Review of Chapter 7 & 8 (part 1)

1
• Preprocessing for 3D printing
– Geometric modeling: design virtual part and define its
enclosed volume with CAD software.
– Tessellation of the geometric model: approximate the CAD
model with triangles or polygons for data transfer.
– Slicing of the model into layers: slice tessellated model into
closely spaced parallel horizontal layers for manufacturing.

Smooth CAD model Tessellation Layer-by-layering manufacturing

2
– C-slice processing
▪ Sort the triangles based on “z values” to establish the layers
▪ Find the boundary segment giving contiguous internal and
external pocket/shape contours
▪ Create boundary polylines
▪ Apply edge compensation
▪ Compare with adjacent layers to minimize stair-stepping on
chamfered sides
▪ Smooth boundaries
▪ Output boundary data to the machine
▪ Treat next cross section

3
• Channel modes of 3D printing
– A moving point or a moving spot
– A moving line consisting of a linear array of spots
– A layer mode using a mask projection system

Line mode

Point mode

Surface projection mode

4
• Popular technologies today
1. Stereolithography (SLA)
Liquid-based system
2. Multijet/polyjet modeling
3. Selective laser sintering (SLS) Powder-based system
4. Selective laser (Electron-beam) melting (SLM)
5. Three-dimensional printing
6. Fused-deposition modelling Molten material system
7. Ballistic-particle manufacturing
8. Laminated-object manufacturing Solid-sheet system

5
• Stereolithography (SLA)
– The working principle of SLA
o The process: a laser generating ultraviolet (UV) beam is
focused upon a selected surface area of the photopolymer
and then moved around in the x–y plane

6
– The working principle of SLA (cont.)
o Photocurable liquids solidify under the light (laser or UV
light)
– photocurable liquids were first developed for printing and
furniture lacquer / sealant
– photopolymerization: linking small molecules into large
molecules (polymers)
H2C = CH light -CH2-CH-CH2-CH-
H2C = CH |
 R (ground)
R
– Effect of solidification:
» liquid gels into a solid
» density and shear strength increase
7
• Mask Projection SLA
– Conventional SLA scans in the vector/point-by-point way
– In mask projection SLA, the entire layer of photopolymer
is cured at once by UV light through a mask
– Processing time is reduced greatly in mask projection SLA
– Dynamic mask is realized by digital micromirror device
(DMD), similar to normal projectors

8
• Multijet/polyjet Modeling
– Print heads deposit the photopolymer on the build tray
– Multiple materials can be printed simultaneously
– Result in smooth surfaces of thin layers (down to 16 μm)
that can be handled immediately after the process
– Main advantages are the capabilities of avoiding part clean-
up and lengthy post process curing operations

9
• Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
– A process based on the sintering of nonmetallic or metallic
powders selectively into an individual object
– Powders not sintered serve as supporting materials
– Heating source can be replaced. For example, electron-
beam melting (EBM)

Lase
Scanne r
r
system

10
• Selective Laser Melting
– Selective Laser Melting (SLM) creates metal objects from
thin layers of powdered material by selectively melting it
using a heat source
– Electron-beam are also used
– The material is melt completely and solidified
– Work for all kinds of metals

11
• Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP)
– Build parts using an inkjet printer to eject adhesive bonding
material onto successive layers of powders.
– Unbonded powders serve to support overhanging

– Sintering can be applied as post-processing to further

strengthen the part
12
• Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
– FDM system component

13
• Ballistic-Particle Manufacturing
– Also know as droplet deposition manufacturing (DDM)
– Process operates by cold-welding small droplets of melted
working materials to the substrate to form a new layer
– Commonly uses wax or thermoplastics. Metals with low
melting point, such as tin and aluminum, have been tested

14
• Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)
– The process
• Material preparation (e.g., paper)
• Laser cutting (only need to the periphery of each layer)
• Glue with thermo-setting resin

15
• Cycle time analysis
– Estimation for the simplified moving-spot channel mode
– Time to complete a single layer:
𝐴𝑖
𝑇𝑖 = + 𝑇𝑟
𝑣𝐷
𝑇𝑖 : time to complete layer 𝑖
𝐴𝑖 : area of layer 𝑖
𝐷: diameter of the assumed circular spot
𝑇𝑟 : reposition (lowering working table and reposition working head) and
recoating time (spread material) for the new layer
– 𝑇𝑟 of different systems has different components. Built-in
system delays, such as cooling or heating delays, and
nozzle cleaning may also be included

16
• Cycle time analysis (cont.)

– Machine setup or start-up time 𝑇𝑠𝑢 needs to be considered,

such as warm-up of the chamber to specific temperature
and loading of the working material

– Summation to obtain the total cycle time:

𝑛
𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇𝑠𝑢 + ෍ 𝑇𝑖
𝑖=1

𝑛: total layer number

17
• Cycle time analysis (cont.)
– Consideration of separate support structure if machines
require second scan to accomplish this work:
𝐴𝑖 𝐴𝑠𝑖
𝑇𝑖 = + + 𝑇𝑟
𝑣𝐷 𝑣𝑠 𝐷𝑠

𝐴𝑠𝑖 : support area in layer 𝑖

𝑣𝑠 : head moving speed for support structure printing
𝐷𝑠 : printing spot diameter for support structure

– If printer heads for both materials can be operated

simultaneously, the layering time depends on whichever
work head takes longer (usually the part work head because
more material is deposited)
18
• Cycle time analysis (cont.)
– For the moving-line channel mode, the time to complete a
layer is the time for the moving line to sweep across the
work table plus repositioning and recoating time:
𝑇𝑖 = 𝐿𝑠 /𝑣𝑠 + 𝑇𝑟
𝑣𝑠 : velocity of the moving line
𝐿𝑠 : sweep length

– Parameters 𝑣𝑠 and 𝐿𝑠 usually are the same for all layers

– For the layer channel mode, the time to complete a layer:

𝑇𝑖 = 𝑇𝑒𝑥 + 𝑇𝑟
𝑇𝑒𝑥 : exposure time to form the layer, usually the same for all layers
19
• Cycle time analysis (cont.)
– Area 𝐴𝑖 of complex part geometry is difficult to determine
– Estimation of average layer area:
𝑉
ҧ
𝐴𝑙 =
𝑛𝑡
𝑉: total part volume
𝑛: layer number
𝑡: layer thickness
– Processing time for one layer:
𝐴𝑖 𝑉
𝑇𝑖 = + 𝑇𝑟 = + 𝑇𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑣𝐷 𝑛𝑡𝑣𝐷
– Total cycle time:
𝑉
𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇𝑠𝑢 + 𝑛𝑇𝑖 = 𝑇𝑠𝑢 + + 𝑛𝑇𝑟
𝑡𝑣𝐷
20
• Cost analysis (cont.)
– Production cost per piece:
𝐶𝑝𝑐 = 𝐶𝑚 + 𝐶𝐿 𝑈𝐿 + 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑇𝑐 + 𝐶𝐿 𝑇𝑝𝑝

𝐶𝑚 : material cost per part

𝐶𝐿 : labor cost per unit time
𝐶𝑒𝑞 : equipment running cost per unit time
𝑈𝐿 : utilization factor to the labor rate from automation
𝑇𝑝𝑝 : post-processing time per piece

21
• Demonstration of metal cutting

22
– The basic calculations

Detailed view for

cutting analysis

fr

• Average speed, 𝑣 = 𝜋 𝐷1 + 𝐷2 𝑁/2

• Side cutting edge angle,  (Note: a = bcos and fr = h/cos)
• Width of cut,b
• Chip thickness, h
• Chip area, A = bh
• Material Removal Rate (MRR), Q = Av = bhv
23
 Fc Fc
– Cutting force

Fc = KsA

where, Fc is in the direction of v, and Ks is the specific cutting

force listed below

Material UTS Ks Material UTS Ks

(MPa) (N/mm2) (MPa) (N/mm2)
Gray cast iron 200 1500 Ni-based inconel X 1450 3500
Carbon steel 1020 400 2100 Ni-based udimet 500 1500 3550
Carbon steel 1035 500 2300 Co-based L605 1250 3700
Carbon steel 1045 650 2600 Ti (A16, V4) 1350 2000
Stainless steel 302 700 2700 Al 7075-T6 530 850
Alloy steel 4140 900 2800
Alloy steel 5140 950 2800
24
– Cutting power:
P = Fcv = KsAv = KsQ (W)

– Cutting time:
tm = L / f

fr

Ft and f

25
• The orthogonal cutting model

− Chip thickness ratio

𝑡0
𝑟= <1
𝑡𝑐

− Shear plane length

𝑡0 𝑡𝑐
𝑙𝑠 = =
sin 𝛷 cos(𝛷 − 𝛼) 𝛷: shear plane angle

𝑙𝑠 sin 𝛷 sin 𝛷
⇒𝑟= =
cos(𝛷 − 𝛼) cos(𝛷 − 𝛼)

𝑟 cos 𝛼
⇒ tan 𝛷 =
1 − 𝑟 sin 𝛼 26
• The orthogonal cutting model (cont.)
− Approximation of shear strain

𝐴𝐶
𝛾= = tan 𝛷 − 𝛼 + cot 𝛷
𝐵𝐷

27
• The orthogonal cutting model (cont.)
− Coefficient of friction between the chips and tool
Friction force 𝐹
𝜇 = = tan 𝛽 Friction angle
Normal force to friction 𝑁
− Shear stress from the workpiece to chips
Shear force 𝐹𝑠 𝑡0 𝑤
𝜏= = 𝐹𝑠 /( )
𝐴𝑠 sin 𝛷

28
• The orthogonal cutting model (cont.)
− Theoretical resultant force equation

Cutting force

Thrust force
Forces on chips Measurable forces on tools

𝑅′ = 𝑅′′ = −𝑅

29
• The orthogonal cutting model (cont.)
− Theoretical force relationships
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑐 sin 𝛼 + 𝐹𝑡 cos 𝛼
𝑁 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛼 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛼
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛷 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛷
𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑐 sin 𝛷 + 𝐹𝑡 cos 𝛷

𝜏𝑠 𝑡0 𝑤 cos 𝛽 − 𝛼 𝐹𝑠 cos 𝛽 − 𝛼
𝐹𝑐 = =
sin 𝛷 cos(𝛷 + 𝛽 − 𝛼) cos(𝛷 + 𝛽 − 𝛼)

𝜏𝑠 𝑡0 𝑤 sin 𝛽 − 𝛼 𝐹𝑠 sin 𝛽 − 𝛼
𝐹𝑡 = =
sin 𝛷 cos(𝛷 + 𝛽 − 𝛼) cos(𝛷 + 𝛽 − 𝛼)
Force estimation from material properties and process parameters 30
• The orthogonal cutting model (cont.)
− Relation between shear stress and shear plane angle
𝐹𝑠 𝑡0 𝑤
𝜏= = 𝐹𝑠 /( ), 𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛷 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛷
𝐴𝑠 sin 𝛷

𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛷 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛷
⇒𝜏=
𝑡0 𝑤/ sin 𝛷

− Cutting happens when 𝜏 is maximum

𝑑𝜏 𝛼 𝛽
= 0 ⇒ 𝛷 = 45° + −
𝑑𝛷 2 2
Marchant equation from constant
shear strength approximation

𝛼, 𝛽 → 𝛷 → 𝐴𝑠 → cutting energy and temperature optimization

31
Example 1
A tube with a square cross section is to be fabricated by SLA. Outside
side length of the square = 40 mm, and the inside side length = 32
length (wall thickness = 4 mm except at corners). The height of the
tube (z-direction) = 50 mm. Laser spot diameter = 0.25 mm, and
moves at speed = 950 mm/s. Layer thickness = 0.1 mm. Repositioning
and recoating time for each layer = 21 s. Estimate the cycle time to
build the part if the setup time = 20 min.

Solution:
Constant cross section area:
𝐴𝑖 = 40𝑚𝑚 2 − 32𝑚𝑚 2 = 576𝑚𝑚2
Layer number:
𝑛 = 50𝑚𝑚/0.1𝑚𝑚 = 500
Time to complete single layer:
𝐴𝑖 576𝑚𝑚2
𝑇𝑖 = + 𝑇𝑟 = + 21𝑠 ≈ 23.43𝑠
𝑣𝐷 950 mm/s × 0.25𝑚𝑚 32
Example 1 (cont.)
Solution:
Cycle time:
500
𝑇𝑐 ≈ 20𝑚𝑖𝑛 + ෍ 23.43𝑠 ≈ 12912.63𝑠 = 3ℎ35𝑚12.63𝑠
𝑖=1

Perform property time unit conversion.

33
Example 2
The part in Example 1 is to be produced by FDM instead of SLA.
Layer thickness = 0.2 mm, and the width of the extrude deposited on
the surface of the part = 0.5 mm. The extruder work head moves in the
x-y plane at a speed of 100 mm/s. A delay of 15 s is experienced
between each layer to reposition the worktable. Estimate the cycle time
to build the part if the setup time = 10 min.

Solution:
Constant cross section area:
𝐴𝑖 = 40𝑚𝑚 2 − 32𝑚𝑚 2 = 576𝑚𝑚2
Layer number:
𝑛 = 50𝑚𝑚/0.2𝑚𝑚 = 250
Time to complete single layer:
𝐴𝑖 576𝑚𝑚2
𝑇𝑖 = + 𝑇𝑟 = + 15𝑠 = 26.52𝑠
𝑣𝐷 100 mm/s × 0.5𝑚𝑚
34
Example 2 (cont.)
Solution:
Cycle time:
250
𝑇𝑐 ≈ 10𝑚𝑖𝑛 + ෍ 26.52𝑠 = 7230𝑠 = 2ℎ30𝑠
𝑖=1

Perform property time unit conversion.

35
Example 3
What is the part cost in Example 2 if the machine cost rate = $5/h,
material cost for the polymer = $20/liter, labor rate = $24/hr, but labor
will be used for only 20% of the build cycle for setup mostly, and the
post-processing time = 5 min/part.

Solution:
Material cost:
$20
𝐶𝑚 = × 576𝑚𝑚2 × 50𝑚𝑚 = $0.576
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟
Cost per part:
𝐶𝑝𝑐 = 𝐶𝑚 + 𝐶𝐿 𝑈𝐿 + 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑇𝑐 + 𝐶𝐿 𝑇𝑝𝑝
⇒ 𝐶𝑝𝑐 = $0.576 + $24/ℎ × 20% + $5/ℎ × 7230𝑠 + $24/ℎ × 6𝑚𝑖𝑛

⇒ 𝐶𝑝𝑐 ≈ $22.66

36
Example 4
A cone-shaped part is to be fabricated using LOM. The radius of the
cone at its base = 20 mm, and its height = 30 mm. Layer thickness =
0.2m. The laser beam can cut the sheet stock at a velocity of 200
mm/s. Compute an estimate for the part cycle time if 20 s are lost each
layer to lower the height of the platform that holds the part and
advance sheet stock in preparation for the next layer. Setup time for
the job = 25 min.
Solution:
Total layer number:
𝑛 = 30𝑚𝑚/0.2𝑚𝑚 = 150
……

Cutting length for layer i from bottom to top:

151 − 𝑖
𝑙𝑖 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑖 = 2𝜋 × × 20𝑚𝑚
150

37
Example 4 (cont.)
Solution:
Cutting time per layer:
𝑙𝑖 151 − 𝑖 20𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑖 = + 𝑇𝑟 = 2𝜋 × × + 20𝑠
𝑣 150 200𝑚𝑚/𝑠
151 − 𝑖
⇒ 𝑇𝑖 ≈ 0.63 × 𝑠 + 20𝑠
150
Total cycle time:
𝑛 150 151 − 𝑖
𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇𝑠𝑢 + ෍ 𝑇𝑖 ≈ 25𝑚𝑖𝑛 + ෍ 0.63 × 𝑠 + 20𝑠
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 150

0.63 150
⇒ 𝑇𝑐 ≈ 25𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 3000𝑠 + ෍ 𝑖𝑠
150 𝑖=1

⇒ 𝑇𝑐 ≈ 4547.44𝑠 = 1ℎ15𝑚47.44𝑠

38
Example 5
In an turning operation, the cutting tool has a rake angle = 10 °, cutting
speed = 2 m/s, depth of cut = 2 mm, feed = 0.5 mm/rev, chip thickness
after the cut = 1.125mm and side cutting edge angle = 0. Determine:
(a) Shear plane angle;
(b) Shear strain;
(c) Material removal rate;
(d) Friction angle;
(e) Coefficient of friction.

Solution:
(a) Chip thickness ratio Feed instead of depth of cut
𝑡0 0.50𝑚𝑚
𝑟= = ≈ 0.444
𝑡𝑐 1.125𝑚𝑚

39
Example 5 (cont.)
Solution:
(a) Shear plane angle:
−1
𝑟 cos 𝛼 −1
0.444 × cos 10°
𝛷 = tan ≈ tan ≈ 25.4°
1 − 𝑟 sin 𝛼 1 − 0.444 × sin 10°

(b) Shear strain:

𝛾 = tan 𝛷 − 𝛼 + cot 𝛷 ≈ tan 25.4° − 10° + cot 25.4°
⇒ 𝛾 ≈ 2.386

(c) Material removal rate:

𝑄 = 𝑤𝑡0 𝑣 = 2𝑚𝑚 × 0.5𝑚𝑚 × 2𝑚/𝑠 = 1000𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠
Depth of cut

40
Example 5 (cont.)
Solution:
(d) Use Marhcant equation, friction angle:
𝛼
𝛽 = 2 −𝛷 + 45° + ≈ 2 × 45° − 2 × 25.4° + 10° ≈ 49.2°
2

(e) Coefficient of friction:

𝜇 = tan 49.2° ≈ 1.16

41
Example 6
Suppose that in the turning operation in Example 5, the measured
cutting and thrust forces are 1559 N and 1271 N, respectively.
Determine the shear strength of the material

Solution:
Shear force:
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛷 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛷
⇒ 𝐹𝑠 ≈ 1599𝑁 × cos 25.4° − 1271𝑁 × sin 25.4° ≈ 863𝑁

Shear strength:
𝐹𝑠 𝐹𝑠 863𝑁
𝜏𝑠 = = ≈ ≈ 370.2𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑠 𝑤𝑡0 / sin 𝛷 2𝑚𝑚 × 0.5𝑚𝑚/ sin 25.4°

42