Review of Chapter 4

1
• Material behavior in metal forming

➢ Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest because material is

plastically deformed

➢ In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the flow curve:

Y f = K n
K = strength coefficient
n = strain hardening exponent
*Flow curve based on true stress and true strain

2
• Flow stress

➢ For most metals at room temperature, strength

increases when deformed due to strain hardening

➢ Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to

continue deforming the material
Y f = K n

Yf = flow stress, yield strength as a function of strain

➢ Average flow stress for work calculation:

𝜀 𝜀
‫׬‬0 𝑌𝑓 𝑑𝑥 𝐾 ‫׬‬0 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝐾𝜀 𝑛
𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = =
𝜀 𝜀 1+𝑛

3
• Cold working

➢ Performed at room temperature or slightly above

➢ Many cold forming processes are important mass production

operations

➢ Minimum or no machining usually required

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHvx4oM9UG0 4
• Cold working (cont.)
➢ Advantages
– Better accuracy, closer tolerances
– Better surface finish
– Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
– No heating of work required

➢ Disadvantages
– Higher forces and power required in the deformation operation
– Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that can be
done
❖In some cases, metal must be annealed to allow further deformation
❖In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold worked

5
• Heat treatment after cold working
➢ Heat treatment at annealing temperature affects tensile strength
and ductility

annealing temperature (ºC)

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Three Annealing stages:
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength 1. Recovery

ductility (%EL)
50 2. Recrystallization
500 3. Grain Growth
40

400 30

ductility 20
300

6
 • Warm working
➢ Performed at temperatures above room temperature but below
recrystallization temperature
➢ Dividing line between cold working and warm working often
expressed in terms of melting point:
– 0.3Tm, where Tm is absolute melting temperature for metal

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jxI_g5QHEOE
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• Warm working (cont.)

➢ Advantages
– Lower forces and power than in cold working
– More intricate work geometries possible
– Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
– Low spring back

➢ Disadvantages
₋ Scaling of part surface

Removal of surface scale:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k1PMN2IGsZ0

8
• Hot working

➢ Deformation at temperatures above the recrystallization

temperature

➢ Recrystallization temperature = about half of absolute melting

temperature Tm
– In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above 0.6Tm
– Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.6Tm,
enhancing advantage of hot working above this level

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o-oQifocjaY
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• Why hot working? (cont.)
• Advantages
– Workpiece shape can be significantly altered
– Lower forces and power required
– Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed
– Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
– No work hardening occurs during forming
• Disadvantages
– Lower dimensional accuracy in case of bulk forming
– Higher total energy required (due to the thermal energy to heat the
workpiece)
– Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish
– Shorter tool life

10
• Rolling

– Rolls apply pressure on the flat strip to reduce its thickness,

resulting in a roll force, F
– The rolling force
L = roll-strip contact length
F = LwYavg w = width of the strip
Yavg = average true (hardening) stress
– The total power (for two rolls)

2 F L N
Power (in kW) =
60,000 N = rolling speed (RPM)

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• Rolling (cont.)
– Rolling power derivation

Contact length calculation

∆𝑡
𝐿≈ 2𝑅 = 𝑅∆𝑡
2

𝐿 Assumption
𝑎≈
2 for flat rolling

𝐹𝐿
R 𝑇 ≈ 𝐹𝑎 =
2

L Δt/2 𝑊(𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊) = 2𝑇𝜔 = 𝐹𝐿𝜔 =

𝐹𝐿2𝜋𝑁 1
60 1000

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• Rolling: some characteristics of rolled metals
Dimensional Tolerances
– Thickness tolerances for cold-rolled sheets range from ±0.
01~0.05 mm; tolerances are much greater for hot-rolled
plates.
– Flatness tolerances are within ±15 mm/m for cold rolling
and ±55 mm/m for hot rolling

Surface Roughness
– Cold rolling can produce a very fine surface finish
– Cold-rolled sheets products may not require additional
finishing operations

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• Open-die forging: the simplest forging operation
– Open-die forging is where a solid workpiece is placed
between two flat dies and reduced in height by
compressing it
– Workpiece is deformed uniformly under frictionless
conditions
– Barreling occurs because of the friction force. It can be
reduced by adding lubrications

Barreling is caused by frictional forces that oppose the outward flow of the workpiece at the
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die interfaces. Barreling is minimized by using an effective lubricant
• Open-die forging (cont.)
– The forging force, F, in an open-die forging operation on
a solid cylindrical workpiece can be estimated from
 2r 
F = Y f r 1 +
2

 3h 
Yf = flow stress of the material
µ = coefficient of friction between the workpiece and die
r = the instantaneous radius
h = height of the workpiece

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– The reaction force
F = YA1 A0 h0
A1 =
h1
1
F, v
K   n d
K 1n
Y = 0
=
1 n +1 Averaged by energy h0 d0
for work calculation

– The required work for deformation

1
Work = Volume  σd
0
1 d1
h1
= Volume  K n d
0

= (Volume )(Y )( 1 )

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– Alternative way to calculate deformation work:
𝐹=𝐹 ℎ , 𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝 = −𝑑ℎ

⇒ 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝 = −𝐹𝑑ℎ

ℎ1 ℎ1
𝑊 = න 𝑑𝑊 = − න 𝐹𝑑ℎ
ℎ0 ℎ0
Compressive force F

𝐹 ℎ1
𝑊 ≈summation of rectangles area
𝐹 ℎ𝑚

𝐹 ℎ𝑛
…… Compressive height h
17
ℎ1 ℎ0
• Open-die forging (cont.)
– The directional flow of the material in forging

Folding

Workpiece is deformed uniformly under

frictionless conditions
Barreling occurs because of the friction force

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CU3AzWdl2fo
– The forming process affects the grain size
• Finer grain have higher yield strength and toughness and
lower internal strains and stresses
• The process of forging and grain size

Grain size increase

because of heating
punching Grain size after one
forging

Heating

Grain size after many

forgings

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• Extrusion and drawing (cont.)
– Three basic types of extrusion:
a) Direct,
b) Indirect, and
c) hydrostatic
Less use: lateral Direct

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Indirect Hydrostatic Lateral
• The drawing process
– Cross section of a long rod or wire is reduced by pulling it
through a draw die

– Drawing force: 𝐴0
𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 ~𝜀 = ln
• Under ideal and frictionless conditions, is 𝐴𝑓
 Ao 
F = Yavg A f ln  
A 
 f 
• With friction and the redundant work, is
    A  2 
F = Yavg A f 1 +  ln  o + 
    A f  3  Unit: radian
  21
 Example 1
In the flow curve for pure aluminum, the strength coefficient K =
175 MPa and strain-hardening exponent n = 0.2. In the forming
operation, the final true strain ε = 0.75. Determine the flow stress,
average flow stress, and specific energy the metal experienced.

Solution:
𝑌𝑓 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛 = 175𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 0.750.2 ≈ 165.2𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝐾𝜀 𝑛 175𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 0.750.2
𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = ≈ 137.7𝑀𝑃𝑎
1+𝑛 1 + 0.2

𝑒 = 𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 × 𝜀 ≈ 137.7𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 0.75 ≈ 103.3𝑀𝑃𝑎

Deformation work per unit volume.
22
 Example 2
A 300-mm-wide and 25-mm-thick strip is fed through two
powered rollers with radius = 250 mm. The strip thickness is
reduced to 22 mm after one pass rolling at a roll speed of 50 rpm.
The work material has a flow curve defined by K = 275 MPa and n
= 0.15, and the friction coefficient between the rolls and the strip is
0.12. Determine the roll force, torque and power
Solution:
Roll-strip contact length:
𝐿 = 𝑅∆𝑡 = 250𝑚𝑚 × (25𝑚𝑚 − 22𝑚𝑚) ≈ 27.4𝑚𝑚

25
𝜀 = ln( ) ≈ 0.13
22

𝐾𝜀 𝑛 275𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 0.130.15
𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ≈ ≈ 175.6𝑀𝑃𝑎 23
1+𝑛 1 + 0.15
Example 2 (cont.)
Solution:
Roll force:
𝐹 = 𝐿𝑤𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 ≈ 27.4𝑚𝑚 × 300𝑚𝑚 × 175.6𝑀𝑃𝑎 ≈ 1.44𝑀𝑁

Torque for each roll:

𝐹𝐿 1.44𝑀𝑁 × 27.4𝑚𝑚
𝑇= ≈ ≈ 19779.9𝑁𝑚
2 2

Power:
𝑃 = 2𝑇𝜔 = 2𝑇 × 2𝜋𝑁 ≈ 2 × 19779.9𝑁𝑚 × 2𝜋 × 50𝑟𝑝𝑚

𝑃 ≈ 207.1𝑘𝑊

Unit transformation is usually used for large values.

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 Example 3
A cylindrical workpiece is subjected to a cold open-die forging
operation. The starting piece is 75 mm in height and 50 mm in
diameter. It is reduced in the operation to a height of 36 mm. The
work material has a flow curve defined by K = 350 MPa and n =
0.17. Assume a coefficient of friction of 0.1. Determine the forging
force as the process begins and ends.
Solution:
Calculation for process beginning – in practice, material yields
with 0.002 plastic true strain, so the yield stress:
𝑌𝑓 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛 = 350𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 0.0020.17 ≈ 121.7𝑀𝑃𝑎
2
2𝜇𝑟
𝐹 = 𝑌𝑓 𝜋𝑟 1 +
3ℎ
2
2 × 0.1 × 25𝑚𝑚
𝐹 ≈ 121.7𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 𝜋 × 25𝑚𝑚 × 1+ ≈ 244.2𝑘𝑁
3 × 75𝑚𝑚
25
 Example 3 (cont.)
Solution:
Calculation for process ending:
75𝑚𝑚
𝜀 = ln ≈ 0.73
36𝑚𝑚

𝑌𝑓 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛 ≈ 350𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 0.730.17 ≈ 332.1𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑟02 ℎ0 25𝑚𝑚 2 × 75𝑚𝑚

𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 𝜋𝑟02 ℎ0 ⇒𝑟= = ≈ 36.1𝑚𝑚
ℎ 36𝑚𝑚
Volume conservation

2
2 × 0.1 × 36.1𝑚𝑚
𝐹 ≈ 332.1𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 𝜋 × 36.1𝑚𝑚 × 1+ ≈ 1.45𝑀𝑁
3 × 36𝑚𝑚

26
 Example 4
Wire is drawn through a die with die angle = 15° at a speed = 1
m/s. Starting diameter = 2.5 mm and final diameter = 2.0 mm. The
coefficient of friction at the work-die interface = 0.07. The metal
has a strength coefficient K = 205 MPa and a strain-hardening
exponent n = 0.2. Determine the draw stress, force and power.

Solution:
𝐴0 2.5𝑚𝑚 2
𝜀 = ln = ln( 2
) ≈ 0.45
𝐴𝑓 2.0𝑚𝑚
Draw stress:
𝐾𝜀 𝑛 205𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 0.450.2
𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ≈ ≈ 145.5𝑀𝑃𝑎
1+𝑛 1 + 0.2

27
 Example 4 (cont.)
Solution:
Draw force:

𝜇 𝐴0 2
𝐹 = 𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐴𝑓 1+ ln + 𝛼
𝛼 𝐴𝑓 3

𝛼 = 15° ≈ 0.26𝑟𝑎𝑑

2
0.07 2.5𝑚𝑚 2 2
𝐹 ≈ 145.5𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 𝜋 × 1𝑚𝑚 × 1+ ln + × 0.26
0.26 2𝑚𝑚 2 3

𝐹 ≈ 338.3𝑁

Draw power:
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣 ≈ 338.3𝑁 × 1𝑚/𝑠 = 338.3𝑊 28