EMT282

Principles of Engineering
Materials
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
OF METALS

Dr. Nazuhusna Khalid

6-1
 Outline
• Metal Processing
– Casting
– Hot & Cold Rolling
– Extrusion
– Forging
– Drawing
• Stress & Strain
• Tensile Test
• Hardness & Testing
The Processing of Metals
and Alloys
 Casting

 Most metals are first melted in a furnace.

 Alloying is done if required.
 Large ingots are then cast.
 Sheets and plates are then produced from ingots by
rolling Wrought alloy products.
 Channels and other shapes are produced by
extrusion.
 Some small parts can be cast as final product.
Example :- Automobile Piston.

6-2
Cast Alluminum Ingot
 Casting

Casting mold

Cast parts

Casting Process

6-3
 Hot Rolling of Steel

 Hot rolling Greater reduction of thickness in a

single pass.
 Rolling carried out at above recrystallization temperature.
 Ingots preheated to about 12000C.
 Ingots reheated
between passes if
required.
 Usually, series of
4 high rolling mills
are used.
6-4
 Cold Rolling of Metal Sheet
 Cold rolling is rolling performed below recrystallization
temperature.
 This results in strain hardening.
 Hot rolled slabs have to
be annealed before cold
rolling.
 Series of 4 high rolling
mills are usually used.
 Less reduction of
thickness.
 Needs high power.

6-5
 Cold Rolling (Cont..)

Typical reductions per pass in the

finishing stands of a hot strip mill
equipped with four roughing stands
and six finishing stands.
Initial metal thickness – Final metal thickness
% Cold work = x 100
Initial metal thickness
6-6
 Example
 Calculate the percent cold reduction after cold rolling
0.040-in-thick aluminum sheet to 0.025 in.
Solution:

%cold reduction 
 
InitialThickness FinalThickness
 100 %
InitialThickness
 0.040in. - 0.025in. 
   100 %
 0.040in. 
 37 .5 %
 Example

 A 70% Cu-30% Zn brass sheet is 0.0955 cm thick and

is cold-rolled with a 30% reduction in thickness.
What must be the final thickness of the sheet?
Solution:
 t0  t f 
%cold reduction    100%
 t0 
 0.0955cm  t f 
0.30    100%
 0.0955cm 
t f  0.0669cm
 Exercises
1) Calculate the percent cold reduction when an
aluminum wire is cold-drawn from a diameter of
6.50 mm to a diameter of 4.25 mm. (Answer:
57.2%)
2) A 12.8 mm diameter rod of an aluminum alloy is
pulled to failure in a tension test. If the final
diameter of the rod at the fractured surface is 10.8
mm, what is the percent reduction in area of the
sample due to the test.
(Answer: 28.8%)
 Extrusion
Die
Container
 Extrusion-plastic-forming
process in which a material
under high pressure is reduced in Metal
cross section by forcing it
through an opening in a die
 Metal under high pressure Direct
is forced through opening Extrusion
in a die.
 Common Products are
Container
cylindrical bar, hollow
tubes from copper,
aluminum etc. Metal
 Normally done at high

temperature.
 Indirect extrusion needs indirect
less power however there is Extrusion
Figure 5.9
6-7 limit on load applied.
 Forging
 Metal, usually hot, is hammered or pressed into
desired shape.
 Two major type: hammer (a drop hammer
repeteadly exerts a striling force against the
surface of the metal) and press forging (the metal Direct
is subjected to aslowly moving compressive force.) Forging
 forging can be classified as:-
 Open die: Dies are flat and
simple in shape
* Example products: Steel shafts Metal

 Closed die: Dies have upper

Indirect
and lower impression
Forging
* Example products: Automobile
engine connection rod.
 Forging increases structural properties, removes
porosity and increases homogeneity. Dies
 Drawing
 Wire drawing :- Starting rod or wire is drawn through
several drawing dies to reduce diameter.

Change in cross-sectional area

% cold work = X 100
Original area

Wire or rod
Carbide nib
 Deep drawing:- Used to
shape cup like articles
from flats and sheets of
metals

6-9
Mechanical Properties of
Metals
Mechanical Properties of Metals
 Mechanical Properties refers to the behavior of material when external
forces are applied

Stress and strain ⇒ fracture

 For engineering point of view: allows to predict the ability of a component
or a structure to withstand the forces applied to it
 For science point of view: what makes materials strong → helps us to
design a better new one
 Learn basic concepts for metals, which have the simplest behavior
 Elastic and Plastic Deformation
 Metal piece is subjected to a uniaxial
tensile force ⇒ deformation occurs The rod
with no
 When force is removed: force on it
 metal returns to its original dimensions
⇒ elastic deformation (atoms return to
their original position)
 metal deformed to an extent that it
cannot fully recover its original
dimensions ⇒ plastic deformation
(shape of the material changes, atoms
are permanently displaced from their The rod
subjected to an
positions) unaxial tensile
force, F
 Stress () and Strain ()
F (Average uniaxial tensile force)
Engineering stress = σ =
A0 (Original cross-sectional area)
Engineering stress σ = F Units of Stress are PSI or N/M2 (Pascals)

A0 Δl
1 PSI = 6.89 x 103 Pa
 Change in length
0 Engineering strain = ε =
Original length
0
A   0 
 
0 

F
Units of strain are in/in or m/m.

6-11
 Example
 Calculate the engineering stress in SI units on a
2.00-cm-diameter rod that is subjected to a load of
1300 kg.
Solution:
First,the load mustbe converted to a force.
In SIunit,the force on the bar is equal to the mass of the load
times the accelarati on of gravity (9.81m/s 2 )
F  ma  (1300 kg)(9.81m/s2 )  12,753 N .
The engineering stress is then,
F 12 ,753 N
   40.6 MPa
A0   0 .02 m 2
4
 Example

Solution:
 Poisons Ratio, 
 Most materials will get
narrow when stretched and
thicken when compressed
 This behaviour is qualified by

Poisson’s ratio, which is

defined as the ratio of lateral
and axial strain
 x (lateral) y
Poisson's Ratio,   
 z (longitudinal) z
 the minus sign is there because
usually if Z > 0, x+ y < 0  >0
 Poisons Ratio, 
 For isotropic materials (i.e. material composed
of many randomly - oriented grains)  = 0.25
 For most metals: 0.25 <  < 0.4
 If  = 0 : means that the width of the material
doesn’t change when it is stretched or compressed
 Can be:  < 0
(i.e. the material gets thicker when stretched)
 Poisons Ratio
 (lateral ) y
Poisons ratio =   
.
 (longitudinal ) z

w  w0
w0 w  
0  0

Usually poisons ratio ranges from
0.25 to 0.4 for real materials.

Example: Stainless steel 0.28

Copper 0.33

6-12
 Shear Stress and Shear Strain
 If the shear force S acts over an area
A, the shear stress :

S(shear force)
 (shear stress) 
A(area)
 The shear strain  is defined in
terms of the amount of the shear
displacement a divided by distance
over which the shear acts:

a
   tan 
h

6-13
Mechanical Properties Obtained from
Tensile Test
 Modulus of elasticity, E
 Yield strength at 0.2 % offset
 Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
 Percent elongation at fracture
 Percent reduction in area at fracture Ductility
 Modulus of elasticity, or Young’s
Modulus
 Stress and strain are properties that don’t depend on
the dimensions of the material (for small ε), just type
of the material
 (stress)
E
 (strain)
 E– Young’s Modulus, Pa
 Comes from the linear range in the stress-strain diagram
 Behavior is related to atomic bonding between the
atoms in a metal or alloy
 Modulus of elasticity, or Young’s
Modulus
 Modulus of elasticity (E) : Stress and strain are linearly related in
elastic region. (Hooks law)

σ (Stress) Δσ
E= Strain E=
Δε
ε (Strain) Δσ
Hook's law is a principle of physics that states that Δε
the force needed to extend or compress a spring by
some distance is proportional to that distance. That Stress
is: where is a constant factor characteristic of the
Linear portion of the
spring, its stiffness.
stress strain curve
 Higher the bonding strength, higher is the modulus of elasticity.

 Examples: Modulus of Elasticity of steel is 207 Gpa.

Modulus of elasticity of Aluminum is 76 Gpa

6-17
Tensile test (to evaluate the strength of
metal and alloys)
 Strength of materials can be tested by pulling the metal to
failure.

Load Cell

Specimen
Extensometer

Force data is obtained from Load cell

Strain data is obtained from Extensometer.
6-14
 Tensile Test (Cont)

Commonly used tension

Test specimen

Typical Stress-strain
curve

6-15
 Yield Strength
 Yield strength is strength at which
metal or alloy show significant
amount of plastic deformation.

 0.2% offset yield strength is that

strength at which 0.2% plastic
deformation takes place.

 Construction line, starting at 0.2%

strain and parallel to elastic region
is drawn to find 0.2% offset yield
strength.
Figure 5.23

6-18
 Ultimate tensile strength
 Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is the maximum strength
reached by the engineering stress strain curve.
 Necking starts after UTS is reached. Al 2024-Tempered
 More ductile the metal is, more
is the necking before failure. S
 Stress increases till failure. Drop T
R Necking Point
in stress strain curve is due to stress
calculation based on original area. E
S
Necking or localized deformation begins S Al 2024-Annealed
at maximum load, where the increase in Mpa
stress due to decrease in the cross-
sectional area of the specimen becomes Strain
greater than the increase in the load-
carrying ability of the metal due to strain
hardening.
 Tensile Strength

Figure 7.11 Typical

TS
engineering stress-strain
behavior to fracture, point F.
The tensile strength is
engineering

indicated at point M.
stress

Typical response of a metal

strain

 Very familiar property and widely used for identification of a material. It is used
for the purposes of specifications and for quality control of a product.

35
 Ductility
 It is a measure of the degree of
plastic deformation that has
been sustained at fracture.
 A material that experiences
very little or no plastic
deformation upon fracture is
termed brittle.
 Ductile material – Significant
plastic deformation and energy
absorption (toughness) before
fracture. Characteristic feature
of ductile material – necking
 Brittle material – Little
plastic deformation or energy
absorption before fracture.
Characteristic feature of brittle
materials – fracture surface
perpendicular to the stress. Schematic representations of
tensile stress-strain behavior for
brittle and ductile materials
36
loaded to fracture.
 Percent Elongation

 Percent elongation is a measure of ductility of a material.

 It is the elongation of the metal before fracture expressed
as percentage of original length.

Final length – initial Length

% Elongation =
Initial Length

 Measured using a caliper fitting the fractured metal

together.
 Example:- Percent elongation of pure aluminum is 35%
For 7076-T6 aluminum alloy it is 11%
 Percent Reduction in Area
 Percent reduction area is also a measure of ductility.
 The diameter of fractured
end of specimen is meas-
ured using caliper.

% Reduction Initial area – Final area

=
Area Final area

 Percent reduction in area

in metals decreases in case
of presence of porosity.
Stress-strain curves of different metals
 Example
 A 12.7mm round sample of a 1030 carbon steel is pulled to failure in a
tensile testing machine. The diameter of the sample was 8.7mm at the
fracture surface. Calculate the percent reduction in area of the sample.
Solution:

A0  Af  Af 
% reductionin area  x100 %  1  (100 %)
A0  A0 
 ( 4 )(8 .7 mm)2 
 1  2 
(100 %)
 ( 4 )(12 .7 mm) 
 (1- 0.47)(100% )  53%
 True Stress – True Strain
 True stress and true strain are
based upon instantaneous cross-
sectional area and length.
 True stress is the stress
determined by the instantaneous
load acting on the instantaneous
cross-sectional area
 True strain is the rate of
instantaneous increase in the
instantaneous gauge length
 True Stress – True Strain
 True stress and true strain are based upon instantaneous
cross-sectional area and length.

F
 True Stress = σt =
Ai (instantaneous area)
i
d l A
 True Strain = εt = 
0

 ln i  ln 0
l0 Ai

 True stress is always greater than engineering stress.

41
 Hardness and Hardness Testing
 Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a
metal to permanent (plastic) deformation.
 Measured by indentation:
 indenter material (ball, pyramid, cone) is harder than
the material being tested (i.e.: tungsten carbide,
diamond)
 indenter is pressed at 90o
 hardness is based on the depth of the impression or
its cross sectional area
 Several common hardness tests: hardness
numbers can be calculated
 Material strength and hardness are related
 Hardness test is nondestructive ⇒ often used
 Hardness Tests

43
 Example
 Table shows the engineering Engineering Engineering Engineering Engineering
Stress Strain Stress Strain
stress-strain data obtained at the (MPa) (mm/mm) (MPa) (mm/mm)
beginning of a tensile test for a 0 0 60 0.0035
metal. 15 0.0005 66 0.004
i. Sketch the engineering stress- 30 0.001 70 0.006
strain curve using the data
from Table 40 0.0015 72 0.008
ii. Predict the 0.2 % offset yield 50 0.0020
stress.
iii. Calculate the tensile elastic
modulus.
iv. Calculate the percent
elongation at fracture.
v. Recommend the value for
ultimate tensile strength.
 Solution

(ii) 66 MPa
(i)
(iii)
 Example
 A tensile specimen of aluminum alloy is tested to fracture. At
the fracture point, it has an engineering stress 180MPa and
engineering strain 34%. Calculate (a) the true stress at fracture
and (b) the true strain at fracture.
Solution
 Summary
 Stress and strain: These are size‐independent measures of load
and displacement, respectively.
 Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often shows a linear
relation between stress and strain. To minimize deformation,
select a material with a large elastic modulus (E or G).
 Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation behavior occurs
when the tensile (or compressive) uniaxial stress reaches y.
 Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit volume of
material.
 Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.