted by the pressure in a fluid is the same
in all directions.

Fluids Flow

Fluids in motion often behave in a complex and unpredictable ways. However, we can
understand many aspects of fluid flow on the basis of a simple model that in many cases is
reasonably realistic. The liquids in this model are supposed to be incompressible and to have no
viscosity. With no viscosity, layers of fluid slide freely past one another and past other surfaces, so
that we can apply the model to such liquids as water but not to such liquids as honey.

There are two types of fluid flow: streamline or

laminar flow and turbulent flow. If the flow of fluid is
smooth and the path taken by each particle does not
cross over one another, the flow is said to be laminar.
Every particle of liquid passing a particular point
follows the same path as the particles that passed that
point before. Furthermore. The direction in which the
individual fluid particles that passed that point before.
Examples are the water in a smoothly flowing river
and the gentle movement of the wind.
At the other extreme, turbulent flow is marked
by irregular motion of the fluid, examples of which are
flowing water that hits a rock with great force and the
wind on stormy days. Turbulence generally develops
at high speeds and when there are obstructions or
sharp bends in the path of the liquid. This also cause
abrupt changes in the velocity. Irregular motions of the fluid is called eddy currents.
Many features of fluid in motion can be understood by considering the behavior of an ideal
fluid, which satisfies the following conditions:
1. The fluid is nonviscous; that is there is no internal friction force between adjacent layers.
2. The fluid is incompressible, which means that its density is constant.
3. The fluid motion is steady, meaning that the velocity, density, and pressure at each point in the
fluid do not change in time.
4. The fluid moves without turbulence. This implies that each element of the fluid has zero angular
velocity about its center; that is, there can be no eddy currents present in the moving fluid. A small
wheel placed in the fluid would translate but not rotate.

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 In pipes the flow of fluid may be laminar or turbulent. It is laminar if the fluid flows
through a straight pipe of uniform diameter and the quantity of fluid that passes a certain point in
the pipe is constant. If however, the quantity of fluid passing a point in the pipe is not constant, nor
does it flow smoothly, then the flow is turbulent. Such a flow may be due to differences in the size
of the pipe, changes in the direction of flow, or a sudden change in the velocity.

The volume of liquid that

flows through a pipe per unit time
is easy to figure out. If the
average speed v, in each part of
the stream travels the distance vt
in the time interval t. the volume
of liquid that moves the distance
vt in the time t is vt multiplied by
the pipe’s cross-sectional area a,
or vtA. Therefore the rate of flow The rate of flow of liquid through a pipe is equal to the product
R of liquid through the pipe is of the cross – sectional area of the pipe and the speed of the
liquid.
𝑣𝑡𝐴
𝑅= = 𝑣𝐴 or Av
𝑡

The condition Av, = constant is equivalent to the fact that the amount of fluid that enters
one end of the tube in a given time interval equals the amount of fluid leaving the tube in the same
time interval, assuming that the fluid is incompressible and that there are no leaks.

If the size of the pipe

varies, the speed of the
liquid also varies as to keep
R constant, so that

𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 or
𝑣1 𝐴1 = 𝑣2 𝐴2

Hence, the liquid In laminar flow, liquid speed is inversely proportional to the cross
flows faster through a –sectional area of the pipe.
constriction in a pipe and
slower through a dilation. Streamlines drawn close together signify rapid motion, whereas
streamlines far apart signify slow motion. Everyone who has watered a lawn is familiar with this.
Partly closing the nozzle (obstructing the end of the hose with a
thumb means a smaller A and hence a s\faster stream of water.

Continuity Equation

The amount of fluid passing through a pipe may be

expresses in terms of a quantity called flow rate. It is expressed as
the mass m of a fluid that passes a given point in the pipe per unit
time t.
In mathematical terms, the flow rate is expressed as
𝑚
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = this can be also expressed as
𝑡
𝑚
= 𝐴𝑣
𝑡

Refer to the figure at the right.

Fluid flow in a pipe
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 Since no fluid flows into or out of the sides of the pipe the flow rate through points A 1 and
A2 must be equal. In symbols,

1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 2 𝐴2 𝑣2

This is the equation of continuity. If the fluid is incompressible (like most liquids), then P 1
= P2. The equation becomes

𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2

The equation says that if the flow velocity v is high, the cross sectional area A is small, and
vice versa (keeping flow rate constant).

The equation of continuity can also

be applied to fluid flowing through one pipe
which then splits into two or more pipes. An
example of this situation is the human blood
flowing from the heart through a single main
artery (aorta) and is distributed to the
capillaries. The total flow rate in all the
capillaries is equal to the flow rate in the
main artery. The flow velocity in the
capillaries is lower than it is in the main
artery because the total cross section of the
capillaries is greater than that of the main
artery.

The human heart

Example
The blood flows from the aorta of radius 1.0 cm to the millions of capillaries whose total
cross section is 0.07 m2. The average speed of the blood flowing in these capillaries is 9.0 x 10 -4
m/s. calculate the speed flowing through the aorta.
𝑚
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛: 𝑟 = 0.01 𝑚 𝐴2 = 0.07 𝑚2 𝑣2 = 9.0 𝑥 10 −4 𝑣1 = ?
𝑠

𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 𝐴1 = 4𝜋 2
𝐴2 𝑣2
𝑣1 =
𝐴1
(0.07 𝑚2 )( 9.0 𝑥 10 −4 𝑚/𝑠)
= = 0.20 𝑚/𝑠
(3.14) (0.01 𝑚2 )

Another approach in learning continuity equation is on the next page…….

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Continuity Equation

The continuity equation describes the transport of some quantities like fluid or gas. The
equation explains how a fluid conserves mass in its motion. Many physical phenomena like
energy, mass, momentum, natural quantities, and electric charge are conserved using the continuity
equations.
This equation provides very useful information about the flow of fluids and their behavior
during its flow in a pipe or hose. The hose, a flexible tube, whose diameter decreases along its
length has a direct consequence. The volume of water flowing through the hose must be equal to
the flow rate on the other end.
Continuity Equation is applied on tubes, pipes, rivers, ducts with flowing fluids or gases
and many more. Continuity equation can be expressed in an integral form and is applied in the
finite region or differential form which is applied at a point.

The Equation of Continuity and can be expressed as:

m=ρi1 vi1 Ai1+ρi2 vi2 Ai2+…..+ρin vin Aim
m=ρo1 vo1 Ao1+ρo2 vo2 Ao2+…..+ρon von Aom………..
Where,
m = Mass flow rate
ρ = Density
v = Speed
A = Area
With uniform density equation (1) it can be modified to:
q=vi1 Ai1+vi2 Ai2+….+vin Aim
q=vo1 Ao1+vo2 Ao2+….+von Aom………..
Where,
q = Flow rate
ρi1=ρi2..=ρin=ρo1=ρo2=….=ρom

Fluid Dynamics
The continuity equation in fluid dynamics describes that in any steady state process, the rate at
which mass leaves the system is equal to the rate at which mass enters a system.
The differential form of the continuity equation is:
∂ρ∂t+▽⋅(ρu)=0
Where,
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t = Time
ρ = Fluid density
u = flow velocity vector field.

Continuity Equation Example

Question: Calculate the velocity if 10 m3/h of water flows through a 100 mm inside diameter pipe.
If the pipe is reduced to 80 mm inside diameter.
Solution
Velocity of 100 mm pipe
Using the equation (2), to calculate the velocity of 100 mm pipe
(10 m3/h)(1/3600 h/s)=v100 (3.14(0.1 m) 2/4)
Or
v100=(10 m3/h)(1/3600 h/s)(3.14(0.1)2/4)
=0.35 m/s
Velocity of 80 mm pipe
Using the equation (2), to calculate the velocity of 80 mm pipe
(10 m3/h)(1/3600 h/s)=v80 (3.14(0.08 m)2/4)
Or
v80= (10 m3/h)(1/3600 h/s)(3.14(0.08 m)2/4)
=0.55 m/s

Jean Louis Poiseuille/ Jean Leonard Marie Poiseuille

In 1846, Jean Louis Poiseuille published a paper on

the experimental research of the motion of liquids in small
diameter tubes. Poiseuille was a physician who had been
trained in physics and mathematics. He was interested in the
forces that affected the flow of blood in the smaller blood
vessels of the body. He performed his experiments in
capillary-sized glass tubes with water--at the time, the non-
existence of anti-coagulants prevented the use of blood. Using
compressed air, Poiseuille forced water through the tubes and
measured the resulting flow. By varying the amount of
pressure applied and the diameter of the tube, Poiseuille
measured the effects on the amount of fluid flowing. As a
result of these experiments, he learned that the rate at which
fluid passes through the tube increases proportionately to the pressure applied as well as being
proportional to the fourth power of the diameter or the tube. However, this experimental result did
not give the constant of proportionality. A few years later, two scientists established the exact
relationship. Because of his initial pioneering work, this relationship is named Poiseuille's Law.

Poiseuille' Law
In fluid dynamics, the Hagen–Poiseuille equation, also known as the Hagen–Poiseuille law,
Poiseuille law or Poiseuille equation, is a physical law that gives the pressure drop in a fluid
flowing through a long cylindrical pipe. It can be successfully applied to air flow in lung alveoli,
for the flow through a drinking straw or through a hypodermic needle. It was experimentally
derived independently by Gotthilf Heinrich Ludwig Hagen in 1839 and Jean Léonard Marie
Poiseuille in 1838, and published by Poiseuille in 1840 and 1846.
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 The assumptions of the equation are that the fluid is incompressible and Newtonian; the
flow is laminar through a pipe of constant circular cross-section that is substantially longer than its
diameter; and there is no acceleration of fluid in the pipe. For velocities and pipe diameters above
a threshold, actual fluid flow is not laminar but turbulent, leading to larger pressure drops than
calculated by the Hagen–Poiseuille equation.

Poiseuille’s Law
It states that the flow (Q) of fluid is related to a number of factors: the viscosity (n) of the fluid,
the pressure gradient across the tubing (P), and the length (L) and diameter(r) of the tubing.

Solve for the following problems and show your process.

1. Atherosclerosis is a disease that is characterized by thickening of the artery wall. In this
condition, a deposit forms on the arterial wall, reducing the opening through which blood
flows. Suppose that because of this disease, the area of the clogged artery is 0.8 of the area
of a normal artery, find its speed at the clogged portion of the artery.
Let A2 and v2 be the area and velocity of the clogged part of the artery, respectively.
Note: A normal artery size is 4 mm with a velocity of 0.40 m/s

Part I. Problem Solving: Solve the following problems and show your process.

1. Water runs out of a 2.0 cm hole with a speed of 1.5 m/s. How many liters of water spill per
minute?

2. Water in an open tap, flows at a rate of 1.30 m/s. the diameter of the pipe is 2.0 cm. If you
partially cover the opening of the tap so that it has an effective diameter of 0.50 cm, at what
speed does water spray out of the tap?

.Part 2: Out – put Based

Make a crossword puzzle using the different terms learned in this module. 15 to 20 words will do.

A. Research on:

1. Poiseuille’s Law

2. Reynolds’ number

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 a. state and explain them
b. 1 sample problem and solution each
c. list down their applications
Note: Cite your reference/s

B. Visit this site to learn more on Continuity Equation

https://youtu.be/ycgJvnm24ks

a. Books

1. Navaza, D. Science and Technology: You and the Natural World Series; Physics Textbook 2 nd
Edition. Phoenix Publishing House
2. Santisteban, CJ. (2009) Breaking Through Physics; C and E Publishing Inc.
3. Giancoli, S. (2016). Physics Principles with Application. 7th Ed. Singapore.Pearson
Education
4. Serway, R and Vuille, C. (2013). College Physics 9th Ed, Lorong Chuan, Singapore.
CENGAGE Learning
5. Urone, Peter Paul. (2013). Physics with Health Science Applications. 7 th Philippine
Reprint Edition
6. Beiser, A. Modern Technical Physics. 6th Edition. Addison – Wesly Publishing House

b. Website

a. https://www.cfdsupport.com/openfoam-training.html
b. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/heart-matter-wbt/
c. https://byjus.com/physics/continuity-equation/

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